SECTION 1

INTRODUCTION TO VIBRATION
 INTRODUCTION
Of all the parameters that you can measure in
industry today, the vibration signature
contains the most information about
mechanical condition.
 WHAT IS VIBRATION?
Vibration is the movement of a body about its reference
position

Example 1: a shaft in a sleeve bearing machine moving about the

centerline of the sleeve.

Example 2: a bearing housing moving back and forth on its

pedestal
Vibration occurs because of an excitation force that causes
motion.
 X = time
Y = amplitude

If you examine vertical motion of a bearing pedestal over

time, you might see a sine wave
Definition of Frequency: the frequency of a given event is the inverse of its period.
The period of time, T, from the vertical “set mark’ line to the cursor is DTIM
(recorded at the lower right of the plot above):

DTIM = 22.46 mS = 0.02246 seconds

Therefore:

1 1
F= = = 44.5 Hz = 2671 CPM
T 0.02246
 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
Page 1 of 1

From the crest with the set mark to the peak with the cursor, the measured
displacement changes from 1.902 mils below the rest position to 1.917 mils above.
The total displacement of 1.902 + 1.917 = 3.819 mils or 0.003819 inches. The time
required for this movement is 11.72 msec or 0.0117 seconds. Therefore, you can
calculate the average velocity during this interval with the following equation:
V= displacement = 0.003819 = 0.326 in / sec
time 0.0117
DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
(page 2 of 2)
When you perform a Fast Fourier Transform on the waveform
shown on the previous page, the spectrum above results. Note
that the amplitude of the primary peak above matches the peak-
to-peak amplitude of the waveform. You can imagine that the
spectrum has been rotated 90o from the waveform. It’ as though
the time axis comes out of the page toward you.
The waveform above is more complicated than those shown on
the preceding pages. This waveform shows obvious modulation.
The time interval is 252 mS (0.252 sec) between large peaks. Find
the frequency of this modulation by dividing 1 by the interval:

F = 1 = 1 = 3.969 Hz
T 0.252
This time waveform is identical to the one on the preceding page.
The time interval marked, however, now shows 31.25 mS (0.03125
sec) between peaks. Once again, find the frequency of this
modulation by dividing 1 by the interval:

F=1= 1 = 32.00 Hz
T 0.03125
The marked frequency corresponds to the longer of the two periods shown on the
preceding pages. The longer period is 252 mS, corresponding to a frequency of
3.969 Hz--very close to 3.939 Hz shown at the lower right of the spectral plot
above. 3.939 Hz approximates the difference in frequency between sine waves
occurring at 27.94 Hz and 31.88 Hz.

The difference in the frequency of the two sine waves causes a beat frequency or
modulation to occur. You can easily see the frequency of these two sine waves in
this spectrum, but you cannot easily determine them from the time waveform.
Spectral analysis, therefore, is superior for determining accurate frequencies for
complex vibration signals. The time waveform, however, proves superior for
examining beat frequencies and impacts.
T = period of waveform: the time (in seconds) required for one cycle of vibration to occur.
F= frequency of vibration= 1/T: the number of complete cycles of vibration that occur in one
second.

Peak-to-peak displacement: described by the change in the vertical axis between points
B & D; represents the total space occupied by the vibrating system being measured.
Peak velocity: occurs at points A, C & E; represents the maximum velocity attained by
the shaft or housing.
Maximum acceleration: occurs at points B & D; measures the force required to change
the upward motion of the shaft or housing to a downward motion. You usually measure
acceleration in RMS units, because the RMS measurement gives the best indication of
the energy level of a signal.
 MEASUREMENTS OF AMPLITUDE

PK = 0 TO A (Peak)
P-P = 2.0 X A [or A to -A] (Peak-to-Peak)
RMS = 0.707 x PK (Root Mean Square)
PK = 1.414 x RMS
Avg = 0.637 x PK

Note: The conversions above are true only for sine waves
 VIBRATION MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS

Amplitude (Disp, Vel, Acc)

(Magnitude)

Frequency (Hz, CPM, Orders)

(Period)

Phase Angle (Degrees, Radians)

AMPLITUDE UNITS

Displacement = mils (PK-PK) or microns

Velocity = in / sec (PK) or mm / sec

Acceleration = G’s (RMS)

 DIGITAL AMPLITUDE CONVERSION FORMULAS

definition: Amplitude is a measure of the energy or movement of a vibration

object. You can express amplitude as Peak (PK), Peak-of-Peak (P-P or PK-PK),
Average (A), or Root Mean Square (RMS).

RMS = 0.707 Peak

Average = 0.637 Peak
P-P = 2 . Peak
PK = 1.414 . RMS

You can convert amplitude data from one sensor or measurement type to another
using the formulas shown below. Assign the following values to the variables:

A = Acceleration in g’s (in/sec2) -- RMS

V = Velocity in in/sec -- peak
D = Displacement in mils -- Peak-to-Peak
II = 3.1416
G = Gravitational constant 386 in/sec2
F = Frequency in Hz
FOR SINE WAVES, YOU CAN NOW MAKE THE FOLLOWING
CONVERSIONS:

1. V = 0.0031416 * f * D

2. A = 0.01146 * V * f

3. A = 0.00003613 * D * F2

4. V = 86.75 * A
f

5. D = 318.47 * V
f

6. D = 27,668 * A
f2
 RELATIONSHIP AMONG
DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY & ACCELERATION

RELATIONSHIP OF THE VIBRATION PARAMETERS VS FREQUENCY

The shaded area on the figure above indicates normal operating

speed range for industrial machines.
 ANALOG OVERALL VALUES
(page 1 of 3)

The value underlined in the upper right hand corner of the plot
above is the RMS value. It resembles the value that you would
measure with an AC voltmeter.
 ANALOG OVERALL VALUES
(page 2 of 3)

The peak value (underlined in the upper right hand

corner of the plot above) is the RMS value multiplied
by 1.4141. This value is referred to as an RMS peak
value.
 ANALOG OVERALL VALUES
(page 3 of 3)

The peak-to-peak value (underlined in the upper right hand corner of the plot
above) is the RMS value multiplied by 2.828. This value is referred to as an
RMS peak-to-peak value. Note that the True peak-to-peak value exceeds 0.8
mils. Therefore, remember that RMS peak-to peak values do not equal True
peak-to-peak values! Pure sine waves are the only exception to this rule.
 ANALOG OVERALL VALUES

You calculate an analog overall measurement -- commonly referred to as an

unfiltered reading -- form the time waveform. Because the amplitude is in RMS
units, this value is similar to that read by a volt-ohm meter. You find the peak
overall by multiplying the RMS value by 1.414. You find the peak-to-peak overall
by multiplying the RMS value by 2.828. These readings, which are not true peak or
true peak-to-peak readings, are made with meters such as the IRD 350, IRD 880,
BAL-MAC 216 and PMC-BETA 208. These meters also perform integration in the
time domain. Meters that make true peak and true peak-to-peak readings must
capture them with peak detection circuitry. Although measured from the time
waveform, true peak values do not represent RMS values. The CSI Model
2110/2115 Machinery Analyzer and some Bently -Nevada equipment have this as an
optional measurement mode.
 DIGITAL OVERALL VALUES
(page 1 of 3)

This spectral plot shows the RMS value (underlined in the upper right hand
corner of the plot). It does not resemble the value that you would measure with
an AC voltmeter. The RMS value is calculated by mathematically totaling the
energy of each line of the spectrum.
Note that this spectrum and those on the next pages are identical. The frequency
scale remains the same. The overall value, however, varies from plot to plot
because of how the value is calculated. The amplitude scale also changes
accordingly.
 DIGITAL OVERALL VALUES
(page 2 of 3)

The peak value (underlined in the upper right hand corner of the plot above) is
the spectral RMS value multiplied by 1.4141. This value is referred to as an
RMS peak value.
 DIGITAL OVERALL VALUES
(page 3 of 3)

The peak-to-peak value (underlined in the upper right hand corner of the plot
above) is the spectral RMS value multiplied by 2.828. This value is referred to
as an RMS peak-to-peak value.
 PHASE RELATIONSHIPS
(page 1 of 2)

The heavy spot on disk A is 180o out of phase with the heavy spot on disk B
 PHASE RELATIONSHIPS
(page 2 of 2)

The heavy spot on disk C passes by the transducer 270o after the phototach is
triggered. 270o is the “phase lag” of the system. Most digital analyzers
measure phase in this manner.
 REVIEW OF DEFINITIONS
Displacement: the distance of a structure from either its
reference or at rest position; e.g., the true centerline position
of a journal bearing; normal units measured in mils peak-to-
peak or mm peak-to-peak.

Velocity: the change in displacement amplitude with respect

to time; in other words, the rate at which displacement
changes; industrial standards measured in inches per second
peak or mm per second RMS.

Acceleration: the change in velocity with respect to time (the

rate at which velocity changes); for any object, acceleration is
directly proportional to the force acting on the object; normal
units measured in g’s RMS.
 REVIEW OF DEFINITIONS
Frequency: the number of cycles of a given event that occurs
in unit time; normal units are Hz of CPM; Hz (Hertz)
specifies the number of cycles or events every second; CPM
(cycles per minute) specifies the number of cycles or events
every minute.

Phase: the interval between two events relative to a reference

or starting time; normally measured in degrees; CSI
equipment and software always refer to degrees of phase
lag,defined as the direction opposite shaft rotation measured
from a reference mark on the shaft.