Overview
Life-Assessment Technology for
Power-Plant Components
R. Viswanathan and S.M. Gehl
The nation's aging infrastructure, and the
costs of maintaining it, have heightened in-
terest in technologies that can help predict
the time to failure of critical components. In
the power-generation industry, where com-
ponent failure can cause injury, societal
hardships, and economic losses, life-assess-
ment technology has been a major focus of
research. Because of the high costs of re-
peated inspections, however, one concern of
researchers is to create assessment techniques
that provide more accurate but less conser-
vative estimates of remaining life. This ar-
ticle reviews improvements made over the
last five years in various life-assessment
methodologies, including calculational tech-
niques, nondestructive evaluation, and de-
structive testing of samples removed from
installed components.
INTRODUCTION
Components operating at elevated
temperatures can fail due to excessive
creep deformation, bursting under pres-
sure, or cracking. Failure by cracking
may further be viewed as consisting of
three stages: crack initiation, crack
propagation, and final failure of the
component once the crack reaches a
critical size. Life-assessment techniques
are, therefore, aimed at quantifying uni-
form or localized incipient damage prior
to crack initiation, the rate at which cracks
grow, and the critical crack size that will
lead to final failure. Eventual failure of
the component can occur either by
leakage or rupture at the operating
temperature or by rapid brittle fracture
at lower temperatures during start-up I
shutdown transients. In the latter case,
the critical size of the crack is defined by
the fracture toughness of the material.
Since embrittlement phenomena occur-
ring in service can reduce the toughness
of the material, knowledge of fracture
toughness in the service-exposed con-
dition is necessary.
Based on worldwide experience dur-
ing the last five years, a three-level ap-
proach for life assessment has evolved.
In this approach, simple calculational
techniques are used in the first level,
followed by nondestructive and de-
structive tests in the next two levels. The
focus of research has been mainly to
reduce the uncertainties and hence the
conservatism in each of the levels of
assessment. This article is an overview
of advances during the last five years in
34
refining the assessment procedures un-
der each of these levels, with special
emphasis on results of work sponsored
by the Electric Power Research Institute
(EPR!). A more complete review of the
extensive body of relevant literature may
be found in Reference 1.
CALCULATION TECHNIQUES
In the calculational procedures, plant
records and the time-temperature his-
tory of the component are reviewed. The
creep or creep-fatigue life fraction con-
sumed is calculated using assumed
material properties and damage rules.
This procedure is usually inaccurate due
to errors in assumed history, in the ma-
terial properties, and in the damage rules.
The temperature-history information
may be refined by supplemental nonde-
structive or destructive examinations
such as microstructural studies, hardness
measurements, and oxide-scale mea-
surements. The uncertainties in material
properties can be reduced by building a
database, particularly with respect to
service-retrieved components taking into
account the environmental effects. The
limitations of the damage rules have
also been explored based on extensive
laboratory studies.
Life Fraction Rule for Creep
The Life Fraction Rule (LFR) states
that at failure
(1)
Ltjtr=l
where tj is the time spent at a given stress
and temperature, and t, is the rupture
life for the same test conditions. When
the damage fractions incurred under
700
680
E660
!!
.; 640
! In the case of the brittle heat FW, the
...~ 620
600
580
560 L - ' - -_ _---'_ _ _- ' -_ _----:-'
Time-to-Rupture (hr)
Figure 1. Stress-rupture curves for heat MG in
the virgin condition and after prior creep dam-
age to various life fractions.
different sets of stress-temperature con-
ditions add up to unity, failure is pre-
sumed to occur. Hart} Woodford,3 and
Bolton et a1. 4 have demonstrated thatthe
LFR is valid for temperature changes
butnotforstress changes. Ina multiclient
project recently completed at ERA Tech-
nology, an extensive body of long-time
data has been generated, with the specific
intent of verifying the LFR for varying
temperature conditions. s Two heats of a
0.5Cr-0.5Mo-0.25V steel were evaluated:
a pipe-grade steel with a predominantly
ferritic microstructure and relatively
high ductility (15% elongation) under
long~term service conditions, designated
MG, and a cast turbine casing steel With
a bainitic microstructure and low duc-
tility (3.5% elongation), designated FW.
Specimens from heat MG were sub-
jected to creep damage fractions of 0.25,
0.45,0.63, and 0.82 at 575°C at a stress of
69.5 MPa; specimens from heat FW were
also subjected to similar levels of initial
creep damage by testing at 550°C and
84.9 MPa. The predamaged samples were
then subjected to accelerated rupture
testing at higher temperatures, holding
the stress at the same level as in the
initial creep damage tests.
Results of the accelerated stress rup-
ture tests on heat MG at 69.5 MPa for the
virgin condition and for the predamaged
conditions are shown in Figure 1. The
target values of remaining life at 575°C
based on the LFR are also indicated. If
the LFR is valid, the temperature vs.
time-to-rupture lines should be parallel
to the virgin material line and should
pass through the respective target val-
ues. This is clearly not the case; linear
extrapolation of the accelerated-test data
predicted remaining lives at 575°C in
excess of the target value in every case.
For the 0.82 predamaged samples, the
accelerated-test results grossly over-
predicted the remaining life compared
to the calculated value based on the LFR.
trend was exactly the reverse of that
observed for heat MG. With the excep-
tion of the 0.45 predamaged sample, for
all other samples, the predictions from
the accelerated tests fell short of the tar-
get values calculated from the LFR. A
correlation between the expected life
based on the LFR and the observed life
for the two heats (Figure 2) shows that
for the brittle material, the actual life is
JOM • February 1992
always shorter than the expected life,
while the opposite case obtains for the
ductile material. In either case, the LFR
predictions are accurate within a factor
of two.
The difference in behavior between
the brittle and ductile cases is believed to
result from differences in damage
mechanisms. Prior creep damage in the
brittle case consisted of "mechanical
damage" with extensive formation of
creep cavities. In the ductile case, dam-
age was "metallurgical" damage con-
sisting of microstructural changes. In
the brittle steel, subsequent testing by
temperature acceleration presumably
resulted in rapid linkup of cavities, lead-
ing to premature failure; in the ductile
steel, on the other hand, temperature
acceleration presumably led to recovery
of some of the metallurgical damage,
resulting in increased life.
The correlation between prior ex-
pended life fraction and the remaining
life fraction measured in the accelerated
tests shown in Figure 3 may be used as a
modified basis for LFR. For a ductile
material, the LFR may be used for a
conservative prediction of remaining life.
For a brittle material, a value of <1 as
defined by the lower-bound envelope in
Figure 3 may be used as a conservative
failure criterion.
For a ductile material, the implica-
tions of the above results to actual sit-
uations in which the LFR is invoked are
as follows: When LFR is used to calcu-
late cumulative damage under condi-
tions where the average metal tempera-
ture increases with service time (e.g.,
superheater tubes), failure will always
occur at L t/ tr > 1. Hence, L t/ tr =1 should
be used as a conservative failure criterion.
The same reasoning may be applied to
situations where periodic temperature
excursions occur.
In all life-fraction calculations, the vir-
gin material behavior (minimum or mean
of the International Organization for
Standardization's [ISO's) Larson-Miller
data} is used as the reference condition
for calculating the tr. In reality, as the
component softens, the applicable Lar-
son-Miller curve is continuously chang-
ing in such a way that the actual cumu-
lative damage can be more than that
calculated by using the virgin material
curve. Application of the LFR could be
improved by taking the softening reac-
tions into account.
Oxidation and Specimen Size
Correction
The effect of oxidation on rupture life
is relevant in several aspects of remain-
ing-life assessment, particularly for
heavy-section components with wall
thickness values exceeding 25 mm. Rup-
ture life databases used in original de-
sign, such as the ISO, ASTM, and Na-
tional Research Institute for Metals'
1992 February • JaM
100.000
10.000
.c
..~
~
~ 1000
• Brinle casl FW
lOO~L- __- J______
100 1000
e.pectea Ufe Based on LFR
Figure 2. The correlation between actual life
in accelerated tests and expected life for two
heats of Cr-Mo steels.
1.2 ~
o diameter . Heat-to-heat variations in
1.0 ; o e-FW
, The rupture data for various speci-
g 0.8
] I
,; 0.6
.;.~
E 0.4
t!
0.2
0.2 0.4 O.S
Expended LH. Fraction
Figure 3. Expended life fraction VS. remaining-
life traction in accelerated test for two heats of
Cr-Mosteel.
(NRIM) databases, are based on test data
generated on small specimens with di-
ameters of 6-10 mm. When these data
are utilized in remaining-life-fraction
calculations, conservative results are
obtained. In addition, when standard
ASTM specimens of 10 mm or less diam-
eter extracted from heavy-walled pip-
ing are tested in air for remaining-life
assessment, the resulting values are likely
to be conservative. Results of isostress
rupture tests conducted at elevated
temperatures may need to be corrected
for oxidation effects.
An extensive study of oxidation cor-
rection factors (OCFs) for 2.25Cr-lMo
steels has been published by Nakashiro
et a1. 6 Oxidation correction factors were
developed based on oxidation kinetics
derived from literature and based on
loss of diameter actually observed on
samples. Using the correction factor, the
original NRIM Larson-Miller plot based
on 6 mm diameter specimens was re-
vised to reflect the behavior of standard
10 mm specimens. This study was, how-
ever, confined to tubing applications;
specimen sizes beyond 10 mm were not
addressed.
An alternate approach for developing
OCFs consisted of rupture testing speci-
mens of varying size (2.5-50 mm).7 Se-
lective tests were also carried out on
9 mm-diameter specimens in argon. Pre-
Iiminary results from one heat of 2.2SCr-
1Mo steel (heat BSH) have shown that
the rupture life in air is increased by
increasing the specimen size from 2.5
mm to 9 mm with a further increase of
life in argon. The effect is increasingly
pronounced at time-temperature com-
binations resulting in large values of the
Larson-Miller parameter (LMP)-the
o Ductile cast MG different curves converge at low values
of the LMP. Limited data available sug-
~ ______ ~
gest that the rupture curves for 2.5 mm
10.000 100.000
and 9 mm specimens tested in argon and
for the 25 mm diameter specimens tested
in air may superimpose, indicating that
the argon test results reflect component
behavior. The oxidation effect seems to
saturate for specimens at about 25 mm
O-MG
terms of specimen-size-dependent OCF
have also been observed.
men sizes can be plotted as a ratio of the
rupture lives using the 2.5 mm diameter
specimen tested in air as the reference
Theor.tical
condition. This ratio, referred to as the
OCF for different stress levels, is illus-
trated in Figure 4. The stress depen-
dence of the OCF is not due to the effect
of stress per se, but to the time-tempera-
ture combination (the LMP) for failure
0.8 1.0 1.2 corresponding to the different stress
levels. The use of OCF values in remain-
ing-life calculations should yield more
realistic and less conservative predic-
tion of heavy-section component life.
NONDESTRUCTIVE
TECHNIQUES
Conventional nondestructive eval-
uation (NDE) methods fail to detect in-
cipient damage, which can be a precur-
sor to crack initiation and subsequent
rapid failure. Several improved NDE
techniques have recently been developed
for estimating life consumption. These
include strain-monitoring techniques,
microstructural techniques, hardness-
based techniques, and oxide-scale mea-
surement techniques for superheater /
reheater tubes.
Strain Monitoring
Strain measurements are often em-
ployed to detect creep damage. Gross
...-c}--- 34 MPa
~ 3
u.
c
.2
i
8c 2 _---.~-- 69 MPa
o
.~
:2 103 MPa
o
12.7 25.4 38.1
Specimen Thickness (mm)
Figure 4. Oxidation correction factors with
reference to a 2.5 mm thick specimen .
35
changes such as header swelling and
rotor bore expansion have been moni-
tored in the past. Frequently, due to
unknown variations in the original di-
mensions, changes in dimensions can-
not be determined with confidence. Di-
mensional measurements fail to provide
indications of highly damaging and lo-
calized creep strains such as those in the
heat-affected zones of welds and regions
of stress concentrations in the base metal.
Cracking can frequently occur without
manifest overall strain. Furthermore, the
critical strain accumulation preceding
fracture can vary widely with a variety
of operational material parameters, and
with stress state. To enable measurement
of localized strains, an "off-line" condi-
tion surveillance system has been devel-
oped. The system uses the replication
principle to evaluate localized strains
and life consumption. 8 A surface grid is
scribed at the region of interest and pre-
served by means of an oxidation-resistant
coating. A hard replica of high stability
is used to duplicate the grid. Biaxial
strain assessment is then made by high-
resolution measurement of the replicas
taken at successive plant inspection
shutdowns. A predictive strain-rate
lifetime model approach is used to es-
tablish "fitness for service." No field
experience with this technique has been
reported.
Hardness-Based Techniques for
Creep Damage Assessment
The changes of hardness in low-alloy
steels as a function of time and tempera-
ture have been extensively quantified,
so that hardness changes can be used to
estimate the operating temperature. 9•10
Correlations have also been established
between tensile strength (hence hard-
10
0.1 ~----------~~------------~----------~------------~
10
Number of Cycles to Crack Initiation
Figure 5. Estimation of low-cycle fatigue properties by hardness for a Cr-Mo-V rotor forging at
566°C. H, = Vickers hardness number.
36
ness) and the Larson-Miller rupture re-
lationships for low-alloy steels. These
correlations enable selection of the ap-
propriate Larson-Miller plot corre-
sponding to a given hardness level,
which can be used to calculate the re-
maining life.
Current procedures do not recognize
that the Larson-Miller parameter for
rupture decreases with in-service aging.
A model that explicitly takes into ac-
count the decreased rupture life due to
softening has recently been developed
for 2.25Cr-1Mo steels by Grunloh and
Ryder.l1 The effect of aging on creep
rupture endurance is modeled by the
incorporation of the ultimate tensile
strength at room temperature (UTS) into
the second-degree polynomial shown in
Equation 2, which was derived by analy-
sis of a large body of data.
LMP(ruptu,e) = 40,975 + 57(UTS)
- 5,225(log cr) - 2,450(log cr)2 (2)
In this equation, time, temperature, and
stress are in units of hours, R, and ksi,
respectively.
The effect of aging is taken into ac-
count by applying an aging correction
factor to the original UTS, based on
known kinetics of aging for the steel.
Using temperature, applied stress, and
starting UTS as input, a computer code
calculates the LMP for rupture in the
aged condition (and hence t,) at 1,000
hour intervals. The incremental damage
for each time step, and hence the cumu-
lative damage tit" can be calculated.
Kimura et al. developed a similar ap-
proach to calculate creep life consump-
tion of CrMoV rotors l2 and casings. J3
Goto et al. have proposed using hard-
ness as a stress indicator in the remain-
ing-life assessment of CrMoV rotors. 14•l5
Hv = 203
They have quantified the effect of stress
on the aging process so that by comparing
the kinetics of hardness change in the
rotor with that of thermally aged
samples, the local stress can be deter-
mined. This value of stress and the known
value of service temperature are used in
conjunction with the Larson-Miller rup-
ture plot to estimate t, for the material in
its current damage state.
In contrast, McGuire and Gooch show
that the magnitude of the stress is unim-
portant l6 once a "threshold stress level"
has been exceeded. For all stress levels in
the range 70-240 MPa, the hardness
change in the stressed condition was
found to be 21 % higher compared to the
change in the unstressed condition.
A creep model incorporating struc-
tural degradation as monitored by hard-
ness changes has been proposed by Cane
and Bissall.8 By equating the kinetics of
hardness change to the kinetics of in-
terparticle spacing changes, the decrease
in the threshold back stress for creep is
modeled. Substitution of the threshold
back stress in the Norton creep law (Le.,
f. = Acr n ) yields an expression for sec-
ondary creep rate f. in terms of hardness
changes. By integrating the f. between t
= 0 and t = t" where t, is the time to failure
defined in terms of the time to reach an
arbitrarily chosen critical strain, the re-
maining rupture life is predicted. The
model is currently based on limited data
and involves numerous assumptions that
can only be justified by further research.
Hardness and Low-Cycle
Fatigue Life
Considerable work has been carried
outl3-l5 in applying hardness for calcula-
tion of fatigue-life consumption in
CrMoV rotor grooves. It has been ob-
served that low-cycle fatigue damage
results in strain softening and can be
measured as a hardness decrease. The
premise, therefore, is that if the fatigue
curve corresponding to the current
hardness (in service) could be defined,
the fatigue-life fraction consumed could
be calculated by entering the appropri-
ate total strain range ~£t versus number
of cycles to crack initiation (Nf ) curve, as
shown in Figure 5. These relationships
have been quantified:
(3)
logkl = 2.59x10- H v -0.9
3
k2 = 22.0 (4)
(Xl = 1.64 X 10-4 Hv - 0.09
(Xz =0.59 (5)
cryd = 1.07Hv- 40.6 (6)
where kl and (Xl are hardness-dependent
constants, and cr d is the cyclic yield
strength. For any given hardness of the
steel, Equations 3-6 can be used to calcu-
late fatigue-life fraction consumed un-
der different transients, and these frac-
JOM • February 1992
tions can be summed up to calculate the
total fatigue-life expenditures using the
procedures detailed in Reference 12. D 0 0 fiO 0
Creep Cavitation Model
Metallographic methods have been c:
C 0 fi 0000
0
developed that can correlate either cavi- =
~
tation evolution or changes in carbide
spacings with creep-life expenditure. It ~
C3
B 1000 o om
has been observed that, in boiler piping, Q)
CD

cavitation is the principal damage mech- '"f;l 1- Undamaged

anismat brittle zones, weld heat-affected
zones, and high-stress regions in the base
metal.!? In the other cases, carbide
coarsening was found to be a better in-
dicator of life consumption. A pre-
liminary model based on carbide coars-
ening has also been developed .9
Neubauer and Wedel characterized
cavity evolution in steels at four stages-
isolated ca vities, oriented cavities, linked
cavities (microcracks), and macro-
cracks-and formulated recommenda-
tions corresponding to the four stages of
cavitation.18 To provide a theoretical and
quantitative basis for cavity evolution,
Cane et al. used a constrained-cavity-
growth model and proposed a relation
between the number fraction of cavi-
tated boundaries ("An parameter) and
the life fraction consumed using heat-
specific constants. 19 Values of these
constants either had to be assumed or
determined experimentally for each heat,
thus restricting the usefulness of the
model. Based on interrupted-creep tests
on simulated heat-affected zone 1Cr-
O.5Mo steels, Ellis et a1. concluded that
the data had too much scatter to verify
the life-prediction model of Cane. The
data could nevertheless be used empiri-
cally, by plotting all the data together in
the form of a scatterband whose lower
limits are defined bylO
A=: 0.517(t/t,> - 0.816 (7)
In using the A parameter method, the
specific procedure used to measure A is
crucial. The A parameter is defined as
0
A 0 crrmO((X) 0
0 0
o 0.2 0.4
Expended Life Fraction, til,
Figure 6. The correlation between damage classification and expended creep-life fraction for
1.2SCr-O.SMo steels.
each class (see Figure 6). The Wedel-
Neubauer classifications of material
condition (undamaged, class A, class B,
class C, and class D) correspond roughly
to expended-life-fraction (tit,> values of
0.27,0.46,0.65,0.84, and 1, respectively,
using the conservative lower-bound
curve shown in Figure 6. Since the ex-
pended life fraction corresponding to
various damage classifications is known,
the remaining life can be calculated us-
ing the relationship
t rem =:t('!""-l)
t
(8)
where t is the service life expended. The
remaining life corresponding to various
damage classifications can be calculated
to be 2.7t, 1.17t, O.54t, and 0.19t for un-
damaged material, isolated cavitation,
oriented cavitation, and microcracking,
respectively. By applying a safety factor
of three to the above values, the safe
reinspection intervals can be established
to be 0.9t, 0.4t, 0.18t, and O.06t, respec-
A - Isolated Damage
B - Oriented Cavities
C - Microcracks
D- Macrocracks
0.6 0.8
increased inspection intervals. Several
utilities that have adopted the approach
have realized significant savings in
inspection costS. 21 An illustration of the
inspection intervals according to the old
and the new procedures for a plant that
has been in service for 30 years is shown
in Table I.
The field replication data forming the
basis of the Wedel-Neubauer recom-
mendations have recently been re-
viewed. 22 When these limited data were
analyzed, no consistent trends of cavita-
tion evolution with operating time or
with calculated creep life fraction con-
sumed could be discerned. The labora-
tory data generated and analyzed by
Ellis et a1. appear to be the only available
quantitative basis for setting inspection
intervals.
The progress of creep cavitation as a
function of creep life fraction expended
in CrMoV rotor steels has been investi-
30
- - APTECH/EPRI scheme

25 - - ~c~~: Neubauer
the number fraction of cavitating grain tively. This approach has been devel-
boundaries encountered in a line paral- oped and applied by Paterson as shown ~ 20
lel to the direction of maximum princi- in Figure 7. 20 The figure clearly shows ~
.~
pal stress. To measure A reproducibly, that the reinspection interval is not only 15

the procedure needs to be standardized. a function of the current damage level, I 10

Since Equation 7 was developed us- but also the service life elapsed, unlike in ~
ing two steels of widely different impu- the Wedel and Neubauer approach,
rity concentrations, it is anticipated that where the reinspection interval pre- o~~~~~
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
the scatterband encompasses most 1Cr- scribed is independent of elapsed ser- Service life Expended (yr)

O.5Mo steels in service. Limited data on
heat-affected zone samples from 2.25Cr-
1Mo steels also have shown that the
cavitation behavior can be described by
Equation 7. Extension of this correlation
to weld metal, to steels with fine grain
size, and to other steels, however, would
lead to errors.
An alternate, easier-to-use method has
also been proposed by Ellis et al. The
damage classifications have been corre-
lated with life fractions, and thus a life-
fraction range has been established for
vice life. For all combinations of damage Figure 7. Service life VS. reinspection interval
classifica tion and service life in regime B for the APTECH/EPRI remaining useful life
in the figure, the new approach results in method and the Wedel-Neubauer method.
Table I. Suggested Reinspection Intervals for a Plant with 30 Years of Prior Service
Inspection Interval (Years)
Damage Classification Wedel-Neubauer EPRI-APTECH
Undamaged 5 27
A. Isolated Cavities 3 12
B. Oriented Cavities 1.5 5.4
C. Linked Cavities (Microcracks) 0.5 1.8
D. Macrocracks Repair immediately Based on fracture mechanics

1992 February • JOM 37

 o carbides at the grain boundaries. The
C
g> B num in solid solution. The softening re-
"16
a:
CD
16'
fij
C A
o 0.2
Figure 8. The correlation between damage classification and creep-life fraction for CrMoV rotor
steels.
gated by Goto. Additional data by
Carlton et al. show wide variations in
behavior due to differences in grain size,
ductility, and impurity contentsP The
results of Goto agree reasonably well
with those of McGuire and Gooch for
expended life fractions up to about 0.75,
but show larger values of A at higher life
fractions. Comparison of the behavior of
CrMoV rotor steels with CrMo piping
steels suggests that the CrMo steels ca vi-
tate more readily and reach much larger
values of the A parameter at failure com-
pared to the CrMoV steels. It has also
been noted that in CrMoV steels, cavi-
tation is observed only at the end of
second-stage and beginning of third-
stage creep, unlike in CrMo steels where
cavitation occurs during the second-
stage creep.24 The relative insensitivity
of the A parameter to expended creep
life for rotor steels makes accurate
determination of the A parameter cru-
cial. For this reason, the damage classifi-
cation as a function of expended life is
shown in Figure 8 using the lower bound
a 0 .04 'loP
60 t:,. 0.02%P
• 0.005 %P
50
® Aged under stress
o Munson
40
20
10
o~-J __ oL~~ __J -__
34 35 36 37 38
LMP = (T + 460 ) (20 + logl )
Figure 9. Evolution of MsC in 2.2SCr-1 Mosteel
as a function of aging time and temperature.
(In the equation for LMP, temperature is in
degrees Fahrenheit and time is in hours.)
38
1- Undamaged
A - Isolated Cavities
B- Oriented Cavities
C - Microcracks
o- Macrocracks
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Creep Life Fraction, Vt,
curve. The life fractions consumed are
estimated to be 0.3, 0.6, 0.85, and 1, re-
spectively, for undamaged and classes
A, B, and C damage. These values are
larger compared to CrMo steels, indicat-
ing that for a given damage classifica-
tion, life consumption is higher in CrMoV
steels, compared to CrMo steels. Blade
root fixings after blade removal may be
amenable to the use of replication, and
cavitation has been observed in rotors at
these locations. More complex equip-
ment required for replication of rotor
bores has also been developed. 14.15
However, creep cavitation in rotor bores
has not been reported to date.
Analysis of Carbides
Askins et al. have attempted to utilize
parameters such as matrix-solute com-
positions, ratios of carbide phases, and
matrix-lattice parameters as quantitative
indices of temperature during aging of
1Cr-0.5Mo steels.9 Their data indicate a
rapid initial decline in matrix-solute
content and an increase in theM23C6/M3C
ratio with time and temperature of ag-
} ing. Changes in the matrix-solute con-
Stevens and Flewllt tent were also found to be reflected in
changes in lattice-parameter values. Al-
though these general trends could be
confirmed, excessive scatter in the re-
sults did not permit quantitative corre-
lation of any of these parameters with
aging history.
In 2.25Cr-1 Mo steels, there have been
several investigations showing that pro-
longed exposure at about 280 a C causes
an irreversible form of embrittlement
~~~-J
known as "carbide-induced embrittle-
39 40 41
ment."25-27 The embrittlement is mani-
fested as an increase in the fracture-ap-
pearance transition temperature (FATT)
and is generally associated with the
formation of M6C molybdenum-rich
carbides act as sites for crack nucleation,
promoting transgranular cleavage cracks
at low temperatures. Carbide formation
also results in softening of the steel since
it depletes the matrix of the strengthen-
ing precipitate M02C and the molybde-
action is also manifested as decreased
creep strength and rupture strength.
Carbide evolution in 2.25Cr-1Mo steel
has been investigated by Stevens et al.
and Munson. 28-30 In both studies, the
amount of M6C carbides as a percentage
of the total weight percent of carbides
increased with time and temperature.
Plotted in terms of a Larson-Miller time-
temperature parameter, the results (Fig-
ure 9) show the family of curves from the
Stevens and Flewitt study to be shifted
laterally by a significant amount com-
pared to that of Munson.
These studies suggest that although
the evolution of M6C may be used as a
qualitative index of service temperature,
wide variations may occur due to dif-
ferences in initial microstructure and
composition. Data in Figure 9 also show
that the kinetics of M6C formation are
considerably accelerated by phosphorus.
Improved procedures for carbide ex-
traction as well as a larger database on
samples with various initial composi-
tions and heat treatments are needed
before the microstructural techniques can
be used for plant-life assessment. Stevens
and Flewitt also found that the evolution
of the M6C phase was unaffected by
stress. Nakatani et al. have developed
correlations between the percent M6C
and rupture-life reduction so that the
percent M6C in a service-exposed com-
ponentcould be used to deduce the creep-
life fraction consumed.31
The evolution of carbide phases in
CrMoV rotor steels has been investi-
gated on a single heat aged at 650 a C by
McGuire and Gooch. 16 The percentages
of M23C6, M7Cy and VC were found to
increase appreciably with aging, with a
decrease in M 3C. Most significantly, the
average Fe:Cr ratio in the carbides de-
creased systematically with aging. Ex-
pansion of this database to more heats
and aging conditions could open the
door to the widespread use of the Fe:Cr
ratio in carbides as an index of degrada-
tion in these steels.
DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
Destructive tests provide a direct
measure of the current damage state of
the material. They are the last resort in
the assessment route, since the tests re-
quire removal of samples from operat-
ing components. There are limitations
on the number of available samples and
locations from which they can be taken.
Periodic assessment of the remaining
life is not possible. The costs of cutting
out material, machining samples, and
JOM • February 1992
conducting tests can add up to a signifi-
cant expenditure. These costs are further
compounded by the plant outage dur-
ing the extended period of evaluation
and decision making. Despite these
limitations, removal of core plug samples
from headers and ring samples from
bore or periphery of rotors is becoming
increasingly common. Destructive test-
ing generally includes tensile, impact,
and creep! stress-rupture tests. Since the
purpose and limitations of the tensile
and impact tests are obvious, only the
creep life evaluations are described here.
Creep Tests
A procedure for estimating the cur-
rent damage state by conducting stepped
creep tests using a single specimen has
been described in detail by Voorhees. 32
The procedure defines which stage of
creep the material is in under service
conditions but does not provide esti-
mates of remaining life. The Monkman-
Grant relationship for steels has also
been in wide use and enables estimation
of remaining life by determining the sec-
ond-stage creep rate from creep tests.
Improvements to this procedure have
also been suggested by Castillo and
KhOUP3 The most common procedure,
however, continues to be the use of
isostress rupture tests.
The isostress rupture test procedure
consists of conducting accelerated rup-
ture tests at a temperature above the
service temperature. The stress is kept as
close as possible to the service stress
value. The results are plotted as log tr
versus T and extrapolated linearly to the
service temperature to estimate the re-
maining life. Results from recent research
have identified the limitations of and
possible refinements to the technique.
Results described earlier suggest that
linear extrapolation of results from tem-
perature-accelerated tests may yield
optimistic predictions of remaining life
under service conditions in the case of
ductile materials; the reverse would be
true for brittle materials. In either case,
the predicted values are expected to be
in agreement with the actual value within
a factor of ±2.
This conclusion is in agreement with
that of Melton. 34 Unfortunately, it is
generally difficult to define a "brittle"
and "ductile" class of materials since
ductility can vary from heat to heat and
with the test conditions. For our pur-
poses, we can define a "brittle" steel as
one prone to creep damage by cavita-
tion, and a ductile material as one in
which creep damage occurs primarily
by softening. This is consistent with the
observation by the ERA researchers that
the ductile cast MG showed no evidence
of cavitation even at a life-fraction con-
sumption of 0.82, while the brittle cast
FW cavitated profusely. Using this defi-
nition, castings, coarse-grained heat-af-
1992 February • JOM
fected zones in welds, and fusion lines in
welds may fit under the "brittle" cat-
egory, while the base metal in forgings,
piping, and tubes may fitin the "ductile"
category. These observations are consis-
tent with the recent results of Masuyama,
Nishimura, and Igari, indicating differ-
ences in behavior between ductile base
metal and brittle heat-affected zones in
2.25 Cr-1 Mo steePS They further ob-
served thatin brittle heat-affected zones,
both stress-accelerated and temperature-
accelerated tests gave equivalent results
that closely conformed to the LFR, while
in the ductile base metal, only the tem-
perature-accelerated isostress test results
were in agreement with the LFR.
Since isostress tests are normally con-
ducted in air, oxidation correction fac-
tors are also important. The extrapolated
remaining-life values obtained from the
accelerated tests should be corrected for
oxidation effects. If tests are conducted
in inert environments, no correction fac-
tor would be needed. A further refine-
ment to the technique consists of using
miniature specimens to minimize sample
requirements. It has been demonstrated
that miniature specimens (10 mm long, 3
mm diameter) tested in argon yield re-
sults representative of large specimens
tested in air. 36,37
CRACK·GROWTH STUDIES
All of the techniques described so far
relate to life prediction from a crack-
initiation point of view. For heavy-wall
components, the initiation criteria have
to be combined with crack-growth data
to perform a fracture mechanics analysis
of remaining life. Fatigue crack growth
analysis procedures are well established.
For creep crack growth and creep-fa-
tigue crack growth, however, method-
ologies and data needed for analysis
have been gathered only during the last
few years.
1.25Cr·0.5Mo Steel, 538'C
12
--,
10
E ""
.s ""
"",
", ,
Q)
N
8
,,
iJj
~
~ ,,
<.)
,,
(ij
.+=
:s
6
,,
,,
4 ,,
p = 13.79 MPa',
2 ,,
2 4 6 8 10'
Figure 10. Remaining life as a function of initial crack size for an internally pressurized cylinder,
illustrating a typical output from crack-growth analysis.
Creep Crack Growth
Extensive creep crack growth data
pertaining to CrMo piping steels and
CrMoV rotor steels have been collected,
analyzed, and consolidated.38,39 It has
been observed that a crack-tip driving
force parameter termed Ct , which takes
time-dependent creep deformation into
account, correlates much better with
crack growth rates (da! dt) than the
traditionally used elastic stress intensity
factor K. The relation between da! dt
and Ct can be expressed as
da = bCrn
(9)
dt t
To perform a remaining-life as-
sessment of a component under creep-
crack-growth conditions, two principal
ingredients are needed: an appropriate
expression for relating the driving force
Ct to the nominal stress, crack size, mate-
rial constants, and geometry of the com-
ponent being analyzed; and a correla-
tion between this driving force and the
crack-growth rate in the material, which
has been established on the basis of prior
data or by laboratory testing of samples
from the component. Once these two
ingredients are available, they can be
combined to derive the crack size as a
function of time, The general methodol-
ogy for doing this is illustrated below,
assuming Ct to be the driving crack-tip
parameter.
The general expression for Ct given in
Equation 9 essentially reduces to the
form
Ct = at(A,n)aH (geometry,n) (10)
where a is the stress far from the crack
tip, obtained by stress analysis; t is the
strain rate farfrom the crack tip, which is
a function of the constants A and n in the
Norton relation; a is the crack depth
--------
Cold Region Properties
Hot Region Properties
""
""
""
""
", , ,
,,
,,
,,
,, ,,
,, ,,
,,
2 4 2 4 6 8
Remaining Life (h)
39
 obtained from NDE measurements; and
H is a tabulated function of geometry
and the creep exponent n. The values of
A and n are either assumed from prior
data or generated by creep testing of
samples. By assembling all the constants
needed, thevalueofC, can be calculated.
Once Ct is known, it can be correlated
to the crack-growth rate through the
constants band m in Equation 9. Com-
bining Equations 9 and 10 provides a
first-order differential equation for crack
depth (a) as a function of time (t). Theo-
retically, this equation can be solved by
separating variables and integrating.
However, the procedure is complicated
by the time-dependency of Ct and the
crack size dependence of the term H in
Equation 10. To circumvent this, crack-
growth calculations are performed with
the current values of a and the corre-
sponding values of da/ d t (or el), to deter-
mine the time increment required for
incrementing the crack size by a small
amount fia (Le., f1t = fia/ a). This pro-
vides new values of a, t, and Ct, and the
process is then repeated. When the value
of a reaches the critical size ac as defined
by KIe , JIe, wall thickness, remaining
ligament thickness, or any other appro-
priate failure parameter, failure is
deemed to have occurred.
Although this procedure appears
complex at first sight, the calculations
are relatively easy, once the principles
are understood. Computer programs
have been developed to perform the en-
tire analysis on personal computers.
Among these, the Steamline Inspection
Code and PCPIPE are in wide use in the
United States. The only judgement in-
volved is in selecting proper values for
the constants A, n, b, and m, because
large scatter in creep and crack-growth
data necessitates subjective choices. If
actual creep and/or crack-growth tests
could be performed, more accurate re-
sults could be obtained. Even if only the
values of A and n in the Norton law
could be pinned down by running creep
tests in argon using the miniature
samples described earlier, uncertainties
could be reduced. A sample output may
be in the form of crack depth versus time
or a plot of crack size vs. remaining life,
as illustrated in Figure 10. This plot was
generated for a thick-wall cylinder un-
der internal pressure containing a longi-
tudinal crack. The outside radius and
wall thickness of the cylinder were as-
sumed to be 45.7 cm and 7.62 cm, re-
spectively, and the hoop stresses were
calculated for internal pressures of 8.96
and 13.79 MPa. Materials properties in
the degraded condition (hot region) as
well as in the undegraded condition were
considered. The results show that the
remaining life is a function of the stresses
as well as of prior degradation. Plots of
this type could be used to determine
remaining life or to set inspection crite-
40
ria and inspection intervals.
Ainsworth et al. have recently de-
scribed a unified approach for struc-
tures containing defects.4o This ap-
proach incorporates structural failure by
rupture, incubation behavior preceding
crack growth, and creep crack growth in
a single framework. Service life is gov-
erned by a combination of time to rup-
ture, time of incubation, and time of
crack growth. All of these quantities are
calculated using a reference stress that is
specifically applicable to the geometry
of the component and is derived analyti-
cally or based on scale-model tests. If the
desired service life exceeds the calcu-
lated rupture time, retirement may be
necessary.
In the opposite situation, further
analysis is carried out to calculate the
incubation time during which no crack
growth is expected to occur. If the cal-
culation indicates that the incubation
time ti is less than the desired service life,
then a crack-growth analysis is per-
formed to calculate the crack-growth life
t . If the total life, t. + t , is less than the
desired service lif~, sife operation be-
yond that point would be considered
undesirable. This approach seems prom-
ising and deserves further exploration.
A number of variables affect the crack
growth rate by modifying b, Ct, or m. The
effect of these variables is summarized
below. 38,39
• In-service degradation increases
crack growth rate. In ductile CrMo
steel base metal, the effect was at-
tributable to increased Ct, while in
brittle CrMoV rotor steels, the effect
was attributable to an increased
value of m. Widely divergent esti-
mates of remaining life arise due to
uncertainties in the crack growth
coefficients band m and in the
Norton law coefficients A and n.
Determination of component-spe-
cific A and n by miniature specimen
creep tests on samples, and deter-
mination of band m by creep crack
growth, can greatly reduce the un-
O-CCG
/::,. - CFCG, 98 s Hold
o - CFCG, 10 min. Hold
10-'
10-2 10-' 10° 10' 102
(Ct)ayg [kJ/(m2. h)j
Figure 11 . A comparison of creep crack growth
(CCG) and creep-fatigue crack growth (CFCG)
data for 1.2SCr-O.SMo steel at S38°C.
certainty in the remaining-life
analysis.
• Crack growth rates at welds, fusion
lines, and heat-affected zone mate-
rials are at least a factor offive higher
compared to base metal.
• The presence of localized chains of
inclusion, further assisted by segre-
gation of impurities to interfaces
such as grain boundaries and fu-
sion lines, causes significant in-
creases in creep crack growth rates.
• The presence of large amounts of
impurities in the steel accelerates
crack growth by increasing m.
• All material and experimental vari-
ables that reduce creep ductility re-
sult in higher crack growth rates.
• Temperature can have mixed effects
on crack growth. In cases where the
effect of temperature is merely to
increase creep rate, the da/ dt in-
creases with increase in tempera-
ture due to increase in Ct' On the
other hand, if a transition from a
brittle to ductile condition is in-
volved, increase in temperature may
actually decrease the crack growth
rates.
• Crack-tip constraint has a pro-
nounced effect on crack growth.
Assumptions regarding plane-stress
or plane-strain conditions can have
a pronounced effect on da/ dt.
• Inclusion of primary creep, in addi-
tion to the secondary creep in calcu-
lating C" results in larger value of
da/ dt and reduced remaining life.
Creep-Fatigue Crack Growth
Major advances have been made in
developing methodologies and data
needed to treat crack growth under the
combined effects of creep and fatigue at
elevated temperatures. The loading con-
ditions in elevated-temperature power
generation components can often be
simply represented by a trapezoidal
wave shape consisting of a loading pe-
riod, a hold time and an unloading pe-
riod. Typically, the hold period is
significantly larger than the loading and
unloading periods. For predicting crack
growth during such loading, it is con-
venient to divide the crack growth dur-
ing each cycle (da/ dN) into two parts.
The first part is due to loading and un-
loading, (da/ dN)o' which is determined
by the magnitude of fiK, the cyclic stress
intensity parameter. The second part is
the crack growth during hold time, which
is also called the time-dependent crack
growth, (da/ dN)t' If the hold time (t h) is
considerably less than the transition time
(tT ), small-scale creep conditions prevail
in the specimen. 41 ,42 Therefore, it is logi-
cal to attempt to correlate the crack
growth rate during this period with Ct'
However, it must be recognized that the
magnitude of Ctchanges during the hold
period as stress relaxation due to creep
JaM • February 1992

defonnation proceeds. This implies that
the time rate of crack growth must also
decrease with increasing time during
the hold period.
Saxena and coworkers4~5 have sug-
gested that the average time-dependent
crackgrowthrate,(da/dt)av ,duringhold
time can be correlated wit~ the average
value of C" (C,)avs: during the hold time.
These are definea as
(da / dt>.vg =
1
- [da/dN-(da/dN)ol (11)
th
and
f
1 '.
(C, )avg =-- c, dt
th 0
(12)
In test specimens, (C,)avg can be deter-
mined from the measurements of load-
line deflection as a function of time dur-
ing the hold period. The value of (C,).vg
can be estimated by the following
equation:
(C) = ~(8V) (F'/F) (13)
" vg BWt h
where 8 Vc is the change in load-line de-
flection during the hold period due to
creep deformation, 8P is the applied cy-
clic load, Band Ware the thickness and
width of the specimen, respectively, F =
K- a calibration factor = (K/P)BWI /2, and
F' =dF/d(a/W).
Figure 11 shows a plot of (da/dt),vg
with (C,),vg for 1.25Cr-0.5Mo steels for
538°C. The data include test results for a
98-second hold time, ten-minute hold
time, and also the creep crack growth
rate data. 45When plotted as a function of
(C,).v ' the time rates of crack growth for
theseg very different conditions fall on
the same trend. The significance of the
above trend with regard to predicting
the hold-time effect in engineering com-
ponents is obvious. It must be mentioned
thatifda/ dN were correlated with&(,as
has been done in the past,46 the data for
each hold time will follow a different
trend. In order to use this approach for
predicting crack growth during hold
time, it is necessary to estimate the mag-
nitude of (Ct).vg for components. An
equation has been proposed to estimate
the (C,).vgfor any geometry for a material
defonning by elastic-cyclic plasticity and
power-law creep.45 The details of this
equation are given in the above refer-
ence and are outside of the scope of this
overview.
There are additional concerns that
must be addressed in order to develop
total confidence in this approach. Cur-
rently, there is no provision to consider
the interaction between loading/un-
loading rates and the crack growth rate
during hold time. During start-up, large
transient thennal stresses often develop.
Therefore, the hold period may be pre-
ceded by a fatigue cycle with a maxi-
1992 February • JOM
800
• GErotorCOl4lb.ilrs
Al olh«~;'ic.Jllio\15.lIeeRn. 41
700 00 grade _orors
Degrade rom's
600
500
. 00
0
"" ®
''''' ~ . 08
•••n~~
200 @ •
0(j)®
~@ .
oL-~-L-L~
o
_ _~~-L~~~
50 100 150 200
Poosptlorus COMlent (ppm)
Figure 12. The variation of post-exposure
FATT (corrected for exposure temperature
and location variations) with phosphorous.
mum stress considerably higher than
the stress during hold. As yet, no meth-
ods are available for considering such
loading. Analytical expressions for esti-
mating (C,).v need further numerical
verification. Xlso, new expressions that
consider primary creep deformation are
needed. The crack growth data for veri-
fication of these concepts are currently
limited to a single specimen geometry.
Therefore, data on a different specimen
geometry must be obtained.
NONDESTRUCTIVE
EVALUATION OF TOUGHNESS
In heavy-section components, severe
thennal stresses occurring during start-
up/shutdown transients can occasion-
ally cause failures by rapid brittle frac-
ture at relatively low temperatures. The
crucial last step in remaining-life analy-
sis of cracked components is, therefore,
the determination of the critical crack
size, based on a knowledge of the current
toughness of the materials at the critical
location. This toughness, generally ex-
pressed in terms ofthe plane-strain stress
intensity for fracture (KI) determines the
critical crack size for failure. The usual
procedure involves estimation of the K1c
at low temperatures based on well-es-
tablished correlations between the 50%
ductile-to-brittle FAIT and K1c . Consid-
erable progress has been made in
estimating the FAIT of steels using rela-
tively nondestructive techniques.
In Cr-Mo steels, operating at or above
538°C, the embrittlement mechanism of
concern has been the carbide-induced
embrittlement described earlier. An
electrochemical polarization test has
been developed by Watanabe and Shoji
for measuring the increase in FATT due
to embrittlementin such cases. In CrMoV
rotor steels temper embrittlement is more
of concern. The most promising tech-
niques in this case involve the use of
phosphorous versus FAIT correlation,
picric acid etch (PAE) tests, small punch
tests, and electrochemical tests.
Phosphorus-FAIT Correlations
Viswanathan and Gehl have per-
formed an in-depth review of FAIT data
available on several retired CrMoV ro-
(lj) ' 00 tors and laboratory aged samples.47 These
""
samples had been temper embrittled to
[jl)""
GIlCiil tE varying degrees, the worst embrittlement
JOO
occurring in the exposure temperature
(j)
@ range of 370-425°C. The FAIT in the
200
embrittled condition could be correlated
with the phosphorus content of the steel,
100 as shown in Figure 12. The D-grade rotor
samples, which had been austenitized at
1,01 DoC and therefore had a coarser grain
size compared to the C-grade rotor
250 300
350 400 450 500
samples, exhibited slightly higher ten-
dency to embrittle. Within limits of scat-
ter, the post-service FAIT could be esti-
mated based on a knowledge of the
phosphorus content alone.
Small Punch Testing
In the small punch test, a finished
small punch (SP) specimen is placed
between a 2.54 mm diameter hemi-
spherical punch and a die. The punch
displacement rate is controlled during
the test, and a load versus deflection
curve is thus developed; the area under
the curve denotes the energy absorbed
during the test. By conducting tests at
different temperatures, a curve of ab-
sorbed energy versus temperature can
be developed thatis very similar in shape
to that of a Charpy energy versus tem-
perature curve, with the difference that
the SP test curve is shifted laterally to
lower temperatures along the tempera-
ture axis compared to the Charpy curve.
The midpoint of the energy curve can be
used to define a ductile-to-brittle transi-
tion temperature (Ts ) . Foulds et a1. have
successfully applied the test procedure
to detennine the T for 12 retired rotor
samples.48.49 The Tsp values obtained
correlated well with the Charpy FAIT
values.
The specimen needed for an SP test is
only 0.508 mm thick with a diameter of
6.35 mm. Specimens of this size can be
easily removed from critical locations in
the rotor bar without affecting the rotor
integrity by using a recently developed
"scoop" device. If bore samples from the
critical locations were unavailable,
samples from other locations could be
tested and the FAIT values obtained
could be corrected for location depen-
dence using the approximations de-
scribed in Reference 47.
LlFE·ASSESSMENT FOR
SUPERHEATER TUBES
The EPR! has developed a methodol-
ogy that uses measurements of steam-
side oxide-scale thickness to predict the
remaining creep life of high-tempera-
ture superheater / reheater tubing.5o,51 In
addition, the validity of measuring the
oxide-scale thickness ultrasonically has
also been demonstrated by establishing
a good correlation between ultrasonic
measurements and direct measurements
on tube samples removed from super-
heater assemblies from several fossil
41
boilers. Comparison of uniaxial test re-
sults with tube burst tests results has
also helped identify the correct formulas
for computing the reference stress in
tubing, replacing a more conservative
formula used in the past. The kinetics of
steam-side oxide-scale growth in heat-
flux and nonheat-flux areas are also be-
ing measured in boilers. Cumulatively,
these results have provided industry
with needed confidence in its application
of a more cost-effective and nonde-
structive method for assessing the con-
dition of tubing.
References
1. R Viswanathan, Damage Mechanisms and Life Assessment of
High Temperature Components (Metals Park, Ohio: ASM, 1989).
2. RV. Hart, Metals Technology, 3 (1976), p. 1.
3. D.A. Woodford, Trans. ASME, JEMT, 101 (1979), p. 331.
4. e.J. Bolton, B.F. Dyson, and KR Williams, Matis. Sci. and
Eng.,46 (1980), p. 231.
5. J.M. Brear and P. McCarthy, ERA Report 89-0230, EPR!
Project R.P2253-2.
6. M. Nakashiro et aI., "Evaluation of Long Term Creep
Strength of 2.25 Cr-l Mo Heat Transfer Tube in Actual
Service Stress Level Range," ISIJ International, 30 (10) (1991),
pp. 823-S28.
7. J.M. Brear, 'The Effect of Oxidation Upon Long-Term
Stress Rupture Data 011 CrMo and 2.25 Cr-l Mo Steels," ERA
Report 89-0662, EPR! project R.P2253-4.
8. B.J. Cane and A.M. Bissall, "Predictive Assessment of
Damage in Elevated Temperature Weldment" (Paper pre-
sented at the EPR! Plant Maintenance Technology Confer-
ence, Houston, TX, 14-16 November 1986).
9. M.e. Askins, Remaining Life Estimation of Boiler Pressure
Parts, vol. 3, Base Metal Mode, EPR! Report C5-5588 (Palo Alto,
CA: EPR!, November 1989).
10. F.v. Ellis et al. Remaining Life Estimation of Boiler Pressure
Parts, vol. 4, Metal/ographic Models For Weld Heat Affected
Zones, EPR! Report C5-5588 (Palo Alto, CA: EPR!, November
1989).
11. H. Grunloh and RH. Ryder, General Atomics, San Diego,
CA, private communication of results from EPRI projeet
R.P2253-1O (1989).
12. K Kimura, KF. Fujiyama, and M. Muramatsu, "Creep
and Fatigue Ufe Prediction," High-Temperature Creep-Fat, ed.
R Ohtani, M. Ohnami, and T. Inow (Elsevier, 1988; Japan:
Society of Materials Science, 1988).
13. K Fujiyama et al., "Evaluation of Creep Properties of
Degraded CrMoV Turbine Cost Steels Through Hardness
Measurement and Its Application to Life Assessment," ISIJ
International, 30 (10) (1990), pp. 869-875.
14. T. Goto, "Study on Residual Creep Life Estimation Using
Nondestructive Material Property Tests," Mitsubishi Tech-
nical Bulletin, no. 169 (Mitsubishi, April 1985).
15. Y. Kadoya et al., "Material Characteristics NDE System
For High Temperature Rotors" (Paper no. 85-JPGC, PWR-lO
presented at the ASME/IEEE Joint Power Generation Con-
ference, 1985).
16. J. McGuire and D.J. Gooch, "Metallographic Techniques
For Residual Life Assessment of lCrMoV Rotor
Forgings,"International Conference on Life Assessment and Ex-
Joint TMS/ASM Student Members
are you planning
a move?
To notify both TMS and ASM International of your new address,
just telephone (216) 338-5151 and ask for the Member Service Center.
42
tension (1988), p. 116.
17. F.V. Ellis et aI., Remaining Life Estimation of Boiler Pressure
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS _ _ _ __
R. Viswanathan earned his Ph.D. in materi-
als science and engineering at Carnegie
Mellon University in 1972. He is currently
manager of materials applications technol-
ogy at the Electric Power Research Institute in
Palo Alto, California.
S.M_ Gehl earned his Ph.D. in materials sci-
ence and engineering at the University of
Florida in 1977. He is currently program man-
ager for fossil plant performance at the Elec-
tric Power Research Institute in Palo Alto,
California.
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JOM • February 1992