Make Believe - Wikipedia

27/7/22, 11:31 μ.μ.
Make believe - Wikipedia
Make believe
Make believe, also known as pretend play, is a loosely structured form of play that generally
includes role-play, object substitution and nonliteral behavior.[1] What separates play from other
daily activities is its fun and creative aspect rather than being an action performed for the sake of
survival or necessity.[2] Children engage in make believe for a number of reasons. It provides the
child with a safe setting to express fears and desires.[3] When children participate in pretend play,
they are integrating and strengthening previously acquired knowledge.[1] Children who have better
pretense and fantasy abilities also show better social competence, cognitive capabilities, and an
ability to take the perspective of others.[2] In order for the activity to be referred to as pretend play,
the individual must be intentionally diverting from reality. The individual must be aware of the
contrast between the real situation and the make believe situation.[2] If the child believes that the
make believe situation is reality, then they are misinterpreting the situation rather than
pretending. Pretend may or may not include action, depending on whether the child chooses to
project their imagination onto reality or not.[4]
Contents
History
Critical period
Components
Role-play
Nonliteral actions
Toys and props
Substitution
Doll play
Influencing factors
Adult intervention
Gender roles
Family structure
Scripts
Social and cognitive development
Theory of mind
Counterfactual reasoning
Autistic spectrum disorder
Executive function
Learning and knowledge acquisition
Emotions
Prior knowledge
Credibility and trust
See also
References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make_believe 1/10
27/7/22, 11:31 μ.μ. Make believe - Wikipedia
History
The interest in pretend play advanced through three significant stages, though it has likely existed
since the dawn of humanity, as children tend to do this naturally on their own, without coercion,
or needing a term to describe what they are doing. The initial stage was during the 1920s and
1930s when research in play had gained popularity. During this time, there were little or no
empirical findings specifically about pretend play. A revival of interest starting in the late 1940s
signified the second stage. The new mission was to find how pretend play related to the developing
personality of a child. A common hypothesis during this period was that pretend behavior
projected a child's inner feelings and reflected their experiences in their everyday lives. The most
recent stage, which persists until today, began in the 1970s. Research in this stage is greatly
influenced by Jean Piaget's studies and theories, either in terms of finding evidence to support it or
to falsify it. Despite the cultural jargon on the issue, the history of playing make believe may
indeed have originated at the dawn on consciousness, itself.[1]
Critical period
The act of pretending is believed to be inbuilt because it occurs universally and begins promptly
between the ages of 18–24 months (Lillard, Pinkham & Smith, 2011)
. The prevalence and
frequency of pretense increases between 1 and a half to 2 and a half years of age.[1] The first stage
of pretense generally starts with object substitution. By 3 years, a child can easily distinguish
between real life events and pretense.[4] Children within 3 to 6 years, who have acclimated to
pretend play, show an increase in interactive pretend play.[1] This means that they participate in
self-other relations, giving the doll a more active role (e.g., driving a car) instead of a passive
recipient role (e.g., being fed).[1] At the age of three, children's pretense remains close to their real
life experiences. A three-year-old girl may pretend that she and her mother are going grocery
shopping. In this case, both her role in the relationship and the activity she is taking part in are
literal.[1] There is then an increase in the mastery of role play within the ages of 4 and 5 years.[1]
During the fifth year, the child shows ability to incorporate forms of relationships into their play.[1]
They are no longer limited to the role of child, instead, they can be a parent or a spouse, or expand
further by adopting the role of members in society such as policemen, doctors and so forth.[1]
Components
Role-play
When children participate in social role enactment, or role-play, they are portraying the identity or
certain traits of another individual.[1] This includes representing both external and internal
qualities.[2] When a child role-plays alongside one or more other individuals, they are engaging in
an activity called sociodramatic play. Sociodramatic play emerges at around three years, and
sometimes earlier for children who have older siblings. During its early stage, it follows a very
strict script, sticks closely to existing roles and includes more parallel play than interactive play. By
the age of 5, children begin to deviate from the strict roles and scripts. They start to integrate more
imagination into their roles and build off of their partner's creations.[2]
Role play exists in three forms. Relational role-play, usually the first to emerge, is based on
relationships that the child observes or experiences. Such relationships include mother and child,
father and child, husband and wife, etc. Functional role-play emphasizes on the jobs and actions
that the character usually performs. Character role play portrays the character's stereotypical
features usually determined by society's representation of them.[2]
Pretend play allows for children in low socio-economic

backgrounds not to miss out on important developmental
milestones, as all a child needs to pretend is their own
imagination. Skills that would otherwise require being fostered
by educational toys may be developed through pretend play
since it is not limited by the child's financial background.
Complex forms of role-play involve the ability of the child to

represent another individual's mental representation. This skill
appears when a child is around 5 years of age. This strengthens
the child's social ability by allowing him/her to take another
individual's perspective and can therefore understand and
cooperate with others.[2]
Girl pretending to take a stroll with a

doll.
Nonliteral actions
Five recurring behaviors in pretend play that indicate its nonliteral aspect will be explained. The
first behavior is the tendency of performing a task without the presence of a necessary instrument,
such as pretending to make a call without using an actual phone. The second behavior is
substitution, in that the child might use a block rather than a telephone to make a phone call. The
third behavior, discussed in the section above, is when a child takes the role of another individual
and performs their usual actions, such as pretending to be a firefighter and extinguishing a fire.
The fourth behavior is when a certain action results in an unrealistic outcome, such as a child
pretending to clean the room by simply snapping a finger. The fifth behavior will be discussed in
depth in the following section and it involves giving an inanimate object, such as a doll, animate
qualities, such as talking and drinking tea.[1]
It is important for a child to always understand that pretense is isolated from the real world. This
means that the child must understand the nonliteral aspect of pretend play and understand that
the changes made during pretend play are temporary. Children must be aware that once the play
session ends, the nonliteral aspects of pretend play such as role taking and substituted objects also
cease to exist.[4] One form of pretend play that has been of interestto whom? is the creation of
imaginary companions. Imaginary companions can be entirely in the child's imagination or they
can be based on a doll or stuffed toy that portrays animate qualities. About one to two-thirds of
children under 7 years of age have an imaginary companion that later diminishes as the child
ages.[4] The significance of this form of pretend play has not yet been determined; however, there
have been some speculations that it supports children's fledgling social skills.
Toys and props
In a study by Welsch, children provided with props showed sophisticated levels of play.[5] In
pretend play, any object in the child's surroundings can be used as a prop.
Substitution
Any object can be integrated into pretend play as a representation of another object. This kind of
representation is referred to as substitution. The ability to substitute one object for another
emerges when a child is about 2 years old.[2] In early instances of substitution, children are only
capable of substituting objects that either have a similar structure or a similar function.[2] For
example, a child can pretend that a pen is a toothbrush, or that a television remote is a telephone.
A pen has roughly the same shape as a toothbrush, while the remote has buttons that function
similarly to a telephone. Around the age of 3, the child begins to master substitution and no longer
needs physical or functional similarity between the actual object and the substitute.[2] The child
also becomes capable of substitution without the use of a concrete object, thus depending solely on
imagination[4] (e.g. putting their palm to their ear and having a conversation, indicating a phone
call). The ability to hold more than one substitution at a time also increases, meaning that the
child can pretend to be on the phone, walking a dog, and sipping juice all at once.[2]
There are two types of substitutions. Symbolic substitution is when one object is used to represent
another, such as when a coach uses sticks to represent players in a game plan. Hypothetical
substitution is when one object is used "as-if" it actually is another object, such as the previous
example of imagining that a pen functions as a toothbrush.[2]
Doll play
Pretense with dolls begins when a child extends pretend self

actions to a doll. A child might start by pretending to feed
themselves, then reach out and pretend to be feeding a doll.
This is further developed when a child begins giving the doll an
active role rather than a passive one.[1] For example, the doll
doesn't just eat when fed by the child, instead, the child
pretends that the doll reaches for the spoon and feeds itself.
After the doll is given an active role, the child begins to bestow
upon it sensory and emotional attributes, such as feeling sad,
happy, or hurt.[2] The highest form of doll play appears when a
child is about 3 and a half years of age. At this point, the child
is capable of giving the doll cognitive abilities.[2]
A distinguishing feature between doll play and social play,

which includes more than one child, is the degree of control a
child has. When participating in doll play, the child has full
control over the situation.[2]
A boy pretending to nurse his doll.
Influencing factors
Pretend play is universal, in that it appears in many or all cultures.[6] However, some cultures tend
to disapprove it and believe that it is a form of communication with spirits or devils.[6] These
different views tend to impact the amount of time dedicated to pretend play and the themes that
children interact with.[6] Yet, although many cultures discourage pretend play, its unavoidable
emergence indicates that it develops from internal cognitive abilities rather than from the external
environment or observed learning.
Adult intervention
Gender roles
Sex-typed play is generally established between the ages of 4 to 9 years.[1] During this age, girls
often take domestic and realistic roles, while, boys often lean more towards fantastical and
physically active roles.[1] The degree to which these roles are expressed has been linked to the
attitudes of the parents. Children of parents who encourage sex roles and disapprove cross-sex
references show more instances of sex-typed play.[1] Although the parents' attitudes are the most
influential, other adult role models such as teachers and family members can also reinforce gender
play.
Family structure
Levels of imagination are closely related to a child's familial environment. Issues such as marital
conflict and physical forms of discipline create anxiety and tension in the child's life. These have
been linked to reduced occurrence of play behaviors and low levels of imagination.[1]
On the other hand, strong and encouraging relationships between the children and their parents,
specifically fathers, are linked to higher rates of play and imaginative pretense.[1] When parents
introduce pretend play to their children at an early age, the children begin to imitate their actions
and create their own pretense scenarios.[4] Children also become more capable of identifying
social signals, such as eye contact and referential pointing.[4]
Scripts
Participants in games of make believe may draw upon many sources for inspiration. Welsch
describes book-related pretend play, wherein children draw upon texts to initiate games.[5]
Children seem most interested in texts with, for example, significant levels of tension.[5] Children
who use more fantastical pretense themes tend to understand the concept of pretense at an earlier
stage.[4] Although stories and acting inspire creativity in pretend play, long durations of television
exposure has been associated with lower levels of imagination.[1]
Social and cognitive development

The presence of a relationship between pretend play and the following cognitive and social skills
suggests that pretend play may have a causal effect. Current research attempts to investigate how
pretend play can be used to develop and improve performances in theory of mind tasks, reasoning
skills, and how it can be used as an intervention method, especially for children with autism. Most
research emphasizes on the preschool period since this age group shows the greatest emergence
and development in pretend play and the following social and cognitive skills. Research on
preschool children also seek to integrate pretend play as a teaching method.
Theory of mind
Pretend play encompasses several abilities that coincide with theory of mind. The first two abilities
relate to object representation. The child has the ability to mentally represent one object as
another. The child also has the ability to understand the paradox, in which the object can represent
another, but in essence remains the same object.[2] This means that the child is required to hold
two contradicting mental representations of the same object. In 3 year olds, this cognitive ability is
evident in pretend play but not in other activities.[2] For example, the child can pretend that a pen
is a toothbrush, but when shown an apple-shaped soap bar, the child is unable to comprehend the
real and apparent features of the object. This inability is referred to as mutual exclusivity bias.[2]
However, development of pretend play has been found to correlate with performances in the
previous example along with performances in the false-belief task, which also tests a child's
understanding of mental representations.[2] Children begin to pass the false belief task at around
the age of 4.[2]
The third ability is related to social representation, in which

the child is able to represent another individual's mental
representations, such as desires, thoughts, and feelings. This
ability appears when a child is about 5 years old.[2] It enables
the child to take the perspective of others and strengthens their
understanding of others' thoughts and beliefs.[2] By this age,
children are aware of the subjectivity of pretense. The ability of
perspective taking is also central in an individual's ability to
cooperate and work with others. This is a complex
representation skill because it requires the child to have a
representation of a representation. The child also needs to
keep in mind that the representation they are holding is not
their own. When a child engages in role play, they are engaging Children pretend to play at
in simulation in which they are putting themselves in the lightsaber combat.
character's mental state.[4]
Another ability, joint attention, is related to social referencing. Both theory of mind and pretense
require a certain degree of interacting and communicating with others. Joint attention includes
the ability to follow another individual's referential pointing, eye gaze, or view point. When
children participate in pretend play with other individuals they are required to share the same
pretend presuppositions of the object and situation as the other individual.[4] For example, when
pretending to take a road trip, both children are expected to know that the chairs they sit on
represent car seats. Children show more instances of joint attention in pretend play than they do
in other non-symbolic play activities.[4]
Counterfactual reasoning
Counterfactual thinking is the ability to conceptualize alternative outcomes to the same situation.
Studies support that children between 4 and 6 years of age are better capable of conceptualizing
alternative outcomes when the situation is unrealistic or is set in a pretend context.[2] Children
also perform better when the situation presented is open ended. When the situation already has an
outcome, the child finds it difficult to conceptualize an alternative.[6] A similar factor between
counterfactual reasoning and pretend play is that they both deal with situations that divert from
actual events.[6]
Autistic spectrum disorder
Individuals with autism exhibit large delays in pretend play. This delay correlates with their
inability to pass false belief tasks at 4 years of age.[4] Another delay found in children with autism
is language delay. This language delay has been associated with pretend play, such that children
with autism who engage in pretend play have more advanced language skills.[4]
Executive function
Executive function refers to a specific set of cognitive operations that encompasses inhibitory
control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Inhibitory control has been particularly
associated with pretend play, especially during play that involves substitution of objects such as
pretending a stick is a sword. Usually the child's ability to inhibit the real identity of an object in
order to treat it with its pretend identity varies with age[7] and what attributes the child needs to
ignore, form and/or function.[8] Overall, prior research has shown that pretend play activities can
improve a child's executive function, but whether the act of pretending or some other part of the
activity such as practice inventing a story or building a fortress is responsible is still an open
question.[9]
Learning and knowledge acquisition

Pretend play is not only associated with developing general cognitive abilities[9] and reinforcing
existing knowledge,[1] but recent research has been investigating how children learn new
knowledge during pretend play.[10] While children do not invent new knowledge on their own,
when pretending with others, children make judgements about the generalizability of unknown
information introduced by others in the pretend context. These judgements affect the degree to
which children believe the information is applicable and reflective of the real world. There are a
number of factors known to influence these judgements including the fantastical themes employed
in the pretend world as well as the credibility of the other play participants.
Emotions
By the age of three, children are generally able to distinguish fantasy and pretense from reality, but
there are a number of reasons why children might confuse the two.[11] In some cases, it appears as
though children are unable to regulate their emotions, especially fear, and this leads to what may
seem like confusion between reality and pretense, such as monsters hiding in their toy bin.[12]
Negative emotions such as fear and anger also seem to have a negative effect on children's
tendency to believe an event is either possibly real or fantasy and either more or less likely to
actually happen in reality.[13]
Prior knowledge
From ages as early as 15 months, children demonstrate both an understanding of pretense and
expectations of reality being reflected in pretense.[14] At times, pretend play may involve animals,
objects, or places that the child knows little or nothing about, and any information about these
subjects that is introduced during the pretend play is readily associated with the subject.[8]
However, when the child has some knowledge about the subject of pretense, like being familiar
with the behavior of lions, and new information is introduced that is contrary to their knowledge,
such as lions only eat animal crackers, they are less likely to learn this information as being
generally true of lions outside of the pretend play context and may even be resistant to the premise
in pretense as well.[10] In fact, the extent to which a pretend context is more or less connected to
reality, such as how realistic the task is or whether the characters are people the child may
encounter, influences how likely the child is to learn generalizations from the pretend play.[15]
Credibility and trust
Children do not treat all new information equally, and in fact a number of situational and source
specific factors influence how likely children are to believe information is true or applicable to
reality as is the case in pretend play. When playing with an adult, children display a general
tendency to trust the truthfulness of information,[16] though the extent to which it conflicts with
what they already know or believe will still influence the extent they will generalize the
information to reality.[10] However, over multiple sessions playing with a person, how reliable or
accurate information from that person has been in the past will have a proportional influence on
how likely the child will believe new information.[17] Also other attributes the adult or peer may
influence the child's judgements. Children have been shown to be sensitive to socio-economic cues
and differences.[18] Children also look at the informant's stance relative to a perceived group,
whether that be the group involved in play or a larger social group that the child identifies with,
and will show a bias towards information coming from a less conflicting stance with the
majority.[19] Overall children, while biased to trust adults, still apply rational judgements to new
information introduced during pretend play that influences their tendency to believe how much
that information generalizes to reality.
See also
Parallel play
Theory of mind
Play (activity)
Role-playing
Play therapy
Joint attention
Metarepresentation
Imaginary friend
Counterfactual thinking
Mutual exclusivity (psychology)
Developmental psychology
Autism spectrum
Early childhood
Early childhood education
Early childhood intervention
Storytelling game
References
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The influence of props and adult involvement on at-risk preschoolers' book-related pretend
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Palmquist, Carolyn M. (2013-01-01). "The impact of pretend play on children's development: A
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Make believe - Wikipedia

Pretend play allows for children in low socio-economic

Complex forms of role-play involve the ability of the child to

Girl pretending to take a stroll with a

Toys and props

Pretense with dolls begins when a child extends pretend self

A distinguishing feature between doll play and social play,

Social and cognitive development

The third ability is related to social representation, in which

Autistic spectrum disorder

Learning and knowledge acquisition

Credibility and trust

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Make_believe&oldid=1092923005"

This page was last edited on 13 June 2022, at 13:14 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

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