Training and Education in Professional Psychology

© 2020 American Psychological Association 2021, Vol. 15, No. 4, 323– 330
ISSN: 1931-3918 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tep0000353

The Fallacy of “Good Training Experiences”: The Need to Protect

Psychology Trainees From Harassment and the Imperative of
Multiculturally Competent Supervision

Martha M. Bautista-Biddle Lila M. Pereira

University of Denver New York Medical College

Stephanie N. Williams
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Palo Alto University

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The supervisory relationship is a catalyst of learning for trainees attending graduate programs in psychology.
This article uses vignettes to depict the experiences of three trainees whose physical protection and/or
emotional well-being was deprioritized by their supervisors, to support the notion of “good training experi-
ences.” These examples show how trainees’ experiences of gender-based harassment, sexual identity-based
microaggressions, and racial insensitivity can impact the supervisory relationship, treatment of clients, and
professional development of the trainee if handled incorrectly. The authors highlight the role of professional
ethics, workplace protections, and the importance of diversity within the supervisory relationship. The authors
use their personal experiences as well as literature to describe the specific supervisory needs of female,
LGBTQ⫹, and Black trainees. Recommendations are discussed to promote individual and systemic changes
that could be implemented by supervisors and psychology graduate training programs to better meet the needs
and development of diverse graduate psychology trainees.

Public Significance Statement

This article highlights how supervisors and psychology graduate programs can best attune to the
developmental needs of psychology trainees navigating difficult clinical training experiences that unearth
issues of race, gender, and sexuality. It outlines approaches taken by supervisors that can be unhelpful, or
even harmful, to trainees’ growth. It recommends supervisory practices that prioritize trainees’ develop-
mental level as well as their rights to physical protection and emotional well-being. The authors cite
literature related to professional ethics, discrimination, and multiculturally competent supervision.

Keywords: supervision, diversity, race, gender, sexuality

Supervision of doctoral-level psychology students, or “train-
ees,” is both legally required and ethically mandated. It is through
supervision that trainees develop their clinical skills, strengthen
their professional identity, and solidify their confidence as clini-
cians. The authors understand that it is beneficial for trainees to
gain experience with difficult cases while in a supportive academic
and supervisory environment (Adams, 2010; Falender & Shafran-
ske, 2012; Knafo, Keisner, & Fiammenghi, 2015). These devel-
opmentally challenging cases paired with developmentally appro-
priate support are distinct from the category of experiences
discussed in this article. The authors define the focus of this article
with the colloquial phrase “good training experiences.” The term
good training experiences is used in a tongue-in-cheek manner to
reflect the fallacy in labeling such experiences as good or positive,

This article was published Online First October 19, 2020.
MARTHA M. BAUTISTA-BIDDLE received BA from Smith College
and is a fourth-year student in the PsyD program at The Graduate
School of Professional Psychology at The University of Denver.
Her research and professional interests include family systems, multi-
cultural psychology, psychological assessment, training and supervi-
sion.
LILA M. PEREIRA received her PhD from Palo Alto University. She is
a Pediatric Psychologist on the Pediatric Hematology/Oncology/Stem Cell
Transplantation service at Boston Children’s Health Physicians/Maria
Fareri Children’s Hospital in Valhalla, New York. Her research interests
include digital narratives of adolescent/young adult oncology patients and
peer support.
STEPHANIE N. WILLIAMS holds PhD from Palo Alto University. She is
currently a Forensic Psychologist at Santa Clara County Department of Health
and Hospital Services Adult Custody Mental Health. She specializes in suicide
risk, mental health treatment of people of Color, and forensic assessment.
THE AUTHORS HAVE NO conflicts of interest to disclose.
CORRESPONDENCE CONCERNING THIS ARTICLE should be addressed to
Martha M. Bautista-Biddle, Graduate School of Professional Psychol-
ogy, University of Denver, 2450 South Vine Street, Denver, CO 80210.
E-mail: mbautistabiddle@gmail.com

323
 324 BAUTISTA-BIDDLE, PEREIRA, AND WILLIAMS
when trainees may in fact be harmed when identity-based concerns
arise and those concerns are not met with adequate supervision and
support.
The authors use the phrase good training experiences to illustrate
how in their own personal experiences, highlighted by the following
vignettes, some supervisors prioritize ethically questionable clinical
experiences over trainee well-being. Good training experiences must
be remedied through competent supervision that affirms trainees’
identities and prioritizes trainees’ physical protection and emotional
well-being. This article will provide an overview of the importance of
quality supervision and its impact on trainees’ ability to navigate these
types of clinical and supervisory interactions. The authors cite rele-
vant literature, provide case examples, and offer developmentally and
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multiculturally aware options for trainees and supervisors to best
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
navigate these situations.
Supervision for the Development of Clinical Skills
Supervision is one of the most central teaching methods in
psychology programs (Holloway, 1992; Falender & Shafranske,
2012). There are a variety of models and styles of supervision,
which can be positive for student growth. However, this inconsis-
tency can result in a lack of formal training in best practices for
supervision (Peak, Nussbaum, & Tindell, 2002). While there has
been a shift in emphasis toward multiculturally competent super-
vision practices, this typically consists of learning how to best
serve diverse patients, as opposed to focusing on the needs of
diverse trainees (Constantine & Sue, 2007). Supervisors hold a
position of authority, serving as many trainees’ primary source of
reflection and guidance through their clinical development
(O’Donovan, Halford, & Walters, 2011). Many training programs
have in-house clinics that serve as practicum placements for train-
ees. These clinics often provide low-cost or sliding-scale services
to the community and have a strong focus on supervision and
training (Hatcher, Grus, & Wise, 2011). The cases within these
clinics are often complex and/or high-risk (Knafo et al., 2015).
Most supervisors strive to establish rapport with trainees to estab-
lish the norm of a space where trainees can discuss difficult and
uncomfortable clinical and professional situations that can arise
from serving high-need communities (Adams, 2010).
Supervision as Support for Trainee Well-Being
Part of fostering trainees’ professional development involves
supporting their emotional well-being both in and out of the
therapy room, as well as preventing burn-out. Psychology trainees
experience high levels of stress and concern about their capacity to
be effective clinicians (Scott, Pachana, & Sofronoff, 2011). It has
been shown that for many trainees, clinical work is a significant
stressor (Nelson, Dell’Oliver, Koch, & Buckler, 2001). Trainees
look to the supervisory relationship for both emotional and pro-
fessional support (Nelson et al., 2001). Supervisors are key figures
of support during challenging cases, and a goal of supervision in
psychology is to provide modeling of processing the difficult
emotions that arise for therapists (O’Donovan et al., 2011).
Supervisory Support for Marginalized Trainees
The supervisory relationship can be harmed by pushing students
into developmentally inappropriate territory involving identity-
based microaggressions and/or harassment, when not paired with
multiculturally competent supervision and support. Research indi-
cates that female psychologists experience gender-based sexual
harassment by patients (deMayo, 1997, 2000). When mental health
patients in inpatient environments are verbally aggressive, their
statements often include racist comments (Stewart & Bowers,
2013). While further research is needed to establish LGBTQ⫹
trainees’ experience with responding to patients’ homophobic re-
marks, there is evidence of patients discriminating against health
care providers due to sexual orientation (Cook, Griffith, Cohen,
Guyaft, & O’Brien, 1995; Riordan, 2004). Marginalized trainees
appear to be at risk of being confronted by potentially hostile
patients, in addition to lacking support from supervisors in how to
handle such situations. While this article focuses on female train-
ees, LGBTQ⫹ trainees, and Black trainees, there is evidence that
trainees with disabilities (Lund, Andrews, & Holt, 2014), trainees
who identify as other racial and ethnic minorities including Latinx,
Native American, and Asian American (Nilsson & Duan, 2007),
and international trainees (Mori, Inman, & Caskie, 2009; Qi,
Wang, Wu, & Luo, 2019) are likely to experience specific diffi-
culties within the supervisory relationship.
The APA Ethics Code and the Supervision of Trainees
The APA ethics code explicitly protects psychology graduate
students from harassment and discrimination both in working with
patients and within supervisory relationships. Supervisors are ad-
ditionally instructed to avoid harm or mistreatment of their super-
visees (American Psychological Association, 2002). It is the au-
thors’ experience that some trainees are expected to endure
harassment, microaggressions, and discrimination under the guise
of surviving a “good training experience.” This may be detrimental
to trainees’ professional development and emotional well-being,
especially if they are not receiving culturally competent supervi-
sion from supervisors. The American Psychological Association of
Graduate Students (APAGS) published a position paper on grad-
uate students’ rights that clearly states that psychology graduate
students have the right to work in an environment free of “intim-
idation, harassment, or discrimination based on one’s . . . sex,
gender identity, gender expression, sexual orientation . . . through-
out education, employment, and placement” (APAGS, 2015). De-
spite these protections, patients and supervisors may knowingly or
unknowingly engage in harassment, microaggressions, and dis-
crimination against marginalized trainees. To shed light on these
issues and ways supervisors may support trainees more effectively,
the authors present three vignettes that draw upon their own
experiences as trainees. These vignettes serve as examples of
negative real-world supervisory interactions and clarify situations
in which the supervisory experience of marginalized trainees may
be improved upon.
Vignettes
Vignette 1: When Patients Sexually Harass Trainees
Sexual harassment is not an uncommon occurrence for female
medical trainees, with incident rates ranging from 40% to 80%
across different professions (Kettl, Siberski, Hischmann, & Wood,
1993; Phillips & Schneider, 1993; Williams, de Seriere, & Bod-
 FALLACY OF “GOOD TRAINING EXPERIENCES”
dington, 1999). While the APA requires accredited graduate pro-
grams to provide sexual harassment training for all students, stu-
dents sometimes feel unprepared when they find themselves faced
with a personal violation in the workplace. In certain settings (e.g.,
forensic, inpatient psychiatric facilities, etc.), it may be more
common to be sexually harassed by patients, making competent
supervision around this topic especially important for trainees
working in these environments. The following vignette depicts a
discussion between a female trainee and a midcareer female su-
pervisor that arises due to a therapy session in which the female
trainee interacted with a patient whose behavior can be classified
as sexual harassment.
Trainee: Today my patient hit on me in session it was
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really uncomfortable.
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Supervisor: I can imagine. In primary care, we’re often
faced with uncomfortable scenarios, especially
because we are frontline care to a number of
behavioral and psychiatric disorders.
Trainee: I really wanted to say something to him, because
he was really inappropriate but I didn’t know
what to do. I was concerned about breaking
rapport with him and then he wouldn’t come
back for care in the outpatient clinic. What do
you normally do?
Supervisor: What exactly did he say?
Trainee: He made a number of comments about my body
and that he wished he could take me on a date.
He also asked me when I got off of work and if
he could wait around to meet with me at the end
of the day. He wouldn’t stop talking about it and
I had a difficult time ignoring his behavior and
redirecting him.
Supervisor: You’re right that it’s our job to be the face of
mental health care and somehow convince pa-
tients to come back for long term care; espe-
cially because there’s a good chance you will
not see this patient again (or at most, for another
session or two to bridge care until he can be
seen in the long-term clinic). I usually deflect
away from the comments and focus the session
back to the reason for the referral.
Trainee: I understand that I may not see him again, but
his behavior was pretty inappropriate. It was
definitely sexual harassment and as a medical
provider I’m having a hard time understanding
how that would be okay in this setting. I felt
very unsafe by how he kept pushing the issue. I
also wonder if he would say those kinds of
things to his general practitioner or a male ther-
apist. Is there nothing I can do in the moment to
address this type of behavior?
Supervisor: I know patients that have had security called on
them as a result of their behavior toward med-
ical staff. But regardless of the hospital policies
325
on harassment from patients, our clinic is pri-
marily a male population so this will not be the
only time this comes up. You’ll need to learn
how to deal with these kinds of comments, as
well as a number of other behaviors that come
up in primary care that you do not have time to
address. This is just a good example of needing
to learn to focus on one clinical issue at a time
when conducting an assessment. It’s good you
had this experience so early in your career. Now
you can learn from it and how to ignore it.
Another thing you can do is to be mindful of
what you wear. I always dress in neutral colors
and wear clothes that are at least a size too big
for me. Not to say that you dress unprofession-
ally, but maybe you should get some new
clothes for while you are here.
In Vignette 1, the trainee found herself in an uncomfortable
scenario related to sexual harassment by a patient. The supervisor
dismisses the trainee’s concerns, despite school and workplace
policies that should have protected the trainee from harassment.
The reason for the patient’s harassing behaviors is unstated and
such context is important and is a necessary part of the conversa-
tion. Regardless of the clinical context, the supervisor minimized
the trainee’s concerns and did not immediately offer tangible
support as to how the trainee should cope with the situation. When
support was finally offered due to repeated asking by the trainee,
the supervisor focused on the trainee’s appearance rather than the
patient’s behavior. A more developmentally aware reaction could
consist of appreciating and validating the trainee’s experience of
the interaction. Once the trainee’s emotional and physical well-
being is assured, the supervisor could then focus on how to best
respond to harassment in a therapeutic setting.
The APAGS Position Statement of Student Rights (APAGS,
2015), clearly states that students should be protected against
sexual harassment. In the case of this trainee, hospital policy
dictated that a patient’s behavior was grounds for removal from the
clinic. While it is unknown if sexual harassment is covered under
this policy, a prudent response by the supervisor could have been
to validate and reflect the trainee’s experience, collaboratively
research and clarify hospital policy with the trainee, and discuss
ways to implement this policy while balancing the importance of
the therapeutic bond for the patient and the student therapist. Such
a response could include discussion of the possibility of transfer-
ring the case to another therapist.
Vignette 2: When Trainees’ Experience Homophobia
LGBTQ⫹ issues have become increasingly discussed in the
context of multicultural competence in supervision. However, this
discussion often centers on how supervisors and clinicians can be
most helpful in serving LGBTQ⫹ patients, as opposed to directing
this lens toward the supervisor/supervisee relationship. While the
literature is sparse regarding psychologists’ and trainees’ experi-
ences with patients’ homophobic remarks, there is evidence re-
garding the experience of health care providers. A 1995 study
found that approximately 40% of health care providers surveyed
had experienced homophobic remarks made by both coworkers
and patients (Cook et al., 1995). There is evidence that lesbian,
 326 BAUTISTA-BIDDLE, PEREIRA, AND WILLIAMS
gay, and bisexual health care workers utilize complex strategies to
avoid discrimination by patients (Riordan, 2004). The following
vignette describes a discussion between a female trainee who
identifies as LGBTQ⫹ and an older adult male supervisor who
identifies as straight. The supervisor focused his responses on
protecting the patient, as opposed to validating the trainee’s con-
cern for her own emotional well-being.
Trainee: I wanted to bring up something that happened
this week in session. My patient, who does not
know that I identify as Queer, spoke at length
about his distrust and disgust toward Queer peo-
ple. He even said he wished homosexuals could
be weeded out of the population. It was a diffi-
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cult session for me and I didn’t say much, but
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afterward I felt horrible.
Supervisor: As a straight man, I have never experienced
anything like this. However, I am proud of you
for your ability to remain neutral and profes-
sional during such a difficult experience.
Trainee: I am unsure what to do, if I should come out to
my patient, or whether I want to work with this
patient anymore. I’m not sure if I can be helpful
to him when I feel so personally targeted and
offended.
Supervisor: If you were to reject this patient, it would be
detrimental to his treatment. You need to stick it
out, remain neutral, and not take this personally.
Trainee: I find it hard not to take his comments person-
ally as they often result in me feeling physically
unsafe, like he may hurt me, or if he knew how
I identify that he’d wish I was dead. It’s hard to
be neutral when he has also made other aggres-
sive comments toward me. I end up feeling
powerless. I have looked into my school’s ha-
rassment policy and I know this would qualify.
I’m not sure if working with this patient is an
effective learning environment for me. Is there
any way we could refer him to another
therapist?
Supervisor: Training cases are hard, and this case in partic-
ular will be very helpful for you to learn how to
work with patients who have different political
beliefs and personal values than you do. Be-
cause of that, I do not want you to stop seeing
him. It makes sense to feel powerless when
you’re a student. Nothing terrible is going to
happen, it is just words. Try not to be so reactive
to them and keep working through this.
In Vignette 2, the trainee explains that she feels physically
unsafe during sessions with this patient. The supervisor repeatedly
dismissed the trainee’s fears and encouraged her to continue to
work with the patient, despite her saying working with him results
in an ineffective learning environment. The supervisor does not
validate her concerns, and advises her to push through. By de-
scribing the patient’s discriminatory beliefs toward LGBTQ⫹
people as “values” and telling the supervisee not to take such
attacks personally, a microaggression occurs that labels the super-
visee’s identity as a choice. While it is positive that the supervisor
said that he lacks experience in dealing with this type of situation,
the supervisor did not communicate that he is seeking training on
multicultural competence, a communication of which could have
resulted in the trainee feeling more comfortable with the exchange
(Ancis & Marshall, 2010).
Given the severity of the patient’s comments, a serious discus-
sion could take place regarding the trainee’s developmental level,
emotional well-being, and ability to best serve the patient’s needs.
The patient’s statements could have been collaboratively analyzed
to ascertain actual risk, and the option of transferring the case to
another therapist could be explored (Viglianti, Oliverio, & Meeks,
2018). This would help to empower the supervisee to prioritize her
emotional well-being, protect herself from possible harm, and
learn a rarely taught skill in psychotherapy, how to best navigate
termination when therapist well-being is at risk (Kivisto, Berman,
Watson, Gruber, & Paul, 2015).
Vignette 3: When Black Trainees Face
Microaggressions
Systemic racism and discriminatory beliefs continue to impact
students of color in academia (Beoku-Betts, 2004; Johnson-Bailey
& Cervero, 2008; Slay, 2019). As the American Psychological
Association strives to support diversity, the field of psychology
continues to have significant difficulty appreciating racial dis-
course. This may be in part due to the level of anxiety and fear that
racial dialogue creates for White students and professors (Sue,
Rivera, Capodilupo, Lin, & Torino, 2010). Black students’ expe-
riences of discrimination in graduate school have been docu-
mented to include a general lack of racial understanding, negative
differential treatment, color-blindness, and a singular focus on
White mental health and research (Constantine & Sue, 2007;
McDowell, 2004; Shouhayib, 2015). These experiences of micro-
aggressions at the personal and institutionalized level further iso-
late the small numbers of Black students and professionals in the
field. Fewer than 7% of psychology trainees and 4% of practicing
psychologists identify as Black or of African descent (American
Psychological Association, 2017; Norcross & Karpiak, 2012).
Given that all trainees are required to participate in supervision as
a part of their graduate programs, Black students are often placed
in precarious situations that can be easily overlooked by White
supervisors (Constantine & Sue, 2007). In this final vignette, a
Black female student expresses her training concerns regarding the
lack of cultural sensitivity her peers display. Her White female
supervisor responds to her concerns with statements of invalida-
tion and microaggressions.
Trainee: I need some help. I’m noticing that when other
interns are going through the interview ques-
tions with patients; when they ask about race
and class it can be kind of touchy.
Supervisor: How so, can you give me examples?
Trainee: When we were interviewing this Black inmate,
one of the other interns became shocked that the
inmate grew up in a two-parent home with a
 FALLACY OF “GOOD TRAINING EXPERIENCES”
middle-class background. When adding that to
the context of race it can be offensive to some
people and show signs of bias.
Supervisor: Well maybe the inmate was overly sensitive; I
mean he is just an inmate. But I will look into it.
And while we are discussing some issues: It was
brought to my attention that people feel you’re
aloof.
Trainee: Aloof?
Supervisor: Yeah, like unapproachable. People have men-
tioned that they are afraid to deal with you? Or
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find you very opinionated?
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Trainee: Okay. Can you give me examples? I mean I am
always professional and try to engage with all
staff and interns equally.
Supervisor: Well, it’s a feeling. I mean sometimes I even
find it hard to communicate with you. You seem
distant. Maybe you should shift your body lan-
guage or smile more to seem more approach-
able. This is a big part of becoming a profes-
sional in the field and as your supervisor I want
to make sure you are successful long-term.
Trainee: Now that I think about it, I may have noticed
this unconsciously. When in group supervision I
had difficulty talking about the inmate I men-
tioned previously. It can be hard to advocate for
the needs of our inmates without appearing as
the stereotype of the “angry black woman.” This
is something I have experienced in other pro-
fessional settings as well. As I said, I do my best
to be respectful and friendly toward everyone
and I wonder if despite those efforts some of
this racial bias is being placed on to me as well?
Is there another supervisor here who is also
Black, who I could speak to about this to gain
some additional mentorship in this area?
Supervisor: I cannot say whether other’s interactions toward
you are biased or not. I know my advice is
geared toward helping you as a professional and
has nothing to do with race. I’m not sure how
speaking to another supervisor about this would
help, considering the concern is about your ap-
proachability. I feel that we can continue to
discuss that here without the help of someone
else.
In Vignette 3, the Black trainee experiences two very distinct
and difficult situations that are typical for students of color. The
trainee is carrying the weight of being the “expert” on issues of
race, while also shouldering the daily stressors of systemic racism
(Sue et al., 2007). By not addressing the trainee’s concerns, the
supervisor suggests that the trainee’s concerns are unimportant.
The supervisor also displays an us-versus-them mentality by la-
beling the patient as “just an inmate” and attempting to join with
the trainee as a “fellow woman.” The supervisor then questions the
327
trainee’s professionalism, where instead of providing practical
advice, the supervisor places judgment on the trainees’ attitude.
This is not an uncommon experience for Black trainees (Constan-
tine & Sue, 2007). These judgments are then expounded on by the
supervisor with the recommendation that the trainee change her
demeanor to make others feel more comfortable. The overall
interaction between the supervisor and supervisee places the
trainee in a dilemma where she must make a choice of either
educating her supervisor on issues of diversity, while putting
herself at risk for further microaggressions or retaliation, or avoid-
ing these issues to protect the supervisory relationship.
The supervisor could have addressed the situation using Sue,
Lin, Torino, Capodilupo, and Rivera’s (2009) recommendations
regarding reactions to difficult discussions around race and train-
ing. White supervisors should acknowledge their own emotions,
disclose personal challenges and fears, and create a necessary
space to talk about race (Sue et al., 2009). The supervisor could
have validated the trainee’s concerns. This would have facilitated
a conversation on why this topic was important to the trainee, how
the trainee’s learning is being impacted, and how the trainee would
have liked the situation to have been handled. Allowing space for
the trainee to share her concerns would further allow the trainee to
address the issues surrounding the negative narrative of Black
women in the workplace (Doharty, 2020).
Discussion
The vignettes outlined above illustrate three separate examples
where a trainee’s physical safety and/or emotional well-being was
sacrificed in response to their participation in a good training
experience. In all three vignettes, trainees are harmed first by the
good training experience, and second by their supervisors’ han-
dling of the situation. These vignettes illustrate how female, LG-
BTQ⫹, and Black trainees would benefit from more developmen-
tally and multiculturally aware supervision, as well as structural
support from their institutions. The vignettes are specific examples
that represent a wider field of experiences where some psychology
trainees have felt discriminated against due to identity-based ha-
rassment and microaggressions both from patients and supervisors
(Lund et al., 2014; Mori et al., 2009; Nilsson & Duan, 2017; Qi et
al., 2019; Satterly & Dyson, 2008). There is evidence that trainees
who face repeated microaggressions within the supervisory rela-
tionship are actively harmed by this experience, taking a toll on
their ability to best serve their patients, as well as on their ability
to participate actively in their education (Constantine & Sue,
2007).
Trainees depend on their supervisors for support in the areas of
personal and professional development. There is evidence that
some trainees experience a lack of support from their supervisors,
and some experience their supervisory experiences as negative
(Nelson & Friedlander, 2001; Rummell, 2015; Yamada, Cappado-
cia, & Pepler, 2014). Improper supervision can result from trainees
feeling uncomfortable disclosing their level of stress, or fully
explaining difficult clinical situations to their supervisors (Rum-
mell, 2015). Supervision quality is additionally impacted when
supervisors are unwilling to identify and explore their own role in
conflicts in the supervisory relationship (Nelson & Friedlander,
2001). Improper supervision becomes abusive when supervisors
use their authority to belittle trainees in a passive–aggressive or
 328 BAUTISTA-BIDDLE, PEREIRA, AND WILLIAMS
threatening way. Female trainees are more likely to report such
bullying by supervisors (Yamada et al., 2014). While most super-
visors provide adequate supervision, striving to maintain therapeu-
tic rapport, as is seen in the vignettes, should not take precedence
over protecting diverse trainees from harassment (Phillips & Sch-
neider, 1993). When a “good training experience” results in the
trainee being harassed, supervisors should use their authority to
help the trainee feel empowered to make ethical clinical decisions.
Much of the literature addressing diversity puts the onus on
minority-identified students to be proactive (APAGS, 2010).
This may not always be appropriate due to power differentials
inherent in the supervisory relationship. Supervisors should
therefore attempt to lead in diversity, and strive to obtain
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specific training both in general supervision and in working
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with minority trainees (Foo Kune & Rodolfa, 2013; Mori et al.,
2009). Additionally, there should be systemic safety nets in
place where supervisors are regularly assessed for multicultural
and generally supervision competency to avoid improper super-
vision of trainees.
Recommendations
An integrative developmental model of supervision is a benefi-
cial starting point for supervisors who want to support trainees
through good training experiences (Stoltenberg & Delworth,
2004). Developmental supervision models have received support
for efficacy in helping trainees navigate identity-based concerns
(Chang, Hays, & Shoffner, 2004; Moe, Perera-Diltz, & Sepulveda,
2014). A developmental model of supervision that considers the
racial identity development of both the supervisor and the trainee
would be most applicable to diverse supervisory dyads. Regardless
of the supervisor’s held identities, identity-based concerns may
arise (Ancis & Marshall, 2010; Jernigan, Green, Helms, Perez-
Gualdron, & Henze, 2010). Power differentials within the super-
visory relationship should be addressed, as identity-based concerns
can be exacerbated by the power differential inherent in the su-
pervisory relationship (Yamada et al., 2014). An ideal supervision
model could involve aspects of developmental models, feminist
models, and multicultural models of supervision.
A helpful touchstone for integration may be found in a 2018
position paper in The Lancet that focused on female medical
trainees who faced gender-based harassment from patients (Vigli-
anti et al., 2018). The article outlines that the first question asked
of a trainee facing identity-based harassment from a patient should
be “do you feel safe?” If a trainee does feel safe, and is not at risk
of physical or emotional harm, it is appropriate to then spend time
communicating professional boundaries and expectations. If a
trainee believes that their physical safety or emotional well-being
is being threatened, they should be empowered to remove them-
selves from the room promptly, obtain help and support from their
supervisor, and in certain cases, transfer the patient to a more
acceptable therapist (Viglianti et al., 2018). This premise, while
developed for sexual harassment of female trainees, is applicable
to many marginalized psychology trainees and highlights the need
to take a developmental, feminist, and multiculturally aware ap-
proach. Supervisors must protect trainees and ensure all Good
Training Experiences are paired with supervision that emphasizes
trainee development and well-being while being mindful of power
differentials in the supervisory relationship.
Further actions that can be taken by supervisors to proactively
deal with these problems and strengthen the supervisory relation-
ship include those highlighted by Grassetti, Pereira, Hernandez,
and Fritzges-White (2019). This article puts forward self-
disclosure, flexibility, and corrective feedback as powerful tools to
support marginalized trainees. By speaking openly about the
power differentials within a supervisory relationship and being
affirming as opposed to silencing of trainees’ identities, supervi-
sors can both protect the supervisee from discrimination and utilize
such occurrences as a learning opportunity (Moe et al., 2014). For
further explanation, supervisors should refer to existing literature
that outlines necessary components of developmental, feminist,
and multicultural supervision models as they apply to trainees with
marginalized identities (Arczynski & Morrow, 2017; Falender,
Burnes, & Ellis, 2013; Foo Kune & Rodolfa, 2013; Soheilian,
Inman, Klinger, Isenberg, & Kulp, 2014; Sue et al., 2010).
Along with supervisors striving to be proactive in issues of race,
there must be clear rules and guidelines implemented at the na-
tional, state, and organizational level. Supervisors have varying
degrees of competence and understanding of issues of diversity.
Although supervisors may have developed skills in treating diverse
patients, these skills do not necessarily translate to the supervisory
relationship, especially when personal biases may exist (Constan-
tine & Sue, 2007). Explicit, system-wise training in the supervision
of diverse trainees, including self-reflection and identification of
personal biases as well as continued consultation to manage these
biases, should be required to protect the professional and personal
development of trainees (Constantine & Sue, 2007). National and
site-level policies must be reexamined and enforced across all
training settings to ensure that marginalized trainees are supported.
Additionally, peer support and mentorship opportunities should be
made available to trainees (Grassetti et al., 2019). Lastly, academic
advisors and directors of clinical training should be aware of
possible identity-based harassment issues their students may face
and create an environment where students can report harassment
without repercussions. Adequate support will help trainees collab-
orate with supervisors to determine the best course of action for
their patients. It is the authors’ hope that in the future, good
training experiences will truly be positive for trainees, whereby
supervisors and graduate programs balance trainees’ need for
challenging clinical experiences with adequate support, and prior-
itize multicultural competencies within the supervisory relation-
ship.
Future Directions and Conclusions
Most research on multiculturally competent supervision focuses
on how clinicians can best serve diverse patients, as opposed to
directing this lens toward minority psychology graduate students,
supervisors, and psychologists in general (Constantine & Sue,
2007). More research is needed to further substantiate the authors’
belief that an emphasis on clinical and supervisory experiences
involving identity-based microaggressions, paired with a lack of
supervisory and systemic support, is a widespread issue in psy-
chology training programs. Further literature identifying the needs
of marginalized trainees and creating policy and intervention
guidelines that support trainees’ professional development in a
culturally competent way would be beneficial in supporting the
education of marginalized trainees. Such research and literature
 FALLACY OF “GOOD TRAINING EXPERIENCES”
would not only benefit diverse trainees’ experiences, but would
also benefit their patients (Constantine & Sue, 2007). It is the
responsibility of the supervisor to ensure that they take active steps
to become allies to marginalized groups, and strive to provide
multiculturally competent and developmentally appropriate super-
vision.
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Received November 11, 2019
Revision received August 7, 2020
Accepted September 2, 2020 䡲