Hum 103 - Compilation - Updated Version From RS 41

The Draft: Hum 103 Compilation
o The objective of this draft is to compile all notes, materials from

book and class lectures together.
o There are several ways to how you can make the most of this draft.
o Definitions have been underlined.
o Explanations are given at most parts so you will not have to read
the book for those topics.
o If you want to give a quick read of this compilation, then go
through the bullet points and the underlined parts only.
o This is an attempt for the near-most compilation of notes, lectures,
book material to score good mark.
o Updated with materials from RS 41
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This note has been drafted by The English Guy.
Of Krishnochura. RS 39.
Chapter 1:
Habits of Highly Effective Students
Paradigm: It is the way of thinking.
Paradigm Shift
- The term was introduced by Thomas Kuhn
- I n h i s b o o k , “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions”.
“Kuhn shows how almost every significant breakthrough in the field of scientific endeavor is
first a break with tradition, with old ways of thinking, with old paradigms”
- Paradigm shift is the shift of mentality or thought.
In other words, Paradigm shift means the change of perspective or thinking. It moves us from
one way of seeing the world to another. And those shifts create powerful change. Our
paradigms, correct or incorrect, are the sources of our attitudes and behaviors, and ultimately
our relationships with others.
Habit
- Habit is the intersection of knowledge, skill, and desire.
Habits are powerful factors in our lives. They are consistent, often unconscious patterns, they
constantly, daily, express our character and produce our effectiveness or ineffectiveness.
To form a habit, the following 3 are required:

1. Knowledge is the theoretical paradigm, the- what to do and the why.
2. Skill is the how to do.
3. Desire is the motivation, the want to do.
Creating a habit requires work in all three dimensions.
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The Maturity Continuum
“Maturity Continuum was one of the term used by Covey to describe the stage of
maturity as a person, not with respect to age, but rather, with respect to the person’s
level of independence.”
- Dependence is the level where a person depends so much to others

around them.
- Independence is the level where a person does not need others.
- Interdependence is the highest level of maturity. This is the level that
an independent person recognizes that there are more to be
achieved if they live interdependently.
Stephen Covey has described maturity in 3 stages:

 Dependence: The paradigm of you. Y ou take care of me; you come through
for me; you didn’t come through; I blame you for results.
 Independence: It is the paradigm of I. I can do it; I am responsible; I am self-
reliant; I can choose.
 Interdependence: It is the paradigm of we - we can do it; we can
cooperate; we can combine our talents and abilities and create something
greater together.
- Maturity Continuum is the process of moving from dependency to

interdependency progressively through practicing habits.
Seven Habits
- The habits termed by Stephen Covey
- In his book “The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People”
First three habits deal with the self-mastery. They move a person from dependence
to independence. They are the “Private Victories”, the essence of character growth.
Habit 1 – Be Proactive
- A person who is proactive is making his environment, always taking
initiative and he is never blaming others for his failures and
shortcomings and living in his circle of influence.
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Principles of Personal Vision

 The ability to subordinate an impulse to a value is the essence of the proactive
person.
 Proactive people are driven by values – carefully thought about, selected and
internalized values.
Circle of Concern/ Circle of Influence

 Proactive people focus their efforts in the Circle of Influence. They work on the
things they can do something about. The nature of their energy is positive,
enlarging and magnifying, causing their Circle of Influence to increase.
 Reactive people focus on their efforts in the Circle of Concern, their behavior,
actions create a negative energy focused in areas of neglect, thus, causing their
Circle of Influence to shrink.
 Working in a Circle of Concern, we empower the things within it to control us.
Habit 2 – Begin with the end in mind: Principles of Personal Leadership
“Begin with the end mind means to begin each day, task or project with a clear vision
of our desired direction and destination, and then, continue by flexing our proactive
muscles to make things happen. One of the best ways to incorporate this habit in our
life is to develop a personal mission statement.”
- Most effective way is to develop a personal mission statement or

philosophy or creed.
This principle says that all things are created twice. Mental creation or leadership is
the first creation and physical creation or management is the second creation.
According to Peter Drucker and Warren Bennis, “Management is doing things right;
leadership is doing the right things.”
There is a rule called carpenter’s rule which is “measure twice, cut once.”
- That means whatever we do, we should make plan or blueprint of our
whole work and then advance accordingly.
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We should have fixed well-planned goals for our activities and that is what beginning
with the end in mind.
1. Values sit at the center of our Circle of Influence.

2. This center is the anchor for our Circle of Influence, as we act on our values,
our influence expands.
A Principle Center
 By centering our lives on correct principles, we create a solid
foundation for development of four-life support factors.
 Our security comes from knowing that correct principles do not
change. We depend on them.
 The personal power that comes from principle-centered living is the
power of self-aware, knowledgeable, proactive individual,
unrestricted by the attitudes, behaviors and actions of others by
many of the circumstances and environmental influences that limit
other people.
Habit 3 – Put first thing first: Principles of Personal Management
Habit 3 is the practical fulfillment of Habit 1 and 2.
Habit 2 is the first or mental creation. It is based on imagination. It’s the deep contact with our
basic paradigms and values and the vision of what we can become.
Habit 3 is the second creation, the physical creation. It’s the fulfillment, the actualization, the
natural emergence of Habits 1 and 2.
Habit 3 talks about the practice of self-management. It is the time management matrix.
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Quadrant 1 Quadrant 2 (Proactive)
Urgent and Important Not Urgent but Important
Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
Urgent but not Important Not Urgent and not

Important
Quadrant 1 - Urgent and Important

- They are the crisis managers, problem minded people, the deadline-driven
producers. For example, newspaper reporters, they have one day to edit there
articles to post then news right on the next day.
Quadrant 2 – Not urgent but Important (Proactive)

- For effective people.
- Identify your goals, select the goals and schedule and do a daily planning.
Suppose you have a quiz or assignment due for the next week. This quadrant
tells you to start right away while you still have the time.
Quadrant 3 – Urgent but Not Important

- Lead irresponsible lives. For example a phone call, it is urgent but might not be
important to get the call.
Quadrant 4 – Not urgent and not important

- Lead irresponsible lives. For example, Facebook.
Habit 4, 5, 6 moves a person from independence to interdependence. They are the public
victories.
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Habit 4 – Think Win-Win: Principles of Interpersonal Leadership
There are six paradigms of Human Interaction. They are:
1. Win-Win:
Win-win sees life as a cooperative, not a competitive arena. All parties feel good about
the decision and are mutually beneficial and satisfying. There are five Elements for
win-win agreement.
2. Win-Lose:
One alternative to win-win is to win-lose. Value lies outside them.
In this paradigm, one individual tries to win while trying to make others lose.
3. Lose-Win:
It is worse than Win-Lose. The people of this paradigm are usually the people who give
up easily or are hopeless.
4. Lose-Lose:
When two Win-Lose get together, their self-egoistic nature results a situation where
both of them loses.
5. Win:
There is no downside to this paradigm. The only option is to win.
6. Win-Win or No Deal:
In this paradigm, both the parties will either come to a decision where both of them
benefits or none benefits.
Habit 5 – Seek first to understand, then to be understood
Principles of Empathic Communication
Gaining trust is earned through true understanding of another person and the point of view he
or she holds.
 We should listen to others in an empathetic way, understand how others see
and feel and open ourselves up to being influenced.
 Knowing how to be understood is the other half of Habit 5, and is equally
 Critical in reaching win-win situation.
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Habit 6 – Synergize
Principles of creative cooperation
 It is essence of Principle-Centered Leadership.

 Synergy means that the whole is greater than the same of its parts.
Valuing the differences is the essence of synergy. This habit deals with team work and
cooperation.
Habit 7 –Sharpen the Saw
Principles of Balanced Self-Renewal
It is the habit that makes all the others possible. “Sharpen the Saw” basically means expressing
all four motivations.
There are Four Dimensions of Renewal:
1. Physical (Body)
- Exercise, Nutrition, Stress Management.
2. Spiritual (Soul)
- Value clarification and commitment, Study and Meditation.
3. Mental (Mind)
- Reading, Visualizing, Planning, Writing.
4. Social/Emotional (Heart)
- Service, Empathy, Synergy Intrinsic Security.
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Chapter 2:
Aristotle - Nicomachean Ethics (Virtue Ethics)
Nicomachean Ethics:
- According to Aristotle, a person is defined by his rational virtuous activity.
 Nicomachean ethics – Aristotle’s book.

 It is only a collection of lecture notes of Aristotle which is uneven in style,
obscure in places, and was certainly never intended for publication.
 It remains one of the most important works in the history of ethics.
Eudaimonia:
“The good composed of all goods; an ability which suffices for living well; perfection in respect
of virtue; resources sufficient for a living creature.”
We can say, Eudaimonia is:
1. A continuous process.
2. The tendency to expect a flourishing life.
3. Living well.
4. Never ending pursue of success.
5. Good life.
6. Always pursued as an end, never as means to an end.
Eudaimon life is successful life.
One aim of Nicomachean ethics is to illuminate the pursuit of eudaimonia.
Prerequisite for Eudaimon life is –
1. Certain amount of money

2. Reasonable looks
3. Good ancestry
4. Children
Without these things no one can achieve the highest state of eudaimonia.
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The Function of Human Being:

 Human beings have a characteristic function or activity (ergon).
 Humans have rational virtuous activity. It is the distinctive power that enable a human
to judge right from wrong.
 The ergon of human beings is rational activity.
 Virtuous action makes people achieve excellence in character.
 Good life for human beings is a life of rational virtuous activity.
 Human beings flourish when living lives of rational virtuous activity.
Virtue
- Virtue is the excellence of character.
- It is the disposition of human character.
- For Aristotle, the phrase virtue is translated in Greek to “ethikai aretai” which
simply means excellence of character.
Virtue is a feature of one’s character. It is true, when:

1. It is a feature of one’s character.
2. When there is excellence in one’s character.
3. When there is a disposition of one’s character to act in a certain way in relevant
circumstance.
4. It is the midpoint of two extremes.
5. E.g.: Modesty
a) Too much modesty – shyness
b) No modesty – shamelessness
Here, Modesty is the midpoint, also known as the Golden Mean.
- The midpoint is not always fixed, it changes according to current situations.
- Virtuous action is always a mean of a kind that would be chosen by a person of

practical wisdom, the phronimos. The phronimos is sensitive to the features of
particular circumstances and an excellent on how to behave.
- When choosing “Rational Virtuous Activity”, we have to use our personal

wisdom.
OR,
- Using practical wisdom, choose your virtues.
Virtue means ‘excellence of character’ and had no moral implications in our sense of ‘moral’
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Types of virtue:
There are two parts of virtue:
1. Moral virtue
- Requires early training
- Non-rational
- Requires practice
- E.g.: truthfulness
2. Intellectual virtue:
- Rational
- Requires study
- E.g.: knowledge
The Golden Mean:

Aristotle identifies a common structure to all the virtues: they fall between two extremes. This
is the basis of his doctrine of the Golden Mean.
E.g.:
The virtue of courage lies between two vices: a deficiency of courage is cowardice while an
excess of it is rashness.
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Chapter 3:
Basics of Ethics and Culture
Morality
-It is a system of guidance designed to assist us in the living our lives.
-The primary goal of morality is to establish appropriate constrains on human behavior-
constrains made by self-aggrandizement and conflicting interests.
Therefore, we can also say, morality is the systematic guidance of human behavior.
Ethics
-It is the study of morality or moral behavior.
There are 4 components of ethics:

1. Dealing with our moral choice.
2. Actions.
3. Judgments.
4. Rational justification.
Fundamental characteristics of moral behavior:

1. Harm
2. Mutual Aid
- Morality in the sense indicated has both an individual and a social dimension.
Two dimension of morality:

1. Individual
2. Moral Institution of Life
The focus of the definition of ethics is on behavior rather than motives, intentions or
characters.
Rational justification
-The work in the field of ethics concerns the concept of rational justification which is
that the work is solely based on reason and its power to justify beliefs. Reason provides
the best direction to truth. Reason gives guidance to morality.
-To justify a belief – a position, a viewpoint, or a conclusion – is to give sufficient grounds for it.
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Morality and law

-The law reflects various moral roles, ideals and sanctions of the society.
- Objective of morality is to establish appropriate constraints in human behavior.
- Obedience to the law is not sufficient as law cannot cover all acts of mutual aid.
E.g.: if there is an accident and the driver is guilty, and if we cannot prove that he/ she is
guilty then by law he is innocent. Therefore, this is not morally correct.
Morality and religion

-Religion might support something or prescribe actions in the name of a deity which actually
might violate fundamental morality/ it might be immoral.
-All religious aspect is not supported by morality but all morality is supported by religious
aspect.
Customary Morality
Customary morality refers to the practices and rituals that are practiced and accepted in
different societies, cultures, environments etc. However, some actions that are done in the
name of custom, violates the fundamentals of morality.
E.g.: in some societies, customary practices advocate slavery, systemic discrimination against
certain groups (religious, sex and racial or ethnic) and caste systems.
Morality and Etiquette

Etiquette refers to the forms of behavior that are associated with social and official life.
E.g.: swearing and use of obscene languages do not reflect good etiquette. It is basically the
behaviors and actions that are socially acceptable.
There are two school of thoughts:

1. Teleological
2. Deontological ethical theories
 Teleological stresses consequences

 Deontological stresses the nature of actions themselves.
The basic idea of all consequentialist theories is that right and wrong actions, and judgments
about these are determined by the results produced.
Consequentialists – the particular non-moral value brought into being is all-important. This
“good” is considered worthful in its own right; it is intrinsically or inherently valuable.
Depending on the nature of the “good” values that are non-moral, consequentialist ethical
theories often produce codes of conduct that broader in scope of the definition of ethics.
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According to consequentialist theories, one may be morally obligated to engage in certain

behaviors, even though, these have no clear connection with harm or mutual aid.
Non-consequentialist or deontological theories maintain that rightness, wrongness and

obligation are based upon certain features of the act itself, not necessarily the results
produced by the act.
For non-consequentialist ethics, the rightness or wrongness of the act is the crucial point.
The most influential non-consequentialist in the history of moral thought is Immanuel Kant.
Culture:
Culture is the more or less integrated way of thinking, understanding, evaluating, and
communicating that makes possible a shared way of life.
There are 5 elements of Culture:
1. Value
Values are deeply held criteria for judging what is good or bad, desirable or undesirable,
beautiful or ugly.
They are the underlying, general, often unconscious and unexpressed standards by
which we evaluate specific acts, objects, or events.
2. Norms
A norm is a rule or guideline that says how people should behave in particular
situations. Norms are narrower and more specific than values.
E.g.: individualism and honesty are values, the role that a student should not copy
another student’s homework is a norm derived from these values. Moreover, norms are
unspoken customs that people unknowingly follow.
E.g.: When someone you don’t like asks you out for a date, you don’t say I don’t like you
to them directly, rather, you refuse by saying you are busy or give any other excuse.
3. Symbol
Symbols are objects, gestures, sounds or images that represent something other than
themselves.
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Therefore, symbols derive their meaning partly from their inherent qualities, but the
meaning given to symbols is frequently quite arbitrary, a matter of tradition and
consensus.
4. Language
It is a system of verbal and written symbols with rules about how those symbols can be
combined to convey more complex meanings.
It plays a vital role in the development, elaboration and transmission of culture.

Language enables people to store meanings, experiences, knowledge and pass this
heritage to new generations.
5. Knowledge
Knowledge is the body of facts, beliefs, and practical skills that people acquire over time.
It consists partly of procedural (or “how to”) information such as how to drive a car. And
of partly information about places, people and events.
 Value is the criteria to judge between good and bad.

 Norms helps us to participate in particular situations.
Culture Diversification:
It refers to the presence of many different modes of understanding, different modes of values
and tastes, different kinds of knowledge with in the world as a whole, and within individual
societies, in general, the larger and more heterogeneous a society is, higher is the level of
cultural diversity.
Culture Relativism:
Cultural relativism challenges our ordinary beliefs in the objectivity and universality of moral
truth. It says, in effect, that there is no such thing as universal truth in ethics; there are only
various cultural codes, and nothing more.
Some propositions of cultural relativists:
- It is a theory of the nature of morality.

- Different societies have different moral codes.
- All cultures have some values in common.
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6 propositions of cultural relativism:

1. Different societies have different moral codes.
2. There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one societal code better than
another.
3. The moral code of our own society has no special status; it is merely one amongst many.
4. There is no “universal truth” in ethics; that is, there are no moral truths that hold for all
people at all times.
5. The moral code of a society determines what is right within that society; that is, if the
moral code of a society says that a certain action is right, then, that action is right, at
least within that society.
6. It is mere arrogance for us to try to judge the conduct of other people. We should adopt
an attitude of tolerance towards the practices of other cultures.
The Consequences of Taking Cultural Relativism Seriously:
1. We could no longer say that the customs of other societies are morally inferior to our
own.
2. We could decide whether actions are right or wrong just by consulting the
standards of our society.
3. The idea of moral progress is called into doubt.
Universalism:
- No universal truth in morality
- No objective standard in cultural relativism
- Differences in opinion is relativism
- There are some moral rules that all societies will have in common, because,
those rules are necessary for society to exist.
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Chapter 4:
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism
“A universal teleological system” - Francis Hutcheson (An Inquiry Concerning Moral Good and
Evil):
Principle of Utilitarianism
That action is best, which procures the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers.
- “General happiness for the greatest number for the general good.”
Utilitarianism is the concept of making decisions according to which provides most happiness.
- The first idea of utilitarianism were seeded by the ancient Greek philosopher
Epicurus (342-270BC)
In our daily life, we need to take many decisions. Generally, we follow 3 principles to make
decisions which are as follows-
1. “Let your conscience be your guide.”
2. “Do whatever is most loving.”
3. Golden Rule: “Do to others as you would have them do to you.”
Despite these principles’ application in our daily life, there would be many complicated cases,
the decisions of which we cannot make based on these ones. Then utilitarianism comes to the
power.
Classic Utilitarianism
Jeremy Bentham – the founder of classical utilitarianism

(1748- 1832)
Wrote the book “An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation”
Although, the classic expressions of utilitarianism were expressed by two English philosophers:
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.
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To quote Bentham, “Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign
masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to
determine what we shall do.”
- Utilitarianism is also known as consequentialism

- Utility of anything is its usefulness in practice.
The consequentialist principle states that the rightness or wrongness of an act is determined
by the goodness or badness of the result that flow from it. It is the end, not the means that
counts; the end justifies the means.
- Utility means the property in any object, whereby, it tends to produce the
benefit, good or happiness, to prevent the happening of mischief, pain, evil or
unhappiness to the party where interest is considered.
Jeremy Bentham’s Utilitarianism:
Therefore, according to Bentham, we are controlled by two masters, “pain” and “pleasure”,
i.e.: whatever we do we either get happiness or sadness from it. Focuses on the quantity of
happiness known as Act Utilitarianism.
OR,
• Focuses mainly on quantity of pleasure.
• Therefore, it follows the principle of Act utilitarianism.
Two main features Bentham’s Utilitarianism:
1. Consequentialist principle:
Rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by the goodness or badness of the
results.
2. Utility principle:
The hedonist principle states that the only thing that is good in itself is some specific type of
state (e.g.: pleasure, happiness, welfare.)
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- Hedonistic utilitarianism views pleasure as the sole good and pain as the only
evil.
Quantitative score for any pleasure or pain is obtained by summing the seven aspects which
Bentham named as hedonic calculus as follows-
1. Intensity
2. Purity
3. Nearness
4. Certainty
5. Duration
6. Fruitfulness
7. Extent
Bentham’s utilitarianism is simple and there is only one principle to apply: Maximize pleasure
and reduce suffering.
 The utility principle seems too complicated since there are too many variables
and has problems assigning scores to the variables.
 Bentham’s utilitarianism is also called ‘pig philosophy’.
 The reason is Jeremy Bentham did not differentiate between types of
pleasure; he considered all types of pleasure same. He says that an action is
right, if it can produce maximum number of happiness.
John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism:
• Focuses on quality of pleasure.

• Known as eudaimonistic utilitarianism.
• Saved utilitarianism from being a pig philosophy.
• Similar to Rule utilitarianism.
Distinguishing between two types of pleasure:
1. Higher class pleasure:

- Intellectual, aesthetic, social enjoyment and other mental pleasure. This pleasure is long
term, continuous and gradual.
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2. Lower class pleasure:

- Eating, drinking, sexuality, resting etc. and other bodily pleasures. It is more intensely
gratifying and often may cause pain if overindulged in.
Act utilitarianism
An action is right if it can produce maximum number of happiness compared to other
alternatives. It is based on the action.
John Stuart Mill opposed Bentham’s theory by criticizing it as “pig’s philosophy”.
Rule utilitarianism:
An act is right if and only if it is required by a rule that is itself a member of a set of rules
whose acceptance would lead to greater utility for society than any available alternative.
- Maximize the happiness of maximum number of people but by following

certain set of rules.
3 levels of rule utilitarianism, rules guiding our actions:
a) 1st order rule (Utility-maximizing rule): maximizing the happiness of maximum number
of people.
General principles like ‘Don’t lie’ ‘don’t cause harm’ or ‘Always tell the truth’ should be
followed.
b) 2nd order rule (Conflict-solving rule): Follow if there is a conflict applying 1st order rule.
“It’s more important to avoid causing serious harm than to tell the truth”
- For example- to save someone’s life, truth can be avoided. It is, therefore,
sensible to lie.
c) 3rd order rule (Remainder rule):
This is the principle of act utilitarianism, which talks about maximizing utility act. It says, if both
the above rules do not work then choose the action that will maximize utility.
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Negative responsibility:
Kai Nielson, a staunch act-utilitarian says that we are responsible for the consequences of not
only the actions that we perform but also the non-actions that we fail to perform. He calls this
‘negative responsibility’.
Strengths of Utilitarianism:
Utilitarianism has 3 positive features:
1. 1st Strength - A potential answer for every situation:

A single, simple principle applicable to every problem.
2. 2nd Strength - Substance of morality:

No formal system with definite rules or guidelines. The main motto is flourishing of happiness
and reduction of suffering.
3. 3rd Strength - Address the problem of posterity:

We should preserve scarce natural resources for the betterment of our future generations. It is
essential to ensure their quality of life be positive, high and better and we are responsible for
it.
Criticisms of Utilitarianism:
Problems with Utilitarianism:

1. Meaning of happiness
2. Happiness is not always the sole end.
3. Higher and lower pleasure
4. Impartiality
5. Consequences are not always certain.
Problems with Formulating Utilitarianism:
There are two things to maximize – ‘happiness’ and ‘number’.

The problem is to ensure these two things be greatest at the same time. There is no clearance
about whose happiness we are talking about: all beings that experience pleasure or pain or all
human beings or all rational beings. Moreover, utilitarians should make interpersonal
comparisons between happiness of different people.
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The Comparative Consequences Objection:

To follow utilitarianism, we need to ensure best consequence for future which would bring
maximum happiness but it is impossible for us to do so because life is too complex and
consequences go on into indefinite future. One action causes one consequence which results
another one and this goes on. Thus, we are uncertain about which action will bring the actual
best consequence.
• An act is absolutely right if it has best actual consequences.
•An act is objectively right if it is reasonable to expect that it will have the best
consequences.
The Consistency Objection to Rule-Utilitarianism:

Rule utilitarianism tells us to follow any of the three sets of rules which are really tough. It
does not offer any independent standard for moral judgments. Rather, we could improve by
breaking the set of rules whenever we judge. Hence, it must either become deontological
system or transform itself into act-utilitarianism.
The No-Rest Objection:

The main purpose of utilitarianism is to promote the most utility but there is an infinite set of
acts to choose for that. Thus, utilitarians get little or no rest to choose from the acts which
might improve one’s quality of life.
The Publicity Objection:

Moral principles must be known to all, but utilitarians do not claim everyone should act like a
utilitarian. It does not affect rule-utilitarianism but is a serious obstacle to act-utilitarianism.
The Relativism Objection:

Rule-utilitarianism is relativistic because it seems to endorse different rules to different
societies but rule is not made valid by community’s choosing rather by actual situation. Culture
varies from society to society, so it is not possible to apply the same rule for same situation of
different societies.
The Lying Objection:

Utilitarianism leads to approval of lying when it brings greater good or happiness which is
immoral. Truth is sacred and must not be altered by any mean. Following utilitarianism results
lie above truth.
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The Integrity Objection:

Our personal virtues are often violated by utilitarianism because we choose something other
than our most central and deeply held principles.
The Justice Objection:

Utilitarianism might consider an act useful but it could be against justice. Justice is not an
absolute value that can be overridden for the good of the whole society.
Bentham’s Utilitarianism Mill’s Utilitarianism

Act Rule
 An act is right if it results in as  An act is right, if it is required by a

much good as any available rule that is itself a member of a set
alternative of rules whose acceptance would
lead to a greater utility for society
than any alternatives.
 Focus on quantity  Focus on quality
 Pleasures are all alike  Pleasures are of two types:

1. Higher pleasure
2. Lower pleasure
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Chapter 5
Duty Ethics: Duty and Obligation
Morality:
The morality of an action is not determined by its consequences, only by the intentions of it.
 Morality is objective
 It’s not a matter of taste or culture
 It applies equally to all rational beings.
• ‘Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals’ – the book written by Immanuel Kant in 1785.
• The supreme principle of morality; namely the categorical imperative.
Good Will:
It is the only thing in the world which is good without qualification.
- Kant means that good intentions are unconditional and thus they are good.
- Everything else which is good is good under certain circumstances.
Kant says:
1. Good will is good without qualification.
2. Good intentions are unconditional.
3. Good will is good in itself.
• Without good will, power, wealth, honor, they can all serve evil ends.
• Kant says, “Consequences are irrelevant to assessment of moral worth, though they are, of
course, relevant to most other aspects of life”.
Duty Ethics:
To judge an action, the intention matters not the consequences.
- Immanuel Kant says that not to focus on result of action but also focus on
intention of the action.
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Duty and Inclination:

- Appropriate motive for moral action is the sense of duty.
- Good will.
- Duty stands in contrast to mere inclination.
- Duty follows principle.
- Some people happen to have compassionate natures.
- Inclination is conditional.
- Duty is unconditional.
 Kant says, action done solely from compassionate inclination have no moral worth
whatsoever.
 The motive of duty is all important.
 Someone who has no natural inclinations to sympathy or compassion, yet who helps
others out of a sense of duty, is morally praise worthy.
 On the other hand, those who act solely out of inclinations no matter how admirable
these inclination happen to be, are not acting morally at all.
 Kant’s reason is that morality is open to every rational being.
 Yet, our inclinations are outside our conscious control.
 Emotional attitude is pathological love.

 Sense of duty is practical love.
Principles of Duty Ethics:

- Duty for the sake of duty.
- Autonomy is the self-sovereign power.
- Kant says that humans have autonomy.
- The ability or being able to choose and act for himself.
- Out of desire something that is right and wrong which is guided, it is not
freedom.
- Immanuel Kant – the Father of dignity/ Human Rights
Maxims:
It is the underlying principles motivating an action which determine its moral worth, not the
end result.
Maxim is of two types:

1. Moral Maxim (Categorical Imperative)
2. Immoral Maxim (Hypothetical Imperative)
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1. Moral Maxim
a. Always speak the truth
b. Keep your promises
c. Respect elders
d. Do not quarrel
e. Do not harm anyone
Categorical Imperative:
Imperative sentences that give command to perform duty without conditions. Therefore, we
can say, it applies unconditionally irrespective of your goals.
- It is the supreme principal of morality.

- It is unconditional.
Several Formulations of Categorical Imperative:
a) Universal moral law:

“Only act on a maxim that you could will should become a universal law”.
- “Will” means rational intend.
- “Law” means the moral law.
o If a maxim is genuinely a moral one, then it ought to apply to everyone in relevantly

similar circumstances: it should be universalisable.
o If an action is morally wrong, it is morally wrong for everyone.

o If you can’t rationally universalize a maxim, it isn’t moral one.
b) Treat people as ends not as means

“Act so to treat others and yourself always as ends, never simply means to ends”.
We should respect other people’s autonomy.
o We cannot use others for our own benefit, or we cannot use others as an example to
prove our point
o The basic concept is ‘Treat others how I want to be treated’.
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c) The kingdom of ends:

- Protecting human autonomy.
- “Act as if through your maxims, you were a law-making member of a kingdom
of ends”.
o It means that there is an imaginary state whose laws protect individual autonomy,
allowing everyone to be treated as an end rather than as a means to an end.
2. Immoral Maxim (Hypothetical imperative)

- A conditional statement.
E.g.: If you want something, you must do something for it.
Kant says, morality is not just a matter of individual conduct, but also the foundation of
societies.
Kant, Aristotle and Mill:
Kant Aristotle Mill
 Emotions are  Appropriate emotional

irrational/ irrelevant response is a central
aim of moral education
 Rigid, no exceptions  Flexible, based on

sensitivity to
circumstances.
 Kant focuses on  Mills focuses on

intentions consequences
 No method of choosing  Choose the option that

between two options. maximizes the
Choose the one that happiness.
comes out of duty
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Criticisms:
1. It is empty
- A common criticism of Kant’s moral theory is that it doesn’t provide any content to
ethics.
- It concentrates on the structure of moral judgments, their universalizability, and

impersonality, rather than helping us to discover precisely what we ought to do.
- E.g.: (page-130-131 - judgments, their universalizability….)
2. The role of emotion:

- Emotion can never be neglected or ignored and it remains always in anyone’s mind
while performing any action.
- Kant’s moral philosophy treats the emotions and individual character traits as
irrelevant to our moral assessments of individuals.
Some Definitions:
 Autonomous: Being able to choose and act for oneself.
 Categorical Imperative: Kant’s term for our basic moral duty, this is absolute.
 Consequentialism: Any ethical theory which determines the rightness or
wrongness of an action on the basis of the consequences which ensue from it rather
than, say, the motivation with which it was carried out.
 Deontological ethical theory: A duty-based ethical theory, Duties rather than
consequences determine the rightness or wrongness of an action.
 Hypothetical imperative: Any statement of the form “if you want X, do Y.”
 Kingdom of ends: An imaginary state whose laws protect individual autonomy.
 Maxim: The general principle underlying any action
 Pathological love: Love consisting simply of emotion
 Practical love: A rational attitude based on respect for the moral law.
 Universalizability: If a principle is universalisable, this means that it could consistently
be willed in any other relevantly similar situation. For Kant, all moral judgments are
universalisable.
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Chapter 6
Justice- Rawls Theory of Justice
 ‘A Theory of Justice’ - The book by ‘John Rawls’.

 Published in 1971.
 About political philosophy.
 One of the most widely read works of political philosophy of the twentieth century.
 The book provides the principles for constructing a fair and just society chosen by a
person when that person has no idea about his position in the society.
- The book rejuvenated the social contract tradition established by Hobbes, Locke and
Rousseau.
- Equality is not justice.

- Giving someone what they deserve is justice.
- John Rawls explained justice as fairness.
Rawls on Justice:
- He wants a system of justice that treats people as equal, no matter what their
natural talents, life prospects, skills, temperamental assets, beliefs, ethnicity or
gender.
- Give someone what he or she deserves is justice.
Terminologies of Rawl’s justice:
1. Social Contract
- Living in a society and following its rules and regulations.
- According to the Social Contract Theory, “the state exists to enforce the rules
necessary for social living, while morality consists in the whole set of rules that
facilitate social living”.
- Everyone in the society has:

 The right to live.
 The right to property.
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2. Original Position
- ‘hypothetical thought experiment’
o It is something based on prior knowledge
o Prior knowledge is you are assuming something but you cannot experience it.
- Trying to set justice in such a way that you forget your own position/status in the
society and set the justice/ doing something.
The original position mainly based on two words:

1. Fair.
2. Non-biased.
One needs to be very neutral and have to forget about everything while taking decision.
According to Rawls, original position is the hypothetical situation in which all the facts about
yourself and your particular desires are hidden from you behind a veil of ignorance.
You have to treat people as equal no matter their natural talents, life prospects, beliefs,
gender, ethnicity, skills and temperamental assists. Rawls calls this situation of ignorance
about your own place in society ‘the original position ‘.
3. Veil of Ignorance
- After setting justice in the society, you do not know what your position will be in the
society.
- Not knowing one’s role in the society.
4. Lexical Order
- Maintaining order when moving forward. One must complete the first steps in order
to progress to the second step.
Two basic principles of Rawls:
1) Liberty Principle
- “Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of basic
equal liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all”.
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Explanation:
Choosing behind a veil of ignorance, a rational person would want everyone in the society to
have the same right to basic liberties as anyone else. Otherwise that person might end up a
victim of discrimination.
 Liberty principle stands for freedom to choose but not to destroy others liberty.
 After ensuring the equality, fair rights and liberty for everyone in the society, one can
move on to the next principle which is distribution of goods.
2) Distribution of primary goods principle/ wealth principle

- Distributing one’s wealth or goods for the development of the society. This is also
known as ‘distributive justice’.
Distribution of primary goods mainly consists of two principles. This principle has lexical
priority over any principles of efficiency. (What means-page. 138 – this is from RS 41 HUM 103
course book).
i) Fair equality of opportunity principle

- Any social or economic inequalities associated with particular offices or jobs can only
exist if these offices or jobs are open to everyone under condition of fair quality of
opportunity. It basically says that everyone should have the access to have
opportunities regardless of any bias.
‘There should be equal opportunity for everyone’.
ii) The different principle

- Any social or economic inequality should only be tolerated on condition that they
bring the greatest benefits to the disadvantaged member of society. (Maximin
Principle)
- This is an implementation of a strategy known as “maximin”.
- Maximin is short for ‘maximize the minimum’ which means choose the option which
gives the best deal for the worst case.
- This principle states that the only inequality should be tolerated if it brings benefits
to the disadvantaged member of the society.
Another name of Rawl’s justice is “institutional justice”.

Maximin principle – is related to utilitarianism.
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The 2nd clause of the 2nd principle is related to utilitarianism. Also known as, reform of second
principle.
Criticism on Rawl’s Theory:
1. The Original Position:

- The notion of the original position is psychologically impossible.
- ‘Psychologically it is impossible to forget your own status in the society’.
It’s psychologically impossible to rid yourself of the knowledge of whom and what you are,
even in a thought experiment.
It’s also unrealistic to think that you can simply imagine away what you know and what is
so central to your individual existence.
The critics claims that Rawls has the fall impression about the principles he thinks he chose
rationally because he thinks he made those principles achieving the original state which is
impossible to attain. So the critics say that, Rawls just overlooked that fact.
2. Utilitarian Objection:
- Says that morally right action in any circumstance is the one that is most likely to
produce the maximum amount of happiness.
- But Rawl’s principles on the grounds that they don’t necessarily maximize happiness.
Rawls gives an extent of rights to adaptability by applying unique measures depending upon
the condition which doesn't basically enlarge happiness.
Rawls underscores achieving more discriminating targets rather than aggregate euphoria.
Utilitarianism doesn't shield basic human rights and flexibilities however Rawls does it.
3. Gambling Versus Playing Safe:

- Adopting the maximin strategy is the way of playing safe.
Rawls response is that gambling is unnecessarily dangerous and in this way we should reliably
pick the more secure decision.
In any case then the players considers that Rawls system is exorbitantly direct.
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There are circumstances in life where we must wager with a particular deciding objective to
get the extensive pay off.
There is no genuine approach to keep up a vital separation from them.

4. Libertarian Objection:
- Libertarian philosophers, such as Robert Nozick, have argued that beyond preserving
some basic rights, the state should not be heavily involved in controlling social
institutions.
- Nozick argues that only a minimal state is justified, one which protects individuals
against theft and enforces contracts, but that any more extensive activity than this
will violate some people’s rights not to be coerced.
- Nozick assumes that the right not to be coerced is more fundamental than rights to
equality of various kinds.
In libertarian approach, it expresses that Rawls should not take control over all the social
establishments instead of taking control over some key rights.
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Chapter 7
Communitarianism
Communitarianism
The view that the actual community in which we live should be at the center of our analysis of
society and government.
- “Communitarianism refers to a theoretical perspective that seeks to lessen the

focus on individual rights and increase the focus on communal responsibilities” –
REGIS
Early Communitarians:
1. Aristotle
2. George W.F. Hegel
Contemporary – relevant to the current situation.

- Communitarianism is the pluralistic approach to political science.
Contemporary Communitarians:
1. Charles Taylor
2. Alasdair McIntyre
3. Michael J. Sandel
 Communitarianism talks about our obligation to our society, community and its
members.
 We are living in a community and have some duties to it.
 Communitarians emphasize the social nature of human beings. They claim that our core
identity depends on our relationship to others in our community.
Social Contract Theory

- Given by Hobbs, Locke, Rousseau
- Hobbs says nature of human beings is to be bad
- Locke and Rousseau says nature of human beings is to be good
- Social contract theory is also known as the “theory of origin” of the government.
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Aristotle says:
- State is prior to individual: humans cannot develop fully unless they live in state.
- The state is more important than an individual citizen.
Hegel says:
- State is the completion of all earlier human association
- Humans can develop freedom only within the state
- The individual will develop fully only if he embraces the cultural practices and
traditions.
John Rawls’s “A Theory of Justice” improved the social contract theory proposed by Hobbes,
Locke and Rousseau to its major version.
The main problem of social contract theory is that it neglects people’s social nature.
But the contemporary philosophers known as communitarians like Charles Taylor,

Alasdair MacIntyre and Michael J. Sandel brought a number of more specific complaints
against social contract theory.
Moreover, classical philosophers like Aristotle and Hegel, also known as early communitarians
set up their arguments.
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Social Contract Theory Communitarianism
1. Government or state is an artificial 1. State is natural.

construct.
- Aristotle argued that government
or state is a natural outgrowth of
our natural tendency to associate
with other human beings.
2. Before state, people were fully formed 2. Aristotle says that “state is prior to
or developed. individual”.
- Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau and - The whole association of human is,
Rawls assumed that fully formed state, which is more important than
people came together to create a its individual members. German
state. That means, before the philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
formation of the state, each Hegel also argued that humans can
individual person became develop fully only within the state.
developed or formed.
3. State must support no particular culture 3. State and its cultural practices are the
but leave the people free to choose their sources of the identity of all individuals.
own cultural preferences.
- Government should be neutral and - Different states will support

not affirm any particular version of the different cultural traditions.
good life. Government must not stay away
from morality and cultural values.
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Chapter 8
Human Rights
Human Rights
- The rights that we are entitled to simply because we are humans.
 Human rights are based on the principle of respect for the individual.
 It states that each person is a moral and rational being who deserves to be treated with
dignity.
Human rights are moral rights because they are universal.

They do not change from one place to another of this world.
Moral right becomes legal right when it is about one’s own country.
is
E.g.: ability to vote a moral right
becomes
as
A legal right One is citizen of his/her country
- Legal rights differ from country to country

- If the right of a single person is violated, it is not violation of human right.
- But, if, the right of a group of people is violated, it is counted as violation of human
right.
- Cyrus, the Great conquered Babylon in 539BC.

- He then specified a few things for everyone.
- He freed all the slaves.
- He declared that all people had the right to choose their own religion.
- He established racial equality
- These were recorded in a baked-clay cylinder called the Cyrus Cylinder.
The charter of Human Rights is called the Magna Carta.

It was signed by King John of England in 1215.
It is the first written concept of human rights.
Also, the natural rights of France (1789) became the human rights.
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After two World Wars, the United Nations was formed. There, 52 countries sat together to
create rights for everyone (also those outside Europe).
Under the dynamic chairship of Eleanor Roosevelt – US President Franklin Roosevelt’s widow-
and the United States delegate to the UN.
The Commission set the first draft of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
It was adopted on 10th December, 1948 by the UN.
All articles – page. 156 to 160.
In other word, human rights are the rights to which everyone is entitled - no matter who they
are or where they live- simply because they are alive.
Some Definitions:
Human: A member of the Homo sapiens; a man, woman or child; a person.
Rights: Things to which you are entitled or allowed; freedoms that are guaranteed.
Some article should be read from reading materials for the history of human
rights. The pages are as per the course book of RS 41.
The Spread of Human Rights (page.151)
Petition of Rights (page.151)
United States Declaration of Independence (page.152)
The Constitution of the USA and the Bill of Rights (page.152)
The First Geneva Convention (page.153)
The United Nations (page.153)
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (page.154)
Universal Declaration of Human Rights: The Charter of the United Nations

established six bodies.
Which are:-
1. General Assembly
2. The Security Council
3. The International Court of Justice
4. In relation to human rights
5. Economic Council
6. Social Council
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Thirty Articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
1. By born everyone is free and equal in dignity and rights.

2. Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedom without distinction of race, color, sex,
language, religion, political, opinion, social origin, birth, property or other status.
3. Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
4. No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited
in all their forms.
5. No one shall be subjected to torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or
punishment.
6. Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.
7. Everyone is equal before the law and is entitled without any discrimination to equal
protection of the law.
8. Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts
violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.
9. No one shall be objected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.
10. Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair public hearing by an independent and impartial
tribunal, in the determination of his rights and objections and of any criminal charge against
him.
-Only 10 are enlisted here, it is best to remember at least 10-
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Gender and Ethics: Why gender matters?
Gender
- Sense of gender is made by society.
- It is a socio-cultural construction of men and women
 It is a socio economic variable to analyze roles, responsibilities, constraints,

opportunities, and needs of men and women in any context.
 It is used as an analytical tool to understand social realities with regards to women and
men.
 Concept of gender helps us to separate natural identity of female and male.
Sex
 Sex is biological and natural characteristics between men and women.
 It is the visible and biological identity of men and women which also refers to visible
differences in genital and related differences in reproductive functions.
Differences between Gender and Sex:
Gender Sex
 Socio cultural construction  Natural or biological creation
 Differ from family, culture, time, and  Universal

context
 Variable and changeable  Unchangeable and Constant
 Socio-psychologically created  Predetermined
Page | 41
Terminologies:
Gender Equality: Gender equality is the equal valuing by society of both the similarities and
differences between women and men.
Gender Equity: Gender equity is being fair to women and men. The goal is to create an equal
playing field for women and men. It's a process to leads to gender equality.
Gender Awareness: Realizing the differences and inequalities and identification of way to
narrow these gaps to enhance equalities between men and women.
Realize and conscious of

differences of roles, Gender
experiences, Awareness
responsibilities, needs and
constraints amongst men
and women, boys and girl
+Action
Not
consciously
realized,
unconsciously.
Gender Sensitive
and Gender
Blind
Gender Sensitivity: Gender sensitivity is acknowledged that women are subordinated in most
societies and that subordination is harmful for both women and girls and for men and boys as
well as the entire society. This means being aware of why men and women behave differently
and understanding their needs and concerns.
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Gender Mainstreaming: It is a globally accepted strategy to achieve gender equality.

Mainstreaming is not an end in itself but a strategy, an approach, a means to achieve the goal
of gender equality. Mainstreaming involves ensuring that gender perspectives and attention to
the goal of gender equality are central to all activities- policy development, research,
advocacy, legislation and planning, implementation and monitoring of programs and projects.
Gender Balance: Gender balance represents the participation of an equal number of women
and men within an activity or organization.
Gender Biased: Gender biased is the prejudice in action or treatment against a person on the
basis of their sex.
Gender Neutral: Planning for women, men, boys and girls as if they are
homogenous/not taking into consideration their different needs and roles are gender neutral.
Gender Stereotyping: Stereotyping are usually negative, painful images, beliefs or

assumptions about an individual or a group which have the following characteristics:
 A “grain of truth” in them

 Taken out a historical context.
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Chapter 9
Environmental Ethics
Environmental Ethics
It considers the moral relationship between human beings and specially their relationship with
the environment. It considers the ways human interact with the natural environment and with
nonhuman animals.
Few Terminologies:
1. Anthropocentric (human)
Anthro means ‘humans’

Centric means ‘centered’
Therefore, Anthropocentric means human centered.
A way to deal with the environment that places human enthusiasm over those of whatever
other species. It implies the characteristic world exists for the profit of human beings. It is
identified with extrinsic value.
OR,
An approach to the environment that places human interest above those of any other
species. It means, the natural world exists for the benefit of human beings.
2. Non-anthropocentric (environment)
On the other hand, non-anthropocentric is environment centered.
The opposite of anthropocentric. It ensures the equality of the elements of environment

including human beings. It denies the proposal of superiority of human to nature rather states
for an equality. It is related to intrinsic value.
OR,
It is when human beings do not regard themselves as the central and most significant
entities in the universe. It is when everything else, other species and the natural world, is
equally important as human themselves are.
Page | 44
A. Intrinsic Value
Intrinsic is something which is valuable within itself.
E.g.: human life.
B. Extrinsic Value/ Instrumental Value

Extrinsic value (instrumental value) is something which has usefulness and is usable. Whose
value lies for others.
E.g.: money.
Environment: The sum total of all surroundings of a living organism, including natural forces
and other living things, which provide conditions for development and growth as well as of
danger and damage is environment.
Man- Nature Relation

The concept of the man-nature relation constitutes the basis for any philosophy of life. From a
historical and evolutionary standpoint we can identify three different patterns of human
attitudes in relation to man and nature. They are:
1. Man under Nature

- Man is dependent on nature.
- Man is acting like a slave to nature.
- In the beginning, man thought, nature has supreme power. Therefore, man was
dominated by nature.
The primitive man identified himself as a part of nature; dependent on nature for his survival;
lived like a slave of nature; subservient to the dominating forces of nature; survived at the
mercy of hidden and immutable laws of nature.
The relationship of Man under Nature is: Non-Anthropocentric and has Intrinsic Value.
2. Man over Nature

- Use of nature for human benefit
- Man is dominating the nature. (Exploiting nature for own benefit)
- Therefore, man considers himself the master of nature.
Men force nature for himself and exploited it to an unprecedented extent to fulfill his ever-
expending desires and needs. Man’s mastery over nature, he no longer regards himself as a
slave of nature, rather master of nature.
The relationship of Man over Nature is: Anthropocentric and has Extrinsic Value.
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3. Man with Nature

- Living with nature
- Keeping a harmony
- Here, ‘nature’ means everything.
The relationship of Man with Nature is: Non-Anthropocentric and has Intrinsic Value.
This attitude has evolved as a reaction to the disastrous consequences of the exploitation of
nature in its previous stage whereby, man realized himself to be an integral part of nature,
that is, a member of the biotic community, which includes all animate and inanimate things of
the ecological system including water, air and earth.
The Judeo-Christian tradition, the Age of Reason and the advent of technology are all
responsible for the development of the man over nature attitude in the West.
There are two types of approach to Environmental Ethics.
A. Religious Approach:
1. Impact of Judeo-Christian Tradition
2. Paganism and Christianity
Monotheistic religion:
- A belief in one god.
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are all monotheistic religions.
Along with being Monotheistic, these three are Abrahamic and Semitic.
Abrahamic: Abrahamic religions (also Semitic religions) are the monotheistic faiths of West
Asian origin, emphasizing and tracing their common origin to Abraham or recognizing a
spiritual tradition identified with him.
Semitic: The word Semitic describes the people who came from the Middle East and their
languages. Arabs and Jews are both Semitic. Christianity is a Semitic religion because it
originated in the Middle East.
All monotheistic religions:

 Give extrinsic value
 Say that Man-over nature
 Anthropocentric
Page | 46
E.g.:
Islam: In Surah At-Tin it is mentioned,
“We have certainly created man in the best of stature;” (95:4)
Bible: New Testament: In Genesis, it says,

“Humans are superior to any other creation”
Judaism: Tawrat is “Torah” – based on 10 commandments

It is mentioned there, “humans are best creation”
B. Non-religious approach to the environment:
I. The Impact of Age of Reason

- Given by Bacon, Descartes and Leibnitz.
- Humans are superior to nature.
- It is because humans have rational thinking ability
- Anthropocentric
- Extrinsic value of nature.
II. The Impact of Technology

- Technology played an important and active role in the development of man’s
domination over nature.
- Environment deterioration due to the effects of technology can be found mainly in the
form of – pollution, depletion of natural resources and overpopulation.
- Anthropocentric.
- Extrinsic value of nature
III. The Impact of Darwinism

- Maintaining balance and harmony amongst human and nature.
- His theory of evolution provided a basis for the reconsideration of man’s place in
nature.
- Non-anthropocentric.
- Intrinsic.
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Approach of Environmental Ethics:
1. The Land Ethic
- Aldo Leopold, an American ecologist, in his book, “A Sand County Almanac” discussed
about land ethic.
- In his concept of “Land Ethic”, humans are considered as part and parcel of a wider
community which he called, “Biotic community”.
- Biotic community is an enlarged consisting of living species, all the members of the
ecological system, including water, air, and soil or collectively – the Land.
- Non-anthropocentric and intrinsic.
Leopold summed his Land Ethic theory as:
“A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, beauty of the biotic
community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise”.
Leopold also observes:
“The land ethic simply enlarges the boundaries of the community to include soils, waters and
plants and animals, or collectively, the land”.
(This is also the definition of Biotic Community.)
A Land ethic is a philosophy that seeks to guide the actions when humans use or make changes
to the land. The term was coined by Aldo Leopold (1887–1948) in his book A Sand County
Almanac (1949). He considers human as a part of a wider community which consist of not only
living species but also all members of the ecological system, including water, air and soil. The
significant feature of this theory is non-anthropocentric morality.
2. Deep Ecology
- Libertarian extension: Environment Centered.

- Ecology refers to the science of the interrelationships among organisms and their
environment.
- The term was coined by “Arne Naess”, a Norwegian philosopher.
- It says, we can use the environment but cannot pollute it.
- It talks about maintaining richness and diversity of the ecology.
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Principles of Deep Ecology:

I. The well-being and flourishing of human and non-human life on earth has value in
themselves (intrinsic value). These values are independent of the usefulness of the non-
human world for human purposes.
II. Richness and diversity of life forms contribute to the realization of these values and are
also values in themselves.
III. Humans have the right to reduce the richness and diversity except to satisfy their vital
needs.
Deep Ecology is a holistic approach to facing world problems that brings together thinking,
feeling, spirituality and action. It involves moving beyond the individualism of Western culture
towards also seeing ourselves as part of the earth. This leads to a deeper connection with life,
where ecology is not just seen as something 'out there', but something we are part of and
have a role to play in. It’s also non-anthropocentric morality.
3. The Value of Wilderness

- Under the influence of Leopold, William Godfrey-Smith, an Australian philosopher,
rejected the Western tradition of anthropocentric morality.
- Because it is inadequate to provide a satisfactory basis for ecological obligation.
- In his essay, “The Value of Wilderness”, he calls for the development of an ecologically
based morality, which recognizes the intrinsic value of the natural systems.
- In short, he talks about valuing nature.
He explains wilderness as:

“… Any reasonably large tract of the Earth together with its plant and animal communities,
which is substantially unmodified by humans and in particular by human technology.”
He asserts:
“The holistic conception of the natural world contains, in my view, the possibility of extending
the idea of community beyond human society.”
Wilderness is that land which was a wild land beyond the frontier land which shaped the
growth of our nation and the character of its people. Wilderness is the land which is rare, wild
places where we can retreat from civilization; reconnect with the Earth; and find healing,
meaning, and significance.
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To keep this note short, the following contents are not described. The following pages
(these pages are from RS 41’s HUM 103 course book) from the book will help you get
a thorough understanding of the following topics:
 Duty to future generation (page.179)

 The need for Environmental Ethics (page.180)
 Critical Evaluation (page.182-183)
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Chapter 10
Ethical Dilemmas
Ethical Dilemma
An ethical dilemma is one in which a person has to choose between two options, both of
which are morally correct but in conflict. Ethics and morals are inseparable. They both deal
with questions of right and wrong. What constitutes ethical behavior is determined by societal
or cultural norms. What constitutes moral behavior is up to the individual to decide based on
his own sense of right and wrong.
OR,
An Ethical Dilemma is any situation in which guiding moral principle cannot determine which
course of action is right or wrong.
Types of Dilemma:
1. Right vs. Right – Ethical Dilemma

- Where both the decisions in the situation is right or moral. We are between choosing
either of them because we do not know which is best.
2. Right vs. Wrong – Moral Temptation

- It is where one of the decision is right and the other is wrong. You must choose the right
choice in case studies.
Sometimes we face many problems in our life which we often avoid or often accept to fight
with. Some of such problems can include both the right decisions or one right and another
wrong. In such case, right versus right dilemmas are more complex than right versus wrong
ones. For example, right versus right dilemmas can be-
- It is right to honor a woman’s right to make decisions affecting her body – and also right
to protect the lives of the unborn.
The really tough choices, do not, center upon right versus wrong. They involve right vs. right.
They are genuine dilemmas precisely because each side is firmly rooted in one of our basic,
core values. Four such dilemmas are so common to our experiences that they stand as models,
patterns, or paradigms.
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They are:
 Truth versus Loyalty
Truth: It is simply to tell the truth whatever the situation is.
Loyalty: It is to stay loyal to someone or something by not breaking the rules or going against
oneself.
For example, in some cases, lying is allowed.
 Individual versus Community
Individual: Only one person benefits through the choice.
Community: A whole community or group of people benefits the choice.
 Short-term versus Long-term
Short-term: The choice is lived short term benefiting the person. This follows utilitarianism.
Long-term: This choice will have an effect in the long term. This also follows utilitarianism.
 Justice versus Mercy
Justice: The choice will be is to be just.
Mercy: It is to let go, giving one person another chance. This brings happiness.
These paradigms are known to be dilemma paradigms because they express more
complex ideas than their names indicate. For example- law versus love or equity versus
compassion etc. are kind of justice versus mercy.
How Do You Analyze Ethical Dilemmas?

To analyze dilemmas and to make sure they fit into the four paradigms mentioned above,
there are three ways:
1. It helps us cut through mystery, complexity, and confusion – assuring us that, however
elaborate and multifaceted, dilemmas can be reduced to common patterns. And, by doing so,
reminds that the particular dilemma that we are talking about is not some unique event
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created sui generis out of thin air and never before having happened to anyone in the
universe. It is, instead, an ultimately manageable problem, bearing strong resemblance to lots
of other problems and quite amenable to analysis.
2. It helps us strip away extraneous detail and get to the heart of the matter. Under this sort of
analysis, the fundamental fact that makes this an authentic dilemma – the clashing of core
moral values – stands out in bold relief. Looking at this clash, we can easily we can easily see
why we have a conflict: each value is right, and each appears to exclude the other.
3. It helps us separate right-versus-wrong from right-versus-right. The more we work with true
ethical dilemmas, the more we realize that they fall rather naturally into these paradigms. So,
any situation that fits one or more of the paradigms must in fact be an issue of right vs. right.
But what about those situations that strike us as ethical conundrums but resist every effort to
fit themselves into the paradigms? Usually there’s a simple reason they don’t fit: They turn out
to be right-versus-wrong issues. Any attempt to make them square with one of these four
patterns typically mires itself in frustration. While one side immediately appears right, the
other side doesn’t. Why? Because there’s nothing right about it: It’s wrong. In this way, the
litmus of the paradigms helps us spot the difference between ethical dilemmas and moral
temptations.
Principles Required For Decision-Making When Resolving A Dilemma:

In order to analyze a dilemma – even to fit it into the above paradigms- is not only to resolve
it. Resolution requires us to choose which side is the nearest right for the circumstances. And
that requires some principles for decision-making.
The following principles are particularly useful in helping us think through right-versus-right
issues. They are drawn from the traditions of moral philosophy. They are:
 Ends-based thinking
Known to philosophers as utilitarianism, this principle is best known by the maxim: “Do
whatever produces the greatest good for the greatest number”. It demands of us a kind of
cost-benefit analysis, determining who will be hurt and who helped and measuring the
intensity of that help. It is the staple of public policy debate: most legislation, these days, is
crafted with this utilitarian test in mind.
The core idea of this principle is an assessment of consequences. Philosophers typically refer
to utilitarianism as a form of consequentialism or more precisely, as a teleological principle.
From the Greek word teleos meaning “end” or “issue”. Why? Because you cannot determine
the “greatest good” without speculating on probable futures. Hence the “ends-based” label:
Page | 53
 Utilitarianism examines possible results and picks the one that produces the most
blessing over the greatest range.
 Rule-based thinking
Often associated with the name of the German philosopher, Immanuel Kant, this principle is
best known by what Kant called as “categorical imperative”. Kant put it in this way: “Act only
on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a
universal law.”
That simple means, “Follow only the principle that you want everyone else to follow”.
In other words, act in such a way that your actions could become a universal standard that
others ought to obey. Ask yourself, “If everyone in the world followed the rule of action I am
following, would that create the greatest good or the greatest “worth of character”?
This mode of thinking stands directly opposed to utilitarianism. Arguing that consequentialism
is hopelessly flawed – how, after all, can we ever imagine we know the entire consequences of
our actions? – The rule-based thinker pleads for acting only in accord with fixed rules. Never
mind outcomes: stick to your principles and let the consequential chips fall where they may.
Based firmly on duty - on what we ought to do, rather than what we think might work – it is
known among philosophers as deontological thinking, from the Greek word deon, meaning
“obligation” or “duty”.
 Care-based thinking
Putting love for others first, this third principle comes into play most frequently in the Golden
Rule: Do to others what you would like them to do to you. It partakes of a feature known to
philosophers as reversibility. In other words, it asks you to test your actions by putting yourself
in another’s shoes and imagining how it would feel if you were the recipient, rather than the
perpetrator of your actions. Often associated with Christianity, it is in fact so universal that it
appears at the center of every one of the world’s greatest religious teachings. While some
philosophers (including Kant) have disputed its standing as a practical principle, it is for many
people the only rule of ethics they know, deserving consideration for the moral glue it has
provided over the centuries.
For further reading and detailed understanding of this chapter go through page 208 to 212
(these pages are from the RS 41 HUM 103 course book) of the book.
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Paradigm: It is the way of thinking.

- Paradigm shift is the shift of mentality or thought.

To form a habit, the following 3 are required:

Creating a habit requires work in all three dimensions.

The Maturity Continuum

- Dependence is the level where a person depends so much to others

Stephen Covey has described maturity in 3 stages:

- Maturity Continuum is the process of moving from dependency to

Principles of Personal Vision

Circle of Concern/ Circle of Influence

 Working in a Circle of Concern, we empower the things within it to control us.

Habit 2 – Begin with the end in mind: Principles of Personal Leadership

- Most effective way is to develop a personal mission statement or

1. Values sit at the center of our Circle of Influence.

Habit 3 – Put first thing first: Principles of Personal Management

Habit 3 is the practical fulfillment of Habit 1 and 2.

Quadrant 1 Quadrant 2 (Proactive)

Urgent and Important Not Urgent but Important

Urgent but not Important Not Urgent and not

Quadrant 1 - Urgent and Important

Quadrant 2 – Not urgent but Important (Proactive)

Quadrant 3 – Urgent but Not Important

Quadrant 4 – Not urgent and not important

Habit 4 – Think Win-Win: Principles of Interpersonal Leadership

There are six paradigms of Human Interaction. They are:

Habit 5 – Seek first to understand, then to be understood

Principles of Empathic Communication

Principles of creative cooperation

 It is essence of Principle-Centered Leadership.

Habit 7 –Sharpen the Saw

Principles of Balanced Self-Renewal

There are Four Dimensions of Renewal:

 Nicomachean ethics – Aristotle’s book.

We can say, Eudaimonia is:

Eudaimon life is successful life.

One aim of Nicomachean ethics is to illuminate the pursuit of eudaimonia.

Prerequisite for Eudaimon life is –

1. Certain amount of money

The Function of Human Being:

Virtue is a feature of one’s character. It is true, when:

Here, Modesty is the midpoint, also known as the Golden Mean.

- The midpoint is not always fixed, it changes according to current situations.

- Virtuous action is always a mean of a kind that would be chosen by a person of

- When choosing “Rational Virtuous Activity”, we have to use our personal

The Golden Mean:

There are 4 components of ethics:

Fundamental characteristics of moral behavior:

Two dimension of morality:

Morality and law

Morality and religion

Morality and Etiquette

There are two school of thoughts:

 Teleological stresses consequences

According to consequentialist theories, one may be morally obligated to engage in certain

Non-consequentialist or deontological theories maintain that rightness, wrongness and

There are 5 elements of Culture:

It plays a vital role in the development, elaboration and transmission of culture.

 Value is the criteria to judge between good and bad.

Some propositions of cultural relativists:

- It is a theory of the nature of morality.