Lecture Note On Mathematics For Social S

ADEOSUN S.A www.crescent-university.edu.
ng
L ECTURE N OTE
ON
MATHEMATICS FOR SOCIAL SCIENTISTS II

(MTS 108)
BY
ADEOSUN SAKIRU ABIODUN

E-mail: adeosunsakiru@gmail.com
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ADEOSUN S.A www.crescent-university.edu.ng
Course Outline
Functions and equations: Definition and types of functions, definition and types of
equations. Matrices. Introduction to statistical distribution and density functions,
especially the binomial, Poisson and normal. Introduction to calculus functions of the
variable and their continuity. Techniques of differentiation; logarithmic, trigonometric
and exponential functions. Integral calculus; Optimization of functions, maximal,
minimal and in flexional points, and the application of these concepts in Business
and Economics.
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§ 1.0 FUNCTIONS
Mathematical modeling is an attempt to describe some part of the real world
in mathematical terms. Our models will be functions that show the relationship
between two or more variables. These variables will represent quantities that we
wish to understand or describe. We will begin by reviewing the basic concept of
functions. In short, we call any rule that assigns or corresponds to each element in
one set precisely one element in another set a function.
Definition of a function: A function from to is a rule that assigns to each

element in one and only one (unique) element = ( ) in .
The set in the definition is called the domain of f. We might think of the
domain as the set of inputs. We then think of the values ( ) as outputs. The set of
all the possible outputs (set of functional), is called the range of f. The letter
representing elements in the domain is called the independent variable and the letter
representing elements in the range is called the dependent variable. Thus, if
= ( ), is the independent variable while is the dependent variable. Note that
= ( ) is read as “ is a function of ”.
Example 1: A restaurant serves a steak special for N500. Write a function that
models the amount of revenue made from selling these specials. How much revenue
will 15 steak specials earn?
Solution: We first need to decide if the independent variable is the price of the
steak specials, the number of specials sold, or the amount of revenue earned. Since
the price is fixed at N500 per special and revenue depends on the number of special
sold, we choose the independent variable, , to be the number of specials sold and
the dependent variable, = ( ) to be the amount of revenue.
∴ = = 500 . We note that must be a whole number, so the domain is
= 0,1,2, … . Hence, when selling 15 steak specials, = 15 = 500 15 = 7500. So
the revenue is N7500.
Example 2: If = 3
− 3 + 4, find the values of : (0), (−1), ( ), (3 ).
Solution: 0 = 03 − 3 0 + 4 = 4
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−1 = −1 3
− 3 −1 + 4 = 6
= 3
−3 +4
3 = 3 3
−3 3 + 4 = 27 3
−9 +4
+1
Example 3: If = 2+ −2
, determine
(a) the image of −1

(b) ( − 1)
(c) What values of will have no images for this function?
Solution: (a) The image of = −1 is (−1):
−1+1 0
−1 = −1 2 + −1 −2
=
−2
= 0. (Note = −1 is the zero for this function)
−1+1
(b) −1 = −1 2 + −1 −2
= 2− −2
+1 +1
(c) = = .
2+ −2 +2 −1
−1 2
When = −2, −2 = and when = 1, 1 = . And since division by 0 is
0 0
meaningless (undefined), therefore (−2) and (1) do not exist. Hence the values
= −2 and = 1 have no images for this function.
1
Example 4: Given the functions = 2
− 1, = 2 + 3 and = , find
(i) the domain and range of ( )

(ii) the range of ( )
(iii) ⃘ (called the composition function)
Solution: (i) The domain and range of ( ) is the set of all real numbers i.e ℝ.
(ii) Note that one way of determining the range is to express as a function of
; = ( ), then the range is the set of all real values of for which the function
is defined.
Solve for :
1
= define for all real numbers except when = 0. Therefore the range of ( )
is the set of real numbers when zero is deleted i.e. Rng h = ℝ\ 0 .

(iii) ⃘ = ( ) = 2 +3 2
−1=4 2
+ 12 + 8 .
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Different between a Function and an Equation

Function Equation
Let = = 2
− 3 − 10 = −5 + 2 . For example 2
− 3 − 10 = 0. An
This states the function. A function cannot be equation is solved to find its roots
solved but is used to find the images of . The which are the values of which
values of which make = 0 are called the satisfy the equation. The roots of
zeros of . The zeros of this function are this equation are = 5 or = −2.
= 5 and = −2.
Some important types of functions:

1. Linear function =2 −4
2. Quadratic function = 2
− + 12
−1
3. Polynomial function = + −1 + + 1 + 0
4. Trigonometric function = sin

5. Logarithmic function = log
6. Exponential function = 3 or
Many other functions will be defined by formula. For example, area, A, of a circle is a
function of radius r, as =� 2
, also Total value (T) = Price(P) × Quantity (Q) and
so on.
Exercise 1
1. Find the values stated for these functions:
(a) =3 −1; (0), (−1), (1)
2
(b) = + +1; (−1), (0), ( + 1)
(c) = 2
− −2; −1 , −12 , 0 , 1
2
(d) =
+1
; 0 , 1 , ( − 1)
2. Find the zeros of the following functions:

(a) = −2 (b) = +3 2
−1 2 +2 −15
(c) = (d) = 2 −1
+6
3. If = 3 + 2, what is the value of whose image is 5? If also given that

= 2 − 3 and + = 4, find the value of .
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+ − ( )
4. Given the function =2 2
− + 1, express in its simplest form.
§ 2.0 MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

2.1 Basic Concepts
A matrix is an array (enclosed between brackets) of real numbers arranged in
rows and columns. The matrix is then referred to as an by matrix or
( × ) matrix.
For example,
(a) = 1 2 3 is a 1 by 3 matrix.
2 4 1
(b) = is a 2 by 3 matrix
2 0 3
8 2
(c) = 4 5 is a 3 by 2 matrix
0 1
1 2 3
(d) = 4 5 6 is a 3 by 3 matrix.
7 8 9
Any by matrix is called a square matrix.
2.2 Types of Matrices

(I) Equal matrices: Two matrices and are said to be equal when
(i) The number of rows of = the number of rows of and
(ii) The number of columns of = the number of columns of B and
(iii) The entries in corresponding position are the same in both and .
For example:
3 1 3 1 2
1. If = and = , then ≠ .
2 2 2 2 0
2 0 3 4 0 6
1
2. = 3 1 0, = 6 2 0 , then
2
= since entries in
0 0 6 0 0 12
corresponding positions in both matrices are equal
(II) .Identity Matrix: A square matrix is said to be an identity matrix when each
entry on the leading diagonal of is unity and other entries off the leading
diagonal are zeros. For example, the following are identity matrices:
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1 0 0 0
1 0 0
1 0
1 0 , �4 = 0
I2 = , �3 = 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1
(III)Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix with zero entries off the leading diagonal is a
diagonal matrix provided the entries on the leading diagonal are non-zero. For
example,
4 0 0 0
3 0 0
= 0 6 0, = 0 5 0 0 are diagonal matrices.
0 0 9 0
0 0 9
0 0 0 2
(IV) Triangular Matrix

A matrix whose entries above or below the leading diagonal are zeros is
referred to as a triangular matrix. It is said to be upper triangular where all
entries below the leading diagonal are zeros. It is lower triangular when all
entries above the leading diagonal are zeros. Following are the two examples:
1 4 3 1 0 0
= 0 7 5 , = 3 6 0.
0 0 8 4 5 7
(V) The Transpose of a Matrix

A matrix is the transpose of if when the rows of are turned into columns,
1 3 5
the resulting matrix is the same as . For example, let = 9 6 3 , if the
2 1 4
rows of are now put into the columns of another matrix , we have
1 3 5
= 9 6 3 . Then is the transpose of . This is written as = .
2 1 4
(VI) Symmetric Matrix

A matrix is said to be symmetric if = . In other words, a matrix is
symmetric if the matrix and its transpose are the same. For example,
2 8 1
= 8 9 2 is such that = . Hence is a symmetric matrix.
1 2 3
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(VII) Skew Symmetric Matrix

A matrix is said to be skew symmetric if = − . We noted that this could
only be possible if all the leading diagonal entries of are zeros. For
0 1 −4 0 −1 4 0 −1 4
example, = −1 0 6 , = 1 0 −6 , − = 1 0 −6 .
4 −6 0 −4 6 0 −4 6 0
Observed that = − . Therefore, is a skew symmetric matrix.
(VIII) Zero Matrix or Null Matrix

0 0 0
A null matrix is a matrix with all its entries zero. For example, = 0 0 0 .
0 0 0
2.3 Basic Operations on Matrices

(a) Multiplication of a Matrix by a Constant (Scalar)
Let be a constant and a matrix. The matrix = , is obtained from by
multiplying each entry of by .
3 2 1 3 2 12 8 4
Example: If = , then = = when
1 4 5 4 5 4 16 20
= 4.
(b) Addition of Two Matrices

Let and be two matrices. The sum + exists only when the number
of rows of both matrices are the same, and the number of columns of both
matrices are also the same. That is, both matrices have the same order.
When + exists, then the sum is obtained by adding corresponding entries
of and and putting the sum in the corresponding positions of a new matrix
+ .
2 1 5 4
Example: Let = 4 7 ,= 4 1 . Then
9 1 2 3
2+5 1+4 7 5
+ = 4+4 7+1 = 8 8 .
9+2 1+3 11 4
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(c) Difference of Two Matrices

The difference of two matrices and which are of the same order is defined
as the sum of the two matrices and (− ) where – = −1 ∙ . Thus if
11 1 11 1
= ⋱ and = ⋱ then
1 1
11 − 11 1 − 1
− = ⋱ .
1− 1 −
5 2 1 6 1 −3
Example: If = and = , evaluate (i) − (ii)
3 8 7 9 7 5
4 −3 .
Solution:
5 − 6 2 − 1 1 − (−3) −1 1 4
− = = .
3−9 8−7 7−5 −6 1 2
20 − 18 8−3 4+9 2 5 13
4 −3 = = .
12 − 27 32 − 21 28 − 15 −15 11 13
Note: + = + , and − =− − ≠ − .
(d) Product of Two Matrices

Let and be two matrices. The condition that the product (in that order)
exists is that the number of columns of must be equal to the number of
rows of . When the product exists, then the entry in row and column
of is obtained as the scalar product of the entries in row of and those
11 12 11 12 13
in the column of . For instance, if = , = .
21 22 21 22 23
11 12 13
Let = = then the matrices and are comfortable for
21 22 23
11
product where 11 = 11 12 = 11 11 + 12 21
21
12
12 = 11 12 = 11 12 + 12 22
22
13
13 = 11 12 = 11 13 + 12 23
23
11
21 = 21 22 = 21 11 + 22 21
21
12
22 = 21 22 = 21 12 + 22 22
22
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13
23 = 21 22 = 21 13 + 22 23 .
23
Note: If is an × matrix and is an × matrix, then the product is

an × matrix.
Examples
6 1 4 2 4
1. If = 5 3 2 and = 8 6 , evaluate .
7 0 5 1 7
Solution
6 2 + 1 8 + 4 (1) 6 4 + 1 6 + 4 (7)
= 5 2 + 3 8 + 2 (1) 5 4 + 3 6 + 2 (7)
7 2 + 0 8 + 5 (1) 7 4 + 0 6 + 5 (7)
24 58
= 36 52 .
19 63
2 7 11 29
2. Find the value of and so that = .
−3 0 1 5 −6 9
Solution
2 7 2 +7 2 + 35 11 29
= =
−3 0 1 5 −3 −3 −6 9
⇒ 2 + 7 = 11, 2 + 35 = 29, − 3 = −6, − 3 = 9
⇒ = 2 and = −3.
2.4 Determinants
The determinant of a square matrix × is a specific number associated
with the matrix, and is usually denoted by or . The determinant may be
positive, negative or zero. A square matrix is called singular matrix if its
determinant = 0.
11 12
Given matrix = , can be obtained as
21 22
11 12 13
11 12
= = 11 22 − 12 21 . Also given a 3 × 3 matrix = 21 22 23 .
21 22
31 32 33
The determinant of is given by

11 12 13
= 21 22 23
31 32 33
10 | P a g e
22 23 21 23 21 22
= 11 − 12 + 13
32 33 31 33 31 32
= 11 22 33 + 12 23 31 + 13 21 32 − 11 23 32 − 12 21 33 − 13 22 31 .
Examples
2 −3
1. If = then = 2 4 − −3 5 = 23.
5 4
−2 2
2. If = then = −2 4 − 2 8 = −24.
8 4
1 0 −2
3. Given that = 4 6 1 , find .
2 −3 1
6 1 4 1 4 6
Solution = +1 −0 + −2
−3 1 2 1 2 −3
= 6 − −3 − 0 − 2 −12 − 12
= 9 + 48 = 57
+1 1
4. Given that = 4, find the value of .
−1 −1
Solution
+1 − 1 − −1 1 = 4
⇒ 2
− + −1+1=4
⇒ 2
=4
⇒ = ±2
2.5 Minor, Cofactor and Adjoint of a Matrix

I. A minor of a matrix is any square submatrix of . For example, if
1 2 3
1 2 1 3 5 6 4 5
= 4 5 6 , then , , , are submatrices of .
4 5 4 6 8 9 7 8
7 8 9
Each of them is therefore a minor of . Some particular types of minors of a
matrix are obtained by deleting from its th row and the th column. The
determinant of such a minor is denoted by .
1 2 3
Example 1: Given the matrix = 4 5 6 , find the determinant of all 2 × 2
7 8 9
minors of .
Solution: The (1, 1) minor is obtained by deleting from the first row and the
first column. The determinants are as follows:
11 | P a g e
5 6
11 = = 45 − 48 = −3
8 9
4 6
12 = = 36 − 42 = −6
7 9
4 5
13 = = 32 − 35 = −3
7 8
2 3
21 = = 18 − 24 = −6
8 9
1 3
22 = = 9 − 21 = −12
7 9
1 2
23 = = 8 − 14 = −6
7 8
2 3
31 = = 12 − 15 = −3
5 6
1 3
32 = = 6 − 12 = −6
4 6
1 2
33 = = 5 − 8 = −3.
4 5
II. Cofactor of a Matrix

The ( , ) cofactor of a matrix is the determinant of the matrix obtained by
deleting the th and the th column of and then multiplying the result by
−1 +
. Let denote the ( , ) cofactor. Then = −1 +
.
Example 2: Find the cofactor of in the example 1 above.

Solution: Using = −1 +
, we have the following.
11 = −1 1+1
11 = −3
12 = −1 1+2
12 =6
13 = −1 1+3
13 = −3
21 = −1 2+1
21 =6
22 = −1 2+2
22 = −12
23 = −1 2+3
22 =6
31 = −1 3+1
31 = −3
32 = −1 3+2
32 =6
33 = −1 3+3
33 = −3.
Therefore, the cofactor of is given by
12 | P a g e
−3 6 −3
= 6 −12 6 .
−3 6 −3
III. The Adjoint of a Matrix

The Adjoint of a matrix is the transpose of its matrix of cofactors. Let be a
matrix whose matrix of cofactor is . Then = . Thus in the example
two above,
−3 6 −3 −3 6 −3
= 6 −12 6 = 6 −12 6 .
−3 6 −3 −3 6 −3
2.6 The Inverse of a Matrix � �−

Let be an × . Let � be the × identity matrix. Then �=� = .
−1 −1 −1 1 1
Furthermore, = = �. Note that we do not write as since has no
meaning in the theory of matrices.

−1
Let be an × matrix such that exist. Then, the expression for the
inverse of matrix is given as:
−1
= provided ≠ 0.
Matrix is said to be singular when = 0 and so inverse not exist. While matrix
is non singular when ≠ 0.
Examples
−1 8 4
1. Find if = .
3 1
Solution:
8 4
= = 8 − 12 = −4.
3 1
Cofactors are:
11 = −1 1+1
11 =1 12 = −1 1+2
12 = −3
21 = −1 2+1
21 = −4 22 = −1 2+2
22 = 8.
1 −3
Then =
−4 8
1 −3 1 −4
= =
−4 8 −3 8
13 | P a g e
1 −4
−1 −3 8
−14 1
∴ = = = .
−4 3
4
−2
Check: ��− = � . As exercise.
2 1 0
−1
2. If = 1 3 2 , find .
3 1 −1
Solution:
3 2 1 2 1 3
=2 −1 +0 = 2 −3 − 2 — −1 − 6 + 0 = −3
1 −1 3 −1 3 1
Cofactor of matrix :
3 2 1 2 1 3
+ − +
1 −1 3 −1 3 1 −5 7 −8
1 0 2 0 2 1
= − + − = 1 −2 1
1 −1 3 −1 3 1
1 0 2 0 2 1 2 −4 5
+ − +
3 2 1 −1 1 3
−5 1 2
= = 7 −2 −4
−8 1 5
−5 1 2
7 −2 −4 5 −1 −2
−1 −8 1
∴ = = 1 5
= −7 2 4 .
−3 3
8 −1 −5
−1
Check that = �3
2.7 SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

A system of linear equations is of the form:
11 1 + 12 2 + + 1 = 1
21 1 + 22 2 + + 2 = 2
1 1 + 2 2 + + =
The method of solution could be
(a) Solution by direct algebraic method (substitution method or elimination
method)
(b) Solution using the matrix inverse
(c) Solution using Cramer’s rule.
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For solution by direct algebraic method, it has been discussed in MTS 107 and so
we omit it here.
(b) Solution using Inverse Method
In matrix form:
11 1 1 1
⋱ =
1
=
−1 −1
=
−1
� =
−1
⇒ = provided ≠0
Example: Solve the following equations by inverse method:
1. 1 +4 2 = 22
1 + 2 =7
2. 3 1 −2 2 + 3 =2
1 +3 2 +4 3 = 19
5 1 +4 2 −3 3 = 4.
Solution:
1. In matrix form:
1 4 22
1
=
1 1 2 7
1 4 1 22
Where = , = and = .
1 1 2 7
The solution of which is
1 1 4 −1 22
=
2 1 1 7
1 1 −4 22
=−
3 −1 1 7
1 −6
=−
3 −15
2
=
5
That is, 1 = 2 and 2 = 5.
2. This can be written in the form

3 −2 1 1 2
1 3 4 2 = 19 Or =
5 4 −3 3 4
15 | P a g e
−1
1 3 −2 1 2
−1 −1
Hence, = or 2 = 1 3 4 19 thus we need .
3 5 4 −3 4
=3 11 − −2 12 + (1) 13
= 3 −25 + 2 −23 + (−11)

= −132.
3 4 1 4 1 3
+ − +
4 −3 5 −3 5 4 −25 23 −11
−2 1 3 1 3 −2
Cof = − + − = −2 −14 −22
4 −3 5 −3 5 4
−2 1 3 1 3 −2 −11 −11 11
+ − +
3 4 1 4 1 3
−25 −2 −11
= = 23 −14 −11
−11 −22 11
−25 −2 −11
23 −14 −11
25 2 11
−1 −11 −22 11 = 1
= = −23 14 11
−132 132
11 22 −11
Therefore,
1 2
−1
2 = 19
3 4
25 2 11 2
1
=
132
−23 14 11 19
11 22 −11 4
50 + 38 + 44
1
=
132
−46 + 266 + 44
22 + 418 − 44
132
1
= 264
132
392
1
= 2 .
3
(c) Solution by Cramer’s rule
1. The 2 × 2 matrix case:
1 +4 2 = 22
1 4 1 22
1 + 2 =7 Or = i.e = .
1 1 2 7
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By Cramer’s rule,
22 4 1 22
7 1 1 7
1 = 1 4 , 2 = 1 4
1 1 1 1
∆1 ∆2
1 = , 2 =
∆ ∆
Where ∆≝ , ∆1 is the determinant obtained by replacing the first column of by

22
the matrix and ∆2 is the determinant obtained by replacing the second column
7
22
of by the matrix . Thus,
7
1 4
∆= = 1 − 4 = −3
1 1
22 4
∆1 = = 22 − 28 = −6
7 1
1 22
∆2 = = 7 − 22 = −15
1 7
Hence,
∆1 −6 ∆2 −15
1 = = = 2 and 2 = = =5 .
∆ −3 ∆ −3
1 2
Therefore, = .
2 5
2. The (3 × 3) matrix case:

3 −2 1 1 2
1 3 4 2 = 19
5 4 −3 3 4
3 −2 1
∆= 1 3 4 = 132
5 4 −3
2 −2 1
∆1 = 19 3 4 = −132
4 4 −3
3 2 1
∆2 = 1 19 4 = −264
5 4 −3
3 −2 2
∆3 = 1 3 19 = −396
5 4 4
Hence,
∆1 −132
1 = = =1
∆ −132
∆2 −264
2 = = =2
∆ −132
17 | P a g e
∆3 −396
3 = = = 3.
∆ −132
2.8 BUSINESS APPLICATION

Example: There are 30 secondary schools and 60 primary schools in a local
government area in a certain state. Each of the secondary schools and the primary
schools has 1 Messenger (ME), 5 Clerks (CL) and 1 Cashier (CA). Each secondary
school in addition has 1 Accountant (AC) and 1 Head Clerk (HC). The monthly salary
(N’000) of each of them is as follows:
Messenger – N20; Clerk – N40, Cashier – N35, Accountant – N50, and Head clerk –
N60. Use matrices to find
(i) The total number of posts of each kind of primary and secondary schools
taken together.
(ii) The total monthly salary of each primary school and each secondary
school separately.
(iii) The total monthly salary bill of all secondary and primary schools.
Solution: Consider the row matrix of the two types of schools:

= 30 60
Representing the number of secondary schools and primary schools respectively,
we have
Let ME CL CA AC HC
1 5 1 1 1
=
1 5 1 0 0
This is the matrix of the number of person in each position for each type of
school. Consider the product matrix:
1 5 1 1 1
= 30 60
1 5 1 0 0
= 90 450 90 30 30 .
Then, there are in the two types of schools, 90 Messengers, 450 Clerks, 90
Cashiers, 30 Accountants and 30 Head Clerks.
18 | P a g e
20
40
(ii) The monthly salaries (N’000) can be put as a column matrix = 35 .
50
60
Total monthly bill of each kind of school is
20
1 5 1 1 1 40
= 35
1 5 1 0 0 50
60
20 + 200 + 35 + 50 + 60
=
20 + 200 + 35 + 0 + 0
365
=
255
Total monthly salary bill for secondary schools is N365,000 while total monthly for
primary schools is N255,000.
(iii) gives the total monthly salary bill for all secondary and primary schools.
365
= 30 60
255
= 26,250 (’000)
= 26,250,000.
Exercise 2
1. Use the following information to answer question (i) – (iv):
2 4 1 6 7 1
= and = .
3 −5 0 0 0 2
(i) Find +
(ii) Find
(iii)
(iv) .
3 5 1 1 −2 3
−10 15
2. Evaluate 8 0 2 , , −4 5 6 .
2 2
4 0 6 7 8 −9
3. Use the following information to answer question (a) – (c):
2 3 25
= is written as = .
4 5 43
(a) Write down and .
19 | P a g e
−1
(b) Find
(c) Find the matrix .
(d) Find − �
3
4. A woman invested different amounts at 8%, 8 % and 9%, all at simple
4
interest. Altogether she invested N40,000 and earns N3,455 per year. How
much does she have invested at each rate if she has N4,000 more invested at
9% than 8%? Solve by using matrices.
5. A salesman has the following record of sales during three months for three
items , and which have different rates of commission.
Months Sales units Total commission drawn
A B C (in £)
May 90 100 20 800
June 130 50 40 900
July 60 100 30 850
Find out the rates of commission on the items A, B and C. Solve by Cramer’s
rule (determination method)
§ 3.0 STATISTICAL DISTRIBUTION

3.1 BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
An experiment consisting of repeated trials such that
a) the trials are independent and identical
b) each trial result in only one or two possible outcomes
c) the probability of success remains constant
d) the random variable of interest is the total number of success.
The binomial distribution is one of the widely used in statistics and it used to
find the probability that an outcome would occur times in performances of an
experiment and its probability density function is given by
−
; , = 1− , = 0,1, … ,
Where = Total number of trials
= Probability of success
1− = Probability of failure
20 | P a g e
− = Number of failure in – trials

To find the probability of success in trials, the only values we need are that of
and .
Properties of Binomial Distribution
Mean =
Variance � 2 = ; = 1−
Standard deviation � =
Note: ~ ( , ) reads as follows binomial distribution.
Examples:
1. Observation over a long period of time has shown that a particular sales man
can make a sale on a single contact with the probability of 20%. Suppose the
same person contact four prospects,
(a) What is the probability that exactly 2 prospects purchase the product?
(b) What is the probability that at least 2 prospects purchase the product?
(c) What is the expected value (mean) of the prospects that would purchase the
product?
Solution: Let denote the number of prospect.

Let denote the probability of (success) purchase = 0.2
Then ~ (4,0.2).
−
= = 0,1,2,3,4
= 0,
4 4−
= 0.2 0.8
4 2 4−2
(a) =2 = 2
0.2 0.8 = 0.1536
(b) 2 = 2 + 3 + (4) ( OR 1 − 1 = 1 − { 0 + (1)})
4 3 4−3 4 4 4−4
= 0.1536 + 3
0.2 0.8 + 4
0.2 0.8
= 0.1536 + 0.0256 + 0.0016
= 0.1808
(c) Expected value =
= 4 × 0.2
= 0.8
21 | P a g e
2. The probability that a student is accepted to a prestigious college is 0.3. If 5

students from the same school apply, what is the probability that at most 2 are
accepted?
Solution:
2 = 0 + 1 + (2)
= 5C0 0.3 0
0.7 5−0
+ 5C1 0.3 1
0.7 5−1
+ 5C2 0.3 2
0.7 5−2
= 0.1681 + 0.3602 + 0.3087

= 0.837
3.2 POISSON DISTRIBUTION

When the size of the sample ( ) is very large and the probability of obtaining
success in any one trial very small, then Poisson distribution is adopted. Given an
interval of real numbers, assumed counts of occur at random throughout interval, if
the interval can be partition into sub interval of small enough length such that
a) The probability of more than one count sub interval is 0
b) The probability of one count in a sub interval is the same for all sub intervals
and proportional to the length of the sub interval
c) The count in each of the sub interval is independent of all other sub intervals.
A random experiment of this type is called a Poisson Process. If the mean
number of count in an interval is > 0, the random variable that equals the number
of count in an interval has a Poisson distribution with parameter and the probability
density function is given by
−
; = ; = 0,1, … , .
!
For a Poisson distribution, the mean and the variance is given by = ,� = .

Poisson distribution probability density function can also be used to approximate
binomial distribution when is large ( 30) and < 5.
Examples
1. Attendance in a factory shows 7 absences. What is the probability that on a
given day there will be more than 8 people absent?
Solution
� >8 =1−� 8
22 | P a g e
= 1 − � 1 + � 2 + � 3 + � 4 + � 5 + � 6 + � 7 + �(8)
71 −7 72 −7 73 −7 74 −7 75 −7 76 −7 77 −7 78 −7
=1− + + + + + + +
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 8!
0.0064 + 0.0223 + 0.0521 + 0.0912 + 0.1277 + 0.149

=1−
+0.149 + 0.1304
= 0.2709
2. An automatic production line breaks down every 2 hours. Special production
requires uninterrupted operation for 8 hours. What is the probability that this
can be achieved?
8
Solution = = 4, = 0 (no breaks down)
2
4 0 −4
� =0 = = 0.0183 = 1.83%
0!
3.3 NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

The normal distribution is the most important and the most widely used
among all continuous distribution in the statistics. The graph of a normal distribution
is a bell – shaped curved that extends indefinitely in both direction.
Normal curve
1 or 100%
3.3.1 Features (Properties) of Normal Curve

1. The curve is symmetrical about the vertical axis through the mean .
2. The mode is the highest point on the horizontal axis where the curve is
maximum and occurs where = .
3. The normal curve approaches the horizontal axis asymptotically.
4. The total area under the curve is one (1) or 100%.
It is clear from these properties that a knowledge of the population means and
standard deviation gives a complete picture of the distribution of all the values.
23 | P a g e
Notation: Instead of saying that the values of a variable are normally distributed
with mean and standard deviation �, we simply say that has an , � 2 or is
, � 2 or ~ , �2 .
A random variable is said to have a normal distribution if its probability
density function is given by
− 2
1 −12
; ,� = � � , −∞ < <∞
2�
Where � and are the parameters of the distribution (standard deviation and mean
respectively).
3.3.2 The Standard Normal Curve

The standard normal distribution is a special case. If ~ 0,1 , then is
called the standard normal variable with probability density function =
2
1 −2
, −∞ < < ∞.
2�
The table usually used to determine the probability that a random variable
drawn from a normal population with no mean and standard deviation 1 is the
standard normal distribution table (or - scores table).
We shall note the following point when using the table:
1. � 0 = 0.5
2. � − =1−�
= �( )
3. � − 1 < < 2 =� < 2 −� >− 1
=� < 2 − [1 − � < 1 ]
=� < 2 +� < 1 −1
Example 1: Find the probability that a random variable having the standard normal
distribution will take a value
(a) Less than 1.53 (b) Less than –0.82
(c) Between 1.25 and 2.34 (d) between –0.35 and 1.26
Solution:
(a) � < 1.53 = 0.9370 (using the table)
(b) � < −0.82 = 0.2061
24 | P a g e
(c) � 1.25 2.34 = � 2.34 − � 1.25

=� 2.34 − 1 − �( < 1.25)
= 0.9904 − 1 + 0.8944
= 0.8848
(d) � −0.35 1.26 = � 1.26 − � −0.35
=� 1.26 − 1 − �( < 0.35)
=� 1.26 + � < 0.35 − 1
= 0.8962 + 0.6368 − 1
= 0.533
3.3.3 STANDARDIZED NORMAL VARIABLE

In real world application, the given continuous random variable may have a
normal distribution in value of a mean and standard deviation different from 0 and 1.
To overcome this difficulty, we obtain a new variable denoted by and this is given
by
Value −Mean −
= = (for ≠ 0 and � ≠ 1)
Standard deviation �
Example 2: If ~ (510 , 6.25 ), calculate �( = 507.5 )

−
Solution: =
�
507.5−510
=
2.5
= −1
∴� = 507.5 =� −1
= 0.1587
Example 3: It is known from the previous examination results that the marks of
candidates have a normal distribution with mean 55 and standard deviation 10. If the
pass mark in a new examination is set at 40, what percentages of the candidates will
be expected to fail?
Solution: We have ~ (55,100) and the required proportion of −values that are
below 40 is �( < 40).
−
� < 40 = �( < �
)
25 | P a g e
40−55
=� <
10
= �( −1.5)
= 0.0668
∴ 6.68% of the candidates are expected to fail.
Exercise 3
1. A surgery is successful for 75% patients. What is the probability of its success
in at least 7 cases out of randomly selected 9 patients?
2. If the 5% of the electric bulbs manufactured by a company are defective. Find
the probability that in the sample of 130 bulbs, at most 3 doors are defective.
a) Use binomial to solve the problem
b) Use Poisson distribution and compare your results.
3. It is known that the marks in a University direct entry examination are normally
distributed with mean 70 and standard deviation 8. Given that your score is
69, what percentage of all the candidates will be expected to score more than
you?
§ 4.0 LIMIT AND CONTINUITYOF FUNCTIONS

4.1 Definition
A given function ( ) is said to have a limit as approaches (in symbol
lim → ( ) = ) if and only if, ( ) is as near to as we please for all values of ≠
but sufficiently near to .
We say that ( ) approaches the limit in real number as approaches a fixed
number , if and only if, lim → − ( )= = lim → + ( ). When this is so, we
write lim → ( ) = . Alternatively, this simply means that ( ) is arbitrary close to
whenever the variable is sufficiently near to the number .
Remark: A function ( ) cannot have more than one limit.
4.2 Rules for evaluating limits

If lim → ( ) and lim → ( ) exist, then the following rules hold.
(i) lim → = where is a constant.
26 | P a g e
(ii) lim → = lim → ( ) for any real number

(iii) lim → ( ) ± ( ) = lim → ( ) ± lim → ( )
( ) lim → ( )
(iv) lim → = , provided lim → ( ) ≠ 0.
( ) lim → ( )
Example: Evaluate the following limits:

9+ −3 2− −2 4 3
(1) lim →0 (
3
−5 2
+ 2) (2) lim →0 (3) lim →2 2 −4
(4) lim →∞ 3 +3 .
Solution
(1) lim →0 (
3
−5 2
+ 2) = lim 3
− lim 5 2
+ lim 2
→0 →0 →0
= 0 2
−5 0 2
+2
=2
9+ −3 9+ −3 9+ +3
(2) lim →0 = lim ×
→0 9+ +3
= lim
→0 9+ +3
1
= lim
→0 9+ +3
1
=
9+3
1
=6
2− −2 +1 −2
(3) lim →2 2 −4
= lim →2 +2 −2
+1
= lim
→2 +2
lim ( +1)
→2
= lim ( +2)
→2
3
=
4
4 3
4 3 3
(4) lim →∞ 3 +3 = lim 3 3
→∞
3+ 3
4
= lim 3
→∞ 1+ 3
lim 4
→∞
= 3
lim 1+lim 3
→∞
→∞
=4
27 | P a g e
4.3 CONTINUITY OF FUNCTION

We say that the function is continuous at = if lim → ( ) = ( ). We say
that is continuous if it is continuous at each point of its domain.
Remark:
(1) The continuity definition requires that the following conditions be met if is to
be continuous at (a point): (a) ( ) is defined as a finite real number, (b)
lim → − ( ) exists and equals ( ), (c) lim → − ( ) = f(c) = lim → + ( ) .
When a function is not continuous at , one or more, of these conditions are
not met.
(2) All polynomials, sin , cos , , sinh , cosh , , ≠ 1 are continuous for all
real values of . All logarithmic functions, log , > 0, ≠ 1 are continuous
for all > 0. Each rational function, ( )/ ( ), is continuous where ( ) ≠ 0.
Examples
1. Determine whether the function =3 2
+ 4 − 10 is continuous at =3
or not.
Solution:
3 = 3 32 + 4 3 − 10 = 29.
lim →3 = lim →3 3 2
+ lim →3 4 − lim →3 10
= 27 + 12 − 10
= 29
∴ lim = 3 = 29
→3
is continuous at = 3.
−2
2. Verify the continuity of the function = 2 −5 at = 2.
+6
Solution:
−2 −2 1
= 2 −5 = =
+6 −2 −3 −3
1
2 = = −1
2−3
1
lim →2 = lim →3 −3
lim →2 1
=
lim →2 −3
28 | P a g e
1
= = −1
2−3
∴ lim = 2 = −1
→2
is continuous at = 2.
2− −6
3. The function = is not continuous at = 3 since 3 is not
−3
defined.
Exercise 4
1. Evaluate each of the following limits.
2 −1
(a) lim →1 3 −1
2−
(b) lim →∞ 3 +2
−2
(c) lim →4 −4
2 2 +3 1
2. Is function = continuous at the point =− ?
2 +1 2
§ 5.0 BASIC CONCEPT OF DIFFERENTIATION

Differentiation is a mathematical concept dealing with the rate of change. This
rate of change is generally termed the derivative, slope, gradient or marginal
measure in various areas of usage. That is, the process of finding the derivative of a
function is known as differentiation. Formally, differentiation (the differential calculus)
is the process of finding the derivative of a function. And it has a lot of applications in
many areas of human endeavours such as the field of engineering, science,
economics, business, and so on.
5.1 Determination of Derivative from First Principle

There is need to apply the limits theory to the incremental principle of the
variables involved in the function. For instance, let us consider the function = ( ).
A small increment in (denoted by ∆ ) will cause a small increment in (also
denoted by ∆ ). Then for
= ( ) ……………………. (i)
We have +∆ = +∆ ………… (ii)
29 | P a g e
Subtract equation (i) from equation (ii), gives

+∆ − = +∆ − ( )
∆ = +∆ − ( )
Divide all through by ∆ , we have
Δ +∆ − ( )
= ……………. (iii)
Δ ∆
As ∆ → 0, we have
Δ +∆ − ( )
lim∆ →0 Δ = lim∆ →0 …. (iv)
∆
By the limit’s theory, we have

+∆ − ( ) Δ
= lim∆ →0 ……….. (v) (i.e. ≡ lim∆ →0 Δ )
∆
′
Note that is also represented by ( ) which is called the derivative of ( ).
′
Others are , , .
If the left hand side of the equation (v) exists, then is called the differential
coefficient of with respect to .
3
Example: Find the derivative of (i) = + 2 (ii) = from the first principle.
Solution:
3
(i) = + 2 ------------- (*)
+∆ = +∆ 3
+ 2 -------------- (**)
Then subtracting equation (*) from equation (**), we have
+∆ − = +∆ 3
+2− 3
+2
∆ = 3
+3 2
∆ +3 ∆ 2
+ ∆ 3
+2− 3
−2
∆ =3 2
∆ +3 ∆ 2
+ ∆ 3
Divide through by ∆ , we have

Δ
=3 2+3 ∆ + ∆ 2
Δ
Δ
lim = lim 3 2
+3 ∆ + ∆ 2
Δ →0 Δ Δ →0
∴ =3 2
+0+0
2
=3
30 | P a g e
(ii) Given = .
Let +∆ = +∆
Then
+∆ − = +∆ −
∆ ∞ −1 −2 …( − +1)
∆ = 1+ −1 Using 1 + = 1+ =1 !
2
∆ ( − 1) ∆
∆ = 1+ + + −1
2!
−1 ( −1) −2
= ∆ + ∆ 2
+
2!
Δ −1
∴ = + terms containing higher power of ∆
Δ
Δ −1
lim = lim + terms containing higher power of ∆
Δ →0 Δ ∆ →0
−1
∴ = ……………………. (vi)
�
We note that equation (vi) is the derivative of =� and it shall be applied as
a rule when the derivative from first principle is not required.
4 5
Example: (a) Obtain the derivative for the following. (i) = (ii) =4 .
3
(b) Obtain the value of the derivative for the following functions at = 2: (i) =2
6
(ii) =3 .
Solution:
4−1 3
(a) (i) =4 =4
5−1 4
(ii) =4 5 = 20
2
(b) (i) =6
At = 2, = 6 22 = 24
5
(ii) = 18
At = 2, = 18 25 = 576
31 | P a g e
5.2 Rules of Differentiation

The following rules shall be applied to various functions:
Rule 1: If a polynomial = ± ± ± where , , are functions of , then
= ± ± ±
= ± ± ±
Hence, the derivative of a sum is the of the derivatives and the derivative of a
difference is the difference of the derivatives.
Example: Find the derivative of each of the following functions.
2
(i) =2 5
−3 6
+6 2
; (ii) =2 3
+3 4
− .
Solution:
(i) =2 5 5−1
−3 6 6−1
+ 6(2) 2−1
= 10 4
− 18 5
+ 12
−1−1
(ii) =2 3 3−1
+3 4 4−1
− 2 −1
2 3 2
=6 + 12 + 2 .
Rule 2: If = , where is a constant, then = 0. E.g. (a) = 2, = 0.

2
(b) = , = 0 since is a constant and has no degree of from 1 and above.
Rule 3: If a product = , where and are functions of , then
= + .
By extension, if = , where , and are functions of , then

= + + .
Example: Find the derivative of the following functions:

2 2 3
(a) = 2 +2 3 +2 (b) = 2 +4 +3 2 +5 .
32 | P a g e
Solution:
(a) Let = 2 + 2, =2
2
=3 +2 , =6 +2.
By product rule,
= +
2
= 3 +2 2 + 2 +2 6 +2
2 2
=6 + 4 + 12 + 4 + 12 + 4
2
= 18 + 20 + 4 .
(b) Let = 2 + 4, =2
2
= +3 , =2 +3
3 2
=2 +5 , =6 +5
But = + +
2 3 3
= +3 2 +5 2 + 2 +4 2 +5 2 +3
2 2
+ +3 2 +4 6 +5
Rule 4: If quotient = , where and are functions of , then
−
= 2
.
Example: Differentiate the following with respect to .

1+ 2 2+3
(i) = (ii) = 2 +3
3 +5
Solution:
2
(i) Let =1+ , =2
=3 , =3
By Quotient Rule:
−
= 2
3 2 − 1+ 2 (3)
= 3 2
33 | P a g e
6 2 −3−3 2
= 9 2
2 −1
= .
3 2
(ii) Let = 2+3 , =3

2
= + 3 + 5, =2 +3
But
−
= 2
2 +3 +5 (3)− 2+3 (2 +3)

= 2 +3 +5 2
3 2 +9 +15−4 −6−6 2 −9
= 2 +3 +5 2
−3 2 −4 +9
= 2 +3 +5 2
.
Rule 5: If a function of function = + where and are constants and is

−1
the index, then = + = + ( + ) .
This rule is also called the composite or chain rule. In another way, this can
be written as: =
Where is a function of and is a function of . It is called function of a

function.
Example: Differentiate the following: (i) = +3 4
(ii) = 3 2
−5 6
.
Solution:
4 3
(i) Let = + 3; = 1 then = , =4 .
∴ = ×
3
=4 (1)
3
=4
3
=4 +3 .
(ii) Let =3 2
− 5; = 6 then = 6
, =6 5
.
∴ = ×
5
= 6 (6 )
34 | P a g e
5
= 36
= 36 3 2
−5 5
.
Rule 6: For the implicit function, the relationship between and variables may not
2 2 2 5
be expressed explicitly (e.g. , + =3 ). In this case, treat as if
it is a function of and the rules of differentiation discussed above are
applied as appropriate.
Example: Differentiate the following implicitly:

(i) 3
+ 4
=7 (ii) 6 2
−4 2 3
+2 =0
Solution:
(i) Differentiate the function term by term with respect to
2 3
3 +4 =0
2 3
3 +4 =0
⇒4 3
= −3 2
−3 2
∴ = .
4 3
(ii) 6 2
+2 −4 2 3
+3 2 2
+2 =0
6 2
+ 12 −8 3
− 12 2 2
+2 =0
⇒ 12 − 12 2 2
+2 =8 3
−6 2
8 −6
3 2
∴ =
12 − 12 2 2 +2
4 3 −3 2
=6 .
−6 2 2 +1
+
Rule 7: If the exponential function = , where and are constants, then
+
=
+
= +
+
=
35 | P a g e
2 2+ 3 3
Example: Differentiate the following with respect to . (i) =6 (ii) = .
Solution:
2 2+
(i) = 2 2
+ ∙6
2 2+
= 4 +1 ∙6
2 2+
=6 4 +1 .
(ii) Applying product rule:

3 2
Let = ; =3
3 2 3
= ; =3
But = +
3 2 3 2 3
= 3 + 3
2 3 5 3
=3 +3
3 2 5
= 3 +3 .
Rule 8: If the logarithmic function = log + = ln + where and are

1
constants, then = ∙ + = .
+ +
Example: Differentiate the following with respect to .

(i) = ln (ii) = log 5 + 2 (iii) = ln 6 − 1 2
.
Solution:
1
(i) =
1
(ii) = ∙ 5 +2
5 +2
5
=
5 +2
1
(iii) = 6 −1 2
∙ 6 −1 2
1
= 6 −1 2
6 2 (6 − 1)
12
= .
6 −1
36 | P a g e
Rule 9: Differentiation of Trigonometric functions:

(a) If = sin then = cos
(b) If = cos then = − sin
(c) If = tan then = sec 2
Examples:
1. = cos 7 , = −7 sin 7
2. = sin 3 − 4 , = 3 cos 3 − 4
� �
3. = cos −2 , = 2 sin −2
4 4
5.3 SECOND ORDER DERIVATIVE

Second order derivative is one of higher derivatives where successive
differentiations are carried out. The process of differentiating a function more that
one is called successive differentiation.
If = , is also a function of . The derivative of with respect to
. The expression is called the second order derivative of with respect

2
′′ ′′
to and it is denoted by 2
or or ( ). It is useful when determining the turning
point of a function.
Example: Find the first, second and third derivatives of the following.
(i) =4 5
(ii) =3 6
−2 5
+ +3 2
−8.
Solution:
4
(i) = 20
2
3
2
= 80
3
2
3
= 240 .
(ii) = 18 5
− 10 4
+ +6
37 | P a g e
2
= 90 4
− 40 3
+ +6
3
3
= 360 3
− 120 2
+ .
5.4 APPLICATION OF DIFFERENTIATION

5.4.1 Application to maximum and minimum values
The concept of maximum and minimum values is termed the zero slope
analysis. The focus here is to find a point where the slope of the function to be
optimized is zero. It should be noted that the concept is not restricted to plotting of
curve alone, but more importantly to determine the maximum and minimum values of
a function such as maximizing profit or minimizing cost, etc.
We have the following procedures for the determination of maximum and
minimum values of a function = ( ) if it exists:
Step 1: Obtain the first derivative and set it equal to zero i.e. = 0. This occur at
turning point.
Step 2: From the = 0, determine the stationary point.
2
Step 3: Compute 2
at these stationary points.
2
If 2 < 0, the stationary point is maximum.
2
If 2 > 0, the stationary point is minimum.
2
If 2
= 0, (that is point of inflection) higher derivative (than second) can be
used to decide.
Example 1: ADAS company planning to have a new product in the market came up
with a total sales function = −1000 2
+ 10000 and the total cost function
= −2000 + 2500, where and are respectively the price and cost (in US dollar)
of the new product. Find the optimal price for the new product and the maximum
profit expected for the company.
Solution: The profit (�) is obtained by the difference in total sales and total cost.
∴�= −
= −1000 2
+ 10000 − −2000 + 2500
= −1000 2
+ 10000 + 2000 − 2500
38 | P a g e
= −1000 2
+ 12000 − 2500
�
= −2000 + 12000
�
But at turning point, = 0, then
0 = −2000 + 12000
12000
⇒ = = 6.
2000
2�
But 2
= −2000 (which is less than zero, indicating maximum)
Hence, = 6, gives a maximum point. Therefore, the optimal price is $6. And the
maximum profit � = −1000 6 2
+ 12000(6) − 2500
= $33500 .
2
Example 2: articles are produced at a total cost of N 2 + 30 + 20 , and each
one is sold for N + 100 . Determine the value of which gives the greatest profit,
3
and find this profit.

2
Solution: Total cost of articles = N 2 + 30 + 20
Total money received for articles sold = N + 100 .

3
Then the profit N� = N + 100 − 2 2

+ 30 + 20 .
3
5
So, � = 70 − 2
− 20.
3
�
The minimum value of � will be given by =0
� 10
= 70 − =0 ⇒ = 21.
3
2� 10
2 =− < 0.
3
5
Therefore, the maximum profit = N 70 × 21 − 3 21 2
= N715 .
5.4.2 Application to Marginal Cost and Revenue

For the cost analysis (that is, relationship between average and marginal cost)
Let = Total cost
= Quantity demand
Then, the Average Cost =
39 | P a g e
And the Marginal Cost = , i.e.
Also the slope of average cost is obtained by:

–
= 2
(Quotient Rule)
−
=
1
= −
1 1
= −
It is established that if the cost curve is U – shape and the has a sloping
downward curve, then < 0 which means that < . When decreases
< and on the lowest point of curve, the tangent will be horizontal.
Therefore =0 i.e. = . Also when increasing, > and
> 0.
Relationship between Average and Marginal revenue

Let Total revenue = and we know that =� × i.e. =� .
Then, Average Revenue =
And, the Marginal Revenue = =�+ . (Product Rule)
Example 1: Determine the minimum average cost if the cost function is given by:
= 36 − 20 2
+4 3
. Also obtain the marginal cost at the point of minimum
average cost.
Solution:
Given = 36 − 10 2
+2 3
∴ = = 36 − 10 + 2 2
For maximum or minimum, =0
i.e. −10 + 4 = 0
5
⇒ = .
2
40 | P a g e
2
More so, 2 at = 52 = 4, which is greater than zero.
5
Hence, = is at minimum point.
2
5 5 2
∴ The Minimum Average Cost = 36 − 10 +2 = 23.5
2 2
For the Marginal Cost ( ), we have
= = 36 − 20 + 6 2
5 5 5 2
at = is equal to 36 − 20 +6 = 23.5 .
2 2 2
Example 2: Find the maximum profit of a company with revenue function

= 200 − 2 2
and the cost function =2 3
− 57 2
.
Solution:
Profit � = −
= 200 + 55 2
−2 3
�
At turning point, =0
�
= 200 + 110 − 6 2
=0
⇒ 100 + 55 − 3 2
=0
3 2
− 55 − 100 = 0
3 2
− 60 + 5 − 100 = 0
3 − 20 + 5 − 20 = 0
3 +5 − 20 = 0
5
⇒ = − or 20
3
2�
But 2
= 110 − 12
5 2� 5
At =− , 2
= 110 − 12 = 90 > 0 indicating minimum point.
3 3
2�
At = 20, 2
= 110 − 12 20 = −130 < 0 indicating maximum point.
Hence, at = 20, we have the maximum profit.

∴ The maximum profit = 200 20 + 55 20 2
− 2 20 3
= 10,000
41 | P a g e
5.4.3 Application of differentiation to the elasticity of demand

The price elasticity of demand is the rate of change in response to quantity
demanded to the change in price. Let = ( ) be the demand function, where is
the demand and is the price. Then the elasticity of demand is
�
=− ∙ When > 1, the demand is elastic and, when < 1, the demand is
�
inelastic.
For elasticity of supply, Let = be the supply function, where is the
supply and is the price. The elasticity of supply is defined as = ∙ .
Example: Given a demand function = 60 − − 2

, determine its elasticity of
demand when =4
Solution: = −1 − 2
But = −
−
= −1 − 2
60− − 2
2 2+
= .
60− − 2
When = 4 we get
= 0.9
Exercise 5
1
1. A firm produces tonnes of output at a total cost = 3
−5 2
+ 10 − 32.
10
At what level of output will the marginal cost and the average variable cost
attain their respective minimum?
2. A certain manufacturing company has total cost function
= 15 + 9 − 6 2
+ 3
. Find , when the total cost is minimum.
3. The relationship between profit � and advertising cost is given by
4000
�= − . Find which maximizes �.
500+
4. The total cost and total revenue of a firm are given by

= 3
− 12 2
+ 48 + 11 and = 83 − 4 2
− 21.
Find the output (i) when the revenue is maximum (ii) when profit is maximum.
42 | P a g e
5. A GSM company has a profit of N2 per SIM when the number of SIM in the
exchanges is not over 10,000. The profit per SIM decreases by 0.01 kobo for
each SIM over 10,000. What is the maximum profit?
1
6. The total cost function of a firm is = 3
−5 2
+ 28 + 10 where , is the
3
output. A tax at N2 per unit of output is imposed and the producer adds it to
his cost. If the market demand function is given by = 2530 − 5 , where N
is the price per unit of output. Determine the profit maximizing output and
price.
7. Investigate the maxima and minima of the function 2 3
−3 2
− 36 + 10 .
8. For the cost function = 2000 + 1800 − 75 2
+ 3
find when the total cost
( ) is increasing and when it is decreasing.
9. Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the demand curve
= 10 − 3 2
at (1, 7).
10. ADAS produces tonnes of output at a total cost
1
=
10
3
−4 2
+ 20 + 5 . Find (i) Average Cost (ii) Average Variable
Cost (iii) Average Fixed Cost (iv) Marginal Cost and (v) Marginal Average
Cost.
11. The total cost of making units of product is
= 0.00005 3
− 0.06 2
+ 10 + 79020. Find the marginal cost at 1000 units
of output.
12. Find the elasticity of the following functions.
2
(a) =2 + 8 + 10
(b) = 4 − 8 when = 5.
43 | P a g e
§ 6.0 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Integration is the reverse of differentiation. If ( ) is a function whose
′
derivative = ( ), then ( ) is called an integral of ( ). For example,
3 2 ′ 2
= is an integral of =3 since =3 = ( ).
6.1 Indefinite Integral

Let = ( ) be a function of . Suppose that = �( ) where �( ) is a
known function of . Then = �( ) is called an indefinite integral of �( ) with

respect to .
Remark
1. Let be an arbitrary constant. Since = 0, it follows that = 0 .
2. If ( ) is an indefinite integral of a function �( ) and is an arbitrary constant,

then all positive indefinite integrals of �( ) are of the form
�( ) = + . In this case, is called a constant of integration.
+1 1
For all rational values of except when = −1, = ∙ +1 .
+1 +1
+1
Therefore, if ≠ −1, the indefinite integral of is = +1
+ . Note also that
constant different from zero, the integral is obtained by simply multiply the constant
by the independent variable and add the constant of integration. E.g. 2 =2 + .
Example
2
1. If =4 , find .
Solution
2
=4
2
= 4
4 2+1 4
⇒ = + = 3
+
2+1 3
3
2. Integrate 6 + 6 with respect to .
Solution
3 6 4
6 +6 = +6 +
4
3 4
=2 +6 + .
44 | P a g e
6.2 Some Standard form of Integration

(i) = +
(ii) = log +
(iii) sin = − cos +

(iv) cos = sin +
1
(v) 2+ 2
= tan−1 +
(vi) 2− 2
= sin−1 +
Example: Integrate the following with respect to .

(a) = = sin−1 +
16− 2 42 − 2 4
1
(b) 2 +25 = tan−1 +
5 5
6.3 Rules of Integration

Rule 1: The integration of a sum (difference) of a finite number of functions is the
sum (difference) of their separate integrals. E.g.
2
− +5 = 2
− + 5
3 2
= 3
− 2
+5 + .
Rule 2: A constant factor may be brought outside the integral sign. E.g.
4 9
3 3 4
18 = 18 = 18 + = + .
4 2
Rule 3: The addition of a constant to the variable makes no difference to the form of
the result. E.g.
1 −3
(i) = tan−1 +
−3 2 +32 3 3
(ii)
+7
= log +6 +
Rule 4: Multiplying the variables by the constant also makes no difference to the
form of the result, but we have to divide by the constant. (Note integration by
substitution can be used to verify this claim)
45 | P a g e
Examples
1
1. cos 3 = sin 3 +
3
4 1 4
2. = +
4
2 −5 1 2 −5
3. = +
2
3
1 1 2 +3 2 1 3
4. 2 +3 2 = 3 + = 2 +3 2 +
2 2 3
Rule 5: The integration of a fraction whose numerator is derivative of the

denominator is obtained by the logarithm of the denominator. i.e.
′
= log +
Examples
2 2
(a) 2 +12
= ln + 12 +
2 1 3 2 1 3
(b) 3 +2
= 3 +2
= ln +2 +
3 3
2 2
1 2 1 2
(c) 2 = 2 = ln +3 +
+3 2 +3 2
1
(d) log
= log
= log log +
Rule 6: (Integration by Substitution)

Consider the indefinite integral ( ) of an arbitrary function = ( ). Suppose
that ( ) can be written as = ( ) for some function ( ) of suitably chosen
variable = ( ), then ( ) = ( ) . That is, we get ( ) by

evaluating ( ) as a function of and then substituting = ( ) to get a
function of the original variable .
Example 1: Evaluate 1−2 2
.
1
Solution: Set =1−2 2
; = −4 ⇒ = .
−4
1
Therefore, =
1−2 2 −4
1 1
=−
4
1 −12
= −4
46 | P a g e
1 1
=− 2 2 +
4
1
=− 1−2 2 +
2
2−5
Example 2: Evaluate
Solution: Let =2−5 ; = −5 ⇒ = .
−5
2−5
Hence, =
−5
1
=−
5
1
=− +
5
1
=− 2−5
+
5
Rule 7: (Integration by Parts)

If and are two differentiable functions of . Then = + ( )
which implies that = − ( ) . Using the formula for the integral of a
sum which is sum of the integrals, we obtain
= − ( )
This is called the formula for integration by parts. If = ( ) and = ( ), the

formula can be written as = − .
Example: Evaluate the following integrals:
1. 2 sin
Solution: Let =2 , =2 ⇒ =2
= sin ⇒ = cos
Hence, by integration by parts, we have
2 sin = 2 cos − cos 2
= 2 cos − 2 cos
= 2 cos − 2 sin +
2. = − = − +
47 | P a g e
3. log
1 1
Solution: Let = log , = ⇒ =
2
= ⇒ = 2
Hence, by integration by parts, we have

2 2 1
log = log −
2 2
2 1
= 2
log −
2
2 1
= log − 2
+
2 4
2
PP: (a) (b) sin .
6.4 Definite Integral

Let be a function of and , be an interval, ( ) is called definite
integral with respect to within the limit and .
THEOREM (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus): Suppose that is a strong
continuous function over a closed interval , and that is anti – derivative of .
Then ( ) = ( ) = − ( ).
Examples
3 33 13
3 3 2
1. 1
2
= 3 1
= 3
− =8
3 3
5 5
2. 0
4 = 2 2 = 50
0
1 2−5 1
PP: (a) 0
(b) 0
ln
6.5 APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION TO ECONOMICS AND COMMERCE

We learnt already that the marginal function is obtained by differentiating the
total function. We were given the total cost, total revenue or demand function and
we obtained the marginal cost, marginal revenue or elasticity of demand. Now we
shall obtain the total function when marginal function is given.
48 | P a g e
6.5.1 The cost function and average cost function from marginal cost
function:
If is the cost of producing an output , then marginal cost function,
= . Using integration as reverse process of differentiation, we obtain,
Cost function, = +
where is the constant of integration which can be evaluated if the fixed cost is
known. If the fixed cost is not known, then = 0.
Average cost function, = , ≠0
Example 1: The marginal cost function of manufacturing units of a commodity is

8 + 16 − 9 2
. Find the total cost and average cost, given that the total cost of
producing 1 unit is 20.
Solution: Given that,
= 8 + 16 − 9 2
= +
= 8 + 16 − 9 2
+
= 8 +8 2
−3 3
+ ------------------ (*)
Given, when = 1, = 20
∴ ∗ ⇒ 20 = 8 1 + 8 12 − 3 13 + ⇒ = 13
∴ Total Cost function, =8 +8 2
−3 3
+ 13
Average Cost function, = , ≠0

13
= 8 + 8 − 23 + .
Example 2: The marginal cost function of manufacturing units of a commodity is

3 2
− 2 + 32. If there is no fixed cost, find the total cost and average cost
functions. Solution: Given that,
=3 2
− 2 + 32
= +
= 3 2
− 2 + 32 +
= 3
− 2
+ 32 +
No fixed cost ⇒ =0
49 | P a g e
∴ Total cost, = 3
− 2
+ 32
Average Cost, = , ≠0
= 2
− + 32 .
6.5.2 The revenue function and demand function from marginal revenue
function:
If is the total revenue function when the output is , then marginal revenue
= .
Integrating this with respect to we have

Revenue function, = +
where is the constant of integration which can be evaluated under given
conditions.
If the total revenue = 0, when = 0,
Demand function, = , ≠0
Example 1: If the marginal revenue for a commodity is = 10 − 6 2

+ 2 , find
the total revenue and demand function.
= 10 − 6 2
+2
= +
= 10 − 6 2
+2 +
= 10 − 2 3
+ 2
+
Since = 0 when = 0, then = 0.
∴ = 10 − 2 3
+ 2
= , ≠0
⇒ = 10 − 2 2
+ .
Example 2: For the marginal revenue function = 5 + sin 4 − 2 − 2

, find the
revenue function and demand function.
= 5 + sin 4 − 2 − 2
50 | P a g e
= +
= 5 + sin 4 − 2 − 2
+
1 3
= 5 − coss 4 + 2
+ +
4 3
1
Since = 0 when = 0, then =− .
4
1 3 1
∴ = 5 − coss 4 + 2
+ −
4 3 4
= , ≠0
1 3 1
⇒ =5− coss 4 + 2
+ − .
4 3 4
6.5.3 The demand function when the elasticity of demand is given

We know that,
Elasticity of demand =− ∙
− 1
⇒ =
Integrating both sides

1
− =
This equation yields the demand function as a function of .

The revenue function can be found out by using the relation, = .
Example 1: The elasticity of demand with respect to price for a commodity is

−6
, > 6 when the demand is . Find the demand function if the price is 2 when
demand is 8. Also find the revenue function.

−6
Elasticity of demand, =− ∙ =
⇒ =−
−6
Integrating both sides,
−6
=− +
⇒ log − 6 = − log + log (since c is a constant, ≡ log )

⇒ log − 6 + log = log
51 | P a g e
⇒ log − 6 = log
⇒ −6 = -------------- (1)
When = 2, = 8, from (1) we get
= 4.
∴ The demand function is,
4
= , > 6.
−6
4
Revenue, = or , > 6.
−6
Example 2: The elasticity of demand with respect to price for a commodity is a

constant and is equal to 2. Find the demand function and hence the total revenue
function, given that when the price is 1, the demand is 4.
Elasticity of demand, =2
⇒− ∙ =2
⇒ = −2
Integrating both sides,

⇒ = −2
ln = −2 ln + ln
2
ln + ln = ln
2
ln = ln
2
= --------------- (1)
Given, when = 4, =1
From (1) we get =4
2
∴ (1) ⇒ 2
= 4 or = , >0
2
Demand function = , >0;
2
Revenue = = =2 , > 0.
52 | P a g e
Exercise 6
1. The marginal cost function of manufacturing units of a commodity is
3−2 − 2
. If the fixed cost is 200, find the total cost and average cost
function.
2
2
2. If the marginal revenue for a commodity is = + + , find the
100
revenue function.
3. The marginal cost and marginal revenue with respect to a commodity of a firm
are given by = 4 + 0.8 and = 12. Find the total profit, given that the
total cost at zero output is zero. Hence, determine the profit when the output
is 50.
4. The marginal revenue function (in thousands of naira) of a commodity is
−0.05
7+ where is the number of units sold. Find the total revenue from
−5
the sale of 100 units = 0.0067
5. The marginal cost and marginal revenue are given by = 20 + and
20
= 30. The fixed cost is N200. Find the maximum profit.

6. ADAS company determines that the marginal cost of producing units is
= 10.6 . the fixed cost is N50. The selling price per unit is N5. Find
(i) Total Cost Function
(ii) Total Revenue Function
(iii) Profit Function
7. Find the cost of producing 3000 units of commodity if the marginal cost in
′
naira per unit is = + 2.50.
3000
′ 375
8. The marginal cost of a production level of units is given by = 85 + 2
.
Find the cost of producing 10 incremental units after 15 units have been
produced.
53 | P a g e

Lecture Note On Mathematics For Social S

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ADEOSUN S.A www.crescent-university.edu.

MATHEMATICS FOR SOCIAL SCIENTISTS II

ADEOSUN SAKIRU ABIODUN

Definition of a function: A function from to is a rule that assigns to each

(a) the image of −1

(i) the domain and range of ( )

is the set of real numbers when zero is deleted i.e. Rng h = ℝ\ 0 .

Different between a Function and an Equation

Some important types of functions:

4. Trigonometric function = sin

2. Find the zeros of the following functions:

3. If = 3 + 2, what is the value of whose image is 5? If also given that

§ 2.0 MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

2.2 Types of Matrices

(IV) Triangular Matrix

(V) The Transpose of a Matrix

(VI) Symmetric Matrix

(VII) Skew Symmetric Matrix

(VIII) Zero Matrix or Null Matrix

2.3 Basic Operations on Matrices

(b) Addition of Two Matrices

(c) Difference of Two Matrices

(d) Product of Two Matrices

Note: If is an × matrix and is an × matrix, then the product is

The determinant of is given by

2.5 Minor, Cofactor and Adjoint of a Matrix

II. Cofactor of a Matrix

Example 2: Find the cofactor of in the example 1 above.

III. The Adjoint of a Matrix

2.6 The Inverse of a Matrix � �−

meaning in the theory of matrices.

2.7 SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

2. This can be written in the form

= 3 −25 + 2 −23 + (−11)

Where ∆≝ , ∆1 is the determinant obtained by replacing the first column of by

2. The (3 × 3) matrix case:

2.8 BUSINESS APPLICATION

Solution: Consider the row matrix of the two types of schools:

§ 3.0 STATISTICAL DISTRIBUTION

− = Number of failure in – trials

Solution: Let denote the number of prospect.

2. The probability that a student is accepted to a prestigious college is 0.3. If 5

= 0.1681 + 0.3602 + 0.3087

3.2 POISSON DISTRIBUTION

For a Poisson distribution, the mean and the variance is given by = ,� = .

0.0064 + 0.0223 + 0.0521 + 0.0912 + 0.1277 + 0.149

3.3 NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

3.3.1 Features (Properties) of Normal Curve

3.3.2 The Standard Normal Curve

(c) � 1.25 2.34 = � 2.34 − � 1.25

3.3.3 STANDARDIZED NORMAL VARIABLE

Example 2: If ~ (510 , 6.25 ), calculate �( = 507.5 )

§ 4.0 LIMIT AND CONTINUITYOF FUNCTIONS

4.2 Rules for evaluating limits

(ii) lim → = lim → ( ) for any real number

Example: Evaluate the following limits:

4.3 CONTINUITY OF FUNCTION

§ 5.0 BASIC CONCEPT OF DIFFERENTIATION

5.1 Determination of Derivative from First Principle

Subtract equation (i) from equation (ii), gives

By the limit’s theory, we have

coefficient of with respect to .

Divide through by ∆ , we have