Energy Sources, Part A, 31:1694–1699, 2009

Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ISSN: 1556-7036 print/1556-7230 online
DOI: 10.1080/15567030802094060

Sustainable Charcoal Production and

Charcoal Briquetting

A. DEMIRBAS1
1
Sila Science, Trabzon, Turkey

Abstract A sustainable energy system includes energy efficiency, energy reliability,

energy flexibility, fuel poverty, and environmental impacts. A sustainable biofuel has
two favorable properties which are availability from renewable raw material, and its
lower negative environmental impact than that of fossil fuels. Charcoal is produced
by slow heating wood (carbonization) in airtight ovens or retorts, in chambers with
various gases, or in kilns supplied with limited and controlled amounts of air. The
charcoal yield decreased gradually from 42.6 to 30.7% for the hazelnut shell and
from 35.6 to 22.7% for the beech wood with an increase of temperature from 550 to
1,150 K while the charcoal yield from the lignin content decreased sharply from 42.5
to 21.7% until it was at 850 K during the carbonization procedures. The charcoal
yield decreases as the temperature increases. The ignition temperature of charcoal
increases as the carbonization temperature increases. The charcoal briquettes that
are sold on the commercial market are typically made from a binder and filler.

Keywords biomass, briquetting, charcoal, modern biomass, sustainable production

Introduction
In general, a sustainable energy system includes energy efficiency, energy reliability,
energy flexibility, energy development and continuity, combined heat and power or
cogeneration, fuel poverty, and environmental impacts. A sustainable energy system can
be defined also by comparing the performance of different energy systems in terms
of sustainability indicators (Alanne and Sari, 2006). Because, by definition, sustainable
energy systems must support both human and ecosystem health over the long term, goals
on tolerable emissions should look well into the future. They should also take into account
the public’s tendency to demand more (UNDP, 2000).
The term “modern biomass” is generally used to describe traditional biomass use
through the efficient and clean combustion technologies and sustained supply of biomass
resources, environmentally sound and competitive fuels, and heat and electricity using
modern conversion technologies. Modern biomass can be used for the generation of
electricity and heat.
In reference to wood, pyrolysis processes are alternately referred to as carboniza-
tion, wood distillation, or destructive distillation processes (Demirbas and Gullu, 1998).
Charcoal is produced by slow heating wood (carbonization) in airtight ovens or retorts,
in chambers with various gases, or in kilns supplied with limited and controlled amounts
of air. In the kiln, heat converts wood to charcoal in the drying and the coaling stages. As

Address correspondence to Professor Ayhan Demirbas, P. K. 216, TR-61035 Trabzon, Turkey.

E-mail: ayhandemirbas@hotmail.com

1694
 Charcoal Production and Briquetting 1695

generally accepted, carbonization refers to processes in which the char is the principal
product of interest (wood distillation, the liquid; destructive distillation, both char and
liquid) (Goldstein, 1981). At the usual carbonization temperature of about 675 K, char
represents the largest component in wood decomposition products. Typical charcoal
contains approximately 80% carbon, 1–3% ash, and 12–15% volatile components (Wenzl,
1970).
The yield of charcoal depends on execution temperature, heating rate, and carboniza-
tion efficiency. In the carbonization process (very slow pyrolysis), considerable amounts
of carbon in wood material is gone into the air. The carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emission from
charcoal production must be reduced.
Charcoal is the solid carbon-rich residue following the very slow pyrolysis (car-
bonization or destructive distillation) of carbonaceous raw materials. Charcoal is a very
stable substance (Glaser et al., 2002; Ogawa, 2003). Charcoal carbonized under lower
temperature was more stable under the higher concentration of ozone in the air (Ogawa,
2003). Charcoal can hold pure carbon inside it for a long time and plays a role as a
carbon sink.

Sustainable Charcoal Production

The flow diagram for sustainable charcoal production is presented in Figure 1. Under
the sustainable charcoal production, the aim is to minimize material and energy losses
at all stages. It is well known that the presence of alkaline cations in biomass affect the
mechanism of thermal decomposition during fast pyrolysis causing primarily fragmenta-
tion of the monomers making up the natural polymer chains rather than the predominant
depolymerization that occurs in their absence. Wood extractives consist of vegetable oils
and valuable chemicals. The vegetable can be converted to biodiesel by transesterification
with methanol (Demirbas, 2008). The need for increased supplies of charcoal produced

Figure 1. Flow diagram for sustainable charcoal production.

1696 A. Demirbas

from improved and efficient pyrolytic processes is urgent. Recovery of acetic acid and
methanol by-products from pyrolysis was initially responsible for stimulating the charcoal
industry. It was shown that hot water washing alone was able to remove a major amount
of the alkaline cations (potassium and calcium mainly) from wood (Scott et al., 2000).
The wood is then converted into charcoal using improved and efficient kilns after which
proper handling is ensured during packaging, storage, and transportation to minimize
waste. There are various environmental and socioeconomic benefits associated with each
stage in the process.
Main parts of sustainable charcoal production are managed production including
additional cost in terms of labor, time and money, feedstock costs, management plans, or
improved kilns and stoves. The sustainable charcoal production and marketing is better
for the environment in the medium. The energy system commonly consists of energy
resources and production, security, conversion, use, distribution, and consumption.
Charcoal is manufactured in kilns and retorts. Kilns and retorts generally can be
classified as either batch or continuous multiple charcoal manufacturing systems. The
continuous multiple systems are more commonly used than are batch systems.
The elemental composition of char, and its properties, depends on final carbonization
temperatures. At increased temperatures, the carbon content increases dramatically. The
yield, water absorbency, and hydrogen content decreases rapidly as the carbonization
temperature increases. The yield is so low at higher temperatures so the production of
charcoal at these temperatures is only of theoretical interest (Demirbas, 1999, 2001a).
Table 1 shows the elementary compositions and yields of charcoals from hazelnut shell in
relation to the carbonization temperature and their higher heating value (HHV) (Demirbas,
1999). Table 2 shows the yields of gas, char, tar, and condensed liquid from the biomass
samples at carbonization temperatures (Demirbas, 2001b).
The feasibility of charcoal production from cotton stalks was studied (Onaji and
Siemons, 1993). The many plant options were the most attractive using drum kilns for
carbonization. The process has been found technically feasible, and would be financially
viable if management, organization, and marketing were improved.

Table 1
Elementary compositions and yields of charcoals from hazelnut shell in relation
to the carbonization temperature and their HHVs

Elementary
composition, %
Carbonization
temperature, K C H O Yield, % HHV, MJ/kg

295 to 470 53.3 6.1 40.6 90.8 19.8

295 to 550 75.0 5.5 19.5 42.6 28.7
295 to 650 82.3 3.6 14.1 38.1 29.1
295 to 750 88.4 2.4 8.6 35.0 29.7
295 to 850 92.5 1.9 6.0 32.2 31.0
295 to 950 94.3 1.5 4.2 31.1 31.5
295 to 1,050 95.7 1.3 3.1 30.7 32.0
Source: Demirbas, 1999.
 Charcoal Production and Briquetting 1697

Table 2
Yields of gas, char, tar, and condensed liquid from the biomass samples
at carbonization temperatures

Temperature, K 550 650 750 850 950 1,050 1,150

Spruce wood
Char 38.3 32.6 29.4 27.8 26.1 25.7 25.4
Gas 19.2 20.2 24.9 35.8 56.5 59.1 66.7
Liquid 34.3 37.8 38.5 29.0 12.6 12.8 6.4
Tar 10.2 9.4 7.2 7.4 4.8 2.4 1.5
Beech wood
Char 35.6 29.7 26.2 24.7 23.6 23.0 22.7
Gas 18.0 22.3 25.4 37.3 59.1 62.5 69.8
Liquid 36.2 38.4 40.4 40.9 13.0 12.3 6.2
Tar 10.2 9.6 8.0 7.1 4.3 2.2 1.3
Hazelnut shell
Char 42.6 38.4 34.8 32.5 31.3 30.9 30.7
Gas 17.8 26.2 30.6 36.5 51.8 53.5 53.8
Liquid 27.9 28.5 29.0 20.6 16.3 16.0 15.5
Tar 11.7 10.5 7.6 8.5 3.6 2.4 1.7
Source: Demirbas, 2001b.

Besides its primary use as a heating agent, charcoal can also be used as a purifying
agent. In special manufacturing processes, activated charcoal can be produced. This
substance can have a surface area of 300 to 2,000 square meters. It is used for filtering
chemicals and odors from water, sugar, and the air (Demirbas, 2001a).
Charcoal is very important for developing nations, as well as for us. It is important
to learn methods for maximizing its potential, since such a large amount of raw materials
is needed for its production. Charcoal is a premium fuel that is widely used in many
developing countries to meet household needs as well as a variety of other needs. Charcoal
can be readily produced from wood with no capital investment in equipment through the
use of charcoal piles, earth kilns, or pit kilns. As the names of these processes suggest,
hardwood is carefully stacked in a mound or pit around a central air channel, then covered
with dirt, humus, moss, clay, or sod (Demirbas, 2001a).

Charcoal Briquetting
Briquette charcoal can be made from sawdust by carbonization and then briquetting
processes (Demirbas, 2001). The briquetting of charcoal improves and provides more
efficient use of biomass-based energy resources such as wood and agricultural wastes
(Demirbas and Yazici, 2000; Demirbas et al., 2006).
The charcoal briquettes that are sold on the commercial market are typically made
from a binder and filler. The charcoal is crushed into fines and passed through a variety of
screens to make sure the particle size is small enough. A binder, typically starch, is added
to the fines, as well as water. Starch is preferred over other alternatives (wax and wood
pitch) because of its economical price and availability. As the material flows to the mixer,
metered amounts of about 5% of binder (potato or corn starch) with water are added.
1698 A. Demirbas

Figure 2. Flow diagram for charcoal briquette production.

Charcoal compromises 75% of the briquette mixture, while water and starch compose
20% and 5%, respectively (Moscowitz, 1978). Figure 2 depicts the flow diagram for
charcoal briquette production. The press for briquetting must be well designed, strongly
built and capable of agglomerating the mixture of charcoal and binder sufficiently for it
to be handled through the drying process.
Manufacturing of briquettes from raw material may be either an integral part of a
charcoal producing facility or an independent operation, with charcoal being received as a
raw material. Briquettes are a processed biomass fuel that can be burned as an alternative
to wood or charcoal for heat energy. Often they are used for cooking (Demirbas and
Demirbas, 2009).
Wood has very low sulfur content and so does charcoal. Continuous production of
charcoal is more amenable to emission control than batch production because emission
composition and flow rate are relatively constant. Briquette also improves health by
providing a cleaner burning fuel. If coaling temperatures are too low, excessive amounts
of volatiles will remain in the charcoal and cause heavy smoke when it burns.

Conclusion
Charcoal can be made from small, chipped pieces of wood to large logs. It generally
takes 5 tons of wood to produce 1 ton of charcoal. Charcoal has many advantages in
 Charcoal Production and Briquetting 1699

industrial use over other heating agents. Charcoal has:

 a low sulfur content
 a high carbon to ash ratio
 relatively few and unreactive inorganic impurities
 a specific pore structure with a large surface area
 little smoke discharge
Briquetting requires a binder to be mixed with the charcoal fines, a press to form
the mixture into a cake or briquette, which is then passed through a drying oven to cure.
The binders which have been tried are many but, as stated, the most common effective
binder is starch. About 4–8% of starch made into paste with hot water is adequate.
Charcoal fines have a much lower purity than lump charcoal. The cost of briquetting
mainly depends on the cost of the fine charcoal, the cost of the binder and costs of
packing and transportation.

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