CHEM 1114 Introduction To Chemistry 1561079531

CHEM 1114 - Introduction to Chemistry
CHEM 1114 - Introduction to

Chemistry
Shirley Wacowich-Sgarbi and Langara

Chemistry Department
Contributors:, Paul Flowers, Klaus

Theopold, Richard Langley, Jessie A.
Key, David W. Ball, and Timothy
Soderberg
CHEM 1114 - Introduction to Chemistry by Shirley Wacowich-Sgarbi is licensed under a
Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License,
except where otherwise noted.
© Jun 25, 2018 is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial

ShareAlike License 4.0 license.
CHEM 1114 – Introduction to Chemistry was adapted by Shirley Wacowich-Sgarbi by

combining a courseware package from the Langara College Chemistry Department and a
combination of OpenStax textbooks, including:
Paul Flowers, Klaus Theopold and Richard Langley’s textbook Chemistry {Download for
free at http://cnx.org/contents/85abf193-2bd2-4908-8563-90b8a7ac8df6@9.311.};
Jessie A. Key’s textbook Introductory Chemistry- 1st Canadian Edition {Download for
free at https://open.bccampus.ca/
find-open-textbooks/?uuid=c7025f6b-f32b-4d0a-865e-f473d9f98fb6&contributor=&keywo
rd=&subject=Chemistry};
and portions of chapter 1 from Tim Soderberg’s textbook Organic Chemistry with a
Biological Emphasis {Download for free at https://open.bccampus.ca/
find-open-textbooks/?uuid=f01f98b4-925d-4e94-bc82-c1d707e6280e&contributor=&keyw
ord=&subject=Chemistry}.
Contents
Preface x
Acknowledgements xvi
About the Authors xx
Chapter 1. Chemistry: An Experimental Science
Introduction 2
1.1 Chemistry in Context 4
1.2 Phases and Classification of Matter 21
1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties 46
1.4 Laboratory Techniques for Separation of Mixtures 62
1.5 End of Chapter Problems 71
Chapter 2. Making Measurements
Introduction 76
2.1 Expressing Numbers 80
2.2 Measurements and Units 89
2.3 Measurement Uncertainty, Accuracy, and Precision 111
2.4 Mathematical Treatment of Measurement Results - Unit 139
Conversions
2.5 Density - Just Another Conversion Factor 165
Chapter 3. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
Introduction 184
3.1 Early Ideas in Atomic Theory 186
3.2 Evolution of Atomic Theory 199
3.3 Atomic Structure and Symbolism 213
3.4 Chemical Formulas 238
3.5 The Periodic Table 251
Chapter 4. Chemical Nomenclature
Introduction 276
4.1 Names of Elements 278
4.2 Ionic and Molecular Compounds 282
4.3 Nomenclature of Simple Ionic and Molecular Compounds 302
Chapter 5. Chemical Composition
Introduction 339
5.1 Mass Terminology 341
5.2 The Mole 353
5.3 Percent Composition 382
5.4 Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas 389
Chapter 6. Chemical Reactions and Equations
Introduction 421
6.1 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 424
6.2 Precipitation Reactions 449
6.3 Acid-Base Reactions 458
6.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 478
Chapter 7. Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions
Introduction 512
7.1 Reaction Stoichiometry 514
7.2 Limiting Reagent and Reaction Yields 534
7.3 Molarity 550
7.4 Other Units for Solution Concentrations 566
7.5 Quantitative Chemical Analysis 577
Chapter 8. Electronic Structure of Atoms
Introduction 601
8.1 Electromagnetic Energy 604
8.2 Quantization of the Energy of Electrons 618
8.3 Development of Quantum Theory 633
8.4 Electronic Structure of Atoms 645
8.5 Periodic Trends 672
Chapter 9. Chemical Bonding and Lewis Structures
Introduction 696
9.1 Ionic Bonding 701
9.2 Covalent Bonding 712
9.3 Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams 727
9.4 Electron Transfer: Ionic Bonds 735
9.5 Covalent Bonds and Lewis Structures 743
9.6 Formal Charges and Resonance 773
Chapter 10. Organic Chemistry
Introduction 796
10.1 Condensed Structure and Line Structure 798
10.2 Functional Groups 808
10.3 Nomenclature of Hydrocarbons and Alkyl Halides 837
10.4 Nomenclature of Alcohols and Ethers 870
10.5 Nomenclature of Amines 881
10.6 Nomenclature of Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids, 887
Esters, and Amides
10.7 Summary of Nomenclature Rules 901
Appendix A: The Periodic Table 920

Appendix B: Essential Mathematics 922
Appendix C: Units and Conversion Factors 929
Appendix D: Fundamental Physical Constants 933
Preface
About Chem 1114 – Introduction to Chemistry
CHEM 1114 – Introduction to Chemistry is designed for a one-semester

introductory chemistry course. For many students, this course provides
their first introduction to chemistry. As such, this textbook provides an
important opportunity for students to learn some of the core concepts of
chemistry and understand how those concepts apply to their lives and the
world around them. The text has been developed to meet the scope and
sequence of most introductory chemistry courses, including an initial
emphasis on the skills required (chapter 1 and 2) for the laboratory
portion of the course. A strength of CHEM 1114 – Introduction to
Chemistry is that instructors can customize the book, adapting it to the
approach that works best in their classroom.
Coverage and Scope

Our CHEM 1114 – Introduction to Chemistry textbook adheres to the
scope and sequence of most introductory chemistry courses nationwide.
We strive to make chemistry, as a discipline, interesting and accessible
to students. With this objective in mind, the content of this textbook
x
PREFACE • xi
has been developed and arranged to provide a logical progression of the

fundamental concepts of chemical science. Topics are introduced within
the context of familiar experiences whenever possible, treated with an
appropriate rigor to satisfy the intellect of the learner, and reinforced
in subsequent discussions of related content. The organization and
pedagogical features were developed and vetted with feedback from
chemistry educators dedicated to the project.
• Chapter 1: Chemistry: An Experimental Science
• Chapter 2: Making Measurements
• Chapter 3: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
• Chapter 4: Chemical Nomenclature
• Chapter 5: Chemical Composition
• Chapter 6: Chemical Reactions and Equations
• Chapter 7: Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions
• Chapter 8: Electronic Structure of Atoms
• Chapter 9: Chemical Bonding and Lewis Structures
• Chapter 10: Organic Chemistry
Pedagogical Foundation
Throughout CHEM 1114 – Introduction to Chemistry, you will find
features that draw the students into scientific inquiry by taking selected
xii • CHEM 1114 - INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
topics a step further. Students and educators alike will appreciate

discussions in these feature boxes.
• Chemistry in Everyday Life ties chemistry concepts to

everyday issues and real-world applications of science that
students encounter in their lives. Topics include cell phones,
solar thermal energy power plants, plastics recycling, and
measuring blood pressure.
• How Sciences Interconnect feature boxes discuss chemistry

in context of its interconnectedness with other scientific
disciplines. Topics include neurotransmitters, greenhouse
gases and climate change, and proteins and enzymes.
• Portrait of a Chemist features present a short bio and an

introduction to the work of prominent figures from history and
present day so that students can see the “face” of contributors
in this field as well as science in action.
Comprehensive Art Program

Our art program is designed to enhance students’ understanding of
concepts through clear, effective illustrations, diagrams, and photographs.
PREFACE • xiii
xiv • CHEM 1114 - INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
Interactives That Engage

CHEM 1114 – Introduction to Chemistry incorporates links to relevant
interactive exercises and animations that help bring topics to life through
our Link to Learning feature.
Assessments That Reinforce Key Concepts

In-chapter Examples walk students through problems by posing a
question, stepping out a solution, and then asking students to practice
the skill with a “Test Yourself” component. The book also includes
assessments at the end of each chapter so students can apply what they’ve
learned through practice problems and easily verify their solutions since
all answers have been included.
Curation
To broaden access and encourage community curation, CHEM 1114
– Introduction to Chemistry is “open source” licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share Alike (CC-BYNCSA)
license. The academic science community is invited to submit examples,
PREFACE • xv
emerging research, and other feedback to enhance and strengthen the

material and keep it current and relevant for today’s students.
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Authored by: Shirley Wacowich-Sgarbi. License: CC BY-NC-

SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• Authored by: Paul Flowers, Klaus Theopold and Richard

Langley. License: CC BY: Attribution
Acknowledgements
CHEM 1114 – Introduction to Chemistry was adapted by Shirley

Wacowich-Sgarbi by combining a courseware package from the Langara
College Chemistry Department and a combination of OpenStax
textbooks, including Paul Flowers, Klaus Theopold and Richard
Langley’s textbook Chemistry, Jessie A. Key’s textbook Introductory
Chemistry- 1st Canadian Edition and portions of chapter 1 from Tim
Soderberg’s textbook Organic Chemistry with a Biological Emphasis.
Shirley Wacowich-Sgarbi, June 2018
From Paul Flowers, Klaus Theopold and Richard Langley’s textbook Chemistry:
Content Leads
Paul Flowers, PhD, University of North Carolina – Pembroke
Klaus Theopold, PhD, University of Delaware
Richard Langley, PhD, Stephen F. Austin State University
Senior Contributing Author

William R. Robinson, PhD
Contributing Authors
Mark Blaser, Shasta College; Simon Bott, University of Houston; Donald Carpenetti, Craven
Community College; Andrew Eklund, Alfred University; Emad El-Giar, University of Louisiana at
Monroe; Don Frantz, Wilfrid Laurier University; Paul Hooker, Westminster College; Jennifer Look,
xvi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS • xvii
Mercer University; George Kaminski, Worcester Polytechnic Institute; Carol Martinez, Central New
Mexico Community College; Troy Milliken, Jackson State University; Vicki Moravec, Trine
University; Jason Powell, Ferrum College; Thomas Sorensen, University of
Wisconsin–Milwaukee; Allison Soult, University of Kentucky
Contributing Reviewers
Casey Akin, College Station Independent School District; Lara AL-Hariri, University of
Massachusetts–Amherst; Sahar Atwa, University of Louisiana at Monroe; Todd Austell, University of
North Carolina–Chapel Hill; Bobby Bailey, University of Maryland–University College; Robert Baker,
Trinity College; Jeffrey Bartz, Kalamazoo College; Greg Baxley, Cuesta College; Ashley Beasley
Green, National Institute of Standards and Technology; Patricia Bianconi, University of
Massachusetts; Lisa Blank, Lyme Central School District; Daniel Branan, Colorado Community
College System; Dorian Canelas, Duke University; Emmanuel Chang, York College; Carolyn Collins,
College of Southern Nevada; Colleen Craig, University of Washington; Yasmine Daniels, Montgomery
College–Germantown; Patricia Dockham, Grand Rapids Community College; Erick Fuoco, Richard
J. Daley College; Andrea Geyer, University of Saint Francis; Daniel Goebbert, University of
Alabama; John Goodwin, Coastal Carolina University; Stephanie Gould, Austin College; Patrick Holt,
Bellarmine University; Kevin Kolack, Queensborough Community College; Amy Kovach, Roberts
Wesleyan College; Judit Kovacs Beagle, University of Dayton; Krzysztof Kuczera, University of
Kansas; Marcus Lay, University of Georgia; Pamela Lord, University of Saint Francis; Oleg Maksimov,
Excelsior College; John Matson, Virginia Tech; Katrina Miranda, University of Arizona; Douglas
Mulford, Emory University; Mark Ott, Jackson College; Adrienne Oxley, Columbia College; Richard
Pennington, Georgia Gwinnett College; Rodney Powell, Coastal Carolina Community College; Jeanita
Pritchett, Montgomery College–Rockville; Aheda Saber, University of Illinois at Chicago; Raymond
Sadeghi, University of Texas at San Antonio; Nirmala Shankar, Rutgers University; Jonathan Smith,
Temple University; Bryan Spiegelberg, Rider University; Ron Sternfels, Roane State Community
College; Cynthia Strong, Cornell College; Kris Varazo, Francis Marion University; Victor Vilchiz,
Virginia State University; Alex Waterson, Vanderbilt University; JuchaoYan, Eastern New Mexico
University; Mustafa Yatin, Salem State University; Kazushige Yokoyama, State University of New
York at Geneseo; Curtis Zaleski, Shippensburg University; Wei Zhang, University of
Colorado–Boulder
From Jessie A. Key’s textbook Introductory Chemistry – 1st Canadian Edition [an adaption from
David W. Ball’s textbook Introductory Chemistry]:
I would like to acknowledge the team at BCcampus for all their hard work on this project. Project
managers Amanda Coolidge and Clint Lalonde, and the entire editorial team were instrumental to the
success of this work. As well, I would like to thank my colleagues at Vancouver Island University for
their support.
Jessie A. Key, September 2014
From David W. Ball’s textbook Introductory Chemistry:

xviii • CHEM 1114 - INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
The decision to write a new textbook from scratch is not one to be taken lightly. The author becomes
a saint to some and a sinner to others—and the feedback from the “others” is felt more acutely than the
feedback from the “some”! Ultimately, the decision to write a new book comes from the deep feeling
that an author can make a positive contribution to the field, and that it is ultimately time well invested.
It also helps that there are people supporting the author both personally and professionally. The first
person to thank must be Jennifer Welchans of Flat World Knowledge. I have known Jen for years;
indeed, she was instrumental in getting me to write my first academic book, a math review book that is
still available through another publisher. We reconnected recently, and I learned that she was working
for a new publisher with some interesting publishing ideas. With her urging, the editorial director and I
got together, first by phone and then in person, to discuss this project. With all the enthusiasm and ideas
that Flat World Knowledge brought to the table, it was difficult not to sign on and write this book. So
thanks, Jen—again. Hopefully this won’t be the last book we do together.
Thanks also to Michael Boezi, editorial director at Flat World Knowledge, for his enthusiastic
support. Jenn Yee, project manager at Flat World Knowledge, did a great job of managing the project
and all of its pieces—manuscript, answers to exercises, art, reviews, revisions, and all the other things
required to put a project like this together. Vanessa Gennarelli did a great job of filling in when
necessary (although Jenn should know better than to take a vacation during a project). Kudos to the
technology team at Flat World Knowledge, who had the ultimate job of getting this book out: Brian
Brennan, David Link, Christopher Loncar, Jessica Carey, Jon Gottfried, Jon Williams, Katie Damo,
Keith Avery, Mike Shnaydman, Po Ki Chui, and Ryan Lowe. I would also like to thank the production
team at Scribe Inc., including Stacy Claxton, Chrissy Chimi, Melissa Tarrao, and Kevin McDermott.
This book would not exist without any of these people.
Thanks to Mary Grodek and Bill Reiter of Cleveland State University’s Marketing Department for
assistance in obtaining a needed photograph.
A project like this benefits from the expertise of external reviewers. I would like to thank the
following people for their very thoughtful evaluation of the manuscript at several stages:
Sam Abbas, Palomar College; Bal Barot, Lake Michigan College; Sherri Borowicz, Dakota College
of Bottineau; Ken Capps, Central Florida Community College; Troy Cayou, Coconino Community
College; Robert Clark, Lourdes College; Daniel Cole, Central Piedmont Community College; Jo
Conceicao, Metropolitan Community College; Bernadette Corbett, Metropolitan Community
College; James Fisher, Imperial Valley College; Julie Klare, Gwinnett Technical College; Karen
Marshall, Bridgewater College; Tchao Podona, Miami-Dade College; Kenneth Rodriguez, California
State University–Dominguez Hills; Mary Sohn, Florida Institute of Technology; Angie Spencer,
Greenville Technical College; Charles Taylor, Pomona College; Susan T. Thomas, The University of
Texas at San Antonio; Linda Waldman, Cerritos College
Thanks especially to ANSR Source, who performed accuracy checks on various parts of the text.
Should any inaccuracies remain, they are the responsibility of the author. I hope that readers will let me
know if they find any; one of the beauties of the Flat World process is the ability to update the textbook
quickly, so that it will be an even better book tomorrow.
I am looking forward to seeing how the Flat World Knowledge model works with this book, and I
thank all the adopters and users in advance for their help in making it a better text.
David W. Ball, February 2011
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS • xix

• Authored by: Jessie A. Key and David W. Ball. License: CC

BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

About the Authors
Shirley Wacowich-Sgarbi, PhD, Langara College – Vancouver, BC
Dr. Shirley Wacowich-Sgarbi is a chemistry instructor at Langara College

in Vancouver, British Columbia. She received her B.Sc. (Honours) from
McGill University majoring in chemistry with the bio-organic option.
She then earned her PhD in organic chemistry from the University of
Alberta doing carbohydrate research while mentored by Dr. Dave Bundle.
After doing postdoctoral research on cancer vaccines with Dr. Chi-Huey
Wong at the Scripps Research Institute in San Diego, she worked a few
years in a biotech company in San Diego and then a few years in a biotech
company in Vancouver, BC. In 2005, she made the leap into teaching
chemistry at Langara College, where she currently teaches introductory
chemistry, general chemistry and organic chemistry.
Paul Flowers, PhD, University of North Carolina – Pembroke
Dr. Paul Flowers earned a BS in Chemistry from St. Andrews

Presbyterian College in 1983 and a PhD in Analytical Chemistry from
the University of Tennessee in 1988. After a one-year postdoctoral
xx
ABOUT THE AUTHORS • xxi
appointment at Los Alamos National Laboratory, he joined the University

of North Carolina–Pembroke in the fall of 1989. Dr. Flowers teaches
courses in general and analytical chemistry, and conducts experimental
research involving the development of new devices and methods for
microscale chemical analysis.
Klaus Theopold, PhD, University of Delaware
Dr. Klaus Theopold (born in Berlin, Germany) received his Vordiplom

from the Universität Hamburg in 1977. He then decided to pursue his
graduate studies in the United States, where he received his PhD in
inorganic chemistry from UC Berkeley in 1982. After a year of
postdoctoral research at MIT, he joined the faculty at Cornell University.
In 1990, he moved to the University of Delaware, where he is a Professor
in the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and serves as an
Associate Director of the University’s Center for Catalytic Science and
Technology. Dr. Theopold regularly teaches graduate courses in inorganic
and organometallic chemistry as well as General Chemistry.
Richard Langley, PhD, Stephen F. Austin State University
Dr. Richard Langley earned BS degrees in Chemistry and Mineralogy

from Miami University of Ohio in the early 1970s and went on to receive
his PhD in Chemistry from the University of Nebraska in 1977. After
a postdoctoral fellowship at the Arizona State University Center for
Solid State Studies, Dr. Langley taught in the University of Wisconsin
system and participated in research at Argonne National Laboratory.
xxii • CHEM 1114 - INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
Moving to Stephen F. Austin State University in 1982, Dr. Langley today

serves as Professor of Chemistry. His areas of specialization are solid
state chemistry, synthetic inorganic chemistry, fluorine chemistry, and
chemical education.
Jessie Key, PhD, Vancouver Island University – Nanaimo, BC
Dr. Jessie Key is a professor of chemistry at Vancouver Island University

in Nanaimo, British Columbia. He received his Ph.D from the University
of Alberta in Edmonton, Alberta, and his B.Sc (Hons.) from Thompson
Rivers University in Kamloops, British Columbia. Jessie’s main area
of research expertise is chemical biology; with a focus on fluorophore
synthesis, cellular labelling and bioassays. He currently teaches general
chemistry and organic chemistry at Vancouver Island University, and
does research on the use of technology in chemical education.
David Ball, PhD, Cleveland State University
Dr. Ball is a professor of chemistry at Cleveland State University in

Ohio. He earned his PhD from Rice University in Houston, Texas. His
specialty is physical chemistry, which he teaches at the undergraduate and
graduate levels. About 50 percent of his teaching is in general chemistry:
chemistry for nonscience majors, GOB, and general chemistry for science
and engineering majors. In addition to this text, he is the author of a
math review book for general chemistry students, a physical chemistry
textbook with accompanying student and instructor solutions manuals,
and two books on spectroscopy (published by SPIE Press). He is coauthor
ABOUT THE AUTHORS • xxiii
of a general chemistry textbook (with Dan Reger and Scott Goode),

whose third edition was published in January 2009. His publication list
has over 180 items, roughly evenly distributed between research papers
and articles of educational interest.
Timothy Soderberg, PhD, University of Minnesota
Dr. Soderbergh is an associate professor at the University of Minnesota.

He earned his PhD from the University of Utah. His main area of
research expertise include bioorganic chemistry, cloning and genetic
engineering, protein expression and purification and enzymatic assays.
Chapter 1. Chemistry: An
Experimental Science
Chapter Topics
• Chemistry in Context
• Phases and Classification of Matter
• Physical and Chemical Properties
• Laboratory Techniques for Separation of Mixtures
1
Introduction
Your alarm goes off and, after hitting “snooze” once or twice, you pry
yourself out of bed. You make a cup of coffee to help you get going, and
then you shower, get dressed, eat breakfast, and check your phone for
messages. On your way to school, you stop to fill your car’s gas tank,
almost making you late for the first day of chemistry class. As you find
a seat in the classroom, you read the question projected on the screen:
“Welcome to class! Why should we study chemistry?”
Figure 1. Chemical substances and processes are essential for our existence,
providing sustenance, keeping us clean and healthy, fabricating electronic devices,
enabling transportation, and much more. (credit “left”: modification of work by
“vxla”/Flickr; credit “left middle”: modification of work by “the Italian
voice”/Flickr; credit “right middle”: modification of work by Jason Trim; credit
“right”: modification of work by “gosheshe”/Flickr)
Do you have an answer? You may be studying chemistry because it

2
3 • CHEM 1114 - INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
fulfills an academic requirement, but if you consider your daily activities,

you might find chemistry interesting for other reasons. Most everything
you do and encounter during your day involves chemistry. Making coffee,
cooking eggs, and toasting bread involve chemistry. The products you
use—like soap and shampoo, the fabrics you wear, the electronics that
keep you connected to your world, the gasoline that propels your car—all
of these and more involve chemical substances and processes. Whether
you are aware or not, chemistry is part of your everyday world. In this
course, you will learn many of the essential principles underlying the
chemistry of modern-day life.

1.1 Chemistry in Context
Learning Objectives
By the end of this module, you will be able to:
• Outline the historical development of chemistry

• Provide examples of the importance of chemistry in everyday life
• Describe the scientific method
• Differentiate among hypotheses, theories, and laws
• Provide examples illustrating macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic domains
Throughout human history, people have tried to convert matter into more
useful forms. Our Stone Age ancestors chipped pieces of flint into useful
tools and carved wood into statues and toys. These endeavors involved
changing the shape of a substance without changing the substance itself.
But as our knowledge increased, humans began to change the
composition of the substances as well—clay was converted into pottery,
hides were cured to make garments, copper ores were transformed into
copper tools and weapons, and grain was made into bread.
Humans began to practice chemistry when they learned to control fire

and use it to cook, make pottery, and smelt metals. Subsequently, they
4
began to separate and use specific components of matter. A variety of

drugs such as aloe, myrrh, and opium were isolated from plants. Dyes,
such as indigo and Tyrian purple, were extracted from plant and animal
matter. Metals were combined to form alloys—for example, copper and
tin were mixed together to make bronze—and more elaborate smelting
techniques produced iron. Alkalis were extracted from ashes, and soaps
were prepared by combining these alkalis with fats. Alcohol was
produced by fermentation and purified by distillation.
Attempts to understand the behavior of matter extend back for more

than 2500 years. As early as the sixth century BC, Greek philosophers
discussed a system in which water was the basis of all things. You may
have heard of the Greek postulate that matter consists of four elements:
earth, air, fire, and water. Subsequently, an amalgamation of chemical
technologies and philosophical speculations were spread from Egypt,
China, and the eastern Mediterranean by alchemists, who endeavored to
transform “base metals” such as lead into “noble metals” like gold, and to
create elixirs to cure disease and extend life (Figure 1).
1.1 CHEMISTRY IN CONTEXT • 6
Figure 1. This portrayal shows an alchemist’s workshop

circa 1580. Although alchemy made some useful
contributions to how to manipulate matter, it was not
scientific by modern standards. (credit: Chemical Heritage
Foundation)
From alchemy came the historical progressions that led to modern

chemistry: the isolation of drugs from natural sources, metallurgy, and
the dye industry. Today, chemistry continues to deepen our understanding
and improve our ability to harness and control the behavior of matter.
This effort has been so successful that many people do not realize either
the central position of chemistry among the sciences or the importance
and universality of chemistry in daily life.
Chemistry: The Central Science
Chemistry is sometimes referred to as “the central science” due to its

interconnectedness with a vast array of other STEM disciplines (STEM

stands for areas of study in the science, technology, engineering, and
math fields). Chemistry and the language of chemists play vital roles in
biology, medicine, materials science, forensics, environmental science,
and many other fields (Figure 2). The basic principles of physics are
essential for understanding many aspects of chemistry, and there is
extensive overlap between many subdisciplines within the two fields,
such as chemical physics and nuclear chemistry. Mathematics, computer
science, and information theory provide important tools that help us
calculate, interpret, describe, and generally make sense of the chemical
world. Biology and chemistry converge in biochemistry, which is crucial
to understanding the many complex factors and processes that keep living
organisms (such as us) alive. Chemical engineering, materials science,
and nanotechnology combine chemical principles and empirical findings
to produce useful substances, ranging from gasoline to fabrics to
electronics. Agriculture, food science, veterinary science, and brewing
and wine making help provide sustenance in the form of food and drink
to the world’s population. Medicine, pharmacology, biotechnology, and
botany identify and produce substances that help keep us healthy.
Environmental science, geology, oceanography, and atmospheric science
incorporate many chemical ideas to help us better understand and protect
our physical world. Chemical ideas are used to help understand the
universe in astronomy and cosmology.
Figure 2. Knowledge of chemistry is central to understanding a wide range of

scientific disciplines. This diagram shows just some of the interrelationships
between chemistry and other fields.
What are some changes in matter that are essential to daily life? Digesting
and assimilating food, synthesizing polymers that are used to make
clothing, containers, cookware, and credit cards, and refining crude oil
into gasoline and other products are just a few examples. As you proceed
through this course, you will discover many different examples of
changes in the composition and structure of matter, how to classify these
changes and how they occurred, their causes, the changes in energy
that accompany them, and the principles and laws involved. As you
learn about these things, you will be learning chemistry, the study of
the composition, properties, and interactions of matter. The practice of
chemistry is not limited to chemistry books or laboratories: It happens
whenever someone is involved in changes in matter or in conditions that
may lead to such changes.
The Scientific Method
It is important to understand that chemistry as a science is a procedure as

well as sets of facts.
The ancient Greeks developed some powerful methods of acquiring

knowledge, particularly in mathematics, by using the process of
deduction. Deduction starts with certain basic assumptions or premises
and then certain conclusions must logically follow. But deduction alone is
NOT enough for obtaining scientific knowledge! The scientific method
originated in the seventeenth century with such people as Galileo, Francis
Bacon, Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton. The key to the method was to
make NO initial assumptions.
Chemistry is a science based on observation and experimentation. Doing

chemistry involves attempting to answer questions and explain
observations in terms of the laws and theories of chemistry, using
procedures that are accepted by the scientific community. There is no
single route to answering a question or explaining an observation, but
there is an aspect common to every approach: Each uses knowledge based
on experiments that can be reproduced to verify the results. Some routes
involve a hypothesis, a tentative explanation of observations that acts as
a guide for gathering and checking information. We test a hypothesis by
experimentation, calculation, and/or comparison with the experiments of
others and then refine it as needed.
Some hypotheses are attempts to explain the behavior that is summarized

in laws. The laws of science summarize a vast number of experimental

observations, and describe or predict some facet of the natural world. If
such a hypothesis turns out to be capable of explaining a large body of
experimental data, it can reach the status of a theory. Scientific theories
are well-substantiated, comprehensive, testable explanations of particular
aspects of nature. Theories are accepted because they provide satisfactory
explanations, but they can be modified if new data become available.
The path of discovery that leads from question and observation to law
or hypothesis to theory, combined with experimental verification of the
hypothesis and any necessary modification of the theory, is called the
scientific method (Figure 3).
Figure 3. The scientific method follows a process similar to

the one shown in this diagram. All the key components are
shown, in roughly the right order. Scientific progress is
seldom neat and clean: It requires open inquiry and the
reworking of questions and ideas in response to findings.
image
Finally, understand that science can be either qualitative or quantitative.

Qualitative observations are descriptive, they involve a description of

the quality of an object. For example, physical properties are generally
qualitative observations: sulfur is yellow, your math book is heavy, or that
statue is pretty. Quantitative observations represent the specific amount
of something; it means knowing how much of something is present,
usually by counting or measuring it. Therefore, quantitative observations
involve a quantity or number and units.As such, some quantitative
observation would include 25 students in a class, 650 pages in a book, or a
velocity of 66 miles per hour. Quantitative expressions are very important
in science; they are also very important in chemistry.
Example 1
Identify each statement as either a qualitative description or a quantitative description.

a) Gold metal is yellow.
b) A ream of paper has 500 sheets in it.
c) The weather outside is snowy.
d) The temperature outside is 24 degrees Fahrenheit.
Solution
a) Because we are describing a physical property of gold, this statement is qualitative.
b) This statement mentions a specific amount, so it is quantitative.
c) The word snowy is a description of how the day is; therefore, it is a qualitative statement.
d) In this case, the weather is described with a specific quantity—the temperature. Therefore, it is
quantitative.
Test Yourself
Are these qualitative or quantitative statements?
a) Roses are red, and violets are blue.
b) Four score and seven years ago….
Answers
a) qualitative b) quantitative
Steps of the scientific method:
1. Clearly state the problem as an observation with as much

information as possible. Observations should never explain
why.
2. Propose a hypothesis.
3. Set up and perform a controlled experiment: “controlled”

means you only alter one thing at a time.
4. State your conclusions.
5. Repeat as necessary.
Example 2
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION:

Which one of the following is NOT a part of the process of the scientific method?
A) Theory B) Hypothesis C) Opinion D) Basic assumptions
Solution
Opinion and basic assumptions are not part of the scientic method
Test Yourself
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION:
A student notices that the evening sky is usually red. She wants to find out why. Which of the
following would be the next step based on the scientific method?
A) She publishes an article on sky conditions.
B) She starts to experiment to see how dust affects light rays.
C) She thinks that dust in the sky makes the sky red.
D) Other scientists confirm her experiments.
Answer
C
Once MANY experiments confirm various hypotheses about something,

it may be developed into a theory. A theory can be used to make further
predictions about natural phenomena. Only negative evidence is
conclusive, therefore theories evolve and are changed over time. We keep
testing theories by using them to make predictions.
The Domains of Chemistry
Chemists study and describe the behavior of matter and energy in three
different domains: macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic. These
domains provide different ways of considering and describing chemical
behavior.
Macro is a Greek word that means “large.” The macroscopic domain is

familiar to us: It is the realm of everyday things that are large enough
to be sensed directly by human sight or touch. In daily life, this includes
the food you eat and the breeze you feel on your face. The macroscopic
domain includes everyday and laboratory chemistry, where we observe
and measure physical and chemical properties, or changes such as

density, solubility, and flammability.
The microscopic domain of chemistry is almost always visited in the

imagination. Micro also comes from Greek and means “small.” Some
aspects of the microscopic domains are visible through a microscope,
such as a magnified image of graphite or bacteria. Viruses, for instance,
are too small to be seen with the naked eye, but when we’re suffering
from a cold, we’re reminded of how real they are.
However, most of the subjects in the microscopic domain of

chemistry—such as atoms and molecules—are too small to be seen even
with standard microscopes and often must be pictured in the mind. Other
components of the microscopic domain include ions and electrons,
protons and neutrons, and chemical bonds, each of which is far too small
to see. This domain includes the individual metal atoms in a wire, the
ions that compose a salt crystal, the changes in individual molecules that
result in a color change, the conversion of nutrient molecules into tissue
and energy, and the evolution of heat as bonds that hold atoms together
are created.
The symbolic domain contains the specialized language used to

represent components of the macroscopic and microscopic domains.
Chemical symbols (such as those used in the periodic table), chemical
formulas, and chemical equations are part of the symbolic domain, as
are graphs and drawings. We can also consider calculations as part of
the symbolic domain. These symbols play an important role in chemistry
because they help interpret the behavior of the macroscopic domain

in terms of the components of the microscopic domain. One of the
challenges for students learning chemistry is recognizing that the same
symbols can represent different things in the macroscopic and
microscopic domains, and one of the features that makes chemistry
fascinating is the use of a domain that must be imagined to explain
behavior in a domain that can be observed.
A helpful way to understand the three domains is via the essential and
ubiquitous substance of water. That water is a liquid at moderate
temperatures, will freeze to form a solid at lower temperatures, and
boil to form a gas at higher temperatures (Figure 4) are macroscopic
observations. But some properties of water fall into the microscopic
domain—what we cannot observe with the naked eye. The description of
water as comprised of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, and the
explanation of freezing and boiling in terms of attractions between these
molecules, is within the microscopic arena. The formula H2O, which
can describe water at either the macroscopic or microscopic levels, is an
example of the symbolic domain. The abbreviations (g) for gas, (s) for
solid, and (l) for liquid are also symbolic.
Figure 4. (a) Moisture in the air, icebergs, and the ocean represent water in the
macroscopic domain. (b) At the molecular level (microscopic domain), gas
molecules are far apart and disorganized, solid water molecules are close together
and organized, and liquid molecules are close together and disorganized. (c) The
formula H2O symbolizes water, and (g), (s), and (l) symbolize its phases. Note that
clouds are actually comprised of either very small liquid water droplets or solid
water crystals; gaseous water in our atmosphere is not visible to the naked eye,
although it may be sensed as humidity. (credit a: modification of work by
“Gorkaazk”/Wikimedia Commons)
Key Concepts and Summary
Chemistry deals with the composition, structure, and properties of matter,

and the ways by which various forms of matter may be interconverted.
Thus, it occupies a central place in the study and practice of science and
technology. Chemists use the scientific method to perform experiments,
pose hypotheses, and formulate laws and develop theories, so that they
can better understand the behavior of the natural world. To do so, they
operate in the macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic domains.
Chemists measure, analyze, purify, and synthesize a wide variety of
substances that are important to our lives.
Exercises
1. Describe the scientific method.

2. Why do scientists need to perform experiments?
3. What is the scientific definition of a law? How does it differ from the everyday definition of a law?
4. Explain how you could experimentally determine whether the outside temperature is higher or
lower than 0 °C (32 °F) without using a thermometer.
5. Identify each of the following statements as being most similar to a hypothesis, a law, or a theory.
Explain your reasoning.
a) The pressure of a sample of gas is directly proportional to the temperature of the gas.
b) Matter consists of tiny particles that can combine in specific ratios to form substances with specific
properties.
c) At a higher temperature, solids (such as salt or sugar) will dissolve better in water.
6. Identify each of the underlined items as a part of either the macroscopic domain, the microscopic
domain, or the symbolic domain of chemistry. For those in the symbolic domain, indicate whether they
are symbols for a macroscopic or a microscopic feature.
a) A certain molecule contains one H atom and one Cl atom.
b) Copper wire has a density of about 8 g/cm3.
c) The bottle contains 15 grams of Ni powder.
d) A sulfur molecule is composed of eight sulfur atoms.
7. The amount of heat required to melt 2 lbs of ice is twice the amount of heat required to melt 1 lb of
ice. Is this observation a macroscopic or microscopic description of chemical behavior? Explain your
answer.
8. Which of these statements are qualitative observations?
a) The Titanic was the largest passenger ship build at that time.
b) The population of the United States is about 306,000,000 people.
c) The peak of Mount Everest is 29,035 feet above sea level.
Answers
1. Simply stated, the scientific method includes three steps: (1) stating a hypothesis, (2) testing the
hypothesis, and (3) refining the hypothesis.
2. Scientists perform experiments to test their hypotheses because sometimes the nature of natural
universe is not obvious.
3. A scientific law is a specific statement that is thought to be never violated by the entire natural universe.
Everyday laws are arbitrary limits that society puts on its members.
4. Place a glass of water outside. It will freeze if the temperature is below 0 °C.
5. a) law (states a consistently observed phenomenon, can be used for prediction); b) theory (a
widely accepted explanation of the behavior of matter); c) hypothesis (a tentative explanation, can be
investigated by experimentation)
6. a) symbolic, microscopic; b) macroscopic; c) symbolic, macroscopic; d) microscopic
7. Macroscopic. The heat required is determined from macroscopic properties.
8. a) yes b) no c) no
Glossary
chemistry: study of is the study of matter and its properties, the changes
that matter undergoes, and the energy associated with these changes.
hypothesis: tentative explanation of observations that acts as a guide for

gathering and checking information
law: statement that summarizes a vast number of experimental

observations, and describes or predicts some aspect of the natural world
macroscopic domain: realm of everyday things that are large enough to

sense directly by human sight and touch
microscopic domain: realm of things that are much too small to be

sensed directly
qualitative observations: they are descriptions of the quality of an

object.
quantitative observations: they represent the specific amount of

something; they involve a quantity or number and units.
scientific method: path of discovery that leads from question and

observation to law or hypothesis to theory, combined with experimental
verification of the hypothesis and any necessary modification of the
theory
symbolic domain: specialized language used to represent components of

the macroscopic and microscopic domains, such as chemical symbols,
chemical formulas, chemical equations, graphs, drawings, and
calculations
theory: well-substantiated, comprehensive, testable explanation of a

particular aspect of nature


• Authored by: Langara College Chemistry Department.

License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-
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1.2 Phases and Classification of
Matter
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe the basic properties of each physical state of matter: solid, liquid, and gas
• Define and give examples of atoms and molecules
• Classify matter as an element, compound, homogeneous mixture, or heterogeneous
mixture with regard to its physical state and composition
• Distinguish between mass and weight
• Apply the law of conservation of matter
Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and has mass, and it
is all around us. Solids and liquids are more obviously matter: We can
see that they take up space, and their weight tells us that they have mass.
Gases are also matter; if gases did not take up space, a balloon would stay
collapsed rather than inflate when filled with gas.
Solids, liquids, and gases are the three states of matter commonly found
on earth (Figure 1). A solid is rigid and possesses a definite shape. A
21
1.2 PHASES AND CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER • 22
liquid flows and takes the shape of a container, except that it forms a
flat or slightly curved upper surface when acted upon by gravity. (In zero
gravity, liquids assume a spherical shape.) Both liquid and solid samples
have volumes that are very nearly independent of pressure. A gas takes
both the shape and volume of its container.
Figure 1. The three most common states or phases of matter are solid, liquid, and
gas.
On the molecular level:
Solid: Atoms or molecules are in close contact, often in a highly

organized arrangement. Solids have the strongest forces holding atoms or
molecules together.
Liquid: Atoms or molecules are in close proximity (although generally

not as close as solids).
Gas: Atoms or molecules are far apart and move freely (very few forces
between them).
Figure 2. A molecular view of a solid, a liquid, and a gas.
A fourth state of matter, plasma, occurs naturally in the interiors of

stars. A plasma is a gaseous state of matter that contains appreciable
numbers of electrically charged particles (Figure 3). The presence of
these charged particles imparts unique properties to plasmas that justify
their classification as a state of matter distinct from gases. In addition
to stars, plasmas are found in some other high-temperature environments
(both natural and man-made), such as lightning strikes, certain television
screens, and specialized analytical instruments used to detect trace
amounts of metals.
Figure 3. A plasma torch can be

used to cut metal. (credit:
“Hypertherm”/Wikimedia
Commons)
In a tiny cell in a plasma television, the plasma emits ultraviolet light, which in turn causes the
display at that location to appear a specific color. The composite of these tiny dots of color makes up
the image that you see. Watch this video to learn more about plasma and the places you encounter it.
Some samples of matter appear to have properties of solids, liquids, and/

or gases at the same time. This can occur when the sample is composed
of many small pieces. For example, we can pour sand as if it were a liquid
because it is composed of many small grains of solid sand. Matter can
also have properties of more than one state when it is a mixture, such as
with clouds. Clouds appear to behave somewhat like gases, but they are
actually mixtures of air (gas) and tiny particles of water (liquid or solid).
The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter in it. One way
to measure an object’s mass is to measure the force it takes to accelerate

the object. It takes much more force to accelerate a car than a bicycle
because the car has much more mass. A more common way to determine
the mass of an object is to use a balance to compare its mass with a
standard mass.
Although weight is related to mass, it is not the same thing. Weight

refers to the force that gravity exerts on an object. This force is directly
proportional to the mass of the object. The weight of an object changes as
the force of gravity changes, but its mass does not. An astronaut’s mass
does not change just because she goes to the moon. But her weight on
the moon is only one-sixth her earth-bound weight because the moon’s
gravity is only one-sixth that of the earth’s. She may feel “weightless”
during her trip when she experiences negligible external forces
(gravitational or any other), although she is, of course, never “massless.”
The law of conservation of matter summarizes many scientific

observations about matter: It states that there is no detectable change in
the total quantity of matter present when matter converts from one type to
another (a chemical change) or changes among solid, liquid, or gaseous
states (a physical change). Brewing beer and the operation of batteries
provide examples of the conservation of matter (Figure 4). During the
brewing of beer, the ingredients (water, yeast, grains, malt, hops, and
sugar) are converted into beer (water, alcohol, carbonation, and flavoring
substances) with no actual loss of substance. This is most clearly seen
during the bottling process, when glucose turns into ethanol and carbon
dioxide, and the total mass of the substances does not change. This can
also be seen in a lead-acid car battery: The original substances (lead, lead
oxide, and sulfuric acid), which are capable of producing electricity, are
changed into other substances (lead sulfate and water) that do not produce
electricity, with no change in the actual amount of matter.
Figure 4. (a) The mass of beer precursor materials is the same as the mass of beer
produced: Sugar has become alcohol and carbonation. (b) The mass of the lead,
lead oxide plates, and sulfuric acid that goes into the production of electricity is
exactly equal to the mass of lead sulfate and water that is formed.
Although this conservation law holds true for all conversions of matter,
convincing examples are few and far between because, outside of the
controlled conditions in a laboratory, we seldom collect all of the material
that is produced during a particular conversion. For example, when you
eat, digest, and assimilate food, all of the matter in the original food is
preserved. But because some of the matter is incorporated into your body,
and much is excreted as various types of waste, it is challenging to verify

by measurement.
Atoms and Molecules
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that has the properties

of that element and can enter into a chemical combination. Consider the
element gold, for example. Imagine cutting a gold nugget in half, then
cutting one of the halves in half, and repeating this process until a piece of
gold remained that was so small that it could not be cut in half (regardless
of how tiny your knife may be). This minimally sized piece of gold is
an atom (from the Greek atomos, meaning “indivisible”) (Figure 5). This
atom would no longer be gold if it were divided any further.
Figure 5. (a) This photograph shows a gold nugget. (b) A scanning-tunneling

microscope (STM) can generate views of the surfaces of solids, such as this image
of a gold crystal. Each sphere represents one gold atom. (credit a: modification of
work by United States Geological Survey; credit b: modification of work by
“Erwinrossen”/Wikimedia Commons)
The first suggestion that matter is composed of atoms is attributed to

the Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus, who developed their
ideas in the 5th century BCE. However, it was not until the early
nineteenth century that John Dalton (1766–1844), a British schoolteacher
with a keen interest in science, supported this hypothesis with quantitative
measurements. Since that time, repeated experiments have confirmed
many aspects of this hypothesis, and it has become one of the central
theories of chemistry. Other aspects of Dalton’s atomic theory are still
used but with minor revisions (details of Dalton’s theory are provided in
the chapter on atoms and molecules).
An atom is so small that its size is difficult to imagine. One of the smallest
things we can see with our unaided eye is a single thread of a spider
web: These strands are about 1/10,000 of a centimeter (0.0001 cm) in
diameter. Although the cross-section of one strand is almost impossible
to see without a microscope, it is huge on an atomic scale. A single
carbon atom in the web has a diameter of about 0.000000015 centimeter,
and it would take about 7000 carbon atoms to span the diameter of the
strand. To put this in perspective, if a carbon atom were the size of a
dime, the cross-section of one strand would be larger than a football field,
which would require about 150 million carbon atom “dimes” to cover it.
(Figure 6) shows increasingly close microscopic and atomic-level views
of ordinary cotton.
Figure 6. These images provide an increasingly closer view: (a) a cotton boll, (b) a
single cotton fiber viewed under an optical microscope (magnified 40 times), (c)
an image of a cotton fiber obtained with an electron microscope (much higher
magnification than with the optical microscope); and (d and e) atomic-level
models of the fiber (spheres of different colors represent atoms of different
elements). (credit c: modification of work by “Featheredtar”/Wikimedia
Commons)
An atom is so light that its mass is also difficult to imagine. A billion lead
atoms (1,000,000,000 atoms) weigh about 3 × 10−13 grams, a mass that is
far too light to be weighed on even the world’s most sensitive balances. It
would require over 300,000,000,000,000 lead atoms (300 trillion, or 3 ×
1014) to be weighed, and they would weigh only 0.0000001 gram.
It is rare to find collections of individual atoms. Only a few elements,

such as the gases helium, neon, and argon, consist of a collection of
individual atoms that move about independently of one another. Other
elements, such as the gases hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and chlorine, are
composed of units that consist of pairs of atoms (Figure 7). One form of
the element phosphorus consists of units composed of four phosphorus
atoms. The element sulfur exists in various forms, one of which consists
of units composed of eight sulfur atoms. These units are called molecules.
A molecule consists of two or more atoms joined by strong forces called
chemical bonds. The atoms in a molecule move around as a unit, much

like the cans of soda in a six-pack or a bunch of keys joined together on a
single key ring. A molecule may consist of two or more identical atoms,
as in the molecules found in the elements hydrogen, oxygen, and sulfur,
or it may consist of two or more different atoms, as in the molecules
found in water. Each water molecule is a unit that contains two hydrogen
atoms and one oxygen atom. Each glucose molecule is a unit that contains
6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms. Like atoms,
molecules are incredibly small and light. If an ordinary glass of water
were enlarged to the size of the earth, the water molecules inside it would
be about the size of golf balls.
Figure 7. The elements hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur form molecules
consisting of two or more atoms of the same element. The compounds water,
carbon dioxide, and glucose consist of combinations of atoms of different
elements.
Classifying Matter
We can classify matter into several categories. Two broad categories

are mixtures and pure substances. A pure substance has a constant
composition. All specimens of a pure substance have exactly the same

makeup and properties. Any sample of sucrose (table sugar) consists of
42.1% carbon, 6.5% hydrogen, and 51.4% oxygen by mass. Any sample
of sucrose also has the same physical properties, such as melting point,
color, and sweetness, regardless of the source from which it is isolated.
We can divide pure substances into two classes: elements and

compounds. Pure substances that cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical changes are called elements. Iron, silver, gold,
aluminum, sulfur, oxygen, and copper are familiar examples of the more
than 100 known elements, of which about 90 occur naturally on the earth,
and two dozen or so have been created in laboratories.
Pure substances that can be broken down by chemical changes are called
compounds. This breakdown may produce either elements or other
compounds, or both. Mercury(II) oxide, an orange, crystalline solid, can
be broken down by heat into the elements mercury and oxygen (Figure
8). When heated in the absence of air, the compound sucrose is broken
down into the element carbon and the compound water. (The initial
stage of this process, when the sugar is turning brown, is known as
caramelization—this is what imparts the characteristic sweet and nutty
flavor to caramel apples, caramelized onions, and caramel). Silver(I)
chloride is a white solid that can be broken down into its elements, silver
and chlorine, by absorption of light. This property is the basis for the
use of this compound in photographic films and photochromic eyeglasses
(those with lenses that darken when exposed to light).
Figure 8. (a) The compound mercury(II) oxide, (b) when heated, (c) decomposes
into silvery droplets of liquid mercury and invisible oxygen gas. (credit:
modification of work by Paul Flowers)
Many compounds break down when heated. This site shows the breakdown of mercury oxide, HgO.
You can also view an example of the photochemical decomposition of silver chloride (AgCl), the basis
of early photography.
The properties of combined elements are different from those in the free,
or uncombined, state. For example, white crystalline sugar (sucrose) is
a compound resulting from the chemical combination of the element
carbon, which is a black solid in one of its uncombined forms, and
the two elements hydrogen and oxygen, which are colorless gases when
uncombined. Free sodium, an element that is a soft, shiny, metallic solid,
and free chlorine, an element that is a yellow-green gas, combine to form
sodium chloride (table salt), a compound that is a white, crystalline solid.
A mixture is composed of two or more types of matter that can be present

in varying amounts and can be physically separated by using methods
that use physical properties to separate the components of the mixture,

such as evaporation, distillation, and filtration (you will learn more about
this later). A mixture with a composition that varies from point to point
is called a heterogeneous mixture. Italian dressing is an example of a
heterogeneous mixture (Figure 9). Its composition can vary because we
can make it from varying amounts of oil, vinegar, and herbs. It is not
the same from point to point throughout the mixture—one drop may
be mostly vinegar, whereas a different drop may be mostly oil or herbs
because the oil and vinegar separate and the herbs settle. Other examples
of heterogeneous mixtures are chocolate chip cookies (we can see the
separate bits of chocolate, nuts, and cookie dough) and granite (we can
see the quartz, mica, feldspar, and more).
A homogeneous mixture, also called a solution, exhibits a uniform

composition and appears visually the same throughout. An example of a
solution is a sports drink, consisting of water, sugar, coloring, flavoring,
and electrolytes mixed together uniformly (Figure 9). Each drop of a
sports drink tastes the same because each drop contains the same amounts
of water, sugar, and other components. Note that the composition of a
sports drink can vary—it could be made with somewhat more or less
sugar, flavoring, or other components, and still be a sports drink. Other
examples of homogeneous mixtures include air, maple syrup, gasoline,
and a solution of salt in water.
Figure 9. (a) Oil and vinegar salad dressing is a heterogeneous mixture because its
composition is not uniform throughout. (b) A commercial sports drink is a
homogeneous mixture because its composition is uniform throughout. (credit a
“left”: modification of work by John Mayer; credit a “right”: modification of work
by Umberto Salvagnin; credit b “left: modification of work by Jeff Bedford)
Although there are just over 100 elements, tens of millions of chemical
compounds result from different combinations of these elements. Each
compound has a specific composition and possesses definite chemical
and physical properties by which we can distinguish it from all other
compounds. And, of course, there are innumerable ways to combine
elements and compounds to form different mixtures. A summary of
how to distinguish between the various major classifications of matter is
shown in (Figure 10).
Figure 10. Depending on its properties, a given substance can be classified as a

homogeneous mixture, a heterogeneous mixture, a compound, or an element.
Eleven elements make up about 99% of the earth’s crust and atmosphere
(Table 1). Oxygen constitutes nearly one-half and silicon about one-
quarter of the total quantity of these elements. A majority of elements on
earth are found in chemical combinations with other elements; about one-
quarter of the elements are also found in the free state.
Element Symbol Percent Mass Element Symbol Percent Mass
oxygen O 49.20 chlorine Cl 0.19
silicon Si 25.67 phosphorus P 0.11
aluminum Al 7.50 manganese Mn 0.09
iron Fe 4.71 carbon C 0.08
calcium Ca 3.39 sulfur S 0.06
sodium Na 2.63 barium Ba 0.04
potassium K 2.40 nitrogen N 0.03
magnesium Mg 1.93 fluorine F 0.03
hydrogen H 0.87 strontium Sr 0.02
titanium Ti 0.58 all others – 0.47
Table 1. Elemental Composition of Earth
Example 1
For the following substances, decide if it is a pure element, a pure compound, a homogeneous
mixture or a heterogeneous mixture. Briefly explain your choice.
a) muddy water b) copper c) distilled water d) sea water
Solution
a) Heterogeneous mixture.Muddy water is a mixture because the there are at least two components
(mud and water) and the amount of mud in the water can vary (not fixed proportions). It is
heterogeneous because the mud is likely not evenly distributed throughout.
b) Pure element.Copper is found on the periodic table, therefore it is an element. No other atom
types are mentioned, so we presume it is pure.
c) Pure compound.The process of distillation is meant to purify the water, so we presume no other
substances are in the sample. Water is made of two atom types so this is a compound.
d) Homogeneous mixture.This is a mixture, as we know there is salt and water, and they can be
present in different proportions (more or less salty water). Presuming there are no floating bits or living
things in the sample, the salt is uniform in its distribution in the water (being dissolved or mixed at the
atomic level), therefore this is homogeneous.
Test Yourself
For the following substances, decide if it is a pure element, a pure compound, a homogeneous
mixture or a heterogeneous mixture. Briefly explain your choice.
a) gold b) ice c) beer d) vitamin C
Answers
a) Pure element.Gold is found on the periodic table, therefore it is an element. No other atom types
are mentioned, so we presume it is pure.
b) Pure compound. If we presume the water was purified. If we imagine there was dissolved material in
the water (typical for tap water), when it froze it would contain these other substances in a non-uniform
distribution, in which case we would call it a heterogeneous mixture.
c) Homogeneous mixture.Beer is a mixture, and the components are uniformly distributed. If we
presume there are bubbles, certainly they would not be uniformly distributed, and therefore we would
classify it as a heterogeneous mixture.
d) Pure compound. Vitamin C is comprised of several different atom types present in a fixed proportion
(distinct molecules of a particular construct).
Example 2
Identify the following combinations as heterogeneous mixtures or homogenous mixtures.

a) soda water (Carbon dioxide is dissolved in water.)
b) a mixture of iron metal filings and sulfur powder (Both iron and sulfur are elements.)
Solution
a) Because carbon dioxide is dissolved in water, we can infer from the behaviour of salt crystals
dissolved in water that carbon dioxide dissolved in water is (also) a homogeneous mixture.
b) Assuming that the iron and sulfur are simply mixed together, it should be easy to see what is iron
and what is sulfur, so this is a heterogeneous mixture.
Test Yourself
Are the following combinations homogeneous mixtures or heterogeneous mixtures?

a) the human body
b) an amalgam, a combination of some other metals dissolved in a small amount of mercury
Answers
a) heterogeneous mixture b) homogeneous mixture
Chemistry Is Everywhere: In the Morning
Most people have a morning ritual, a process that they go through every morning to get ready for the
day. Chemistry appears in many of these activities.
• If you take a shower or bath in the morning, you probably use soap, shampoo, or both.
These items contain chemicals that interact with the oil and dirt on your body and hair to
remove them and wash them away. Many of these products also contain chemicals that
make you smell good; they are called fragrances.
• When you brush your teeth in the morning, you usually use toothpaste, a form of soap, to
clean your teeth. Toothpastes typically contain tiny, hard particles called abrasives that
physically scrub your teeth. Many toothpastes also contain fluoride, a substance that
chemically interacts with the surface of the teeth to help prevent cavities.
• Perhaps you take vitamins, supplements, or medicines every morning. Vitamins and other
supplements contain chemicals your body needs in small amounts to function properly.
Medicines are chemicals that help combat diseases and promote health.
• Perhaps you make some fried eggs for breakfast. Frying eggs involves heating them
enough so that a chemical reaction occurs to cook the eggs.
• After you eat, the food in your stomach is chemically reacted so that the body (mostly the
intestines) can absorb food, water, and other nutrients.
• If you drive or take the bus to school or work, you are using a vehicle that probably burns
gasoline, a material that burns fairly easily and provides energy to power the vehicle.
Recall that burning is a chemical change.
Figure 11. Chemistry in Real Life – Examples of chemistry can be found everywhere—such as in personal
hygiene products, food, and motor vehicles. “Soaps and Shampoos” by Takashi Ota is licensed under Creative
Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic; “English Breakfast” is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported; “Langley, Trans-Canada Highway” by James is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution- Share Alike 3.0 Unported.
These are just a few examples of how chemistry impacts your everyday life. And we haven’t even
made it to lunch yet!
Video source: The chemical world by keyj
(https://viuvideos.viu.ca/media/The+Chemical+World/0_ixlxmwe8)
Chemistry of Cell Phones
Imagine how different your life would be without cell phones (Figure 12) and other smart devices.
Cell phones are made from numerous chemical substances, which are extracted, refined, purified, and
assembled using an extensive and in-depth understanding of chemical principles. About 30% of the
elements that are found in nature are found within a typical smart phone. The case/body/frame consists
of a combination of sturdy, durable polymers comprised primarily of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen [acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and polycarbonate thermoplastics], and light, strong,
structural metals, such as aluminum, magnesium, and iron. The display screen is made from a specially
toughened glass (silica glass strengthened by the addition of aluminum, sodium, and potassium) and
coated with a material to make it conductive (such as indium tin oxide). The circuit board uses a
semiconductor material (usually silicon); commonly used metals like copper, tin, silver, and gold; and
more unfamiliar elements such as yttrium, praseodymium, and gadolinium. The battery relies upon
lithium ions and a variety of other materials, including iron, cobalt, copper, polyethylene oxide, and
polyacrylonitrile.
Figure 12. Almost one-third of naturally occurring elements are used to make a cell phone. (credit: modification of
work by John Taylor)
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. The basic building
block of matter is the atom, the smallest unit of an element that can
enter into combinations with atoms of the same or other elements. In
many substances, atoms are combined into molecules. On earth, matter
commonly exists in three states: solids, of fixed shape and volume;
liquids, of variable shape but fixed volume; and gases, of variable shape
and volume. Under high-temperature conditions, matter also can exist as
a plasma. Most matter is a mixture: It is composed of two or more types

of matter that can be present in varying amounts and can be separated
by physical means. Heterogeneous mixtures vary in composition from
point to point; homogeneous mixtures have the same composition from
point to point. Pure substances consist of only one type of matter. A pure
substance can be an element, which consists of only one type of atom
and cannot be broken down by a chemical change, or a compound, which
consists of two or more types of atoms.
Exercises
1. What properties distinguish solids from liquids? Liquids from gases? Solids from gases?
2. How does a homogeneous mixture differ from a pure substance? How are they similar?
3. How do molecules of elements and molecules of compounds differ? In what ways are they similar?
4. Many of the items you purchase are mixtures of pure compounds. Select three of these commercial
products and prepare a list of the ingredients that are pure compounds.
5. Classify each of the following as an element, a compound, or a mixture:
a) iron
b) oxygen
c) mercury oxide
d) pancake syrup
e) carbon dioxide
f) a substance composed of molecules each of which contains one hydrogen atom and one chlorine
atom
g) baking soda
h) baking powder
6. How are the molecules in oxygen gas, the molecules in hydrogen gas, and water molecules
similar? How do they differ?
7. As we drive an automobile, we don’t think about the chemicals consumed and produced. Prepare
a list of the principal chemicals consumed and produced during the operation of an automobile.
8. When elemental iron corrodes it combines with oxygen in the air to ultimately form red brown
iron(III) oxide which we call rust. a) If a shiny iron nail with an initial mass of 23.2 g is weighed after
being coated in a layer of rust, would you expect the mass to have increased, decreased, or remained
the same? Explain. b) If the mass of the iron nail increases to 24.1 g, what mass of oxygen combined
with the iron?
9. Yeast converts glucose to ethanol and carbon dioxide during anaerobic fermentation as depicted in
the simple chemical equation here:
a) If 200.0 g of glucose is fully converted, what will be the total mass of ethanol and carbon dioxide
produced?
b) If the fermentation is carried out in an open container, would you expect the mass of the container
and contents after fermentation to be less than, greater than, or the same as the mass of the container
and contents before fermentation? Explain.
c) If 97.7 g of carbon dioxide is produced, what mass of ethanol is produced?
10. Identify each as either matter or not matter.
a) a book b) hate c) light d) a car e) a fried egg
11. Distinguish between an element and a compound. About how many of each are known?
12. What is the difference between a homogeneous mixture and a heterogeneous mixture?
13. Identify each as a heterogeneous mixture or a homogeneous mixture.a) air b) dirt c) a
television set
14. Identify each as a heterogeneous mixture or a homogeneous mixture.
a) Salt is mixed with pepper. b) Sugar is dissolved in water. c) Pasta is cooked in boiling water.
Answers
1. Liquids can change their shape (flow); solids can’t. Gases can undergo large volume changes as
pressure changes; liquids do not. Gases flow and change volume; solids do not.
2. The mixture can have a variety of compositions; a pure substance has a definite composition. Both
have the same composition from point to point.
3. Molecules of elements contain only one type of atom; molecules of compounds contain two or
more types of atoms. They are similar in that both are comprised of two or more atoms chemically
bonded together.
4. Answers will vary. Sample answer: Gatorade contains water, sugar, dextrose, citric acid, salt,
sodium chloride, monopotassium phosphate, and sucrose acetate isobutyrate.
5. a) element; b) element; c) compound; d) mixture, e) compound; f) compound; g)
compound;
h) mixture
6. In each case, a molecule consists of two or more combined atoms. They differ in that the types of
atoms change from one substance to the next.
7. Gasoline (a mixture of compounds), oxygen, and to a lesser extent, nitrogen are consumed. Carbon
dioxide and water are the principal products. Carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides are produced in
lesser amounts.
8. a) Increased as it would have combined with oxygen in the air thus increasing the amount of matter
and therefore the mass. b) 0.9 g
9. a) 200.0 g; b) The mass of the container and contents would decrease as carbon dioxide is a
gaseous product and would leave the container. c) 102.3 g
10. a) matter b) not matter c) not matter d) matter
11. An element is a fundamental chemical part of a substance; there are about 115 known elements.
A compound is a combination of elements that acts as a different substance; there are over 50 million
known substances.
12. A homogeneous mixture, also called a solution, exhibits a uniform composition and appears
visually the same throughout. A mixture with a composition that varies from point to point is called a
heterogeneous mixture.
13. a) homogeneous b) heterogeneous c) heterogeneous
14. a) heterogeneous b) homogeneous c) heterogeneous
Glossary
atom: smallest particle of an element that can enter into a chemical

combination
compound: pure substance that can be decomposed into two or more

elements
element: substance that is composed of a single type of atom; a substance

that cannot be decomposed by a chemical change
gas: state in which matter has neither definite volume nor shape
heterogeneous mixture: combination of substances with a composition

that varies from point to point
homogeneous mixture: (also, solution) combination of substances with

a composition that is uniform throughout
liquid: state of matter that has a definite volume but indefinite shape
law of conservation of matter: when matter converts from one type to

another or changes form, there is no detectable change in the total amount
of matter present
mass: fundamental property indicating amount of matter
matter: anything that occupies space and has mass
mixture: matter that can be separated into its components by physical

means
molecule: bonded collection of two or more atoms of the same or

different elements
plasma: gaseous state of matter containing a large number of electrically

charged atoms and/or molecules
pure substance: homogeneous substance that has a constant composition
solid: state of matter that is rigid, has a definite shape, and has a fairly
constant volume
weight: force that gravity exerts on an object




1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties
Learning Objectives
• Identify properties of and changes in matter as physical or chemical

• Identify properties of matter as extensive or intensive
Recall that chemistry is the study of matter, its properties, the changes
that matter undergoes and the energy associated with these changes. In
this chapter, we’ll take a closer look at matter and energy and how they
are related.
When matter undergoes change, the process is often accompanied by a

change in energy — heat, light, sound, kinetic energy of moving matter,
etc… If heat is evolved during a change (is released) the change is
exothermic. If heat is needs to be supplied, the change is endothermic.
An important distinction, is that heat is energy that flows due to a

temperature difference, while temperature is a measure of the average
46
kinetic energy of the molecules in a substance. The faster they move, the
“hotter” it is.
The characteristics that enable us to distinguish one substance from

another are called properties. A physical property is a characteristic of
matter that is not associated with a change in its chemical composition.
Familiar examples of physical properties include density, color, hardness,
melting and boiling points, and electrical conductivity. We can observe
some physical properties, such as density and color, without changing
the physical state of the matter observed. Other physical properties, such
as the melting temperature of iron or the freezing temperature of water,
can only be observed as matter undergoes a physical change. A physical
change is a change in the state (Figure 1) or properties of matter without
any accompanying change in its chemical composition (the identities of
the substances contained in the matter), such as dissolution and dilution.
Figure 1. The different phase changes that matter can undergo.
We observe a physical change when wax melts, when sugar dissolves

in coffee, and when steam condenses into liquid water (Figure 2). Other
examples of physical changes include magnetizing and demagnetizing
metals (as is done with common antitheft security tags) and grinding
1.3 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES • 48
solids into powders (which can sometimes yield noticeable changes in

color). In each of these examples, there is a change in the physical
state, form, or properties of the substance, but no change in its chemical
composition.
Figure 2. (a) Wax undergoes a physical change when solid wax is heated
and forms liquid wax. (b) Steam condensing inside a cooking pot is a
physical change, as water vapor is changed into liquid water. (credit a:
modification of work by “95jb14”/Wikimedia Commons; credit b:
modification of work by “mjneuby”/Flickr)
The change of one type of matter into another type (or the inability
to change) is a chemical property. Examples of chemical properties
include flammability, toxicity, acidity, reactivity (many types), and heat
of combustion. Iron, for example, combines with oxygen in the presence
of water to form rust; chromium does not oxidize (Figure 3).
Nitroglycerin is very dangerous because it explodes easily; neon poses
almost no hazard because it is very unreactive.
Figure 3. (a) One of the chemical properties of iron is that it rusts;

(b) one of the chemical properties of chromium is that it does not.
(credit a: modification of work by Tony Hisgett; credit b:
modification of work by “Atoma”/Wikimedia Commons)
To identify a chemical property, we look for a chemical change. A

chemical change always produces one or more types of matter that
differ from the matter present before the change. The formation of rust
is a chemical change because rust is a different kind of matter than the
iron, oxygen, and water present before the rust formed. The explosion of
nitroglycerin is a chemical change because the gases produced are very
different kinds of matter from the original substance. Other examples of
chemical changes include reactions that are performed in a lab (such as
copper reacting with nitric acid), all forms of combustion (burning), and
food being cooked, digested, or rotting (Figure 4).
Figure 4. (a) Copper and nitric acid undergo a chemical change to

form copper nitrate and brown, gaseous nitrogen dioxide. (b) During
the combustion of a match, cellulose in the match and oxygen from
the air undergo a chemical change to form carbon dioxide and water
vapor. (c) Cooking red meat causes a number of chemical changes,
including the oxidation of iron in myoglobin that results in the
familiar red-to-brown color change. (d) A banana turning brown is a
chemical change as new, darker (and less tasty) substances form.
(credit b: modification of work by Jeff Turner; credit c: modification
of work by Gloria Cabada-Leman; credit d: modification of work by
Roberto Verzo)
Example 1
Classify each of the following as either a physical property, or a chemical property:

a) The boiling point of water is 100oC
b) Oxygen is a gas
c) Sugar ferments to form alcohol
Solution
a) Although this property describes a change, this change does not involve a change in substance.
H2O remains H2O despite what state it is in. Thus, this is a physical property.
b) This is an inherent property, and is therefore a physical property.
c) This property involves a change in substance, from sugar to alcohol. This is a chemical property.
Test Yourself
Classify each of the following as either a physical property, or a chemical property:
a) This page is white b) Wood burns c) Milk curdles if left out
Answers
a) physical property b) chemical property c) chemical property
Properties of matter fall into one of two categories. If the property

depends on the amount of matter present, it is an extensive property. The
mass and volume of a substance are examples of extensive properties; for
instance, a gallon of milk has a larger mass and volume than a cup of
milk. The value of an extensive property is directly proportional to the
amount of matter in question. If the property of a sample of matter does
not depend on the amount of matter present, it is an intensive property.
Temperature is an example of an intensive property. If the gallon and cup
of milk are each at 20 °C (room temperature), when they are combined,
the temperature remains at 20 °C. As another example, consider the
distinct but related properties of heat and temperature. A drop of hot
cooking oil spattered on your arm causes brief, minor discomfort,

whereas a pot of hot oil yields severe burns. Both the drop and the pot of
oil are at the same temperature (an intensive property), but the pot clearly
contains much more heat (extensive property).
Example 2
Classify each of the following as either a physical change, or a chemical change:

a) Steam condensing on a shower mirror
b) Iron forming rust
c) An antacid tablet fizzes when it comes in contact with stomach acid
d) Salt dissolves in water
Solution
a) The steam is water vapor, and when it condenses, it forms liquid water on the mirror.
This is a physical change.
b) Iron reacts with the oxygen in air, forming an iron oxide, which is rust.
This is a chemical change.
c) The fizzing in the water is the release of carbon dioxide gas when it comes in contact with acid.
This is a chemical change.
d) Dissolving is considered a physical change. Even though the bonds of salt are pulled apart when
dissolved, they do not form new bonds, or a new substance. If you evaporate the water, salt will remain.
Test Yourself
Classify each of the following as either a physical change, or a chemical change:
a) A rubber band stretches when you pull it
b) Acetone removes nail polish
c) Copper is melted at high temperatures
d) Silver metal tarnishes over time
Answers
a) physical change b) physical change (dissolving)
c) physical change d) chemical change
Example 3
Describe each process as a physical change or a chemical change.

a) Water in the air turns into snow.
b) A person’s hair is cut.
c) Bread dough becomes fresh bread in an oven.
Solution
a) Because the water is going from a gas phase to a solid phase, this is a physical change.
b) Your long hair is being shortened. This is a physical change.
c) Because of the oven’s temperature, chemical changes are occurring in the bread dough to make
fresh bread. These are chemical changes. (In fact, a lot of cooking involves chemical changes.)
Test Yourself
Identify each process as a physical change or a chemical change.
a) A fire is raging in a fireplace.
b) Water is warmed to make a cup of coffee.
Answers
a) chemical change b) physical change
Hazard Diamond
You may have seen the symbol shown in Figure 5 on containers of chemicals in a laboratory or
workplace. Sometimes called a “fire diamond” or “hazard diamond,” this chemical hazard diamond
provides valuable information that briefly summarizes the various dangers of which to be aware when
working with a particular substance.
Figure 5. The National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) hazard diamond summarizes the major hazards of a
chemical substance.
The National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) 704 Hazard Identification System was developed
by NFPA to provide safety information about certain substances. The system details flammability,
reactivity, health, and other hazards. Within the overall diamond symbol, the top (red) diamond
specifies the level of fire hazard (temperature range for flash point). The blue (left) diamond indicates
the level of health hazard. The yellow (right) diamond describes reactivity hazards, such as how readily
the substance will undergo detonation or a violent chemical change. The white (bottom) diamond points
out special hazards, such as if it is an oxidizer (which allows the substance to burn in the absence of
air/oxygen), undergoes an unusual or dangerous reaction with water, is corrosive, acidic, alkaline, a
biological hazard, radioactive, and so on. Each hazard is rated on a scale from 0 to 4, with 0 being no
hazard and 4 being extremely hazardous.
Decomposition of Water / Production of Hydrogen
Water consists of the elements hydrogen and oxygen combined in a 2 to 1 ratio. Water can undergo
a chemical change involving the water molecules being broken down into hydrogen and oxygen gases
by the addition of energy. One way to do this is with a battery or power supply, as shown in (Figure 6).
Figure 6. The decomposition of water is shown at the macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic levels. The battery
provides an electric current (microscopic) that decomposes water. At the macroscopic level, the liquid separates into
the gases hydrogen (on the left) and oxygen (on the right). Symbolically, this change is presented by showing how
liquid H2O separates into H2 and O2 gases.
The breakdown of water involves a rearrangement of the atoms in water molecules into different
molecules, each composed of two hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms, respectively. Two water
molecules form one oxygen molecule and two hydrogen molecules. The representation for what occurs,
, will be explored in more depth in later chapters.
The two gases produced have distinctly different properties. Oxygen is not flammable but is required
for combustion of a fuel, and hydrogen is highly flammable and a potent energy source. How might
this knowledge be applied in our world? One application involves research into more fuel-efficient
transportation. Fuel-cell vehicles (FCV) run on hydrogen instead of gasoline (Figure 7). They are more
efficient than vehicles with internal combustion engines, are nonpolluting, and reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, making us less dependent on fossil fuels. FCVs are not yet economically viable, however,
and current hydrogen production depends on natural gas. If we can develop a process to economically
decompose water, or produce hydrogen in another environmentally sound way, FCVs may be the way
of the future.
Figure 7. A fuel cell generates electrical energy from hydrogen and oxygen via an electrochemical process and
produces only water as the waste product.
While many elements differ dramatically in their chemical and physical

properties, some elements have similar properties. We can identify sets
of elements that exhibit common behaviors. For example, many elements
conduct heat and electricity well, whereas others are poor conductors.
These properties can be used to sort the elements into three classes:
metals (elements that conduct well), nonmetals (elements that conduct
poorly), and metalloids (elements that have properties of both metals and
nonmetals).
The periodic table is a table of elements that places elements with similar
properties close together (Figure 6). You will learn more about the
periodic table as you continue your study of chemistry.
Figure 6. The periodic table shows how elements may be grouped according to
certain similar properties. Note the background color denotes whether an element
is a metal, metalloid, or nonmetal, whereas the element symbol color indicates
whether it is a solid, liquid, or gas.
All substances have distinct physical and chemical properties, and may
undergo physical or chemical changes. Physical properties, such as
hardness and boiling point, and physical changes, such as melting or
freezing, do not involve a change in the composition of matter. Chemical
properties, such flammability and acidity, and chemical changes, such
as rusting, involve production of matter that differs from that present
beforehand.
Measurable properties fall into one of two categories. Extensive

properties depend on the amount of matter present, for example, the mass
of gold. Intensive properties do not depend on the amount of matter
present, for example, the density of gold. Heat is an example of an
extensive property, and temperature is an example of an intensive
property.
Exercises
1. Classify each of the following changes as physical or chemical:

a) condensation of steam
b) burning of gasoline
c) souring of milk
d) dissolving of sugar in water
e) melting of gold
2. The volume of a sample of oxygen gas changed from 10 mL to 11 mL as the temperature changed.
Is this a chemical or physical change?
3. Explain the difference between extensive properties and intensive properties.
4. The density (d) of a substance is an intensive property that is defined as the ratio of its mass (m)
to its volume (V).
Considering that mass and volume are both extensive properties, explain why their ratio, density, is
intensive.
5. Does each statement represent a physical property or a chemical property?
a) Sulfur is yellow.
b) Steel wool burns when ignited by a flame.
c) A gallon of milk weighs over eight pounds.
6. Does each statement represent a physical property or a chemical property?
a) A pile of leaves slowly rots in the backyard.
b) In the presence of oxygen, hydrogen can interact to make water.
c) Gold can be stretched into very thin wires.
7. Does each statement represent a physical change or a chemical change?
a) Water boils and becomes steam.
b) Food is converted into usable form by the digestive system.
c) The alcohol in many thermometers freezes at about −40 degrees Fahrenheit.
8. Does each statement represent a physical change or a chemical change?
a) Graphite, a form of elemental carbon, can be turned into diamond, another form of carbon, at very
high temperatures and pressures.
b) The elements sodium and chlorine come together to make a new substance called
sodium chloride.
Answers
1. a) physical; b) chemical; c) chemical; d) physical; e) physical
2. physical
3. The value of an extensive property depends upon the amount of matter being considered, whereas
the value of an intensive property is the same regardless of the amount of matter being considered.
4. Being extensive properties, both mass and volume are directly proportional to the amount of
substance under study. Dividing one extensive property by another will in effect “cancel” this
dependence on amount, yielding a ratio that is independent of amount (an intensive property).
5. a) physical property b) chemical property c) physical property
6. a) chemical property b) chemical property c) physical property
7. a) physical change b) chemical change c) physical change

8. a) physical change b) chemical change
Glossary
chemical change: change producing a different kind of matter from the

original kind of matter
chemical property: behavior that is related to the change of one kind of

matter into another kind of matter
endothermic: if heat is needs to be supplied, for a change to occur
energy: the ability to do “work”— that is, for a force to act on something
and push some distance
exothermic: if heat is released during a change
extensive property: property of a substance that depends on the amount

of the substance
intensive property: property of a substance that is independent of the

amount of the substance
physical change: change in the state or properties of matter that does not
involve a change in its chemical composition
physical property: characteristic of matter that is not associated with any

change in its chemical composition




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1.4 Laboratory Techniques for
Separation of Mixtures
Learning Objectives
• Describe different methods of separation.

• Identify which separation method is most suited for a given mixture.
• Identify what physical change occurs during the separation process.
A mixture is composed of two or more types of matter that can be present

in varying amounts and can be physically separated by using methods that
use physical properties to separate the components of the mixture, such
as evaporation, distillation, filtration and chromatography.
Evaporation can be used as a separation method to separate components

of a mixture with a dissolved solid in a liquid. The liquid is evaporated,
meaning it is convert from its liquid state to gaseous state. This often
requires heat. Once the liquid is completely evaporated, the solid is all
that is left behind.
62
Figure 1. Evaporation can be used

as a separation technique.
Distillation is a separation technique used to separate components of a

liquid mixture by a process of heating and cooling, which exploits the
differences in the volatility of each of the components.
Figure 2. Distillation apparatus.
Distillation procedure: 1) the round bottom flask contains the liquid

mixture which must be heated to a vigorous boil, 2) the component with
the lower boiling point will change into its gaseous state, 3) upon contact
with the water-cooled condenser, the gas will condense, 4) trickle down
into the graduated cylinder where the chemist can them recuperate the
1.4 LABORATORY TECHNIQUES FOR SEPARATION OF MIXTURES • 64
final distilled liquid, and 5) the other liquid component remains in the
round bottom flask.
Filtration is a separation technique used to separate the components of a

mixture containing an undissolved solid in a liquid. Filtration may be
done cold or hot, using gravity or applying vacuum, using a Buchner or
Hirsch funnel or a simple glass funnel . The exact method used depends
on the purpose of the filtration, whether it is for the isolation of a solid
from a mixture or removal of impurities from a mixture.
Figure 3. Filtration apparatus.
Filtration procedure: 1) the mixture is pored through a funnel lined with

a filter paper, 2) the filtrate (liquid) drips through to the filter flask, 3) the
solid remains in the funnel.
Though chromatography is a simple technique in principle, it remains

the most important method for the separation of mixtures into its
components. It is quite versatile for it can be used to separate mixtures
of solids, or of liquids, or mixtures of solids and liquids combined, or
in the case of gas chromatography, can separate mixtures of gases. The
two elements of chromatography are the stationary phase and the mobile
phase. There are many choices of stationary phases, some being alumina,
silica, and even paper. The mobile phase, in liquid chromatography, can
also vary. It is often either a solvent or a mixture of solvents and is
often referred to as the eluant.. A careful choice of eluting solvent helps
to make the separation more successful. The mixture is placed on the
stationary phase. The eluant passes over the mixture and continues to
pass through the stationary phase carrying along the components of the
mixture. If a component in the mixture has greater affinity for the mobile
phase (eluant) than the stationary phase, it will tend to be carried along
easily with the eluant. If another component in the mixture has a greater
affinity for the stationary phase than the mobile phase then it will not be
carried along so easily. A separation is thus obtained when the different
components in a mixture have different affinity for the stationary and
mobile phase. Three important types of chromatography based on the
principles discussed above are: 1) thin layer chromatography (TLC), 2)
column chromatography, and 3) gas chromatography.
Figure 4. Thin layer

chromatography is a one type of
chromatography. a) The stationary
phase can be a thin film of alumina
or silica on glass or even paper.
The plate is placed in a developing
tank which contains the mobile
phase (eluant) which travels up the
plate by capillary action. b) A
separation is obtained because the
component of the mixture that has
a stronger affinity for the eland
(compound 2) travels faster up the
plate, than the component that has
a strong affinity to the stationary
phase (compound 1).
Example 1
Identify which separation method is most suited for the following mixtures:
Separation A mixture of a solid A mixture of solid

A mixture of solids A mixture of liquids
methods: dissolved in a liquid and liquid
Evaporation
Distillation
Filtration
Chromatography
Solution
Separation A mixture of a solid A mixture of solid

A mixture of solids A mixture of liquids
methods: dissolved in a liquid and liquid
Evaporation NO NO YES* YES**
Distillation NO YES* YES* NO
Filtration NO NO NO YES
Chromatography YES* YES* YES* YES*
* Success depends on the physical properties of the components in the mixture.

** Would work but filtration is so much faster.
Test Yourself
What method of separation would be most effective on the following mixtures:
a) Sea water
b) Gold nuggets in water.
c) A solution of alcohol (liquid) and water.
Answers
a) evaporation or distillation (chromatography not effective here)
b) filtration
c) distillation
Mixtures can be physically separated by using methods that use

differences in physical properties to separate the components of the
mixture, such as evaporation, distillation, filtration and chromatography.
Which separation method used when attempting to separate a mixture
depends on what kind of mixture it is (what states of matter are present)
and on the physical properties of the components.
Exercises
1. What method of separation would be most effective on the following mixtures:

a) Vinegar (a solution of acetic acid (liquid) in water)
b) Loose tea leaves in tea.
c) Copper sulfate (solid) in water.
2. Identify what physical change occurs during the following separation processes.
a) Distillation of a solution comprising of 50:50 acetone and water
b) Filtration to remove tea leaves from tea.
c) Evaporation for water from a sugar solution to obtain sugar crystals.
d) Taking a sand and salt mixing, mixing it with water, followed by filtration to remove the sand,
then evaporating the salt solution to retrieve salt crystals.
3. Propose a method of separate the following complex mixtures:

a) A mixture of sand, sea water (water and salt)
b) A mixture of marbles, small gold nuggets, and sugar
Answers
1. a) distillation; b) filtration; c) evaporation
2. a) The lower boiling liquid (acetone) would undergo a phase change (evaporation) upon heating,
then once the gaseous acetone comes in contact with the condenser it would under another phase
change (condensation). b) No phase changes, this simply involves physical removal of the leaves via
filtration. c) Water would undergo a phase change (evaporation) upon heating.
c) The salt would dissolve in the water, then during the evaporation step, water would undergo a
phase change (evaporation) upon heating.
3. a) Filtration to remove the sand, then evaporating the salt solution to retrieve salt crystals.
b) Manual separation of the marbles (removing by using your fingers), dissolve the rest in water, then
filtration to remove the gold nuggets, and then evaporation of the water to retrieve sugar crystals.
Glossary
chromatography: is a separation technique based on how the different

components in a mixture have different affinity for the stationary and
mobile phase
distillation: is a separation technique used to separate components of a

liquid mixture by a process of heating and cooling
evaporation: is a separation method used to separate of a mixture of

a liquid with a dissolved solid, involving removal of a liquid by
evaporating it and leaving behind a solid
filtration: is a separation technique used to separate the components of

a mixture containing an undissolved solid in a liquid by using a funnel
lined with filter paper to retain the solids while letting the liquid through.
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1.5 End of Chapter Problems
1. Fill in the flowchart with the following terms related to the scientific
method so that it illustrates the proper order of the steps. Terms:
Prediction, Hypothesis, Theory, Experiments, Observation, Experiments.
2. Consider three samples of H2O: 1g of ice, 1g of water and 1g of vapor.

How do the volumes of these samples compare with one another? How
is the volume related to the physical state?
3. Classify the following either a physical change, physical property,

chemical change or chemical property:
a) Oxygen is a gas
b) Dry ice sublimes (goes directly from a solid to a gas)
c) A bottle of wine turning to vinegar
71
1.5 END OF CHAPTER PROBLEMS • 72
d) Sugar dissolving in water

e) Acid produced by bacteria can cause tooth decay
4. Correct the following statements:

a) Elements in a period have similar chemical properties.
b) In the modern periodic table, the elements are arranged in order of
increasing atomic mass.
c) Elements can be classified as either metalloid or nonmetal/
5. Clearly explain the similarities and differences between molecules and

mixtures.
6. How are elements and compounds similar? How are they different?
7. How are compounds and molecules similar? How are they different?
8. How are compounds and mixtures similar? How are they different?
9. Classify each of the following using as many terms as are applicable

from this list: element, compound, molecule, homogeneous mixture,
heterogeneous mixture, pure substance.
a) sugar b) pure apple juice c) oxygen gas in
air d) distilled water
Answers:
1.
2. The volume of the vapor will be the largest, as it contains the most
empty space. The volume of the liquid will be the next largest, and the
volume of the solid will be the smallest because atoms are tightly packed
in a solid (thus very little empty space).
3. a) physical property b) physical change c) chemical change d)

physical change e) chemical property
4. a) Elements in a periodgrouphave similar chemical properties.

b) In the modern periodic table, the elements are arranged in order of
increasing atomic massnumber.
c) Elements can be classified as either metalloid or nonmetal or metal
5. Both molecules and mixtures contain more than one thing. Molecules
contain more than one atom, whereas mixtures contain more than one
substance. A molecule is a pure substance, whereas a mixture is not. In a
molecule, the “things” (atoms) are bonded, where as in a mixture they are
not. A molecule has a fixed ratio of “things” (atoms), whereas a mixture
has a variable ratio.
6. Both are pure substances (hence have fixed composition) but

compounds contain more than one element bonded together, whereas

elements contain only one type of atom.
7. Both contain fixed ratios of bonded atoms (at least 2 atoms), but
compounds must contain >1 type of element, whereas molecules CAN be
2 or more of the same element. All compounds are molecules but not all
molecules are compounds.
8. Both contain more than 1 substance, but compounds are bonded,

whereas mixtures are not AND compounds must have a FIXED RATIO
(fixed composition, as they are a pure substance) whereas mixtures can
have variable composition (are NOT pure substances!)
9. a) pure substance, compound, exists as molecules

b) homogeneous mixture
c) element, exists as molecules (O2), pure substance
d) molecule, compound, pure substance


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Chapter 2. Making
Measurements
Chapter Topics
• Expressing Numbers
• Measurements and Units
• Measurement Uncertainty, Accuracy, and Precision
• Mathematical Treatment of Measurement Results – Unit Conversions
• Density – Just Another Conversion Factor
75
Introduction
76
Introduction
Data suggest that a male child will weigh 50% of his adult weight at
about 11 years of age. However, he will reach 50% of his adult height
at only 2 years of age. It is obvious, then, that people eventually stop
growing up but continue to grow out. Data also suggest that the average
human height has been increasing over time. In industrialized countries,
the average height of people increased 5.5 inches from 1810 to 1984.
Most scientists attribute this simple, basic measurement of the human
body to better health and nutrition.
77
• 78
In 1983, an Air Canada airplane

had to make an emergency
landing because it unexpectedly
ran out of fuel; ground personnel
had filled the fuel tanks with a
certain number of pounds of fuel,
not kilograms of fuel. In 1999, the
Mars Climate Orbiter spacecraft
was lost attempting to orbit Mars
because the thrusters were
programmed in terms of English
units, even though the engineers
built the spacecraft using metric
Source: Chart courtesy of Centers for units. In 1993, a nurse mistakenly
Disease Control and Prevention,
http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/ administered 23 units of morphine
nhanes.htm#Set%201. to a patient rather than the “2–3”
units prescribed. (The patient
ultimately survived.) These incidents occurred because people weren’t
paying attention to quantities.
Chemistry, like all sciences, is quantitative. It deals with quantities, things

that have amounts and units. Making measurements is very important in
chemistry, as is dealing with quantities and relating quantities to each
other.


2.1 Expressing Numbers
Learning Objective
• Learn to express numbers properly.
Quantities have two parts: the number and the unit. The number tells
“how many.” It is important to be able to express numbers properly so
that the quantities can be communicated properly.
Standard notation is the straightforward expression of a number. Numbers

such as 17, 101.5, and 0.00446 are expressed in standard notation. For
relatively small numbers, standard notation is fine. However, for very
large numbers, such as 306,000,000, or for very small numbers, such
as 0.000000419, standard notation can be cumbersome because of the
number of zeros needed to place nonzero numbers in the proper position.
Scientific notation is an expression of a number using powers of 10.

Powers of 10 are used to express numbers that have many zeros:
80
100 = 1
101 = 10
102 = 100 = 10 × 10
103 = 1,000 = 10 × 10 × 10
104 = 10,000 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10
and so forth. The raised number to the right of the 10 indicating the
number of factors of 10 in the original number is the exponent. (Scientific
notation is sometimes called exponential notation.) The exponent’s value
is equal to the number of zeros in the number expressed in standard
notation.
Small numbers can also be expressed in scientific notation but with

negative exponents:
10−1 = 0.1 = 1/10
10−2 = 0.01 = 1/100
10−3 = 0.001 = 1/1,000
10−4 = 0.0001 = 1/10,000
and so forth. Again, the value of the exponent is equal to the number of
zeros in the denominator of the associated fraction. A negative exponent
implies a decimal number less than one.
A number is expressed in scientific notation by writing the first nonzero

2.1 EXPRESSING NUMBERS • 82
digit, then a decimal point, and then the rest of the digits. The part of a
number in scientific notation that is multiplied by a power of 10 is called
the coefficient. Then determine the power of 10 needed to make that
number into the original number and multiply the written number by the
proper power of 10. For example, to write 79,345 in scientific notation,
79,345 = 7.9345 × 10,000 = 7.9345 × 104
Thus, the number in scientific notation is 7.9345 × 104. For small

numbers, the same process is used, but the exponent for the power of 10
is negative:
0.000411 = 4.11 × 1/10,000 = 4.11 × 10−4
Typically, the extra zero digits at the end or the beginning of a number are
not included.
Example 1
Express these numbers in scientific notation.

a) 306,000 b) 0.00884 c) 2,760,000 d) 0.000000559
Solution
a) The number 306,000 is 3.06 times 100,000, or 3.06 times 105. In scientific notation, the number is
3.06 × 105.
b) The number 0.00884 is 8.84 times 1/1,000, which is 8.84 times 10−3. In scientific notation, the
number is 8.84 × 10−3.
c) The number 2,760,000 is 2.76 times 1,000,000, which is the same as 2.76 times 106. In scientific
notation, the number is written as 2.76 × 106. Note that we omit the zeros at the end of the original
number.
d) The number 0.000000559 is 5.59 times 1/10,000,000, which is 5.59 times 10−7. In scientific
notation, the number is written as 5.59 × 10−7.
Test Yourself
Express these numbers in scientific notation.
a) 23,070 b) 0.0009706
Answers
a) 2.307 × 104 b) 9.706 × 10−4
Another way to determine the power of 10 in scientific notation is to

count the number of places you need to move the decimal point to get
a numerical value between 1 and 10. The number of places equals the
power of 10. This number is positive if you move the decimal point to the
right and negative if you move the decimal point to the left.
Many quantities in chemistry are expressed in scientific notation. When

performing calculations, you may have to enter a number in scientific
notation into a calculator. Be sure you know how to correctly enter
a number in scientific notation into your calculator. Different models
of calculators require different actions for properly entering scientific
notation. If in doubt, consult your instructor immediately.
Example 2
Represent the following numbers in scientific notation.

a) 12,500 b) 1470 c) 0.0024
Solution
a) Move the decimal until you have a number between 1 and 10:
Because the decimal was moved 4 places to the left, the power of ten is 4.
The answer is 25 x 104
b) The decimal was moved 3 places to the left, the answer is 47 x 103
c) The decimal was moved 3 places to the right, the answer is 4 x 10-3
Test Yourself
Represent the following numbers in scientific notation
a) 247 b) 100 c) 0.2089 d) 0.000000003
Answers
a) 2.47 × 102 b) 1 × 102 b) 3 × 10-9
Example 3
Represent the following scientific notation numbers in normal notation

a) 3.06 x 10-2 b) 2.47 x 106
Solution
a) You now have to move the decimal in the opposite direction, thus a negative power of 10
requires a movement to the right (2 spaces): 3.06 → 0.0306
b) The positive exponent requires a movement 6 spaces to the left, adding zeros as required.
2.47 → 2,470,000
Test Yourself
Represent the following scientific notation numbers in normal notation
a) 1.087 x 10-6 b) 4 x 104
Answers
a) 0.000001087 b) 40000
Standard notation expresses a number normally. Scientific notation

expresses a number as a coefficient times a power of 10. The power of 10
is positive for numbers greater than 1 and negative for numbers between
0 and 1.
This calculator shows only the coefficient and the power of 10 to

represent the number in scientific notation. Thus, the number being
displayed is 3.84951 × 1018, or 3,849,510,000,000,000,000. Source:
“Casio”Asim Bijarani is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution
2.0 Generic.
Exercises
1. Express these numbers in scientific notation.

a) 56.9 b) 563,100 c) 0.0804 d) 0.00000667

a) −890,000 b) 602,000,000,000 c) 0.0000004099 d) 0.000000000000011

a) 0.00656 b) 65,600 c) 4,567,000 d) 0.000005507

a) 65 b) −321.09 c) 0.000077099 d) 0.000000000218
5. Express these numbers in standard notation.

a) 1.381 × 105 b) 5.22 × 10−7 c) 9.998 × 104

a) 7.11 × 10−2 b) 9.18 × 102 c) 3.09 × 10−10

a) 8.09 × 100 b) 3.088 × 10−5 c) −4.239 × 102

a) 2.87 × 10−8 b) 1.78 × 1011 c) 1.381 × 10−23
9. These numbers are not written in proper scientific notation. Rewrite them so that they are in proper
scientific notation.
a) 72.44 × 103 b) 9,943 × 10−5 c) 588,399 × 102
a) 0.000077 × 10−7 b) 0.000111 × 108 c) 602,000 × 1018
a) 345.1 × 102 b) 0.234 × 10−3 c) 1,800 × 10−2
a) 8,099 × 10−8 b) 34.5 × 100 c) 0.000332 × 104
13. Write these numbers in scientific notation by counting the number of places the decimal point is
moved.
a) 123,456.78 b) 98,490 c) 0.000000445
14. Write these numbers in scientific notation by counting the number of places the decimal point is
moved.
a) 0.000552 b) 1,987 c) 0.00000000887
15. Use your calculator to evaluate these expressions. Express the final answer in proper scientific
notation.
a) 456 × (7.4 × 108) = ? b) (3.02 × 105) ÷ (9.04 × 1015) = ? c) 0.0044 × 0.000833
=?
notation.
a) 98,000 × 23,000 = ? b) 98,000 ÷ 23,000 = ? c) (4.6 × 10−5) × (2.09 × 103) = ?
notation.
a) 45 × 132 ÷ 882 = ? b) [(6.37 × 104) × (8.44 × 10−4)] ÷ (3.2209 × 1015) = ?
notation.
a) (9.09 × 108) ÷ [(6.33 × 109) × (4.066 × 10−7)] = ? b) 9,345 × 34.866 ÷ 0.00665 = ?
Answers
1. a) 5.69 × 101 b) 5.631 × 105 c) 8.04 × 10−2 d) 6.67 × 10−6
2. a) −8.9 × 105 b) 6.02 × 1011 c) 4.099 × 10-7 d) 1.1 × 10-14
3. a) 6.56 × 10−3 b) 6.56 × 104 c) 4.567 × 106 d) 5.507 × 10−6
4. a) 6.5 × 101 b) −3.2109 × 102 c) 7.7099 × 10-5 d) 2.18 × 10-10
5. a) 138,100 b) 0.000000522 c) 99,980
6. a) 0.0711 b) 918 c) 0.000000000309
7. a) 8.09 b) 0.00003088 c) −423.9
8. a) 0.0000000287 b) 178,000,000,000 c) 0.00000000000000000000001381
9. a) 7.244 × 104 b) 9.943 × 10−2 c) 5.88399 × 107
10. a) 7.7 × 10−12 b) 1.11 × 104 c) 6.02000 × 1023
11. a) 3.451 × 104 b) 2.34 × 10−4 c) 1.8 × 101
12. a) 8.099 × 10−5 b) 3.45 × 101 c) 3.32 × 100

13. a) 1.2345678 × 105 b) 9.849 × 104 c) 4.45 × 10−7
14. a) 5.52 × 10-4 b) 1.987 × 103 c) 8.87 × 109
15. a) 3.3744 × 1011 b) 3.3407 × 10−11 c) 3.665 × 10−6
16. a) 2.254 × 109 b) 4.2609 × 100 c) 9.614 × 10-2
17. a) 6.7346 × 100 b) 1.6691 × 10-14
18. a) 3.53177 × 105 b) 4.89959 × 107


2.2 Measurements and Units
Learning Objectives
• Explain the process of measurement

• Identify the three basic parts of a quantity
• Describe the properties and units of length, mass, volume, density, temperature, and time
• Perform basic unit calculations and conversions in the metric and other unit systems
The development of modern chemistry is often attributed to 18th century

Frenchman Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier, who was able though
meticulous and careful scientific measurements that during a chemical
reaction mass is neither consumed or created, the principle that led to
the law of conservation of mass, one of the important fundamental
principles in your study of chemistry. It is fundamentally important to
realize that a science is for the most part a quantitative endeavor. Our
ability to make observations through numerical measures is one of the
cornerstones of the scientific method.
Measurements provide the macroscopic information that is the basis of

most of the hypotheses, theories, and laws that describe the behavior
89
2.2 MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS • 90
of matter and energy in both the macroscopic and microscopic domains

of chemistry. Every measurement provides three kinds of information:
a number (quantitative observation), a unit (describes how it was
measured), and the degree of reliability (uncertainty of the measurement).
While the number and unit are explicitly represented when a quantity is
written, the uncertainty is an aspect of the measurement result that is more
implicitly represented and will be discussed later.
The number in the measurement can be represented in different ways,

including decimal form and scientific notation. For example, the
maximum takeoff weight of a Boeing 777-200ER airliner is 298,000
kilograms, which can also be written as 2.98 × 105 kg. The mass of the
average mosquito is about 0.0000025 kilograms, which can be written as
2.5 × 10−6 kg.
Units, such as liters, pounds, and centimeters, are standards of

comparison for measurements. When we buy a 2-liter bottle of a soft
drink, we expect that the volume of the drink was measured, so it is
two times larger than the volume that everyone agrees to be 1 liter.
The meat used to prepare a 0.25-pound hamburger is measured so it
weighs one-fourth as much as 1 pound. Without units, a number can be
meaningless, confusing, or possibly life threatening. Suppose a doctor
prescribes phenobarbital to control a patient’s seizures and states a dosage
of “100” without specifying units. Not only will this be confusing to the
medical professional giving the dose, but the consequences can be dire:
100 mg given three times per day can be effective as an anticonvulsant,

but a single dose of 100 g is more than 10 times the lethal amount.
We usually report the results of scientific measurements in SI units, an

updated version of the metric system, using the units listed in Table
1. Other units can be derived from these base units. The standards for
these units are fixed by international agreement, and they are called the
International System of Units or SI Units (from the French, Le Système
International d’Unités). SI units have been used by the United States
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) since 1964.
Property Measured Name of Unit Symbol of Unit
length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
temperature kelvin K
electric current ampere A
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd
Table 1. Base Units of the SI System
Sometimes we use units that are fractions or multiples of a base unit. Ice
cream is sold in quarts (a familiar, non-SI base unit), pints (0.5 quart),
or gallons (4 quarts). We also use fractions or multiples of units in the
SI system, but these fractions or multiples are always powers of 10.

Fractional or multiple SI units are named using a prefix and the name
of the base unit. For example, a length of 1000 meters is also called
a kilometer because the prefix kilo means “one thousand,” which in
scientific notation is 103 (1 kilometer = 1000 m = 103 m). The prefixes
used and the powers to which 10 are raised are listed in Table 2.
Need a refresher or more practice with scientific notation? Visit this site to go over the basics of
Prefix Symbol Factor Example
−15 1 femtosecond (fs) = 1 × 10−15 s

femto f 10
(0.000000000000001 s)
−12 1 picometer (pm) = 1 × 10−12 m

pico p 10
(0.000000000001 m)
−9 4 nanograms (ng) = 4 × 10−9 g

nano n 10
(0.000000004 g)
1 microliter (μL) = 1 × 10−6 L

micro µ 10−6
(0.000001 L)
2 millimoles (mmol) = 2 × 10−3 mol

milli m 10−3
(0.002 mol)
7 centimeters (cm) = 7 × 10−2 m (0.07

centi c 10−2
m)
deci d 10−1 1 deciliter (dL) = 1 × 10−1 L (0.1 L )
kilo k 103 1 kilometer (km) = 1 × 103 m (1000 m)
3 megahertz (MHz) = 3 × 106 Hz

mega M 106
(3,000,000 Hz)
8 gigayears (Gyr) = 8 × 109 yr

giga G 109
(8,000,000,000 Gyr)
5 terawatts (TW) = 5 × 1012 W

tera T 1012
(5,000,000,000,000 W)
Table 2. Common Unit Prefixes
SI Base Units
The initial units of the metric system, which eventually evolved into the
SI system, were established in France during the French Revolution. The

original standards for the meter and the kilogram were adopted there in
1799 and eventually by other countries. This section introduces four of
the SI base units commonly used in chemistry. Other SI units will be
introduced in subsequent chapters.
Length
The standard unit of length in both the SI and original metric systems
is the meter (m). A meter was originally specified as 1/10,000,000 of
the distance from the North Pole to the equator. It is now defined as the
distance light in a vacuum travels in 1/299,792,458 of a second. A meter
is about 3 inches longer than a yard (Figure 1); one meter is about 39.37
inches or 1.094 yards. Longer distances are often reported in kilometers
(1 km = 1000 m = 103 m), whereas shorter distances can be reported in
centimeters (1 cm = 0.01 m = 10−2 m) or millimeters (1 mm = 0.001 m =
10−3 m).
Figure 1. The relative lengths of 1 m, 1 yd, 1 cm, and 1 in. are shown (not actual
size), as well as comparisons of 2.54 cm and 1 in., and of 1 m and 1.094 yd.
Mass
The standard unit of mass in the SI system is the kilogram (kg). A

kilogram was originally defined as the mass of a liter of water (a cube of
water with an edge length of exactly 0.1 meter). It is now defined by a
certain cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy, which is kept in France (Figure
2). Any object with the same mass as this cylinder is said to have a mass
of 1 kilogram. One kilogram is about 2.2 pounds. The gram (g) is exactly
equal to 1/1000 of the mass of the kilogram (10−3 kg).
Figure 2. This replica

prototype kilogram is
housed at the National
Institute of Standards
and Technology
(NIST) in Maryland.
(credit: National
Institutes of Standards
and Technology)
Temperature
Temperature is an intensive property. The SI unit of temperature is the

kelvin (K). The IUPAC convention is to use kelvin (all lowercase) for the
word, K (uppercase) for the unit symbol, and neither the word “degree”
nor the degree symbol (°). The degree Celsius (°C) is also allowed in the
SI system, with both the word “degree” and the degree symbol used for
Celsius measurements. Celsius degrees are the same magnitude as those
of kelvin, but the two scales place their zeros in different places. Water
freezes at 273.15 K (0 °C) and boils at 373.15 K (100 °C) by definition,
and normal human body temperature is approximately 310 K (37 °C).

The conversion between these two units and the Fahrenheit scale will be
discussed later in this chapter.
Time
The SI base unit of time is the second (s). Small and large time intervals
can be expressed with the appropriate prefixes; for example, 3
microseconds = 0.000003 s = 3 × 10−6 and 5 megaseconds = 5,000,000 s
= 5 × 106 s. Alternatively, hours, days, and years can be used.
Derived SI Units
We can derive many units from the seven SI base units. For example, we
can use the base unit of length to define a unit of volume, and the base
units of mass and length to define a unit of density.
Volume
Volume is the measure of the amount of space occupied by an object. The

standard SI unit of volume is defined by the base unit of length (Figure 3).
The standard volume is a cubic meter (m3), a cube with an edge length
of exactly one meter. To dispense a cubic meter of water, we could build
a cubic box with edge lengths of exactly one meter. This box would hold
a cubic meter of water or any other substance.
A more commonly used unit of volume is derived from the decimeter (0.1
m, or 10 cm). A cube with edge lengths of exactly one decimeter contains
a volume of one cubic decimeter (dm3). A liter (L) is the more common
name for the cubic decimeter. One liter is about 1.06 quarts.
A cubic centimeter (cm3) is the volume of a cube with an edge length of

exactly one centimeter. The abbreviation cc (for cubic centimeter) is often
used by health professionals. A cubic centimeter is also called a milliliter
(mL) and is 1/1000 of a liter.
Figure 3 (a) The relative volumes are shown for cubes of 1 m3, 1 dm3 (1 L), and 1
cm3 (1 mL) (not to scale). (b) The diameter of a dime is compared relative to the
edge length of a 1-cm3 (1-mL) cube.
Density
We use the mass and volume of a substance to determine its density. Thus,
the units of density are defined by the base units of mass and length.
The density of a substance is the ratio of the mass of a sample of the

substance to its volume. The SI unit for density is the kilogram per cubic
meter (kg/m3). For many situations, however, this as an inconvenient unit,
and we often use grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) for the densities of
solids and liquids, and grams per liter (g/L) for gases. Although there are
exceptions, most liquids and solids have densities that range from about
0.7 g/cm3 (the density of gasoline) to 19 g/cm3 (the density of gold).
The density of air is about 1.2 g/L. Table 3 shows the densities of some
common substances.
Gases (at 25 °C and 1

Solids Liquids atm)
ice (at 0 °C) 0.92 g/cm3 water 1.0 g/cm3 dry air 1.20 g/L
oak (wood) 0.60–0.90 g/

ethanol 0.79 g/cm3 oxygen 1.31 g/L
cm3
iron 7.9 g/cm3 acetone 0.79 g/cm3 nitrogen 1.14 g/L
copper 9.0 g/cm3 glycerin 1.26 g/cm3 carbon dioxide 1.80 g/L
lead 11.3 g/cm3 olive oil 0.92 g/cm3 helium 0.16 g/L
gasoline 0.70–0.77 g/
silver 10.5 g/cm3 neon 0.83 g/L
cm3
gold 19.3 g/cm3 mercury 13.6 g/cm3 radon 9.1 g/L
Table 3. Densities of Common Substances
While there are many ways to determine the density of an object, perhaps
the most straightforward method involves separately finding the mass
and volume of the object, and then dividing the mass of the sample
by its volume. In the following example, the mass is found directly
by weighing, but the volume is found indirectly through length
measurements.
Example 1
Gold—in bricks, bars, and coins—has been a form of currency for centuries. In order to swindle
people into paying for a brick of gold without actually investing in a brick of gold, people have
considered filling the centers of hollow gold bricks with lead to fool buyers into thinking that the entire
brick is gold. It does not work: Lead is a dense substance, but its density is not as great as that of gold,
19.3 g/cm3. What is the density of lead if a cube of lead has an edge length of 2.00 cm and a mass of
90.7 g?
Solution
The density of a substance can be calculated by dividing its mass by its volume. The volume of a cube
is calculated by cubing the edge length.
(We will discuss the reason for rounding to the first decimal place in the next section.)
Test Yourself
a) To three decimal places, what is the volume of a cube (cm3) with an edge length of 0.843 cm?
b) If the cube in part a) is copper and has a mass of 5.34 g, what is the density of copper to two
decimal places?
Answers
a) 0.599 cm3 b) 8.91 g/cm3
To learn more about the relationship between mass, volume, and density, use this interactive
simulator to explore the density of different materials, like wood, ice, brick, and aluminum.
Example 2
This PhET simulation illustrates another way to determine density, using displacement of water.
Determine the density of the red and yellow blocks.
Solution
When you open the density simulation and select Same Mass, you can choose from several 5.00-kg
colored blocks that you can drop into a tank containing 100.00 L water. The yellow block floats (it is
less dense than water), and the water level rises to 105.00 L. While floating, the yellow block displaces
5.00 L water, an amount equal to the weight of the block. The red block sinks (it is more dense than
water, which has density = 1.00 kg/L), and the water level rises to 101.25 L.
The red block therefore displaces 1.25 L water, an amount equal to the volume of the block. The
density of the red block is:
Note that since the yellow block is not completely submerged, you cannot determine its density from
this information. But if you hold the yellow block on the bottom of the tank, the water level rises to
110.00 L, which means that it now displaces 10.00 L water, and its density can be found:
Test Yourself
Remove all of the blocks from the water and add the green block to the tank of water, placing it
approximately in the middle of the tank. Determine the density of the green block.
Answer
2.00 kg/L
The Angstrom Unit
Although not an SI unit, the angstrom (Å) is a useful unit of length. It is one ten-billionth of a meter,
or 10−10 m. Why is it a useful unit? The ultimate particles that compose all matter are about 10−10 m in
size, or about 1 Å. This makes the angstrom a natural—though not approved—unit for describing these
particles.
The angstrom unit is named after Anders Jonas Ångström, a nineteenth-century Swedish physicist.
Ångström’s research dealt with light being emitted by glowing objects, including the sun. Ångström
studied the brightness of the different colors of light that the sun emitted and was able to deduce that
the sun is composed of the same kinds of matter that are present on the earth. By extension, we now
know that all matter throughout the universe is similar to the matter that exists on our own planet.
Anders Jonas Ångstrom, a Swedish physicist, studied the light coming from the sun. His contributions
to science were sufficient to have a tiny unit of length named after him, the angstrom, which is one
ten-billionth of a meter.
Source: Photo of the sun courtesy of NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory,

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_Observat
ory_-_20100801.jpg.
Measurements provide quantitative information that is critical in studying

and practicing chemistry. Each measurement has an amount, a unit for
comparison, and an uncertainty. Measurements can be represented in
either decimal or scientific notation. Scientists primarily use the SI
(International System) or metric systems. We use base SI units such as
meters, seconds, and kilograms, as well as derived units, such as liters (for
volume) and g/cm3 (for density). In many cases, we find it convenient
to use unit prefixes that yield fractional and multiple units, such as
microseconds (10−6 seconds) and megahertz (106 hertz), respectively.
Key Equations
Activity
Make yourself a stack of small sized Qcards to help you learn your common unit prefixes, which is
important because you will use later as conversion factors for unit conversions. On one side have the
common unit prefix associated with a base unit (e.g. 1 kg) and on the other side have its equivalence in
terms of the base unit (e.g. 103 g). Make a complete set of using all the common unit prefixes from Table
2 and pick and choose different base units from Table 1. Then use these Qcards to quiz yourself.
Exercises
1. Identify the unit in each quantity.

a) 2 boxes of crayons b) 3.5 grams of gold

a) 32 oz of cheddar cheese b) 0.045 cm3 of water

a) 9.58 s (the current world record in the 100 m dash)
b) 6.14 m (the current world record in the pole vault)

a) 2 dozen eggs
b) 2.4 km/s (the escape velocity of the moon, which is the velocity you need at the surface to escape
the moon’s gravity)
5. Indicate what multiplier each prefix represents.

a) k b) m c) M
6. Indicate what multiplier each prefix represents.

a) c b) G c) μ
7. Give the prefix that represents each multiplier.
a) 1/1,000th × b) 1,000 × c) 1,000,000,000 ×
8. Give the prefix that represents each multiplier.

a) 1/1,000,000,000th × b) 1/100th × c) 1,000,000 ×
9. Complete the following table with the missing information.
Unit Abbreviation
kilosecond
mL
Mg
centimeter
10.Complete the following table with the missing information.
Unit Abbreviation
kilometer per second
second
cm3
μL
nanosecond
11. Express each quantity in a more appropriate unit. There may be more than one acceptable
answer.
a) 3.44 × 10−6 s b) 3,500 L c) 0.045 m
answer.
a) 0.000066 m/s (Hint: you need consider only the unit in the numerator.)
b) 4.66 × 106 s
c) 7,654 L
answer.
a) 43,600 mL b) 0.0000044 m c) 1,438 ms

answer.
a) 0.000000345 m3 b) 47,000,000 mm3 c) 0.00665 L

15. Multiplicative prefixes are used for other units as well, such as computer memory. The basic unit
of computer memory is the byte (b). What is the unit for one million bytes?
16. You may have heard the terms microscale or nanoscale to represent the sizes of small objects.
What units of length do you think are useful at these scales? What fractions of the fundamental unit of
length are these units?
17. Acceleration is defined as a change in velocity per time. Propose a unit for acceleration in terms
of the fundamental SI units.
18. Density is defined as the mass of an object divided by its volume. Propose a unit of density in
terms of the fundamental SI units.
19. Is a meter about an inch, a foot, a yard, or a mile?

20. Indicate the SI base units or derived units that are appropriate for the following measurements:
a) the mass of the moon
b) the distance from Dallas to Oklahoma City
c) the speed of sound
d) the density of air
e) the temperature at which alcohol boils
f) the area of the state of Delaware
g) the volume of a flu shot or a measles vaccination
21. Give the name of the prefix and the quantity indicated by the following symbols that are used
with SI base units.
a) c b) d c) G d) k e) m f) n g) p h) T
22. Visit this PhET density simulation and select the Same Volume Blocks.
a) What are the mass, volume, and density of the yellow block?
b) What are the mass, volume and density of the red block?
c) List the block colors in order from smallest to largest mass.
d) List the block colors in order from lowest to highest density.
e) How are mass and density related for blocks of the same volume?
23. Visit this PhET density simulation and select Mystery Blocks.
a) Pick one of the Mystery Blocks and determine its mass, volume, density, and its likely identity.
b) Pick a different Mystery Block and determine its mass, volume, density, and its likely identity.
c) Order the Mystery Blocks from least dense to most dense. Explain.
Answers
1. a) boxes of crayons b) grams of gold
2. a) oz of cheddar cheese b) cm3 of water
3. a) seconds b) meters
4. a) dozen of eggs b) km/s
5. a) 1,000 × b) 1/1,000 × c) 1,000,000 ×
6. a) 1/100 x b) 1,000,000,000 x c) 1/1,000,000 x

7. a) milli- b) kilo- c) giga-
8. a) nano- b) centi- c) mega-
9.
Unit Abbreviation
kilosecond ks
milliliter mL
megagram Mg
centimeter cm
10.
Unit Abbreviation
kilometer per second km/s
second s
cubic centimeter cm3
microliter μL
nanosecond ns
11. a) 3.44 μs b) 3.5 kL c) 4.5 cm

12. a) 66 µm/s b) 4.66 Ms c) 7.654 kL
13. a) 43.6 L b) 4.4 µm c) 1.438 s
14. a) 345 mm3 b) 47 dm3 c) 6.65 mL
15. megabytes (Mb)
16. microscale = µm, 1/1,000,000 nanoscale = nm, 1/1,000,000,000

17. meters/second2
18. kg/m3
19. about a yard
20. a) kilograms b) meters c) kilometers/second d) kilograms/cubic meter e) kelvin f)
square meters g) cubic meters
21. a) centi-, × 10−2 b) deci-, × 10−1 c) Giga-, × 109 d) kilo-, × 103 e) milli-, × 10−3
f) nano-, × 10−9 g) pico-, × 10−12 h) tera-, × 1012
22. a) 8.00 kg, 5.00 L, 1.60 kg/L b) 2.00 kg, 5.00 L, 0.400 kg/L c) red < green < blue < yellow
d) If the volumes are the same, then the density is directly proportional to the mass.
23. a) and b) answer is one of the following. A/yellow: mass = 65.14 kg, volume = 3.38 L, density =
19.3 kg/L, likely identity = gold. B/blue: mass = 0.64 kg, volume = 1.00 L, density = 0.64 kg/L, likely
identity = apple. C/green: mass = 4.08 kg, volume = 5.83 L, density = 0.700 kg/L, likely identity =
gasoline. D/red: mass = 3.10 kg, volume = 3.38 L, density = 0.920 kg/L, likely identity = ice; and E/
purple: mass = 3.53 kg, volume = 1.00 L, density = 3.53 kg/L, likely identity = diamond. (c) B/blue/
apple (0.64 kg/L) < C/green/gasoline (0.700 kg/L) < C/green/ice (0.920 kg/L) < D/red/diamond (3.53
kg/L) < A/yellow/gold (19.3 kg/L)
Glossary
Celsius (°C): unit of temperature; water freezes at 0 °C and boils at 100

°C on this scale
cubic centimeter (cm3 or cc): volume of a cube with an edge length of

exactly 1 cm
cubic meter (m3): SI unit of volume
density: ratio of mass to volume for a substance or object
kelvin (K): SI unit of temperature; 273.15 K = 0 ºC

kilogram (kg): standard SI unit of mass; 1 kg = approximately 2.2

pounds
length: measure of one dimension of an object
liter (L): (also, cubic decimeter) unit of volume; 1 L = 1,000 cm3
meter (m): standard metric and SI unit of length; 1 m = approximately

1.094 yards
milliliter (mL): 1/1,000 of a liter; equal to 1 cm3
second (s): SI unit of time
SI units (International System of Units): standards fixed by

international agreement in the International System of Units (Le Système
International d’Unités)
unit: standard of comparison for measurements
volume: amount of space occupied by an object



2.3 Measurement Uncertainty,
Accuracy, and Precision
Learning Objectives
• Define accuracy and precision

• Distinguish exact and uncertain numbers
• Correctly represent uncertainty in quantities using significant figures
• Apply proper rounding rules to computed quantities
When recording a measurement, how you record it is just as important as

what you record. You must consider the precision of the instrument you
are using. Accuracy is the extent to which a measured value coincides
with the true or accepted value. Precision refers to the “fineness” (i.e.
the number of digits) of the measurement as well as the reproducibility.
Significant figures are those digits in an experimentally measured
quantity that establish the precision with which the value is known. A
precise measurement may not be accurate!!
Counting is the only type of measurement that is free from uncertainty,

111
2.3 MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY, ACCURACY, AND PRECISION • 112
provided the number of objects being counted does not change while the
counting process is underway. The result of such a counting measurement
is an example of an exact number. If we count eggs in a carton, we
know exactly how many eggs the carton contains. The numbers of defined
quantities are also exact. By definition, 1 foot is exactly 12 inches, 1
inch is exactly 2.54 centimeters, and 1 gram is exactly 0.001 kilogram.
Quantities derived from measurements other than counting, however,
are uncertain to varying extents due to practical limitations of the
measurement process used.
Significant Figures in Measurement
The numbers of measured quantities, unlike defined or directly counted

quantities, are not exact. To measure the volume of liquid in a graduated
cylinder, you should make a reading at the bottom of the meniscus, the
lowest point on the curved surface of the liquid.
Figure 1. To measure the volume of liquid in this graduated cylinder, you must
mentally subdivide the distance between the 21 and 22 mL marks into tenths of a
milliliter, and then make a reading (estimate) at the bottom of the meniscus.
Refer to the illustration in Figure 1. The bottom of the meniscus in this

case clearly lies between the 21 and 22 markings, meaning the liquid
volume is certainly greater than 21 mL but less than 22 mL. The meniscus
appears to be a bit closer to the 22-mL mark than to the 21-mL mark, and
so a reasonable estimate of the liquid’s volume would be 21.6 mL. In the
number 21.6, then, the digits 2 and 1 are certain, but the 6 is an estimate.
Some people might estimate the meniscus position to be equally distant
from each of the markings and estimate the tenth-place digit as 5, while
others may think it to be even closer to the 22-mL mark and estimate this
digit to be 7. Note that it would be pointless to attempt to estimate a digit
for the hundredths place, given that the tenths-place digit is uncertain.
In general, numerical scales such as the one on this graduated cylinder

will permit measurements to one-tenth of the smallest scale division. The
scale in this case has 1-mL divisions, and so volumes may be measured
to the nearest 0.1 mL.
This concept holds true for all measurements, even if you do not actively
make an estimate. If you place a quarter on a standard electronic balance,
you may obtain a reading of 6.72 g. The digits 6 and 7 are certain, and
the 2 indicates that the mass of the quarter is likely between 6.71 and 6.73
grams. The quarter weighs about 6.72 grams, with a nominal uncertainty
in the measurement of ± 0.01 gram. If we weigh the quarter on a more
sensitive balance, we may find that its mass is 6.723 g. This means its
mass lies between 6.722 and 6.724 grams, an uncertainty of 0.001 gram.
Every measurement has some uncertainty, which depends on the device
used (and the user’s ability). All of the digits in a measurement, including
the uncertain last digit, are called significant figures or significant
digits. Note that zero may be a measured value; for example, if you stand
on a scale that shows weight to the nearest pound and it shows “120,”
then the 1 (hundreds), 2 (tens) and 0 (ones) are all significant (measured)
values.
Whenever you make a measurement properly, all the digits in the result
are significant. But what if you were analyzing a reported value and
trying to determine what is significant and what is not? Well, for starters,
all nonzero digits are significant, and it is only zeros that require some
thought. We will use the terms “leading,” “trailing,” and “captive” for the
zeros and will consider how to deal with them.
Starting with the first nonzero digit on the left, count this digit and all
remaining digits to the right. This is the number of significant figures in
the measurement unless the last digit is a trailing zero lying to the left of
the decimal point.
Captive zeros result from measurement and are therefore always

significant. Leading zeros, however, are never significant—they merely
tell us where the decimal point is located.
The leading zeros in this example are not significant. We could use
exponential notation (as described in Appendix B) and express the
number as 8.32407 × 10−3; then the number 8.32407 contains all of the
significant figures, and 10−3 locates the decimal point.
The number of significant figures is uncertain in a number that ends

with a zero to the left of the decimal point location. The zeros in the
measurement 1,300 grams could be significant or they could simply
indicate where the decimal point is located. The ambiguity can be
resolved with the use of exponential notation: 1.3 × 103 (two significant
figures), 1.30 × 103 (three significant figures, if the tens place was
measured), or 1.300 × 103 (four significant figures, if the ones place was
also measured). In cases where only the normal notation is used (1300
g), all trailing zeros are not significant, therefore the measurement would
have two significant figures. Though, if the measurement was express
with an explicit decimal place (1300. g), then the trailing zeros would be
significant, and therefore the measurement would have four significant
figures.
Figure 2: Summary: How to determine the number of

significant figures in measurements.
Example 1
Determine the correct measurement reading for the following volume:

Solution
Because the beaker has gradations of 100 mL, we know that it is at least 200 mL. It is the tens
position that is uncertain. Thus we can only record to that position. The reading should be 220 mL.
Better still—clarify the significant figures by using scientific notation, which would be 2.2 x 10 2 mL.
Test Yourself
Determine the correct reading for the following temperature:
Answer
14.8oC
Example 2
Use each diagram to report a measurement to the proper number of significant figures.
Solution
a) The arrow is between 4.0 and 5.0, so the measurement is at least 4.0. The arrow is between the
third and fourth small tick marks, so it’s at least 0.3. We will have to estimate the last place. It looks like
about one-third of the way across the space, so let us estimate the hundredths place as 3. Combining
the digits, we have a measurement of 4.33 psi (psi stands for “pounds per square inch” and is a unit of
pressure, like air in a tire). We say that the measurement is reported to three significant figures.
b)The rectangle is at least 1.0 cm wide but certainly not 2.0 cm wide, so the first significant digit
is 1. The rectangle’s width is past the second tick mark but not the third; if each tick mark represents
0.1, then the rectangle is at least 0.2 in the next significant digit. We have to estimate the next place
because there are no markings to guide us. It appears to be about halfway between 0.2 and 0.3, so we
will estimate the next place to be a 5. Thus, the measured width of the rectangle is 1.25 cm. Again, the
measurement is reported to three significant figures.
Test Yourself
What would be the reported width of this rectangle?
Answer
0.63 cm
Example 3
Give the number of significant figures in each measurement.

a) 36.7 m b) 0.006606 s c) 2,002 kg d) 306,490,000 people
Solution
a) By rule 1, all nonzero digits are significant, so this measurement has three significant figures.
b) By rule 4, the first three zeros are not significant, but by rule 2 the zero between the sixes is;
therefore, this number has four significant figures.
c) By rule 2, the two zeros between the twos are significant, so this measurement has four significant
figures.
d) The four trailing zeros in the number are not significant, but the other five numbers are, so this
number has five significant figures.
Test Yourself
Give the number of significant figures in each measurement.
a) 0.000601 m b) 65.080 kg
Answers
a) three significant figures b) five significant figures
Example 4
Determine the number of significant figures in the following measurements

a) 0.002040 g b) 300 mL c) 3.021 x 105 g d) 31 pencils (counted exactly, not an estimate)
Solution
a) 4 significant figures. The leading zeros do not count, but the trailing zero does (as there’s a decimal
point).
b) By the above rules, 1 significant figure, because there’s no decimal point showing; 300. mL would
be 3 sig figs. (To emphasize 1 sig fig it would be better to write the measurement in scientific notation,
as 3 x 102 mL, rather than just “300 mL”.)
c) 4 significant figures. (No leading or trailing zeros.) Note that we only consider the digits in the
numerical portion of the scientific notation, not the power of 10.
d) Unlimited significant figures. This is an exact number, as it has been counted.
Test Yourself
Determine the number of significant figures in the following measurements.
a) 0.00100 m b) 2.0900 x 103 mL c) 100.0 oC
Answers
a) 3 significant figures b) 5 significant figures c) 4 significant figures
When determining significant figures, be sure to pay attention to reported

values and think about the measurement and significant figures in terms
of what is reasonable or likely when evaluating whether the value makes
sense. For example, the official January 2014 census reported the resident
population of the US as 317,297,725. Do you think the US population
was correctly determined to the reported nine significant figures, that is,
to the exact number of people? People are constantly being born, dying,
or moving into or out of the country, and assumptions are made to account
for the large number of people who are not actually counted. Because
of these uncertainties, it might be more reasonable to expect that we
know the population to within perhaps a million or so, in which case the
population should be reported as 3.17 × 108 people.
Significant Figures in Calculations
A second important principle of uncertainty is that results calculated from

a measurement are at least as uncertain as the measurement itself. We
must take the uncertainty in our measurements into account to avoid
misrepresenting the uncertainty in calculated results. One way to do
this is to report the result of a calculation with the correct number of
significant figures, which is determined by the following three rules for
rounding numbers:
1. When we add or subtract numbers, we should round the result

to the same number of decimal places as the number with the
least number of decimal places (the least precise value in terms
of addition and subtraction).
2. When we multiply or divide numbers, we should round the

result to the same number of digits as the number with the
least number of significant figures (the least precise value in
terms of multiplication and division).
3. If the digit to be dropped (the one immediately to the right of

the digit to be retained) is less than 5, we “round down” and
leave the retained digit unchanged; if it is more than 5, we
“round up” and increase the retained digit by 1; if the dropped
digit is 5, we round up or down, whichever yields an even
value for the retained digit. (The last part of this rule may
strike you as a bit odd, but it’s based on reliable statistics and
is aimed at avoiding any bias when dropping the digit “5,”
since it is equally close to both possible values of the retained
digit.)
The following examples illustrate the application of this rule in rounding

a few different numbers to three significant figures:
• 0.028675 rounds “up” to 0.0287 (the dropped digit, 7, is

greater than 5)
• 18.3384 rounds “down” to 18.3 (the dropped digit, 3, is less

than 5)
• 6.8752 rounds “up” to 6.88 (the dropped digit is 5, and the

retained digit is even)
• 92.85 rounds “down” to 92.8 (the dropped digit is 5, and the

retained digit is even)
Let’s work through these rules with a few examples.
Example 5
Round the following to the indicated number of significant figures:

a) 31.57 (to two significant figures)
b) 8.1649 (to three significant figures)
c) 0.051065 (to four significant figures)
d) 0.90275 (to four significant figures)
Solution
a) 31.57 rounds “up” to 32 (the dropped digit is 5, and the retained digit is even)
b) 8.1649 rounds “down” to 8.16 (the dropped digit, 4, is less than 5)
c) 0.051065 rounds “down” to 0.05106 (the dropped digit is 5, and the retained digit is even)
d) 0.90275 rounds “up” to 0.9028 (the dropped digit is 5, and the retained digit is even)
Test Yourself
Round the following to the indicated number of significant figures:
a) 0.424 (to two significant figures)
b) 0.0038661 (to three significant figures)
c) 421.25 (to four significant figures)
d) 28,683.5 (to five significant figures)
Answers
a) 0.42 b) 0.00387 c) 421.2 d) 28,684
Example 6
Rule: When we add or subtract numbers, we should round the result to the same number of decimal
places as the number with the least number of decimal places (i.e., the least precise value in terms of
addition and subtraction).
Perform the following calculations taking significant figures into account.
a) Add 1.0023 g and 4.383 g.
b) Subtract 421.23 g from 486 g.
Solution
a)
Answer is 5.385 g (round to the thousandths place; three decimal places)
b)
Answer is 65 g (round to the ones place; no decimal places)
Test Yourself
a) Add 2.334 mL and 0.31 mL.
b) Subtract 55.8752 m from 56.533 m.
Answers
a) 2.64 mL b) 0.658 m
Example 7
Express the final answer to the proper number of significant figures.

a) 101.2 + 18.702 = ?
b) 202.88 − 1.013 = ?
Solution
a) If we use a calculator to add these two numbers, we would get 119.902. However, most calculators
do not understand significant figures, and we need to limit the final answer to the tenths place. Thus,
we drop the 02 and report a final answer of 119.9 (rounding down).
b) A calculator would answer 201.867. However, we have to limit our final answer to the hundredths
place. Because the first number being dropped is 7, which is greater than 7, we round up and report a
final answer of 201.87.
Test Yourself
Express the answer for 3.445 + 90.83 − 72.4 to the proper number of significant figures.
Answer
21.9
Example 8
Rule: When we multiply or divide numbers, we should round the result to the same number of
digits as the number with the least number of significant figures (the least precise value in terms of
multiplication and division).
Perform the following calculations taking significant figures into account.
a) Multiply 0.6238 cm by 6.6 cm.
b) Divide 421.23 g by 486 mL.
Solution
a)
b)
Test Yourself
a) Multiply 2.334 cm and 0.320 cm.
b) Divide 55.8752 m by 56.53 s.
Answers
a) 0.747 cm2 b) 0.9884 m/s
Example 9

a) 76.4 × 180.4 = ?
b) 934.9 ÷ 0.00455 = ?
Solution
a) The first number has three significant figures, while the second number has four significant
figures. Therefore, we limit our final answer to three significant figures: 76.4 × 180.4 = 13,782.56 =
13,800.
b) The first number has four significant figures, while the second number has three significant
figures. Therefore we limit our final answer to three significant figures: 934.9 ÷ 0.00455 =
205,472.5275… = 205,000.
Test Yourself
a) 22.4 × 8.314 = ?
b) 1.381 ÷ 6.02 = ?
Answers
a) 186 b) 0.229
In the midst of all these technicalities, it is important to keep in mind the

reason why we use significant figures and rounding rules—to correctly
represent the certainty of the values we report and to ensure that a
calculated result is not represented as being more certain than the least
certain value used in the calculation.
Need a refresher or more practice with significant figures? Visit this site (https://viuvideos.viu.ca/
media/Significant+Figures/0_t8xwe4s9) to go over the basics of significant figures.
Video source: Significant figures by keyj
Example 10
One common bathtub is 13.44 dm long, 5.920 dm wide, and 2.54 dm deep. Assume that the tub is
rectangular and calculate its approximate volume in liters.
Solution
Test Yourself
What is the density of a liquid with a mass of 31.1415 g and a volume of 30.13 cm3?
Answer
1.034 g/mL
Example 11
Experimental Determination of Density Using Water Displacement

A piece of rebar is weighed and then submerged in a graduated cylinder partially filled with water, with
results as shown.
a) Use these values to determine the density of this piece of rebar.

b) Rebar is mostly iron. Does your result in (a) support this statement? How?
Solution
The volume of the piece of rebar is equal to the volume of the water displaced:
(rounded to the nearest 0.1 mL, per the rule for addition and subtraction)
The density is the mass-to-volume ratio:
(rounded to two significant figures, per the rule for multiplication and division)
From Table 3 in Chapter 2.2 Measurements, the density of iron is 7.9 g/cm3, very close to that of
rebar, which lends some support to the fact that rebar is mostly iron.
Test Yourself
An irregularly shaped piece of a shiny yellowish material is weighed and then submerged in a graduated
cylinder, with results as shown.
a) Use these values to determine the density of this material.

b) Do you have any reasonable guesses as to the identity of this material? Explain your reasoning.
Answers
a) 19 g/cm3; (b) It is likely gold; the right appearance for gold and very close to the density given for
gold in Table 3 in Chapter 2.2 Measurements.
Example 12
Determine the answer and report to the appropriate number of significant figures.
a) What is the area of a card that measures 12.74 cm by 7.60 cm ?
b) What is the total mass when three samples weighing 120.0 g, 24.318 g and 15 g are combined?
c) (3.02 x 103) + (4 x 102) = ?
Solution
a) The area is width x length. 12.74 cm x 7.60 cm = 96.824 according to a calculator. The 12.74 has
4 significant figures and 7.60 has three significant figures, thus the solution should be reported to 3
significant figures. Don’t forget the units! cm x cm = cm2
The answer is 96.8 cm2

b) When adding, be sure that all units are the same (all g in this case).
0 g + 24.318 g + 15 g = 159.318 g according to a calculator. We must look at the decimal place (or
place value). 120.0 is reported to the tenths position, 24.318 to the thousandths position, whereas 15
is reported to the ones position. The ones position is furthest to the left, thus the final answer must be
rounded to that position.
The answer is 159 g
c) Be careful! When adding and subtracting, the power of 10 must be the same. If we put them both
to 103, we have (3.02 x 103) + (0.4 x 103). The answer can then be reported to the first decimal place
(tenths) when using 103 (= 3.4 x 103). We could also look at the non-scientific notation: 3.02 x 103 =
3020, and 4 x 102 = 400 (sig. figs. in bold, for emphasis). Thus the first number is recorded to the tens
position, whereas the second is to the hundreds position. final answer must be reported to the hundreds
position.
The answer is 3.4 x 103
Test Yourself
Determine the answer and report to the appropriate number of significant figures.
a) 17.1 + 0.24 – 241 b) (1.32 x 104) x (2 x 102)
Answers
a) -224 b) 3 x 106
Example 13
If a bagel has a mass of 28.3162 g when fresh and then a mass of 28.3094 g once dried out, what was
the percent of moisture in the fresh bagel?
Where, % moisture = (mass of moisture/original mass of object) x 100% ,
determine the solution and report to the appropriate number of significant figures.
Solution
To determine the mass of moisture, we must subtract the dried mass from the original mass:
28.3162 g – 28.3094 g = 0.0068 g. Note that if the question stopped here, the answer would be reported
to the 4th decimal place, and has two significant figures.
The next step involves division: 0.0068 g x 100% = 0.0240145…%
28.3162 g
The value 0.0068 g has 2 significant figures, 28.3162 g has 6 significant figures, and 100% as used
here is an exact number, so the final answer can only be reported to 2 significant figures.
Thus the solution is rounded to 0.024% (or 2.4 x 10-2%, in scientific notation)
Test Yourself
If a jogger runs for 2.0 hrs at 12.21 km/hr, then again for another 2.0 hrs at 12.16 km/hr, how far did
she run in total?
(Determine the solution and report to the appropriate number of significant figures.)
Answer
49 km
Accuracy and Precision
Scientists typically make repeated measurements of a quantity to ensure

the quality of their findings and to know both the precision and the
accuracy of their results. Measurements are said to be precise if they
yield very similar results when repeated in the same manner. A
measurement is considered accurate if it yields a result that is very close
to the true or accepted value. Precise values agree with each other;
accurate values agree with a true value. These characterizations can be
extended to other contexts, such as the results of an archery competition
(Figure 3).
Figure 3. (a) These arrows are close to both the bull’s eye and one another, so they
are both accurate and precise. (b) These arrows are close to one another but not on
target, so they are precise but not accurate. (c) These arrows are neither on target
nor close to one another, so they are neither accurate nor precise.
Suppose a quality control chemist at a pharmaceutical company is tasked

with checking the accuracy and precision of three different machines that
are meant to dispense 10 ounces (296 mL) of cough syrup into storage
bottles. She proceeds to use each machine to fill five bottles and then
carefully determines the actual volume dispensed, obtaining the results
tabulated in Table 1.
Dispenser #1 Dispenser #2 Dispenser #3
283.3 298.3 296.1
284.1 294.2 295.9
283.9 296.0 296.1
284.0 297.8 296.0
284.1 293.9 296.1
Table 1. Volume (mL) of Cough Medicine Delivered by 10-oz (296 mL)

Dispensers
Considering these results, she will report that dispenser #1 is precise

(values all close to one another, within a few tenths of a milliliter) but
not accurate (none of the values are close to the target value of 296 mL,
each being more than 10 mL too low). Results for dispenser #2 represent
improved accuracy (each volume is less than 3 mL away from 296 mL)
but worse precision (volumes vary by more than 4 mL). Finally, she can
report that dispenser #3 is working well, dispensing cough syrup both
accurately (all volumes within 0.1 mL of the target volume) and precisely
(volumes differing from each other by no more than 0.2 mL).
Quantities can be exact or measured. Measured quantities have an

associated uncertainty that is represented by the number of significant
figures in the measurement. The uncertainty of a calculated value depends
on the uncertainties in the values used in the calculation and is reflected

in how the value is rounded. Measured values can be accurate (close to
the true value) and/or precise (showing little variation when measured
repeatedly).
Exercises
1. Express each measurement to the correct number of significant figures.
2. Express each measurement to the correct number of significant figures.
3. How many significant figures do these numbers have?

a) 23 b) 23.0 c) 0.00023 d) 0.0002302
a) 5.44 × 108 b) 1.008 × 10−5 c) 43.09 d) 0.0000001381

a) 765,890 b) 765,890.0 c) 1.2000 × 105 d) 0.0005060
6) How many significant figures do these numbers have?

a) 0.009 b) 0.0000009 c) 65,444 d) 65,040
7. Compute and express each answer with the proper number of significant figures, rounding as
necessary.
a) 56.0 + 3.44 = ? b) 0.00665 + 1.004 = ?
c) 45.99 − 32.8 = ? d) 45.99 − 32.8 + 75.02 = ?
necessary.
a) 1.005 + 17.88 = ? b) 56,700 − 324 = ?
c) 405,007 − 123.3 = ? d) 55.5 + 66.66 − 77.777 = ?
necessary.
a) 56.7 × 66.99 = ? b) 1.000 ÷ 77 = ?
c) 1.000 ÷ 77.0 = ? d) 6.022 × 1.89 = ?
necessary.
a) 0.000440 × 17.22 = ? b) 203,000 ÷ 0.044 = ?
c) 67 × 85.0 × 0.0028 = ? d) 999,999 ÷ 3,310 = ?
11. Write the number 87,449 in scientific notation with four significant figures.
12. Write the number 0.000066600 in scientific notation with five significant figures.
13. Write the number 306,000,000 in scientific notation to the proper number of significant figures.
14. Write the number 0.0000558 in scientific notation with two significant figures.
15. Perform each calculation and limit each answer to three significant figures.
a) 67,883 × 0.004321 = ?
b) (9.67 × 103) × 0.0055087 = ?
16. Perform each calculation and limit each answer to four significant figures.
a) 18,900 × 76.33 ÷ 0.00336 = ?
b) 0.77604 ÷ 76,003 × 8.888 = ?
17. Express each of the following numbers in exponential notation with correct significant figures:
a) 704 b) 0.03344 c) 547.9 d) 22086 e) 1000.00 f) 0.0000000651 g) 0.007157

18. Indicate whether each of the following can be determined exactly or must be measured with
some degree of uncertainty:
a) the number of seconds in an hour
b) the number of pages in this book
c) the number of grams in your weight
d) the number of grams in 3 kilograms
e) the volume of water you drink in one day
f) the distance from San Francisco to Kansas City
19. How many significant figures are contained in each of the following measurements?
a) 53 cm b) 2.05 × 108 m c) 86,002 J d) 9.740 × 104 m/s e) 10.0613 m3
f) 0.17 g/mL g) 0.88400 s
20. Round off each of the following numbers to two significant figures:
a) 0.436 b) 9.000 c) 27.2 d) 135 e) 1.497 × 10−3 f) 0.445
21. Perform the following calculations and report each answer with the correct number of significant
figures.
a) 628 × 342 b) (5.63 × 102) × (7.4 × 103)
c) d) 8119 × 0.000023
e) 14.98 + 27,340 + 84.7593 f) 42.7 + 0.259
22. Consider the results of the archery contest shown in this figure.
a) Which archer is most precise?
b) Which archer is most accurate?
c) Who is both least precise and least accurate?
Answers
1. a) 375 psi b) 1.30 cm
2. a) 32.4 psi b) 0.90 cm
3. a) two b) three c) two d) four
4. a) three b) four c) four d) four
5. a) five b) seven c) five d) four
6. a) one b) one c) five d) four
7. a) 59.4 b) 1.011 c) 13.2 d) 88.2
8. a) 18.88 b) 56,400 c) 404,884 d) 44.4
9. a) 3.80 × 103 b) 0.013 c) 0.0130 d) 11.4
10. a) 0.00758 b) 4,600,000 c) 16 d) 302
11. 8.745 × 104
12. 6.6600 x 10−5
13. 3.06 x 108
14. 5.6 x 10-5
15. a) 293 b) 53.3
16. a) 4.294 x 108 b) 9.060×10-5
17. a) 7.04 × 102 b) 3.344 × 10−2 c) 5.479 × 102 d) 2.2086 × 104 e) 1.00000 × 103 f)
6.51 × 10−8 g) 7.157 × 10−3
18. a) exact b) exact c) uncertain d) exact e) uncertain f) uncertain
19. a) two b) three c) five d) four e) six f) two g) five
20. a) 0.44 b) 9.0 c) 27 d) 140 e) 1.5 × 10−3 f) 0.44
21. a) 2.15 × 105 b) 4.2 × 106 c) 2.08 d) 0.19 e) 27,440 f) 43.0
22. a) Archer X b) Archer W c) Archer Y
Glossary
accuracy: how closely a measurement aligns with a correct value
exact number: number derived by counting or by definition

precision: how closely a measurement matches the same measurement

when repeated
rounding: procedure used to ensure that calculated results properly

reflect the uncertainty in the measurements used in the calculation
significant figures: (also, significant digits) all of the measured digits in

a determination, including the uncertain last digit
uncertainty: estimate of amount by which measurement differs from true

value



2.4 Mathematical Treatment of
Measurement Results - Unit
Conversions
Learning Objectives
• Explain the dimensional analysis (factor label) approach to mathematical calculations

involving quantities
• Use dimensional analysis to carry out unit conversions for a given property and
computations involving two or more properties
• Learn about the various temperature scales that are commonly used in chemistry and how
to convert from one scale to another.
It is often the case that a quantity of interest may not be easy (or even
possible) to measure directly but instead must be calculated from other
directly measured properties and appropriate mathematical relationships.
For example, consider measuring the average speed of an athlete running
sprints. This is typically accomplished by measuring the time required for
the athlete to run from the starting line to the finish line, and the distance
139
2.4 MATHEMATICAL TREATMENT OF MEASUREMENT RESULTS - UNIT CONVERSIONS • 140
between these two lines, and then computing speed from the equation that
relates these three properties:
An Olympic-quality sprinter can run 100 m in approximately 10 s,

corresponding to an average speed of
Note that this simple arithmetic involves dividing the numbers of each
measured quantity to yield the number of the computed quantity (100/10
= 10) and likewise dividing the units of each measured quantity to yield
the unit of the computed quantity (m/s = m/s). Now, consider using this
same relation to predict the time required for a person running at this
speed to travel a distance of 25 m. The same relation between the three
properties is used, but in this case, the two quantities provided are a speed
(10 m/s) and a distance (25 m). To yield the sought property, time, the
equation must be rearranged appropriately:
The time can then be computed as:
Again, arithmetic on the numbers (25/10 = 2.5) was accompanied by the

same arithmetic on the units (m/m/s = s) to yield the number and unit of
the result, 2.5 s. Note that, just as for numbers, when a unit is divided by
an identical unit (in this case, m/m), the result is “1”—or, as commonly
phrased, the units “cancel.”
These calculations are examples of a versatile mathematical approach

known as dimensional analysis (or the factor-label method).
Dimensional analysis is based on this premise: the units of quantities must
be subjected to the same mathematical operations as their associated
numbers. This method can be applied to computations ranging from
simple unit conversions to more complex, multi-step calculations
involving several different quantities.
Conversion Factors and Dimensional Analysis
A ratio of two equivalent quantities expressed with different

measurement units can be used as a unit conversion factor. For example,
the lengths of 2.54 cm and 1 in. are equivalent (by definition), and so a
unit conversion factor may be derived from the ratio,
Several other commonly used conversion factors are given in Table 1.

Length Volume Mass
1 m = 1.0936 yd 1 L = 1.0567 qt 1 kg = 2.2046 lb
1 in. = 2.54 cm (exact) 1 qt = 0.94635 L 1 lb = 453.59 g
1 km = 0.62137 mi 1 ft3 = 28.317 L 1 (avoirdupois) oz = 28.349 g
1 mi = 1609.3 m 1 tbsp = 14.787 mL 1 (troy) oz = 31.103 g
Table 1. Common Conversion Factors
When we multiply a quantity (such as distance given in inches) by

an appropriate unit conversion factor, we convert the quantity to an
equivalent value with different units (such as distance in centimeters).
For example, a basketball player’s vertical jump of 34 inches can be
converted to centimeters by:
Since this simple arithmetic involves quantities, the premise of

dimensional analysis requires that we multiply both numbers and units.
The numbers of these two quantities are multiplied to yield the number
of the product quantity, 86, whereas the units are multiplied to yield .
Just as for numbers, a ratio of identical units is also numerically equal to
one, , and the unit product thus simplifies to cm. (When identical units
divide to yield a factor of 1, they are said to “cancel.”) Using dimensional
analysis, we can determine that a unit conversion factor has been set up
correctly by checking to confirm that the original unit will cancel, and the
result will contain the sought (converted) unit.
Example 1
The mass of a competition frisbee is 125 g. Convert its mass to ounces using the unit conversion
factor derived from the relationship 1 oz = 28.349 g (Table 1).
Solution
If we have the conversion factor, we can determine the mass in kilograms using an equation similar the
one used for converting length from inches to centimeters.
We write the unit conversion factor in its two forms:
The correct unit conversion factor is the ratio that cancels the units of grams and leaves ounces.
Test Yourself
Convert a volume of 9.345 qt to liters.
Answer
8.844 L
Beyond simple unit conversions, the factor-label method can be used

to solve more complex problems involving computations. Regardless of
the details, the basic approach is the same—all the factors involved in
the calculation must be appropriately oriented to insure that their labels
(units) will appropriately cancel and/or combine to yield the desired unit
in the result. This is why it is referred to as the factor-label method. As
your study of chemistry continues, you will encounter many opportunities
to apply this approach.
Example 2
What is the density of common antifreeze in units of g/mL? A 4.00-qt sample of the antifreeze
weighs 9.26 lb.
Solution
Since density = , we need to divide the mass in grams by the volume in milliliters. In general: the
number of units of B = the number of units of A × unit conversion factor. The necessary conversion
factors are given in Table 1: 1 lb = 453.59 g; 1 L = 1.0567 qt; 1 L = 1,000 mL. We can convert mass
from pounds to grams in one step:
We need to use two steps to convert volume from quarts to milliliters.
1. Convert quarts to liters.
2. Convert liters to milliliters.
Then,
Alternatively, the calculation could be set up in a way that uses three unit conversion factors
sequentially as follows:
Test Yourself
What is the volume in liters of 1.000 oz, given that 1 L = 1.0567 qt and 1 qt = 32 oz (exactly)?
Answer
Example 3
While being driven from Philadelphia to Atlanta, a distance of about 1250 km, a 2014 Lamborghini
Aventador Roadster uses 213 L gasoline.
a) What (average) fuel economy, in miles per gallon, did the Roadster get during this trip?
b) If gasoline costs $3.80 per gallon, what was the fuel cost for this trip?
Solution
a) We first convert distance from kilometers to miles:
and then convert volume from liters to gallons:
Then,
Alternatively, the calculation could be set up in a way that uses all the conversion factors sequentially,
as follows:
b) Using the previously calculated volume in gallons, we find:
Test Yourself
A Toyota Prius Hybrid uses 59.7 L gasoline to drive from San Francisco to Seattle, a distance of 1300
km (two significant digits).
a) What (average) fuel economy, in miles per gallon, did the Prius get during this trip?
b) If gasoline costs $3.90 per gallon, what was the fuel cost for this trip?
Answers
a) 51 mpg b) $62
Example 4
a) Convert 35.9 kL to liters.

b)Convert 555 nm to meters.
Solution
a) We will use the fact that 1 kL = 1,000 L. Of the two conversion factors that can be defined, the
one that will work is 1,000 L/1 kL. Applying this conversion factor, we get
b) We will use the fact that 1 nm = 1/1,000,000,000 m, which we will rewrite as 1,000,000,000 nm
= 1 m, or 109 nm = 1 m. Of the two possible conversion factors, the appropriate one has the nm unit in
the denominator: 1 m/109 nm. Applying this conversion factor, we get
In the final step, we expressed the answer in scientific notation.
Test Yourself
a) Convert 67.08 μL to liters. b) Convert 56.8 m to kilometers.
Answers
a) 6.708 × 10−5 L b) 5.68 × 10−2 km
Example 5
Complete the following conversions

(use table 1.1 for any metric conversions; Note: 1 L = 1.0567 qt )
a) 125 m = ? mm b) 2.3 x 10-6 Mg = ? g c) 2.5 L = ? qt
Solution
a)
Note that this equivalence statement comes from the literal “meaning” of milli in Table 1.1. Many
students prefer to use the equivalence statement 1000 mm = 1 m. That is fine too, as long as you
always remember to put the appropriate unit and number.
b)
c)
Test Yourself
Complete the following conversions (note: 1 in = 2.54 cm exactly)
a) 124 mL = ? L b) 256 days = ? hrs c) 63.2 cm = ? in
Answers
a) 0.124 L b) 6.14 x 103 hrs c) 24.9 in
Example 6
How many nm are in 26.5 feet? (12 in = 1 ft , and 2.54 cm = 1 in exactly)

Solution
Likely, you do not have a direct conversion between feet and nm. So, instead, ask yourself “where
can I go from feet”. The only possibility is inches. Then, where can you go from inches? …and so on.
The overall path becomes:
feet inches cm m nm
Test Yourself
A marathon is 26.4 miles. If 1 mile = 1760 yards, and 1 m = 1.094 yards, how many km are in a
marathon?
Answer
42.5 km
Example 7
a) A car is moving at 35.2 km/h. How many cm/s is this speed?

b) How many cm3are in 5 x 102m3?
Solution
a) We must convert km m cm AND convert h min s. It does not matter which order we
do this in. Note that if a unit is on the bottom of a fraction, we cancel it by putting that undesired unit
on the top of a conversion factor.
Remember…
1 m3= 1 m x 1 m x 1 m, so 1 m3= 100 cm x 100 cm x 100 cm, NOT 100 cm3
Test Yourself
Complete the following conversions
a) 75 mi/h = ? m/s (1760 yd = 1 mi and 1 m = 1.094 yd)

b) 4.1 g/cm3= ? kg/m3
Answers
a) 34 m/s b) 4.1 x 103 kg/m3
Example 8
How many cubic centimeters are in 0.883 m3?
Solution
With an exponent of 3, we have three length units, so by extension we need to use three conversion
factors between meters and centimeters. Thus, we have
You should demonstrate to yourself that the three meter units do indeed cancel.
Test Yourself
How many cubic millimeters are present in 0.0923 m3?
Answer
9.23 × 107 mm3
Example 9
Convert 88.4 m/min to meters/second.
Solution
We want to change the unit in the denominator from minutes to seconds. Because there are 60
seconds in 1 minute (60 s = 1 min), we construct a conversion factor so that the unit we want to remove,
minutes, is in the numerator: 1 min/60 s. Apply and perform the math:
Notice how the 88.4 automatically goes in the numerator. That’s because any number can be thought
of as being in the numerator of a fraction divided by 1.
Test Yourself
Convert 0.203 m/min to meters/second.
Answer
0.00338 m/s or 3.38 × 10−3 m/s
Figure 1. How fast is fast? A common garden snail moves at a rate of about 0.2 m/min, which is about 0.003 m/s,
which is 3 mm/s! Source: “Grapevine snail”by Jürgen Schoneris licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.
Example 10
How many nanoseconds are in 368.09 μs?
Solution
You can either do this as a one-step conversion from microseconds to nanoseconds or convert to the
base unit first and then to the final desired unit. We will use the second method here, showing the two
steps in a single line. Using the definitions of the prefixes micro- and nano-,
Test Yourself
How many milliliters are in 607.8 kL?
Answer
6.078 × 108 mL
Example 11
A rectangular plot in a garden has the dimensions 36.7 cm by 128.8 cm. What is the area of the
garden plot in square meters? Express your answer in the proper number of significant figures.
Solution
Area is defined as the product of the two dimensions, which we then have to convert to square meters
and express our final answer to the correct number of significant figures, which in this case will be
three.
The 1 and 100 in the conversion factors do not affect the determination of significant figures because
they are exact numbers, defined by the centi- prefix.
Test Yourself
What is the volume of a block in cubic meters whose dimensions are 2.1 cm × 34.0 cm × 118 cm?
Answer
0.0084 m3
Chemistry Is Everywhere: The Gimli Glider
On July 23, 1983, an Air Canada Boeing 767 jet had to glide to an emergency landing at Gimli
Industrial Park Airport in Gimli, Manitoba, because it unexpectedly ran out of fuel during flight. There
was no loss of life in the course of the emergency landing, only some minor injuries associated in part
with the evacuation of the craft after landing. For the remainder of its operational life (the plane was
retired in 2008), the aircraft was nicknamed “the Gimli Glider.”
Figure 2. The Gimli Glider is the Boeing 767 that

ran out of fuel and glided to safety at Gimli Airport.
The aircraft ran out of fuel because of confusion
over the units used to express the amount of fuel.
“Aircanada.b767′′ is in the the public domain.
The 767 took off from Montreal on its way to Ottawa, ultimately heading for Edmonton, Canada.
About halfway through the flight, all the engines on the plane began to shut down because of a lack of
fuel. When the final engine cut off, all electricity (which was generated by the engines) was lost; the
plane became, essentially, a powerless glider. Captain Robert Pearson was an experienced glider pilot,
although he had never flown a glider the size of a 767. First Officer Maurice Quintal quickly determined
that the aircraft would not be able make it to Winnipeg, the next large airport. He suggested his old
Royal Air Force base at Gimli Station, one of whose runways was still being used as a community
airport. Between the efforts of the pilots and the flight crew, they managed to get the airplane safely on
the ground (although with buckled landing gear) and all passengers off safely.
What happened? At the time, Canada was transitioning from the older English system to the metric
system. The Boeing 767s were the first aircraft whose gauges were calibrated in the metric system of
units (liters and kilograms) rather than the English system of units (gallons and pounds). Thus, when the
fuel gauge read 22,300, the gauge meant kilograms, but the ground crew mistakenly fueled the plane
with 22,300 pounds of fuel. This ended up being just less than half of the fuel needed to make the trip,
causing the engines to quit about halfway to Ottawa. Quick thinking and extraordinary skill saved the
lives of 61 passengers and 8 crew members—an incident that would not have occurred if people were
watching their units.
Conversion of Temperature Units
We use the word temperature to refer to the hotness or coldness of

a substance. One way we measure a change in temperature is to use
the fact that most substances expand when their temperature increases
and contract when their temperature decreases. The mercury or alcohol

in a common glass thermometer changes its volume as the temperature
changes. Because the volume of the liquid changes more than the volume
of the glass, we can see the liquid expand when it gets warmer and
contract when it gets cooler.
To mark a scale on a thermometer, we need a set of reference values: Two

of the most commonly used are the freezing and boiling temperatures of
water at a specified atmospheric pressure. On the Celsius scale, 0 °C is
defined as the freezing temperature of water and 100 °C as the boiling
temperature of water. The space between the two temperatures is divided
into 100 equal intervals, which we call degrees. On the Fahrenheit scale,
the freezing point of water is defined as 32 °F and the boiling temperature
as 212 °F. The space between these two points on a Fahrenheit
thermometer is divided into 180 equal parts (degrees).
Defining the Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales as described in

the previous paragraph results in a slightly more complex relationship
between temperature values on these two scales than for different units
of measure for other properties. Most measurement units for a given
property are directly proportional to one another (y = mx). Using familiar
length units as one example:
where y = length in feet, x = length in inches, and the proportionality

constant, m, is the conversion factor. The Celsius and Fahrenheit
temperature scales, however, do not share a common zero point, and so

the relationship between these two scales is a linear one rather than a
proportional one (y = mx + b). Consequently, converting a temperature
from one of these scales into the other requires more than simple
multiplication by a conversion factor, m, it also must take into account
differences in the scales’ zero points (b).
The linear equation relating Celsius and Fahrenheit temperatures is easily

derived from the two temperatures used to define each scale.
Representing the Celsius temperature as x and the Fahrenheit temperature
as y, the slope, m, is computed to be:
The y-intercept of the equation, b, is then calculated using either of the

equivalent temperature pairs, (100 °C, 212 °F) or (0 °C, 32 °F), as:
The equation relating the temperature scales is then:
An abbreviated form of this equation that omits the measurement units is:
Rearrangement of this equation yields the form useful for converting

from Fahrenheit to Celsius:
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the SI unit of temperature is the

kelvin (K). Unlike the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales, the kelvin scale is an
absolute temperature scale in which 0 (zero) K corresponds to the lowest
temperature that can theoretically be achieved. The early 19th-century
discovery of the relationship between a gas’s volume and temperature
suggested that the volume of a gas would be zero at −273.15 °C. In 1848,
British physicist William Thompson, who later adopted the title of Lord
Kelvin, proposed an absolute temperature scale based on this concept
(further treatment of this topic is provided in this text’s chapter on gases).
The freezing temperature of water on this scale is 273.15 K and its

boiling temperature 373.15 K. Notice the numerical difference in these
two reference temperatures is 100, the same as for the Celsius scale, and
so the linear relation between these two temperature scales will exhibit
a slope of . Following the same approach, the equations for converting
between the kelvin and Celsius temperature scales are derived to be:
The 273.15 in these equations has been determined experimentally, so it

is not exact. Figure 3 shows the relationship among the three temperature
scales. Recall that we do not use the degree sign with temperatures on the
kelvin scale.
Figure 3. The Fahrenheit, Celsius, and kelvin temperature scales are compared.
Although the kelvin (absolute) temperature scale is the official SI

temperature scale, Celsius is commonly used in many scientific contexts
and is the scale of choice for nonscience contexts in almost all areas of
the world. Very few countries (the U.S. and its territories, the Bahamas,
Belize, Cayman Islands, and Palau) still use Fahrenheit for weather,
medicine, and cooking.
Example 12
Normal body temperature has been commonly accepted as 37.0 °C (although it varies depending on
time of day and method of measurement, as well as among individuals). What is this temperature on
the kelvin scale and on the Fahrenheit scale?
Solution
Test Yourself
Convert 80.92 °C to K and °F.
Answers
354.07 K, 177.7 °F
Example 13
Baking a ready-made pizza calls for an oven temperature of 450 °F. If you are in Europe, and your
oven thermometer uses the Celsius scale, what is the setting? What is the kelvin temperature?
Solution
Test Yourself
Convert 50 °F to °C and K.
Answers
10 °C, 280 K
Example 14
a) What is 98.6 °F in degrees Celsius?

b) What is 25.0 °C in degrees Fahrenheit?
Solution
a) Using the first formula from above, we have
b) Using the second formula from above, we have
Test Yourself
a) Convert 0 °F to degrees Celsius.
b) Convert 212 °C to degrees Fahrenheit.
Answers
a) −17.8 °C b) 414 °F
Example 15
If normal room temperature is 72.0 °F, what is room temperature in degrees Celsius and kelvins?
Solution
First, we use the formula to determine the temperature in degrees Celsius:
Then we use the appropriate formula above to determine the temperature in the Kelvin scale:
K = 22.2 °C + 273.15 = 295.4 K
So, room temperature is about 295 K.
Test Yourself
What is 98.6 °F on the Kelvin scale?
Answer
310.2 K
Food and Drink App: Cooking Temperatures
Because degrees Fahrenheit is the common temperature scale in the United States, kitchen
appliances, such as ovens, are calibrated in that scale. A cool oven may be only 150°F, while a cake
may be baked at 350°F and a chicken roasted at 400°F. The broil setting on many ovens is 500°F, which
is typically the highest temperature setting on a household oven.
People who live at high altitudes, typically 2,000 ft above sea level or higher, are sometimes urged
to use slightly different cooking instructions on some products, such as cakes and bread, because water
boils at a lower temperature the higher in altitude you go, meaning that foods cook slower. For example,
in Cleveland water typically boils at 212°F (100°C), but in Denver, the Mile-High City, water boils at
about 200°F (93.3°C), which can significantly lengthen cooking times. Good cooks need to be aware
of this.
At the other end is pressure cooking. A pressure cooker is a closed vessel that allows steam to build
up additional pressure, which increases the temperature at which water boils. A good pressure cooker
can get to temperatures as high as 252°F (122°C); at these temperatures, food cooks much faster than it
normally would. Great care must be used with pressure cookers because of the high pressure and high
temperature. (When a pressure cooker is used to sterilize medical instruments, it is called an autoclave.)
Other countries use the Celsius scale for everyday purposes. Therefore, oven dials in their kitchens
are marked in degrees Celsius. It can be confusing for US cooks to use ovens abroad—a 425°F oven in
the United States is equivalent to a 220°C oven in other countries. These days, many oven thermometers
are marked with both temperature scales.
Need a refresher or more practice with unit conversion? Visit this site (https://viuvideos.viu.ca/
media/Unit+Conversion/0_o671v9j6) to go over the basics of unit conversions.
Video source: Unit conversion by keyj
Measurements are made using a variety of units. It is often useful or

necessary to convert a measured quantity from one unit into another.
These conversions are accomplished using unit conversion factors, which
are derived by simple applications of a mathematical approach called
the factor-label method or dimensional analysis. This strategy is also
employed to calculate sought quantities using measured quantities and
appropriate mathematical relations.
Key Equations
Exercises
1. Perform the following conversions.

a) 255°F to degrees Celsius b) −255°F to degrees Celsius
c) 50.0°C to degrees Fahrenheit d) −50.0°C to degrees Fahrenheit

a) 100.0°C to kelvins b) −100.0°C to kelvins
c) 100 K to degrees Celsius d) 300 K to degrees Celsius
3. Convert 0 K to degrees Celsius. What is the significance of the temperature in degrees Celsius?
4. The hottest temperature ever recorded on the surface of the earth was 136°F in Libya in 1922. What
is the temperature in degrees Celsius and in kelvins?
5. Write the two conversion factors that exist between the two given units.
a) milliliters and laters b) microseconds and seconds c) kilometers and meters
a) 5.4 km to meters b) 0.665 m to millimeters c) 0.665 m to kilometers

a) 17.8 μg to grams b) 7.22 × 102 kg to grams c) 0.00118 g to nanograms

a) 9.44 m2 to square centimetres b) 3.44 × 108 mm3 to cubic meters

9. Why would it be inappropriate to convert square centimeters to cubic meters?

a) 45.0 m/min to meters/second b) 0.000444 m/s to micrometers/second
c) 60.0 km/h to kilometers/second
a) 0.674 kL to milliliters b) 2.81 × 1012 mm to kilometers c) 94.5 kg to milligrams

a) 6.77 × 1014 ms to kilo seconds b) 34,550,000 cm to kilometers

13. Perform the following conversions. Note that you will have to convert units in both the numerator
and the denominator.
a) 88 ft/s to miles/hour (Hint: use 5,280 ft = 1 mi.) b) 0.00667 km/h to meters/second

14. What is the area in square millimeters of a rectangle whose sides are 2.44 cm × 6.077 cm?
Express the answer to the proper number of significant figures.
15. The formula for the area of a triangle is 1/2 × base × height. What is the area of a triangle in
square centimeters if its base is 1.007 m and its height is 0.665 m? Express the answer to the proper
number of significant figures.
16. Write conversion factors (as ratios) for the number of:
a) yards in 1 meter b) liters in 1 liquid quart c) pounds in 1 kilogram
17. The label on a soft drink bottle gives the volume in two units: 2.0 L and 67.6 fl oz. Use this
information to derive a conversion factor between the English and metric units. How many significant
figures can you justify in your conversion factor?
18. Soccer is played with a round ball having a circumference between 27 and 28 in. and a weight
between 14 and 16 oz. What are these specifications in units of centimeters and grams?
19. How many milliliters of a soft drink are contained in a 12.0-oz can?
20. The diameter of a red blood cell is about 3 × 10−4 in. What is its diameter in centimeters?
21. Is a 197-lb weight lifter light enough to compete in a class limited to those weighing 90 kg or
less?
22. Many medical laboratory tests are run using 5.0 μL blood serum. What is this volume in
milliliters?
23. Use scientific notation to express the following quantities in terms of the SI base units:
a) 0.13 g b) 232 Gg c) 5.23 pm d) 86.3 mg e) 37.6 cm f) 54 μm g) 1 Ts h) 27
ps i) 0.15 mK
24. Gasoline is sold by the liter in many countries. How many liters are required to fill a 12.0-gal
gas tank?
25. A long ton is defined as exactly 2240 lb. What is this mass in kilograms?
26. Make the conversion indicated in each of the following:
a) the length of a soccer field, 120 m (three significant figures), to feet
b) the height of Mt. Kilimanjaro, at 19,565 ft the highest mountain in Africa, to kilometers
c) the area of an 8.5 t 11-inch sheet of paper in cm2
d) the displacement volume of an automobile engine, 161 in.3, to liters
e) the estimated mass of the atmosphere, 5.6 t 1015 tons, to kilograms
f) the mass of a bushel of rye, 32.0 lb, to kilograms
g) the mass of a 5.00-grain aspirin tablet to milligrams (1 grain = 0.00229 oz)
27. A chemist’s 50-Trillion Angstrom Run would be an archeologist’s 10,900 cubit run. How long
is one cubit in meters and in feet? (1 Å = 1 × 10−8 cm)
28. As an instructor is preparing for an experiment, he requires 225 g phosphoric acid. The only
container readily available is a 150-mL Erlenmeyer flask. Is it large enough to contain the acid, whose
density is 1.83 g/mL?
29. A chemistry student is 159 cm tall and weighs 45.8 kg. What is her height in inches and weight
in pounds?
30. Solve these problems about lumber dimensions.
a) To describe to a European how houses are constructed in the US, the dimensions of “two-by-four”
lumber must be converted into metric units. The thickness × width × length dimensions are 1.50 in. ×
3.50 in. × 8.00 ft in the US. What are the dimensions in cm × cm × m?
b) This lumber can be used as vertical studs, which are typically placed 16.0 in. apart. What is that
distance in centimeters?
31. Calculate the density of aluminum if 27.6 cm3 has a mass of 74.6 g.
32. Calculate these masses.
a) What is the mass of 6.00 cm3 of mercury, density = 13.5939 g/cm3?

b) What is the mass of 25.0 mL octane, density = 0.702 g/cm3?
33. Calculate these volumes.
a) What is the volume of 25 g iodine, density = 4.93 g/cm3?
b) What is the volume of 3.28 g gaseous hydrogen, density = 0.089 g/L?
34. Convert the boiling temperature of gold, 2966 °C, into degrees Fahrenheit and kelvin.
35. Convert the temperature of the coldest area in a freezer, −10 °F, to degrees Celsius and kelvin.
36. Convert the boiling temperature of liquid ammonia, −28.1 °F, into degrees Celsius and kelvin.
37. The weather in Europe was unusually warm during the summer of 1995. The TV news reported
temperatures as high as 45 °C. What was the temperature on the Fahrenheit scale?
Answers
1. a) 124°C b) −159°C c) 122°F d) −58°F
2. a) 373 K b) 173 K c) −173°C d) 27°C
3. −273°C. This is the lowest possible temperature in degrees Celsius.
4. 57.8°C; 331 K
5. a) 1,000 mL/1 L and 1 L/1,000 mL b) 1,000,000 μs/1 s and 1 s/1,000,000 μs
c) 1,000 m/1 km and 1 km1,000 m
6. a) 5,400 m b) 665 mm c) 6.65 × 10−4 km
7. a) 1.78 × 10−5 g b) 7.22 × 105 g c) 1.18 × 106 ng
8. a) 94,400 cm2 b) 0.344 m3
9. One is a unit of area, and the other is a unit of volume.
10. a) 0.75 m/s b) 444 µm/s c) 1.666 × 10−2 km/s
11. a) 674,000 mL b) 2.81 × 106 km c) 9.45 × 107 mg
12. a) 6.77 × 108 ks b) 345.5 km
13. a) 6.0 × 101 mi/h b) 0.00185 m/s
14. 1.48 × 103 mm2
15. 3.35 × 103 cm2
16. a) b) c)
17.
Only two significant figures are justified.
18. 68–71 cm; 400–450 g
19. 355 mL
20. 8 × 10−4 cm
21. yes; weight = 89.4 kg

22. 5.0 × 10−3 mL
23. a) 1.3 × 10−4 kg b) 2.32 × 108 kg c) 5.23 × 10−12 m d) 8.63 × 10−5 kg e) 3.76 × 10−1
m f) 5.4 × 10−5 m g) 1 × 1012 s h) 2.7 × 10−11 s i) 1.5 × 10−4 K
24. 45.4 L
25. 1.0160 × 103 kg
26. a) 394 ft b) 5.9634 km c) 6.0 × 102 d) 2.64 L e) 5.1 × 1018 kg f) 14.5 kg g) 324
mg
27. 0.46 m; 1.5 ft/cubit
28. Yes, the acid’s volume is 123 mL.
29. 62.6 in (about 5 ft 3 in.) and 101 lb
30. (a) 3.81 cm × 8.89 cm × 2.44 m; (b) 40.6 cm
31. 2.70 g/cm3
32. (a) 81.6 g; (b) 17.6 g
33. (a) 5.1 mL; (b) 37 L
34. 5371 °F, 3239 K
35. −23 °C, 250 K
36. −33.4 °C, 239.8 K
37. 113 °F
Glossary
dimensional analysis: (also, factor-label method) versatile mathematical

approach that can be applied to computations ranging from simple unit
conversions to more complex, multi-step calculations involving several
different quantities
Fahrenheit: unit of temperature; water freezes at 32 °F and boils at 212

°F on this scale
unit conversion factor: ratio of equivalent quantities expressed with

different units; used to convert from one unit to a different unit



2.5 Density - Just Another Conversion
Factor
Learning Objectives
• Define density and use it as a conversion factor.
Density is a physical property that is defined as a substance’s mass

divided by its volume:
density = mass/volume or d = m/V
Density is usually a measured property of a substance, so its numerical

value affects the significant figures in a calculation. Notice that density
is defined in terms of two dissimilar units, mass and volume. That means
that density overall has derived units, just like velocity. Common units
for density include g/mL, g/cm3, g/L, kg/L, and even kg/m3. Densities
for some common substances are listed in Table 1 “Densities of Some
Common Substances”.
165
2.5 DENSITY - JUST ANOTHER CONVERSION FACTOR • 166
Table 1. Densities of Some Common Substances
Substance Density (g/mL or g/cm3)
water 1.0
gold 19.3
mercury 13.6
air 0.0012
cork 0.22–0.26
aluminum 2.7
iron 7.87
Because of how it is defined, density can act as a conversion factor for

switching between units of mass and volume. For example, suppose you
have a sample of aluminum that has a volume of 7.88 cm3. How can you
determine what mass of aluminum you have without measuring it? You
can use the volume to calculate it. If you multiply the given volume by the
known density (from Table 1 “Densities of Some Common Substances”),
the volume units will cancel and leave you with mass units, telling you
the mass of the sample:
7.88 cm3 × 2.7 g/cm3 = 21 g of aluminum
where we have limited our answer to two significant figures.

Example 1
What is the mass of 44.6 mL of mercury?
Solution
Use the density from Table 1 “Densities of Some Common Substances” as a conversion factor to go
from volume to mass:
44.6 mL × 13.6 g/mL = 607 g
The mass of the mercury is 607 g.
Test Yourself
What is the mass of 25.0 cm3 of iron?
Answer
197 g
Density can also be used as a conversion factor to convert mass to

volume—but care must be taken. We have already demonstrated that
the number that goes with density normally goes in the numerator when
density is written as a fraction. Take the density of gold, for example:
Although this was not previously pointed out, it can be assumed that there
is a 1 in the denominator:
That is, the density value tells us that we have 19.3 grams for every 1
milliliter of volume, and the 1 is an exact number. When we want to use
density to convert from mass to volume, the numerator and denominator

of density need to be switched—that is, we must take the reciprocal of
the density. In so doing, we move not only the units but also the numbers:
This reciprocal density is still a useful conversion factor, but now the
mass unit will cancel and the volume unit will be introduced. Thus, if
we want to know the volume of 45.9 g of gold, we would set up the
conversion as follows:
Note how the mass units cancel, leaving the volume unit, which is what
we’re looking for.
Example 2
A cork stopper from a bottle of wine has a mass of 3.78 g. If the density of cork is 0.22 g/cm3, what
is the volume of the cork?
Solution
To use density as a conversion factor, we need to take the reciprocal so that the mass unit of density
is in the denominator. Taking the reciprocal, we find
We can use this expression as the conversion factor. So
Then, taking significant figures into consideration, since the density only has two significant figures,
the final answer is 17 cm3.
Test Yourself
What is the volume of 3.78 g of gold?
Answer
0.196 cm3
Example 3
If a 5.00 g sample has a density of 2.50 g/mL, what volume does it occupy?
Solution
First, start with what you know: 5.00 g
Look at the density value as a “conversion factor” (2.50 g/mL) and arrange it so it CANCELS what
you already know. Thus, in this case we must invert it.
Multiply and cancel units…
Test Yourself
a) Isopropyl alcohol has a density of 0.785 g/mL.
What volume should be measured to obtain 10.0 g of the liquid?
b) A cube of metal has a mass of 1.45 kg. It is placed in 200.0 mL of water, and the water level rises
to 742.1 mL. What is the density of the metal?
Answers
a) 12.7 mL b) 2.67 g/mL
Care must be used with density as a conversion factor. Make sure the
mass units are the same, or the volume units are the same, before using
density to convert to a different unit. Often, the unit of the given quantity
must be first converted to the appropriate unit before applying density as
a conversion factor.
Density relates a substance’s mass and volume. Density can be used to

calculate volume from a given mass or mass from a given volume.
Exercises
1. Give at least three possible units for density.

2. A sample of iron has a volume of 48.2 cm3. What is its mass?
3. The volume of hydrogen used by the Hindenburg, the German airship that exploded in New Jersey
in 1937, was 2.000 × 108 L. If hydrogen gas has a density of 0.0899 g/L, what mass of hydrogen was
used by the airship?
4. A typical engagement ring has 0.77 cm3 of gold. What mass of gold is present?
5. What is the volume of 100.0 g of lead if lead has a density of 11.34 g/cm3?
6. What is the volume in liters of 222 g of neon if neon has a density of 0.900 g/L?
7. Which has the greater volume, 100.0 g of iron (d = 7.87 g/cm3) or 75.0 g of gold (d = 19.3 g/
cm3)?
Answers
1. g/mL, g/L, and kg/L (answers will vary)
2. 379 g
3. 1.80 × 107 g
4. 15 g
5. 8.818 cm3
6. 247 L
7. The 100.0 g of iron has the greater volume.



1. For each of the following measurements, state the amount of

uncertainty and then determine which measurement is most precise:
a) 2×102 mL of water b) 2.0×102 mL of water c) 2.00×102 mL

of water
d) 2.000×102 mL of water e) 200 mL of water f) 200. mL of

water
2. Write the following in correct scientific notation and list the number of
significant figures in each:
a) 0.00406 b) 3,500,000
c) 154 x 10-2 d) 0.00001256 x 106
3. State the number of significant figures in each of the following:

a) 275 b) 2.75 c) 0.275
d) 0.00275 e) 2750.0 f) 2.75 x 105
172
4. Write the following numbers in scientific notation:

a) 426.7 b) 337300.0
c) 0.000003 d) 0.02003
5. Express the results of each of the following calculations to the

appropriate number of significant figures:
a) 13.196 + 0.0825 + 2.32 + 0.0013 =
b) 721.56 – 0.394 =
c) (5.23×10-2) + (6.01×10-3) + (8×10-3) + (3.273×10-2) =
d) (3.21 x 432 x 65)/563 =
e) (8.57×10-2 x 6.02×1023 x 2.543) / (361 x 907) =
f) (2.01 x 43.9 x 67.0) / (23.9 x 0.016) =

appropriate number of significant figures, and in scientific notation:
a) (4.9×103)2 =
b) (3.8×10-6) x (2.1×102) =
c) (4.4×10-7) ÷ (1.2×105) =
d) (7.86×10-2) – (18.6×10-3) =
e) (1.6×103) – (8.53×102) + 7.5 =
7. For the following calculations, determine the answer using the

appropriate number of significant figure, units and using proper
scientific notation:
a) (1.93 x 102 g)(44.7 m/s)2 / 2 (where 2 is an exact number)
b) (8.334 x 107g) / (1.95 x 102cm)3

c) 4.20 m x 1.1 m – (4.5 x 103cm2)
8. Solve the following, expressing the answers in scientific notation:

a) (0.101 cm)(0.15 cm) + (10.50 cm)(0.105 cm) =
b) (0.27104 m / 0.0150 sec) – ( 38.171 m / 3.022 sec) =

appropriate number of significant figures:
a) (1.00×1018) + (5.6×1017) =
b) (317 – 314.35) ÷ 4.0 =
c) 30.5 + 3.05 + 0.305 + 0.0305 =
d) (3.03 + 8.14) ÷ (427.78 – 362.060) =
e) (6.5 g + 9.5 g) ÷ 25.00 mL =
10. The volume of a container is 5982 mm3.
a) What is the volume in cubic feet, ft3? (1 ft = 0.3048 m)
b) If it takes 0.23 seconds to add 1.00 mL of water to the container, how

many seconds does it take to fill the entire container?
11. One mile equals 1.609 kilometers. If you are going 110 km/h, how
many minutes will it take you to travel 254 miles?
12. On July 23rd, 1983, Air Canada Flight 143 required 22,300 kg of jet
fuel to fly from Montreal to Edmonton. The density of jet fuel is 0.803 g/
mL, or 1.77 lb/L. The plane had 7682 L of fuel on board in Montreal. The
ground crew there multiplied the 7682 L by the factor 1.77 and concluded
that they had 13,597 kg of fuel on board and needed an additional 8703 kg
for the trip. They divided 8703 kg by the factor 1.77 and concluded that
they needed to add 4916 L of fuel. They added 5000 L. On its flight, the
plane ran out of fuel and crashed near Winnipeg, hundred of kilometers
short of its destination (there were few injuries and luckily, no fatalities).
What mistake did the ground crew make? How much fuel SHOULD they
have added before take off?
13. Perform the following calculation and report the answer in cm, with
proper significant figures: 13.25 cm + 26 mm – 7.8 cm + 0.186 m
14. Complete the following conversions:
498 cm/s = ________ km/h
63 km/h = ________ cm/s
89oC = ________ K
821 K = ________ oC
802 kg/m3 = ________ g/mL
10024 g/mL = ________ kg/L
38 mL = ________ cm3
0.00924 km = ________ mm
7098 mm = ________ dm
2987 µm = ________ mm
0.78 L = ________ cm3
908 mg = ________ kg
87.8 mm = ________ nm
89.2 m3 = ________ mm3
3 x 108m/s = ________ km/year
15. An Erlenmeyer flask has a mass of 392.6 g when empty. When filled
with water (density = 1.00 g/cm3), the total mass is 503.5 g. If the flask
is emptied and then filled with chloroform (density = 1.48 g/cm3), what
will the total mass (container + chloroform) be?
16. Alcohol has a density of 789 g/L. If you need 85 g of alcohol, what
volume of alcohol would you need?
17. Nickel has a density of 8.90 x 103g/L and mercury has a density of
13.6 x 103g/L.
a) What volume of mercury has the same mass as a 40.0 cm3 piece of
nickel?
b) What mass of nickel occupies the same volume as 200.0 g of mercury?
18. Gold has a density of 19.3 g/mL. If 5.79 mg of gold is hammered into
a gold leaf of uniform thickness with an area of 4.46 x 103 mm2, what is
the thickness of the gold leaf?
19. The square nut pictured below is 14.00 mm on edge, 6.00 mm thick,
and has a 7.0 mm diameter hole. The density of the metal used in the nuts
is 7.87 g/cm3. Approximately how many of these nuts are present in a
1.00 lb package? (Note: 1 lb = 453.6 g)
20. A container of unknown volume has a mass of 32.105 g. When

filled completely with a fluid of density 0.9982 g/mL, the container and
contents have a mass of 42.062 g (at 20 oC). When filled with benzene at
20 oC, the container and contents have a mass of 40.873 g. What is the
density of benzene at 20 oC?
21. A 3.50 mL piece of boron has a mass of 8.19 g. What is the density
of boron?
22. An object made of iron is immersed in water. The object has a mass
of 250 g. If the density of iron is 7.86 g/cm3, what is the volume of the
water displaced by the iron object?
23. Evaluate 0.00000000552 × 0.0000000006188 and express the answer

in scientific notation. You may have to rewrite the original numbers in
scientific notation first.
24. Express the number 6.022 × 1023 in standard notation.

25. When powers of 10 are multiplied together, the powers are added
together. For example, 102 × 103 = 102+3 = 105. With this in mind, can
you evaluate (4.506 × 104) × (1.003 × 102) without entering scientific
notation into your calculator?
26. Consider the quantity two dozen eggs. Is the number in this quantity
“two” or “two dozen”? Justify your choice.
27. Fill in the blank: 1 km = ______________ μm.
28. Fill in the blank: 1 cL = ______________ ML.
29. Express 67.3 km/h in meters/second.
30. Using the idea that 1.602 km = 1.000 mi, convert a speed of 60.0 mi/
h into kilometers/hour.
31. Convert 52.09 km/h into meters/second.
32. Use the formulas for converting degrees Fahrenheit into degrees
Celsius to determine the relative size of the Fahrenheit degree over the
Celsius degree.
33. What is the mass of 12.67 L of mercury?
34. What is the volume of 2.884 kg of gold?

Answers
1. a) ± 100 mL of water b) ± 10 mL of water c) ± 1 mL of

water
d) ± 0.1 mL of water e) ± 100 mL of water f) ± 1 mL of water
And the most precise measurement is (d) because it has the least amount
of uncertainty.
b) ± 1 mL or so, 438 mL
c) ± 0.001 °C or so, 10.060 oC
2. a) 4.06 x 10-3= 3 significant figures

b) 3.5 x 106= 2 significant figures
c) 1.54 or 1.54 x 100= 3 significant figures
d) 1.256 x 101= 4 significant figures
3. a) 3 b) 3 c) 3 d) 3 e) 5 f) 3
4. a) 4.267×102 b) 3.373000×105 c) 3×10-6 d) 2.003×10-2
5. a) 15.60 b) 721.17 c) 9.9×10-2 d) 1.6×102 e) 4.01×1017

f) 1.5×104
6. a) 2.4×107 b) 8.0×10-4 c) 3.7×10-12 d) 6.00×10-2 e) 8×102
7. a) 1.93 x 105g·m2/s2 b) 11.2 g/cm3 c) 4.2 m2or 4.2 x 104cm2
8. a) 1.12 cm2 b) 5.4 m/s

9. a) 1.56×1018 b) 0.7 c) 33.9 d) 0.1700 e) 0.640 g/mL
10. a) 2.113 x 10-4ft3 b) 1.4 s
11. 220 minutes (2.2 x 102minutes)
12. The crew used the wrong conversion factor (using 1.77 lb/L as if it
were 1.77 kg/L) and didn’t pay attention to proper cancellation of units
(to catch the mistake). They should have added 2.01 x 104L of fuel (at
least).
13. 26.6 cm (or 26.7 cm OK)
14. 17.9; 1.8 x 103; 362; 548; 0.802; 10024; 38;
9.24 x 103; 70.98; 2.987; 7.8 x 102; 9.08 x 10-4;
8.78 x 107; 8.92 x 1010; 9 x 1012
15. 557 g
16. 0.11 L
17. a) 0.0262 L or 26.2 cm3 b) 131 g
18. 6.73 x 10-5mm
19. approximately 61 nuts
20. 0.8790 g/mL

21. 2.34 g/mL
22. 32 mL
23. 3.42 × 10−18
24. 602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000
25. 4.520 × 106
26. The quantity is two; dozen is the unit.
27. 1,000,000,000
28. 1/100,000,000
29. 18.7 m/s
30. 96.1 km/h
31. 14.47 m/s
32. One Fahrenheit degree is nine-fifths the size of a Celsius degree.
33. 1.72 × 105 g
34. 149 mL


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Chapter 3. Atoms, Molecules,
and Ions
Chapter Topics
• Early Ideas in Atomic Theory

• Evolution of Atomic Theory
• Atomic Structure and Symbolism
• Chemical Formulas
• The Periodic Table
183
Introduction
Your overall health and susceptibility to disease depends upon the

complex interaction between your genetic makeup and environmental
exposure, with the outcome difficult to predict. Early detection of
biomarkers, substances that indicate an organism’s disease or
physiological state, could allow diagnosis and treatment before a
condition becomes serious or irreversible. Recent studies have shown
that your exhaled breath can contain molecules that may be biomarkers
for recent exposure to environmental contaminants or for pathological
conditions ranging from asthma to lung cancer. Scientists are working
to develop biomarker “fingerprints” that could be used to diagnose a
specific disease based on the amounts and identities of certain molecules
in a patient’s exhaled breath. An essential concept underlying this goal
is that of a molecule’s identity, which is determined by the numbers and
types of atoms it contains, and how they are bonded together. This chapter
will describe some of the fundamental chemical principles related to the
composition of matter, including those central to the concept of molecular
identity.

184

3.1 Early Ideas in Atomic Theory
Learning Objectives
• State the postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory

• Use postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory to explain the laws of definite and multiple
proportions
The language used in chemistry is seen and heard in many disciplines,

ranging from medicine to engineering to forensics to art. The language
of chemistry includes its own vocabulary as well as its own form of
shorthand. Chemical symbols are used to represent atoms and elements.
Chemical formulas depict molecules as well as the composition of
compounds. Chemical equations provide information about the quality
and quantity of the changes associated with chemical reactions.
This chapter will lay the foundation for our study of the language of
chemistry. The concepts of this foundation include the atomic theory,
the composition and mass of an atom, the variability of the composition
of isotopes, ion formation, chemical bonds in ionic and covalent
compounds, the types of chemical reactions, and the naming of
186
compounds. We will also introduce one of the most powerful tools for
organizing chemical knowledge: the periodic table.
Atomic Theory through the Nineteenth Century
The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes

from ancient Greek philosophers, the scientists of their day. In the fifth
century BC, Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter was
composed of small, finite particles that they called atomos, a term derived
from the Greek word for “indivisible.” They thought of atoms as moving
particles that differed in shape and size, and which could join together.
Later, Aristotle and others came to the conclusion that matter consisted
of various combinations of the four “elements”—fire, earth, air, and
water—and could be infinitely divided. Interestingly, these philosophers
thought about atoms and “elements” as philosophical concepts, but
apparently never considered performing experiments to test their ideas.
The Aristotelian view of the composition of matter held sway for over
two thousand years, until English schoolteacher John Dalton helped to
revolutionize chemistry with his hypothesis that the behavior of matter
could be explained using an atomic theory. First published in 1807, many
of Dalton’s hypotheses about the microscopic features of matter are still
valid in modern atomic theory. Here are the postulates of Dalton’s atomic
theory.
1. Matter is composed of exceedingly small particles called

atoms. An atom is the smallest unit of an element that can
3.1 EARLY IDEAS IN ATOMIC THEORY • 188
participate in a chemical change.
2. An element consists of only one type of atom, which has a

mass that is characteristic of the element and is the same for all
atoms of that element (Figure 1). A macroscopic sample of an
element contains an incredibly large number of atoms, all of
which have identical chemical properties.
Figure 1. A pre-1982 copper penny (left) contains

approximately 3 × 1022 copper atoms (several dozen are
represented as brown spheres at the right), each of which
has the same chemical properties. (credit: modification of
work by “slgckgc”/Flickr)
3. Atoms of one element differ in properties from atoms of all

other elements.
4. A compound consists of atoms of two or more elements

combined in a small, whole-number ratio. In a given
compound, the numbers of atoms of each of its elements are
always present in the same ratio (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Copper(II) oxide, a powdery, black compound,

results from the combination of two types of
atoms—copper (brown spheres) and oxygen (red
spheres)—in a 1:1 ratio. (credit: modification of work by
“Chemicalinterest”/Wikimedia Commons)
5. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical

change, but are instead rearranged to yield substances that are
different from those present before the change (Figure 3).
Figure 3. When the elements copper (a shiny, red-brown solid, shown

here as brown spheres) and oxygen (a clear and colorless gas, shown
here as red spheres) react, their atoms rearrange to form a compound
containing copper and oxygen (a powdery, black solid). (credit copper:
modification of work by http://images-of-elements.com/copper.php)
Dalton’s atomic theory provides a microscopic explanation of the many

macroscopic properties of matter that you’ve learned about. For example,
if an element such as copper consists of only one kind of atom, then it
cannot be broken down into simpler substances, that is, into substances
composed of fewer types of atoms. And if atoms are neither created nor
destroyed during a chemical change, then the total mass of matter present
when matter changes from one type to another will remain constant (the
law of conservation of matter).
Overall this gives us a “billiard ball” view of atoms. The shortcomings

of his model, however are that it does not account for WHY elements
combine as they do and does not explain the observed electrical charge of
particles. More discoveries were needed to go beyond this model.
Example 1
In the following drawing, the green spheres represent atoms of a certain element. The purple spheres
represent atoms of another element. If the spheres touch, they are part of a single unit of a compound.
Does the following chemical change represented by these symbols violate any of the ideas of Dalton’s
atomic theory? If so, which one?
Solution
The starting materials consist of two green spheres and two purple spheres. The products consist of only
one green sphere and one purple sphere. This violates Dalton’s postulate that atoms are neither created
nor destroyed during a chemical change, but are merely redistributed. (In this case, atoms appear to
have been destroyed.)
Test Yourself
In the following drawing, the green spheres represent atoms of a certain element. The purple spheres
represent atoms of another element. If the spheres touch, they are part of a single unit of a compound.
Does the following chemical change represented by these symbols violate any of the ideas of Dalton’s
atomic theory? If so, which one?
Answer
The starting materials consist of four green spheres and two purple spheres. The products consist of
four green spheres and two purple spheres. This does not violate any of Dalton’s postulates: Atoms are
neither created nor destroyed, but are redistributed in small, whole-number ratios.
Dalton knew of the experiments of French chemist Joseph Proust, who

demonstrated that all samples of a pure compound contain the same

elements in the same proportion by mass. This statement is known as
the law of definite proportions or the law of constant composition.
The suggestion that the numbers of atoms of the elements in a given
compound always exist in the same ratio is consistent with these
observations. For example, when different samples of isooctane (a
component of gasoline and one of the standards used in the octane rating
system) are analyzed, they are found to have a carbon-to-hydrogen mass
ratio of 5.33:1, as shown in Table 1.
Sample Carbon Hydrogen Mass Ratio
A 14.82 g 2.78 g
B 22.33 g 4.19 g
C 19.40 g 3.64 g
Table 1. Constant Composition of Isooctane
It is worth noting that although all samples of a particular compound have

the same mass ratio, the converse is not true in general. That is, samples
that have the same mass ratio are not necessarily the same substance. For
example, there are many compounds other than isooctane that also have a
carbon-to-hydrogen mass ratio of 5.33:1.00.
Dalton also used data from Proust, as well as results from his own
experiments, to formulate another interesting law. The law of multiple
proportions states that when two elements react to form more than one
compound, a fixed mass of one element will react with masses of the other
element in a ratio of small, whole numbers. For example, copper and
chlorine can form a green, crystalline solid with a mass ratio of 0.558 g
chlorine to 1.00 g copper, as well as a brown crystalline solid with a mass
ratio of 1.116 g chlorine to 1.00 g copper. These ratios by themselves may
not seem particularly interesting or informative; however, if we take a
ratio of these ratios, we obtain a useful and possibly surprising result: a
small, whole-number ratio.
This 2-to-1 ratio means that the brown compound has twice the amount
of chlorine per amount of copper as the green compound. This can be
explained by atomic theory if the copper-to-chlorine ratio in the brown
compound is 1 copper atom to 2 chlorine atoms, and the ratio in the green
compound is 1 copper atom to 1 chlorine atom. The ratio of chlorine
atoms (and thus the ratio of their masses) is therefore 2 to 1 (Figure 4).
Overall Dalton’s atomic theory gives us a “billiard ball” view of atoms.

The shortcomings of his model, however are that it does not account for
WHY elements combine as they do and does not explain the observed
electrical charge of particles. More discoveries were needed to go beyond
this model.
Figure 4. Compared to the copper chlorine compounds, where copper is

represented by brown spheres and chlorine by green spheres, in (a) where the
copper chlorine compound is CuCl and (b) where the copper chlorine compound
CuCl2 which has twice as many chlorine atoms per copper atom. (credit a:
modification of work by “Benjah-bmm27”/Wikimedia Commons; credit b:
modification of work by “Walkerma”/Wikimedia Commons)
Example 2
A sample of compound A (a clear, colorless gas) is analyzed and found to contain 4.27 g carbon and
5.69 g oxygen. A sample of compound B (also a clear, colorless gas) is analyzed and found to contain
5.19 g carbon and 13.84 g oxygen. Are these data an example of the law of definite proportions, the law
of multiple proportions, or neither? What do these data tell you about substances A and B?
Solution
In compound A, the mass ratio of carbon to oxygen is:
In compound B, the mass ratio of carbon to oxygen is:
The ratio of these ratios is:
This supports the law of multiple proportions. This means that A and B are different compounds,
with A having one-half as much oxygen per amount of carbon as B. A possible pair of compounds that
would fit this relationship would be A = CO and B = CO2.
Test Yourself
A sample of compound X (a clear, colorless, combustible liquid with a noticeable odor) is analyzed
and found to contain 14.13 g carbon and 2.96 g hydrogen. A sample of compound Y (a clear, colorless,
combustible liquid with a noticeable odor that is slightly different from X’s odor) is analyzed and
found to contain 19.91 g carbon and 3.34 g hydrogen. Are these data an example of the law of definite
proportions, the law of multiple proportions, or neither? What do these data tell you about substances
X and Y?
Answers
In compound X, the mass ratio of carbon to hydrogen is . In compound Y, the mass ratio of
carbon to oxygen is . The ratio of these ratios is . This small, whole-
number ratio supports the law of multiple proportions. This means that X and Y are different
compounds.
The ancient Greeks proposed that matter consists of extremely small

particles called atoms. Dalton postulated that each element has a
characteristic type of atom that differs in properties from atoms of all
other elements, and that atoms of different elements can combine in fixed,
small, whole-number ratios to form compounds. Samples of a particular
compound all have the same elemental proportions by mass. When two
elements form different compounds, a given mass of one element will
combine with masses of the other element in a small, whole-number ratio.
During any chemical change, atoms are neither created nor destroyed.
Exercises
1. In the following drawing, the green spheres represent atoms of a certain element. The purple
spheres represent atoms of another element. If the spheres of different elements touch, they are
part of a single unit of a compound. The following chemical change represented by these spheres
may violate one of the ideas of Dalton’s atomic theory. Which one?
2. Which postulate of Dalton’s theory is consistent with the following observation concerning the
weights of reactants and products? When 100 grams of solid calcium carbonate is heated, 44 grams of
carbon dioxide and 56 grams of calcium oxide are produced.
3. Identify the postulate of Dalton’s theory that is violated by the following observations: 59.95% of
one sample of titanium dioxide is titanium; 60.10% of a different sample of titanium dioxide is titanium.
4. Samples X, Y, and Z are analyzed, with results shown here.
Samples Description Mass of Carbon Mass of Hydrogen
X clear, colorless, liquid with strong odor 1.776 g 0.148 g
Y clear, colorless, liquid with strong odor 1.974 g 0.329 g
Z clear, colorless, liquid with strong odor 7.812 g 0.651 g
Table 2.
Do these data provide example(s) of the law of definite proportions, the law of multiple proportions,
neither, or both? What do these data tell you about compounds X, Y, and Z?
Answers
1. The starting materials consist of one green sphere and two purple spheres. The products consist
of two green spheres and two purple spheres. This violates Dalton’s postulate that that atoms are not
created during a chemical change, but are merely redistributed.
2. The law of conservation of matter – the total mass of matter present when matter changes from
one type to another remains constant.
3. This statement violates Dalton’s fourth postulate: In a given compound, the numbers of atoms of
each type (and thus also the percentage) always have the same ratio.
4. Samples X and Z provide an example of the law of definite proportions (law of constant
composition) for both samples are found to have a carbon-to-hydrogen mass ratio of 12:1.
Samples X and Y provide an example of the law of multiple proportions,
since in sample X, the mass ratio of carbon to hydrogen is:
and in sample Y, the mass ratio of carbon to hydrogen is:

This supports the law of multiple proportions. This means that sample X and Y are different
compounds, with X having one-half as much hydrogen per amount of carbon as Y.
Samples Z and Y also provide an example of the law of multiple proportions,
since in sample Z, the mass ratio of carbon to hydrogen is:
and in sample Y, the mass ratio of carbon to hydrogen is:
This supports the law of multiple proportions. This means that sample Z and Y are different
compounds, with Z having one-half as much hydrogen per amount of carbon as Y.
Note: Samples X and Z may be the same compound or they may be different (isomers – a topic to be
discussed later).
Glossary
Dalton’s atomic theory: set of postulates that established the

fundamental properties of atoms
law of conservation of matter: the total mass of matter present when

matter changes from one type to another remains constant.
law of constant composition: (also, law of definite proportions) all

samples of a pure compound contain the same elements in the same
proportions by mass
law of definite proportions: (also, law of constant composition) all

samples of a pure compound contain the same elements in the same
proportions by mass
law of multiple proportions: when two elements react to form more than
one compound, a fixed mass of one element will react with masses of the
other element in a ratio of small whole numbers



3.2 Evolution of Atomic Theory
Learning Objectives
• Outline milestones in the development of modern atomic theory

• Summarize and interpret the results of the experiments of Thomson, Millikan, and
Rutherford
• Describe the three subatomic particles that compose atoms
• Define isotopes and give examples for several elements
In the two centuries since Dalton developed his ideas, scientists have
made significant progress in furthering our understanding of atomic
theory. Much of this came from the results of several seminal experiments
that revealed the details of the internal structure of atoms. Here, we will
discuss some of those key developments, with an emphasis on application
of the scientific method, as well as understanding how the experimental
evidence was analyzed. While the historical persons and dates behind
these experiments can be quite interesting, it is most important to
understand the concepts resulting from their work.
199
3.2 EVOLUTION OF ATOMIC THEORY • 200
Atomic Theory after the Nineteenth Century
If matter were composed of atoms, what were atoms composed of?

Were they the smallest particles, or was there something smaller? In
the late 1800s, a number of scientists interested in questions like these
investigated the electrical discharges that could be produced in low-
pressure gases, with the most significant discovery made by English
physicist J. J. Thomson using a cathode ray tube. This apparatus
consisted of a sealed glass tube from which almost all the air had been
removed; the tube contained two metal electrodes. When high voltage
was applied across the electrodes, a visible beam called a cathode ray
appeared between them. This beam was deflected toward the positive
charge and away from the negative charge, and was produced in the
same way with identical properties when different metals were used
for the electrodes. In similar experiments, the ray was simultaneously
deflected by an applied magnetic field, and measurements of the extent of
deflection and the magnetic field strength allowed Thomson to calculate
the charge-to-mass ratio of the cathode ray particles. The results of these
measurements indicated that these particles were much lighter than atoms
(Figure 1).
Figure 1. (a) J. J. Thomson produced a visible beam in a cathode ray tube. (b) This
is an early cathode ray tube, invented in 1897 by Ferdinand Braun. (c) In the
cathode ray, the beam (shown in yellow) comes from the cathode and is
accelerated past the anode toward a fluorescent scale at the end of the tube.
Simultaneous deflections by applied electric and magnetic fields permitted
Thomson to calculate the mass-to-charge ratio of the particles composing the
cathode ray. (credit a: modification of work by Nobel Foundation; credit b:
modification of work by Eugen Nesper; credit c: modification of work by
“Kurzon”/Wikimedia Commons)
Based on his observations, here is what Thomson proposed and why: The
particles are attracted by positive (+) charges and repelled by negative (−)
charges, so they must be negatively charged (like charges repel and unlike
charges attract); they are less massive than atoms and indistinguishable,
regardless of the source material, so they must be fundamental, subatomic

constituents of all atoms. Although controversial at the time, Thomson’s
idea was gradually accepted, and his cathode ray particle is what we
now call an electron, a negatively charged, subatomic particle with a
mass approximately two thousands that of a hydrogen atom. The term
“electron” was coined in 1891 by Irish physicist George Stoney, from
“electric ion.”
Click here to hear Thomson describe his discovery in his own voice.
In 1909, more information about the electron was uncovered by American

physicist Robert A. Millikan via his “oil drop” experiments. Millikan
created microscopic oil droplets, which could be electrically charged by
friction as they formed or by using X-rays. These droplets initially fell
due to gravity, but their downward progress could be slowed or even
reversed by an electric field lower in the apparatus. By adjusting the
electric field strength and making careful measurements and appropriate
calculations, Millikan was able to determine the charge on individual
drops (Figure 2).
Looking at the charge data that Millikan gathered, you may have
recognized that the charge of an oil droplet is always a multiple of a

specific charge, 1.6 × 10−19 C. Millikan concluded that this value must
therefore be a fundamental charge—the charge of a single electron—with
his measured charges due to an excess of one electron (1 times 1.6 ×
10−19 C), two electrons (2 times 1.6 × 10−19 C), three electrons (3 times
1.6 × 10−19 C), and so on, on a given oil droplet. Since the charge of an
electron was now known due to Millikan’s research, and the charge-to-
mass ratio was already known due to Thomson’s research (1.759 × 1011
C/kg), it only required a simple calculation to determine the mass of the
electron as well.
Figure 2. Millikan’s experiment measured the charge of individual oil drops. The
tabulated data are examples of a few possible values.
Scientists had now established that the atom was not indivisible as Dalton
had believed, and due to the work of Thomson, Millikan, and others,
the charge and mass of the negative, subatomic particles—the
electrons—were known. However, the positively charged part of an atom
was not yet well understood. In 1904, Thomson proposed the “plum
pudding” model of atoms, which described a positively charged mass
with an equal amount of negative charge in the form of electrons
embedded in it, since all atoms are electrically neutral. A competing
model had been proposed in 1903 by Hantaro Nagaoka, who postulated
a Saturn-like atom, consisting of a positively charged sphere surrounded
by a halo of electrons (Figure 3).
Figure 3. (a) Thomson suggested that atoms resembled plum pudding, an English
dessert consisting of moist cake with embedded raisins (“plums”). (b) Nagaoka
proposed that atoms resembled the planet Saturn, with a ring of electrons
surrounding a positive “planet.” (credit a: modification of work by “Man
vyi”/Wikimedia Commons; credit b: modification of work by “NASA”/Wikimedia
Commons)
The next major development in understanding the atom came from Ernest
Rutherford, a physicist from New Zealand who largely spent his
scientific career in Canada and England. He performed a series of
experiments using a beam of high-speed, positively charged alpha
particles (α particles) that were produced by the radioactive decay of

radium; α particles consist of two protons and two neutrons (you will
learn more about radioactive decay in the chapter on nuclear chemistry).
Rutherford and his colleagues Hans Geiger (later famous for the Geiger
counter) and Ernest Marsden aimed a beam of α particles, the source of
which was embedded in a lead block to absorb most of the radiation, at a
very thin piece of gold foil and examined the resultant scattering of the α
particles using a luminescent screen that glowed briefly where hit by an α
particle.
What did they discover? Most particles passed right through the foil
without being deflected at all. However, some were diverted slightly,
and a very small number were deflected almost straight back toward the
source (Figure 4). Rutherford described finding these results: “It was
quite the most incredible event that has ever happened to me in my life. It
was almost as incredible as if you fired a 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue
1
paper and it came back and hit you” (p. 68).
1. Ernest Rutherford, “The Development of the Theory of Atomic Structure,” ed. J. A.

Ratcliffe, in Background to Modern Science, eds. Joseph Needham and Walter Pagel,
(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1938), 61–74. Accessed September 22,
2014, https://ia600508.us.archive.org/3/items/backgroundtomode032734mbp/
backgroundtomode032734mbp.pdf.
Figure 4. Geiger and Rutherford fired α particles at a piece of gold foil and
detected where those particles went, as shown in this schematic diagram of their
experiment. Most of the particles passed straight through the foil, but a few were
deflected slightly and a very small number were significantly deflected.
Here is what Rutherford deduced: Because most of the fast-moving α

particles passed through the gold atoms undeflected, they must have
traveled through essentially empty space inside the atom. Alpha particles
are positively charged, so deflections arose when they encountered
another positive charge (like charges repel each other). Since like charges
repel one another, the few positively charged α particles that changed
paths abruptly must have hit, or closely approached, another body that
also had a highly concentrated, positive charge. Since the deflections
occurred a small fraction of the time, this charge only occupied a small
amount of the space in the gold foil. Analyzing a series of such
experiments in detail, Rutherford drew two conclusions:
1. The volume occupied by an atom must consist of a large

amount of empty space.
2. A small, relatively heavy, positively charged body, the

nucleus, must be at the center of each atom.
View this simulation of the Rutherford gold foil experiment. Adjust the slit width to produce a
narrower or broader beam of α particles to see how that affects the scattering pattern.
This analysis led Rutherford to propose a model in which an atom

consists of a very small, positively charged nucleus, in which most of the
mass of the atom is concentrated, surrounded by the negatively charged
electrons, so that the atom is electrically neutral (Figure 5). After many
more experiments, Rutherford also discovered that the nuclei of other
elements contain the hydrogen nucleus as a “building block,” and he
named this more fundamental particle the proton, the positively charged,
subatomic particle found in the nucleus. With one addition, which you
will learn next, this nuclear model of the atom, proposed over a century
ago, is still used today.
Figure 5. The α particles are deflected only when they collide with or pass close to
the much heavier, positively charged gold nucleus. Because the nucleus is very
small compared to the size of an atom, very few α particles are deflected. Most
pass through the relatively large region occupied by electrons, which are too light
to deflect the rapidly moving particles.
The Rutherford Scattering simulation allows you to investigate the differences between a “plum
pudding” atom and a Rutherford atom by firing α particles at each type of atom.
Another important finding was the discovery of isotopes. During the

early 1900s, scientists identified several substances that appeared to be
new elements, isolating them from radioactive ores. For example, a “new
element” produced by the radioactive decay of thorium was initially

given the name mesothorium. However, a more detailed analysis showed
that mesothorium was chemically identical to radium (another decay
product), despite having a different atomic mass. This result, along with
similar findings for other elements, led the English chemist Frederick
Soddy to realize that an element could have types of atoms with different
masses that were chemically indistinguishable. These different types are
called isotopes—atoms of the same element that differ in mass. Soddy
was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1921 for this discovery.
One puzzle remained: The nucleus was known to contain almost all of the
mass of an atom, with the number of protons only providing half, or less,
of that mass. Different proposals were made to explain what constituted
the remaining mass, including the existence of neutral particles in the
nucleus. As you might expect, detecting uncharged particles is very
challenging, and it was not until 1932 that James Chadwick found
evidence of neutrons, uncharged, subatomic particles with a mass
approximately the same as that of protons. The existence of the neutron
also explained isotopes: They differ in mass because they have different
numbers of neutrons, but they are chemically identical because they have
the same number of protons. This will be explained in more detail later in
this chapter.
Although no one has actually seen the inside of an atom, experiments

have demonstrated much about atomic structure. Thomson’s cathode ray

tube showed that atoms contain small, negatively charged particles called
electrons. Millikan discovered that there is a fundamental electric
charge—the charge of an electron. Rutherford’s gold foil experiment
showed that atoms have a small, dense, positively charged nucleus; the
positively charged particles within the nucleus are called protons.
Chadwick discovered that the nucleus also contains neutral particles
called neutrons. Soddy demonstrated that atoms of the same element can
differ in mass; these are called isotopes.
Exercises
1. The existence of isotopes violates one of the original ideas of Dalton’s atomic theory. Which one?
2. How are electrons and protons similar? How are they different?
3. How are protons and neutrons similar? How are they different?
4. Predict and test the behavior of α particles fired at a Rutherford atom model.
a) Predict the paths taken by α particles that are fired at atoms with a Rutherford atom model
structure. Explain why you expect the α particles to take these paths.
b) If α particles of higher energy than those in (a) are fired at Rutherford atoms, predict how their
paths will differ from the lower-energy α particle paths. Explain your reasoning.
c) Predict how the paths taken by the α particles will differ if they are fired at Rutherford atoms of
elements other than gold. What factor do you expect to cause this difference in paths, and why?
d) Now test your predictions from (a), (b), and (c). Open the Rutherford Scattering simulation and
select the “Rutherford Atom” tab. Due to the scale of the simulation, it is best to start with a small
nucleus, so select “20” for both protons and neutrons, “min” for energy, show traces, and then start
firing α particles. Does this match your prediction from (a)? If not, explain why the actual path would
be that shown in the simulation. Pause or reset, set energy to “max,” and start firing α particles. Does
this match your prediction from (b)? If not, explain the effect of increased energy on the actual path as
shown in the simulation. Pause or reset, select “40” for both protons and neutrons, “min” for energy,
show traces, and fire away. Does this match your prediction from (c)? If not, explain why the actual
path would be that shown in the simulation. Repeat this with larger numbers of protons and neutrons.
What generalization can you make regarding the type of atom and effect on the path of α particles? Be
clear and specific.
Answers
1. Dalton originally thought that all atoms of a particular element had identical properties, including
mass. Thus, the concept of isotopes, in which an element has different masses, was a violation of the
original idea. To account for the existence of isotopes, the second postulate of his atomic theory was
modified to state that atoms of the same element must have identical chemical properties.
2. Both are subatomic particles but protons reside in an atom’s nucleus and electrons reside in the
electron cloud that surrounds the nucleus. The mass of protons are approximately 2000 times greater
than the mass of electrons. Protons are positively charged, whereas electrons are negatively charged.
3. Both are subatomic particles that reside in an atom’s nucleus. Both have approximately the same
mass. Protons are positively charged, whereas neutrons are uncharged.
4. a) The Rutherford atom has a small, positively charged nucleus, so most α particles will pass
through empty space far from the nucleus and be undeflected. Those α particles that pass near the
nucleus will be deflected from their paths due to positive-positive repulsion. The more directly toward
the nucleus the α particles are headed, the larger the deflection angle will be. b) Higher-energy α
particles that pass near the nucleus will still undergo deflection, but the faster they travel, the less the
expected angle of deflection. c) If the nucleus is smaller, the positive charge is smaller and the expected
deflections are smaller—both in terms of how closely the α particles pass by the nucleus undeflected
and the angle of deflection. If the nucleus is larger, the positive charge is larger and the expected
deflections are larger—more α particles will be deflected, and the deflection angles will be larger. d)
The paths followed by the α particles match the predictions from a), b), and c).
Glossary
alpha particle (α particle): positively charged particle consisting of two

protons and two neutrons
electron: negatively charged, subatomic particle of relatively low mass

located outside the nucleus
isotopes: atoms that contain the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons
neutron: uncharged, subatomic particle located in the nucleus

nucleus: massive, positively charged center of an atom made up of

protons and neutrons
proton: positively charged, subatomic particle located in the nucleus



3.3 Atomic Structure and Symbolism
Learning Objectives
• Write and interpret symbols that depict the atomic number, mass number, and charge of an
atom or ion
• Define the atomic mass unit and average atomic mass
• Calculate average atomic mass and isotopic abundance
The development of modern atomic theory revealed much about the inner
structure of atoms. It was learned that an atom contains a very small
nucleus composed of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons,
surrounded by a much larger volume of space containing negatively
charged electrons. The nucleus contains the majority of an atom’s mass
because protons and neutrons are much heavier than electrons, whereas
electrons occupy almost all of an atom’s volume. The diameter of an atom
is on the order of 10−10 m, whereas the diameter of the nucleus is roughly
10−15 m—about 100,000 times smaller. For a perspective about their
relative sizes, consider this: If the nucleus were the size of a blueberry,
the atom would be about the size of a football stadium (Figure 1).
213
3.3 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND SYMBOLISM • 214
Figure 1. If an atom could be expanded to the size of a football stadium, the

nucleus would be the size of a single blueberry. (credit middle: modification of
work by “babyknight”/Wikimedia Commons; credit right: modification of work by
Paxson Woelber)
Atoms—and the protons, neutrons, and electrons that compose them—are

extremely small. For example, a carbon atom weighs less than 2 × 10−23
g, and an electron has a charge of less than 2 × 10−19 C (coulomb).
When describing the properties of tiny objects such as atoms, we use
appropriately small units of measure, such as the atomic mass unit
(amu) and the fundamental unit of charge (e). The amu was originally
defined based on hydrogen, the lightest element, then later in terms of
oxygen. Since 1961, it has been defined with regard to the most abundant
isotope of carbon, atoms of which are assigned masses of exactly 12 amu.
(This isotope is known as “carbon-12” as will be discussed later in this
module.) Thus, one amu is exactly of the mass of one carbon-12 atom:
1 amu = 1.6605 × 10−24 g. (The Dalton (Da) and the unified atomic
mass unit (u) are alternative units that are equivalent to the amu.) The
fundamental unit of charge (also called the elementary charge) equals the
magnitude of the charge of an electron (e) with e = 1.602 × 10−19 C.
A proton has a mass of 1.0073 amu and a charge of 1+. A neutron is a

slightly heavier particle with a mass 1.0087 amu and a charge of zero;
as its name suggests, it is neutral. The electron has a charge of 1− and
is a much lighter particle with a mass of about 0.00055 amu (it would
take about 1800 electrons to equal the mass of one proton. The properties
of these fundamental particles are summarized in Table 1. (An observant
student might notice that the sum of an atom’s subatomic particles does
not equal the atom’s actual mass: The total mass of six protons, six
neutrons, and six electrons is 12.0993 amu, slightly larger than 12.00
amu. This “missing” mass is known as the mass defect, and you will learn
about it in the chapter on nuclear chemistry.)
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is its atomic number

(Z). This is the defining trait of an element: Its value determines the
identity of the atom. For example, any atom that contains six protons is
the element carbon and has the atomic number 6, regardless of how many
neutrons or electrons it may have. A neutral atom must contain the same
number of positive and negative charges, so the number of protons equals
the number of electrons. Therefore, the atomic number also indicates the
number of electrons in an atom. The total number of protons and neutrons
in an atom is called its mass number (A). The number of neutrons is
therefore the difference between the mass number and the atomic number:
A – Z = number of neutrons.
Unit Mass
Name Location Charge (C) Charge (amu) Mass (g)
outside −1.602 × 0.00091 ×

electron 1− 0.00055
nucleus 10−19 10−24
1.602 × 1.67262 ×
proton nucleus 1+ 1.00727
10−19 10−24
1.67493 ×
neutron nucleus 0 0 1.00866
10−24
Table 1. Properties of Subatomic Particles
Atoms are electrically neutral if they contain the same number of

positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons. When the
numbers of these subatomic particles are not equal, the atom is
electrically charged and is called an ion. The charge of an atom is defined
as follows:
Atomic charge = number of protons − number of electrons
As will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter, atoms (and

molecules) typically acquire charge by gaining or losing electrons. An
atom that gains one or more electrons will exhibit a negative charge and is
called an anion. Positively charged atoms called cations are formed when
an atom loses one or more electrons. For example, a neutral sodium atom
(Z = 11) has 11 electrons. If this atom loses one electron, it will become
a cation with a 1+ charge (11 − 10 = 1+). A neutral oxygen atom (Z = 8)
has eight electrons, and if it gains two electrons it will become an anion
with a 2− charge (8 − 10 = 2−).
Example 1
Iodine is an essential trace element in our diet; it is needed to produce thyroid hormone. Insufficient
iodine in the diet can lead to the development of a goiter, an enlargement of the thyroid gland (Figure
2).
Figure 2. (a) Insufficient iodine in the diet can cause an enlargement of the thyroid gland called a goiter. (b) The
addition of small amounts of iodine to salt, which prevents the formation of goiters, has helped eliminate this
concern in the US where salt consumption is high. (credit a: modification of work by “Almazi”/Wikimedia
Commons; credit b: modification of work by Mike Mozart)
The addition of small amounts of iodine to table salt (iodized salt) has essentially eliminated this
health concern in the United States, but as much as 40% of the world’s population is still at risk of
iodine deficiency. The iodine atoms are added as anions, and each has a 1− charge and a mass number
of 127. Determine the numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons in one of these iodine anions.
Solution
The atomic number of iodine (53) tells us that a neutral iodine atom contains 53 protons in its nucleus
and 53 electrons outside its nucleus. Because the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons equals
the mass number, 127, the number of neutrons is 74 (127 − 53 = 74). Since the iodine is added as a 1−
anion, the number of electrons is 54 [53 – (1–) = 54].
Test Yourself
An ion of platinum has a mass number of 195 and contains 74 electrons. How many protons and
neutrons does it contain, and what is its charge?
Answers
78 protons; 117 neutrons; charge is 4+
Example 2
1. The most common carbon atoms have six protons and six neutrons in their nuclei. What
are the atomic number and the mass number of these carbon atoms?
2. An isotope of uranium has an atomic number of 92 and a mass number of 235. What are
the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of this atom?
Solution
1. If a carbon atom has six protons in its nucleus, its atomic number is 6. If it also has six
neutrons in the nucleus, then the mass number is 6 + 6, or 12.
2. If the atomic number of uranium is 92, then that is the number of protons in the nucleus.
Because the mass number is 235, then the number of neutrons in the nucleus is 235 − 92,
or 143.
Test Yourself
The number of protons in the nucleus of a tin atom is 50, while the number of neutrons in the nucleus
is 68. What are the atomic number and the mass number of this isotope?
Answer
Atomic number = 50, mass number = 118
Chemical Symbols
A chemical symbol is an abbreviation that we use to indicate an element

or an atom of an element. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg
(Figure 3). We use the same symbol to indicate one atom of mercury
(microscopic domain) or to label a container of many atoms of the
element mercury (macroscopic domain).
Figure 3. The symbol

Hg represents the
element mercury
regardless of the
amount; it could
represent one atom of
mercury or a large
amount of mercury.
The symbols for several common elements and their atoms are listed
in Table 2. Some symbols are derived from the common name of the
element; others are abbreviations of the name in another language. Most
symbols have one or two letters, but three-letter symbols have been used
to describe some elements that have atomic numbers greater than 112. To
avoid confusion with other notations, only the first letter of a symbol is
capitalized. For example, Co is the symbol for the element cobalt, but CO
is the notation for the compound carbon monoxide, which contains atoms
of the elements carbon (C) and oxygen (O). All known elements and their
symbols are in the periodic table in Figure 2 in Chapter 3.5 The Periodic
Table (also found in Appendix A).
Element Symbol Element Symbol
aluminum Al iron Fe (from ferrum)
bromine Br lead Pb (from plumbum)
calcium Ca magnesium Mg
carbon C mercury Hg (from hydrargyrum)
chlorine Cl nitrogen N
chromium Cr oxygen O
cobalt Co potassium K (from kalium)
copper Cu (from cuprum) silicon Si
fluorine F silver Ag (from argentum)
gold Au (from aurum) sodium Na (from natrium)
helium He sulfur S
hydrogen H tin Sn (from stannum)
iodine I zinc Zn
Table 2. Some Common Elements and Their Symbols
Traditionally, the discoverer (or discoverers) of a new element names

the element. However, until the name is recognized by the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), the recommended name
of the new element is based on the Latin word(s) for its atomic number.
For example, element 106 was called unnilhexium (Unh), element 107
was called unnilseptium (Uns), and element 108 was called unniloctium
(Uno) for several years. These elements are now named after scientists
(or occasionally locations); for example, element 106 is now known as
seaborgium (Sg) in honor of Glenn Seaborg, a Nobel Prize winner who
was active in the discovery of several heavy elements.
Visit this site to learn more about IUPAC, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry,
and explore its periodic table.
Isotopes
The symbol for a specific isotope of any element is written by placing the
mass number as a superscript to the left of the element symbol (Figure
4). The atomic number is sometimes written as a subscript preceding
the symbol, but since this number defines the element’s identity, as does
its symbol, it is often omitted. For example, magnesium exists as a
mixture of three isotopes, each with an atomic number of 12 and with
mass numbers of 24, 25, and 26, respectively. These isotopes can be
identified as 24Mg, 25Mg, and 26Mg. These isotope symbols are read
as “element, mass number” and can be symbolized consistent with this
reading. For instance, 24Mg is read as “magnesium 24,” and can be
written as “magnesium-24” or “Mg-24.” 25Mg is read as “magnesium
25,” and can be written as “magnesium-25” or “Mg-25.” All magnesium
atoms have 12 protons in their nucleus. They differ only because a 24Mg
atom has 12 neutrons in its nucleus, a 25Mg atom has 13 neutrons, and a
26Mg has 14 neutrons. Therefore the masses of isotopes of an element,
isotopic mass, differ – see Table 3.
Figure 4. The symbol for an atom indicates the element

via its usual two-letter symbol, the mass number as a left
superscript, the atomic number as a left subscript
(sometimes omitted), and the charge as a right
superscript.
Information about the naturally occurring isotopes of elements with

atomic numbers 1 through 10 is given in Table 3. Note that in addition to
standard names and symbols, the isotopes of hydrogen are often referred
to using common names and accompanying symbols. Hydrogen-2,
symbolized 2H, is also called deuterium and sometimes symbolized D.
Hydrogen-3, symbolized 3H, is also called tritium and sometimes
symbolized T.
Isotopic
Atomic # of # of
Mass % Natural
Number Protons Neutrons
Element Symbol (amu) Abundance
1 1 0 1.0078 99.989
(protium)
hydrogen 1 1 1 2.0141 0.0115

(deuterium)
1 1 2 3.01605 — (trace)
(tritium)
2 2 1 3.01603 0.00013
helium
2 2 2 4.0026 100
3 3 3 6.0151 7.59
lithium
3 3 4 7.0160 92.41
beryllium 4 4 5 9.0122 100
5 5 5 10.0129 19.9
boron
5 5 6 11.0093 80.1
Isotopic
Atomic # of # of
Mass % Natural
Number Protons Neutrons
Element Symbol (amu) Abundance
6 6 6 12.0000 98.89
carbon 6 6 7 13.0034 1.11
6 6 8 14.0032 — (trace)
7 7 7 14.0031 99.63
nitrogen
7 7 8 15.0001 0.37
8 8 8 15.9949 99.757
oxygen 8 8 9 16.9991 0.038
8 8 10 17.9992 0.205
fluorine 9 9 10 18.9984 100
10 10 10 19.9924 90.48
neon 10 10 11 20.9938 0.27
10 10 12 21.9914 9.25
Table 3. Nuclear Compositions of Atoms of the Very Light Elements
Example 3
1. What is the symbol for an isotope of uranium that has an atomic number of 92 and a mass
number of 235?
2. How many protons and neutrons are in ?
Solution
1. The symbol for this isotope is .

2. This iron atom has 26 protons and 56 − 26 = 30 neutrons.
Test Yourself
How many protons are in ?
Answer
11 protons
Example 4
Determine the number of protons, neutrons and electrons for the ion:
i
ma
ge
Solution
The atomic number is 17, thus the ion contains 17 protons. The mass number is 35, therefore it
contains 35 – 17 = 18 neutrons. Because it is negatively charged (-1), it must have one more electron as
compared to protons, thus 17 + 1 = 18 electrons.
Test Yourself
Determine the number of electrons in each of the following ions. Hint: Use the periodic table to first
determine the number of protons based on its elemental identity. a) Mg2+ b) Fe3+ c) O2-
Answers
a) 10 b) 23 c) 10
Example 5
Determine the number of protons, neutrons and electrons for the following atom, as well as its
i
mag
identity (chemical symbol) for: e
Solution
The atomic number is 92 and mass number is 238. From the atomic number 92 we know that this
must be Uranium (chemical symbol = U). The atomic number is equal to the number of protons, thus the
number of protons is 92. Because the mass number is equal to the sum of the protons and neutrons, we
know that n + 92 = 238. Thus, the number of neutrons is 238 – 92 = 146. Finally, the given symbol must
represent an atom, not an ion (no electric charge is shown) and any atom is neutral, thus the number of
electrons must be the same as the number of protons, or 92 .
Test Yourself
a) Write the complete atomic symbol for krypton, which contains 48 neutrons/
b) How many protons, neutrons and electrons are in 132Cs?
Answers
a) 84Kr b) protons = 55, neutrons = 77, electrons = 55
Use this Build an Atom simulator to build atoms of the first 10 elements, see which isotopes exist,
check nuclear stability, and gain experience with isotope symbols.
Atomic Mass
Because each proton and each neutron contribute approximately one amu
to the mass of an atom, and each electron contributes far less, the atomic
mass of a single atom is approximately equal to its mass number (a whole
number). However, the average masses of atoms of most elements are not
whole numbers because most elements exist naturally as mixtures of two
or more isotopes.
The mass of an element shown in a periodic table or listed in a table of

atomic masses is a weighted, average mass of all the isotopes present in
a naturally occurring sample of that element. This is equal to the sum of
each individual isotope’s mass multiplied by its fractional abundance.
For example, the element boron is composed of two isotopes: About

19.9% of all boron atoms are 10B with a mass of 10.0129 amu, and
the remaining 80.1% are 11B with a mass of 11.0093 amu. The average
atomic mass for boron is calculated to be:
It is important to understand that no single boron atom weighs exactly

10.8 amu; 10.8 amu is the average mass of all boron atoms, and individual
boron atoms weigh either approximately 10 amu or 11 amu.
Example 6
A meteorite found in central Indiana contains traces of the noble gas neon picked up from the solar
wind during the meteorite’s trip through the solar system. Analysis of a sample of the gas showed that
it consisted of 91.84% 20Ne (mass 19.9924 amu), 0.47% 21Ne (mass 20.9940 amu), and 7.69% 22Ne
(mass 21.9914 amu). What is the average mass of the neon in the solar wind?
Solution
The average mass of a neon atom in the solar wind is 20.15 amu. (The average mass of a terrestrial
neon atom is 20.1796 amu. This result demonstrates that we may find slight differences in the natural
abundance of isotopes, depending on their origin.)
Test Yourself
A sample of magnesium is found to contain 78.70% of 24Mg atoms (mass 23.98 amu), 10.13% of 25Mg
atoms (mass 24.99 amu), and 11.17% of 26Mg atoms (mass 25.98 amu). Calculate the average mass of
a Mg atom.
Answer
24.31 amu
We can also do variations of this type of calculation, as shown in the next

example.
Example 7
Naturally occurring chlorine consists of 35Cl (mass 34.96885 amu) and 37Cl (mass 36.96590 amu),
with an average mass of 35.453 amu. What is the percent composition of Cl in terms of these two
isotopes?
Solution
The average mass of chlorine is the fraction that is 35Cl times the mass of 35Cl plus the fraction that is
37Cl times the mass of 37Cl.
If we let x represent the fraction that is 35Cl, then the fraction that is 37Cl is represented by 1.00 − x.
(The fraction that is 35Cl + the fraction that is 37
Cl must add up to 1, so the fraction of 37
Cl must
equal 1.00 − the fraction of 35Cl.)
Substituting this into the average mass equation, we have:
So solving yields: x = 0.7576, which means that 1.00 − 0.7576 = 0.2424. Therefore, chlorine consists
of 75.76% 35Cl and 24.24% 37Cl.
Test Yourself
Naturally occurring copper consists of 63Cu (mass 62.9296 amu) and 65Cu (mass 64.9278 amu), with
an average mass of 63.546 amu. What is the percent composition of Cu in terms of these two isotopes?
Answers
69.15% Cu-63 and 30.85% Cu-65
Visit this site to make mixtures of the main isotopes of the first 18 elements, gain experience with
average atomic mass, and check naturally occurring isotope ratios using the Isotopes and Atomic Mass
simulation.
The occurrence and natural abundances of isotopes can be experimentally

determined using an instrument called a mass spectrometer. Mass
spectrometry (MS) is widely used in chemistry, forensics, medicine,
environmental science, and many other fields to analyze and help identify
the substances in a sample of material. In a typical mass spectrometer
(Figure 5), the sample is vaporized and exposed to a high-energy electron
beam that causes the sample’s atoms (or molecules) to become

electrically charged, typically by losing one or more electrons. These
cations then pass through a (variable) electric or magnetic field that
deflects each cation’s path to an extent that depends on both its mass and
charge (similar to how the path of a large steel ball bearing rolling past
a magnet is deflected to a lesser extent that that of a small steel BB).
The ions are detected, and a plot of the relative number of ions generated
versus their mass-to-charge ratios (a mass spectrum) is made. The height
of each vertical feature or peak in a mass spectrum is proportional to
the fraction of cations with the specified mass-to-charge ratio. Since its
initial use during the development of modern atomic theory, MS has
evolved to become a powerful tool for chemical analysis in a wide range
of applications.
Figure 5. Analysis of zirconium in a mass spectrometer produces a mass spectrum

with peaks showing the different isotopes of Zr.
See an animation that explains mass spectrometry. Watch this video from the Royal Society for
Chemistry for a brief description of the rudiments of mass spectrometry.
An atom consists of a small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by

electrons. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons; its diameter is
about 100,000 times smaller than that of the atom. The mass of one atom
is usually expressed in atomic mass units (amu), which is referred to
as the atomic mass. An amu is defined as exactly of the mass of a
carbon-12 atom and is equal to 1.6605 × 10−24 g.
Protons are relatively heavy particles with a charge of 1+ and a mass of

1.0073 amu. Neutrons are relatively heavy particles with no charge and a
mass of 1.0087 amu. Electrons are light particles with a charge of 1− and
a mass of 0.00055 amu. The number of protons in the nucleus is called the
atomic number (Z) and is the property that defines an atom’s elemental
identity. The sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus is
called the mass number and, expressed in amu, is approximately equal to
the mass of the atom. An atom is neutral when it contains equal numbers
of electrons and protons.
Isotopes of an element are atoms with the same atomic number but
different mass numbers; isotopes of an element, therefore, differ from
each other only in the number of neutrons within the nucleus. When a
naturally occurring element is composed of several isotopes, the atomic
mass of the element represents the average of the masses of the isotopes
involved. A chemical symbol identifies the atoms in a substance using
symbols, which are one-, two-, or three-letter abbreviations for the atoms.
Key Equations
Exercises
1. Write the symbol for each of the following ions:

a) the ion with a 1+ charge, atomic number 55, and mass number 133
b) the ion with 54 electrons, 53 protons, and 74 neutrons
c) the ion with atomic number 15, mass number 31, and a 3− charge
d) the ion with 24 electrons, 30 neutrons, and a 3+ charge
2. Open the Build an Atom simulation and click on the Atom icon.
a) Pick any one of the first 10 elements that you would like to build and state its symbol.
b) Drag protons, neutrons, and electrons onto the atom template to make an atom of your element.
State the numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons in your atom, as well as the net charge and
mass number.
c) Click on “Net Charge” and “Mass Number,” check your answers to (b), and correct, if needed.
d) Predict whether your atom will be stable or unstable. State your reasoning.
e) Check the “Stable/Unstable” box. Was your answer to (d) correct? If not, first predict what
you can do to make a stable atom of your element, and then do it and see if it works. Explain your
reasoning.
3. Open the Build an Atom simulation
a) Drag protons, neutrons, and electrons onto the atom template to make a neutral atom of Lithium-6
and give the isotope symbol for this atom.
b) Now remove one electron to make an ion and give the symbol for the ion you have created.
4. The following are properties of isotopes of two elements that are essential in our diet. Determine
the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in each and name them.
a) atomic number 26, mass number 58, charge of 2+
b) atomic number 53, mass number 127, charge of 1−
5. Give the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons in neutral atoms of each of the following
isotopes:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
6. Average atomic masses listed by IUPAC are based on a study of experimental results. Bromine
has two isotopes 79Br and 81Br, whose masses (78.9183 and 80.9163 amu) and abundances (50.69%
and 49.31%) were determined in earlier experiments. Calculate the average atomic mass of bromine
based on these experiments.
7. The average atomic masses of some elements may vary, depending upon the sources of their ores.
Naturally occurring boron consists of two isotopes with accurately known masses (10B, 10.0129 amu
and 11B, 11.0931 amu). The average atomic mass of boron can vary from 10.807 to 10.819, depending
on whether the mineral source is from Turkey or the United States. Calculate the percent abundances
leading to the two values of the average atomic masses of boron from these two countries.
8. Explain Dalton’s atomic theory.
9. Which is larger, a proton or an electron?
10. Which is larger, a neutron or an electron?
11. What are the charges for each of the three subatomic particles?
12. Where is most of the mass of an atom located?
13. Sketch a diagram of a boron atom, which has five protons and six neutrons in its nucleus.
14. Define atomic number. What is the atomic number for a boron atom?
15. Define isotope and give an example.
16. What is the difference between deuterium and tritium?
17. Which pair represents isotopes?
a) b) 26F and 25M c) 14S and 15P

18. Which pair represents isotopes?a) 20C and 19K b) 26F and 27F c) 92U and 92U d)
and
19. Give complete symbols of each atom, including the atomic number and the mass number.
a) an oxygen atom with 8 protons and 8 neutrons
b) a potassium atom with 19 protons and 20 neutrons

c) a lithium atom with 3 protons and 4 neutrons
a) a magnesium atom with 12 protons and 12 neutrons
b) a magnesium atom with 12 protons and 13 neutrons
c) a xenon atom with 54 protons and 77 neutrons
21. Americium-241 is an isotope used in smoke detectors. What is the complete symbol for this
isotope?
22. Carbon-14 is an isotope used to perform radioactive dating tests on previously living material.
What is the complete symbol for this isotope?
23. Give atomic symbols for each element.
a) sodium b) argon c) nitrogen d) radon
24. Give atomic symbols for each element.
a) silver b) gold c) mercury d) iodine
25. Give the name of the element.
a) Si b) Mn c) Fe d) Cr
26. Give the name of the element.
a) F b) Cl c) Br d) I
27. Determine the atomic mass of each element, given the isotopic composition.
a) lithium, which is 92.4% lithium-7 (mass 7.016 u) and 7.60% lithium-6 (mass 6.015 u)
b) oxygen, which is 99.76% oxygen-16 (mass 15.995 u), 0.038% oxygen-17 (mass 16.999 u), and
0.205% oxygen-18 (mass 17.999 u)
Answers
1. (a) 133Cs+; (b) 127I−; (c) 31P3−; (d) 57Co3+
2. (a) Carbon-12, 12C; (b) This atom contains six protons and six neutrons. There are six electrons in
a neutral 12C atom. The net charge of such a neutral atom is zero, and the mass number is 12. (c) The
preceding answers are correct. (d) The atom will be stable since C-12 is a stable isotope of carbon. (e)
The preceding answer is correct. Other answers for this exercise are possible if a different element of
isotope is chosen.
3. (a) Lithium-6 contains three protons, three neutrons, and three electrons. The isotope symbol is 6Li
or . (b) 6Li+ or
4. (a) Iron, 26 protons, 24 electrons, and 32 neutrons; (b) iodine, 53 protons, 54 electrons, and 74
neutrons
5. (a) 3 protons, 3 electrons, 4 neutrons; (b) 52 protons, 52 electrons, 73 neutrons; (c) 47 protons, 47
electrons, 62 neutrons; (d) 7 protons, 7 electrons, 8 neutrons; (e) 15 protons, 15 electrons, 16 neutrons
6. 79.904 amu
7. Turkey source: 0.2649 (of 10.0129 amu isotope); US source: 0.2537 (of 10.0129 amu isotope)
8. All matter is composed of atoms; atoms of the same element are the same, and atoms of different
elements are different; atoms combine in whole-number ratios to form compounds.
9. A proton is larger than an electron.
10. A neutron is larger than an electron.
11. proton: 1+; electron: 1−; neutron: 0
12. Most of the mass of an atom is located in the nucleus.
13.
14. The atomic number is the number of protons in a nucleus. Boron has an atomic number of five.
15. Isotopes are atoms of the same element but with different numbers of neutrons.
16. They are isotopes, therefore the difference between deuterium and tritium is the number of
neutrons. Deuterium has one, and tritium has two.
17. (a)
18. (b) – note: there is an error with option (d) for the atomic number of nitrogen can only be 7.
19. a) b) c)
a) b) c)
21.
22.
23. a) Na b) Ar c) N d) Rn
24. a) Ag b) Au c) Hg d) I
25. a) silicon b) manganese c) iron d) chromium
26. a) fluorine b) chlorine c) bromine d) iodine
27. a) 6.940 u b) 16.000 u
Glossary
electron: negatively charged, subatomic particle of relatively low mass

located outside the nucleus
anion: negatively charged atom or molecule (contains more electrons

than protons)
atomic mass: average mass of atoms of an element, expressed in amu
atomic mass unit (amu): (also, unified atomic mass unit, u, or Dalton,
Da) unit of mass equal to of the mass of a 12C atom
atomic number (Z): number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
cation: positively charged atom or molecule (contains fewer electrons

than protons)
chemical symbol: one-, two-, or three-letter abbreviation used to

represent an element or its atoms
Dalton (Da): alternative unit equivalent to the atomic mass unit
fundamental unit of charge: (also called the elementary charge) equals

the magnitude of the charge of an electron (e) with e = 1.602 × 10−19 C
ion: electrically charged atom or molecule (contains unequal numbers of

protons and electrons)
isotopic mass: mass of an isotope of an element, expressed in amu
mass number (A): sum of the numbers of neutrons and protons in the
nucleus of an atom
unified atomic mass unit (u): alternative unit equivalent to the atomic
mass unit


3.4 Chemical Formulas
Learning Objectives
• Symbolize the composition of molecules using molecular formulas and empirical formulas
• Represent the bonding arrangement of atoms within molecules using structural formulas
A molecular formula is a representation of a molecule that uses

chemical symbols to indicate the types of atoms followed by subscripts to
show the number of atoms of each type in the molecule. (A subscript is
used only when more than one atom of a given type is present.) Molecular
formulas are also used as abbreviations for the names of compounds.
The structural formula for a compound gives the same information as

its molecular formula (the types and numbers of atoms in the molecule)
but also shows how the atoms are connected in the molecule. The
structural formula for methane contains symbols for one C atom and four
H atoms, indicating the number of atoms in the molecule (Figure 1). The
lines represent bonds that hold the atoms together. (A chemical bond is an
attraction between atoms or ions that holds them together in a molecule
238
or a crystal.) We will discuss chemical bonds and see how to predict the
arrangement of atoms in a molecule later. For now, simply know that the
lines are an indication of how the atoms are connected in a molecule. A
ball-and-stick model shows the geometric arrangement of the atoms with
atomic sizes not to scale, and a space-filling model shows the relative
sizes of the atoms.
Figure 1. A methane molecule can be represented as (a) a molecular formula, (b) a

structural formula, (c) a ball-and-stick model, and (d) a space-filling model.
Carbon and hydrogen atoms are represented by black and white spheres,
respectively.
Although many elements consist of discrete, individual atoms, some exist

as molecules made up of two or more atoms of the element chemically
bonded together. For example, most samples of the elements hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen are composed of molecules that contain two atoms
each (called diatomic molecules) and thus have the molecular formulas
H2, O2, and N2, respectively. Other elements commonly found as
diatomic molecules are fluorine (F2), chlorine (Cl2), bromine (Br2), and
iodine (I2). The most common form of the element sulfur is composed of
molecules that consist of eight atoms of sulfur; its molecular formula is
S8 (Figure 2).
3.4 CHEMICAL FORMULAS • 240
Figure 2. A molecule of sulfur is composed of eight sulfur atoms and is therefore

written as S8. It can be represented as (a) a structural formula, (b) a ball-and-stick
model, and (c) a space-filling model. Sulfur atoms are represented by yellow
spheres.
It is important to note that a subscript following a symbol and a number

in front of a symbol do not represent the same thing; for example, H2
and 2H represent distinctly different species. H2 is a molecular formula;
it represents a diatomic molecule of hydrogen, consisting of two atoms
of the element that are chemically bonded together. The expression 2H,
on the other hand, indicates two separate hydrogen atoms that are not
combined as a unit. The expression 2H2 represents two molecules of
diatomic hydrogen (Figure 3).
Figure 3. The symbols H, 2H, H2, and 2H2 represent very different entities.
Compounds are formed when two or more elements chemically combine,

resulting in the formation of bonds. For example, hydrogen and oxygen

can react to form water, and sodium and chlorine can react to form table
salt. We sometimes describe the composition of these compounds with
an empirical formula, which indicates the types of atoms present and
the simplest whole-number ratio of the number of atoms (or ions) in the
compound. For example, titanium dioxide (used as pigment in white paint
and in the thick, white, blocking type of sunscreen) has an empirical
formula of TiO2. This identifies the elements titanium (Ti) and oxygen
(O) as the constituents of titanium dioxide, and indicates the presence
of twice as many atoms of the element oxygen as atoms of the element
titanium (Figure 4).
Figure 4. (a) The white compound titanium dioxide provides effective protection
from the sun. (b) A crystal of titanium dioxide, TiO2, contains titanium and
oxygen in a ratio of 1 to 2. The titanium atoms are gray and the oxygen atoms are
red. (credit a: modification of work by “osseous”/Flickr)
As discussed previously, we can describe a compound with a molecular

formula, in which the subscripts indicate the actual numbers of atoms
of each element in a molecule of the compound. In many cases, the

molecular formula of a substance is derived from experimental
determination of both its empirical formula and its molecular mass (the
sum of atomic masses for all atoms composing the molecule). For
example, it can be determined experimentally that benzene contains two
elements, carbon (C) and hydrogen (H), and that for every carbon atom
in benzene, there is one hydrogen atom. Thus, the empirical formula is
CH. An experimental determination of the molecular mass reveals that a
molecule of benzene contains six carbon atoms and six hydrogen atoms,
so the molecular formula for benzene is C6H6 (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Benzene, C6H6, is produced during oil refining and has many industrial
uses. A benzene molecule can be represented as (a) a structural formula, (b) a
ball-and-stick model, and (c) a space-filling model. (d) Benzene is a clear liquid.
(credit d: modification of work by Sahar Atwa)
If we know a compound’s formula, we can easily determine the empirical

formula. (This is somewhat of an academic exercise; the reverse
chronology is generally followed in actual practice.) For example, the
molecular formula for acetic acid, the component that gives vinegar
its sharp taste, is C2H4O2. This formula indicates that a molecule of
acetic acid (Figure 6) contains two carbon atoms, four hydrogen atoms,
and two oxygen atoms. The ratio of atoms is 2:4:2. Dividing by the
lowest common denominator (2) gives the simplest, whole-number ratio
of atoms, 1:2:1, so the empirical formula is CH2O. Note that a molecular
formula is always a whole-number multiple of an empirical formula.
Figure 6. (a) Vinegar contains acetic acid, C2H4O2, which has an empirical
formula of CH2O. It can be represented as (b) a structural formula and (c) as a
ball-and-stick model. (credit a: modification of work by “HomeSpot HQ”/Flickr)
Example 1
Molecules of glucose (blood sugar) contain 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms.
What are the molecular and empirical formulas of glucose?
Solution
The molecular formula is C6H12O6 because one molecule actually contains 6 C, 12 H, and 6 O atoms.
The simplest whole-number ratio of C to H to O atoms in glucose is 1:2:1, so the empirical formula is
CH2O.
Test Yourself
A molecule of metaldehyde (a pesticide used for snails and slugs) contains 8 carbon atoms, 16 hydrogen
atoms, and 4 oxygen atoms. What are the molecular and empirical formulas of metaldehyde?
Answers
Molecular formula, C8H16O4; empirical formula, C2H4O
You can explore molecule building using an online simulation.
What is it that chemists do? According to Lee Cronin, chemists make very complicated molecules
by “chopping up” small molecules and “reverse engineering” them. He wonders if we could “make a
really cool universal chemistry set” by what he calls “app-ing” chemistry. Could we “app” chemistry?
In a 2012 TED talk, Lee describes one fascinating possibility: combining a collection of chemical
“inks” with a 3D printer capable of fabricating a reaction apparatus (tiny test tubes, beakers, and the
like) to fashion a “universal toolkit of chemistry.” This toolkit could be used to create custom-tailored
drugs to fight a new superbug or to “print” medicine personally configured to your genetic makeup,
environment, and health situation. Says Cronin, “What Apple did for music, I’d like to do for the
1
discovery and distribution of prescription drugs.” View his full talk at the TED website.
It is important to be aware that it may be possible for the same atoms

to be arranged in different ways: Compounds with the same molecular
formula may have different atom-to-atom bonding and therefore different
structures. For example, could there be another compound with the same
formula as acetic acid, C2H4O2? And if so, what would be the structure
of its molecules?
1. Lee Cronin, “Print Your Own Medicine,” Talk presented at TED Global 2012, Edinburgh, Scotland, June 2012.
If you predict that another compound with the formula C2H4O2 could
exist, then you demonstrated good chemical insight and are correct. Two
C atoms, four H atoms, and two O atoms can also be arranged to form a
methyl formate, which is used in manufacturing, as an insecticide, and for
quick-drying finishes. Methyl formate molecules have one of the oxygen
atoms between the two carbon atoms, differing from the arrangement
in acetic acid molecules. Acetic acid and methyl formate are examples
of isomers—compounds with the same chemical formula but different
molecular structures (Figure 7). Note that this small difference in the
arrangement of the atoms has a major effect on their respective chemical
properties. You would certainly not want to use a solution of methyl
formate as a substitute for a solution of acetic acid (vinegar) when you
make salad dressing.
Figure 7. Molecules of (a) acetic acid and methyl formate

(b) are structural isomers; they have the same formula
(C2H4O2) but different structures (and therefore different
chemical properties).
A molecular formula uses chemical symbols and subscripts to indicate

the exact numbers of different atoms in a molecule or compound. An
empirical formula gives the simplest, whole-number ratio of atoms in a
compound. A structural formula indicates the bonding arrangement of the
atoms in the molecule. Ball-and-stick and space-filling models show the
geometric arrangement of atoms in a molecule. Isomers are compounds
with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms.
Exercises
1. Explain why the symbol for an atom of the element oxygen and the formula for a molecule of
oxygen differ.
2. Explain why the symbol for the element sulfur and the formula for a molecule of sulfur differ.
3. Write the molecular and empirical formulas of the following compounds:
a)
b)
c)
d)
4. Write the molecular and empirical formulas of the following compounds:

a)
b)
c)
d)
5. Determine the empirical formulas for the following compounds:

a) caffeine, C8H10N4O2
b) fructose, C12H22O11
c) hydrogen peroxide, H2O2
d) glucose, C6H12O6
e) ascorbic acid (vitamin C), C6H8O6
6. Determine the empirical formulas for the following compounds:
a) acetic acid, C2H4O2
b) citric acid, C6H8O7
c) hydrazine, N2H4
d) nicotine, C10H14N2
e) butane, C4H10
7. Write the empirical formulas for the following compounds:
a)
b)
8. Use the Build a Molecule simulation to build a molecule with two carbons, six hydrogens, and one
oxygen.
a) Draw the structural formula of this molecule and state its name.
b) Can you arrange these atoms to make a different molecule? If so, draw its structural formula and
state its name.
c) How are the molecules drawn in (a) and (b) the same? How do they differ? What are they called
(the type of relationship between these molecules, not their names).
Answers
1. The symbol for the element oxygen, O, represents both the element and one atom of oxygen. A
molecule of oxygen, O2, contains two oxygen atoms; the subscript 2 in the formula must be used to
distinguish the diatomic molecule from two single oxygen atoms.
2. The symbol for the element sulfur is S. Elemental sulfur is a polyatomic element S8, a molecule
of sulfur contains eight atoms of sulfur.
3. a) molecular CO2, empirical CO2 b) molecular C2H2, empirical CH
c) molecular C2H4, empirical CH2 d) molecular H2SO4, empirical H2SO4
4. a) molecular C4H8, empirical CH2 b) molecular C4H6, empirical C2H3
c) molecular Si2H2Cl4, empirical SiHCl2 d) molecular H3PO4, empirical H3PO4
5. a) C4H5N2O b) C12H22O11 c) HO d) CH2O e) C3H4O3
6. a) CH2O b) C6H8O7 c) NH2 d) C5H7N e) C2H5
7. a) CH2O b) C2H4O
8. a) ethanol
b) methoxymethane, more commonly known as dimethyl ether
c) These molecules have the same chemical composition (types and number of atoms) but different
chemical structures. They are structural isomers.
Glossary
empirical formula: formula showing the composition of a compound

given as the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms
isomers: compounds with the same chemical formula but different

structures
molecular formula: formula indicating the composition of a molecule of

a compound and giving the actual number of atoms of each element in a
molecule of the compound.
spatial isomers: compounds in which the relative orientations of the

atoms in space differ
structural formula: shows the atoms in a molecule and how they are
connected
structural isomer: one of two substances that have the same molecular
formula but different physical and chemical properties because their
atoms are bonded differently


3.5 The Periodic Table
Learning Objectives
• State the periodic law and explain the organization of elements in the periodic table
• Predict the general properties of elements based on their location within the periodic table
• Identify metals, nonmetals, and metalloids by their properties and/or location on the
periodic table
There are many known elements, both naturally occurring and manmade.
In ancient times the known elements were carbon, iron, sulfur, gold,
silver, copper, tin, lead, mercury and zinc. It was not until the late
1700s that new elements began to be discovered by Martin Klaproth (Ti,
Zr, U, Te, Sr, Ce, Cr) and Jons Berzelius (Si, Se, Ce, Li, V, Th). In
the 1800s Sir Humphrey Davy discovered several alkali and alkaline
earth metals and halogens through the use of electricity. Also in the
1800s new elements (Cesium and Rubidium) were discovered through the
development of spectroscopy by Robert Bunsen (who also invented the
Bunsen burner) and Gustav Kirchhoff. Through the use of spectroscopy
Helium was discovered by analyzing light from the sun in 1868 before it
251
3.5 THE PERIODIC TABLE • 252
was discovered here on Earth in 1882 through the spectral analysis of lava
from Mount Vesuvius. It is noteworthy to mention that the spectroscopy
revolutionized our ability to identify elements and is the cornerstone of
modern methods in chemical analysis.
As early chemists worked to purify ores and discovered more elements,

they realized that various elements could be grouped together by their
similar chemical behaviours. In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier arranged the 33
known chemical elements into four groups: gases, metals, nonmetals and
earths. In 1829, Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner observed that many of the
elements could be arranged in groups of three based on their chemical
properties. These groups were known as “Döbereiner’s triads”. One such
grouping includes lithium (Li), sodium (Na), and potassium (K): These
elements all are shiny, conduct heat and electricity well, and have similar
chemical properties. A second grouping includes calcium (Ca), strontium
(Sr), and barium (Ba), which also are shiny, good conductors of heat
and electricity, and have chemical properties in common. However, the
specific properties of these two groupings are notably different from each
other. For example: Li, Na, and K are much more reactive than are Ca,
Sr, and Ba; Li, Na, and K form compounds with oxygen in a ratio of
two of their atoms to one oxygen atom, whereas Ca, Sr, and Ba form
compounds with one of their atoms to one oxygen atom. Fluorine (F),
chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), and iodine (I) also exhibit similar properties
to each other, but these properties are drastically different from those of
any of the elements above.
Dimitri Mendeleev in Russia (1869) and Lothar Meyer in Germany

(1870) independently recognized that there was a periodic relationship
among the properties of the elements known at that time. Both published
tables with the elements arranged according to increasing atomic mass.
But Mendeleev went one step further than Meyer: He used his table to
predict the existence of elements that would have the properties similar to
aluminum and silicon, but were yet unknown. The discoveries of gallium
(1875) and germanium (1886) provided great support for Mendeleev’s
work. Although Mendeleev and Meyer had a long dispute over priority,
Mendeleev’s contributions to the development of the periodic table are
now more widely recognized (Figure 1).
Figure 1. (a) Dimitri Mendeleev is widely credited with creating (b) the first
periodic table of the elements. (credit a: modification of work by Serge Lachinov;
credit b: modification of work by “Den fjättrade ankan”/Wikimedia Commons)
By the twentieth century, it became apparent that the periodic relationship

involved atomic numbers rather than atomic masses. The modern
statement of this relationship, the periodic law, is as follows: the
properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.

A modern periodic table arranges the elements in increasing order of
their atomic numbers and groups atoms with similar properties in the
same vertical column (Figure 2). Each box represents an element and
contains its atomic number, symbol, average atomic mass, and
(sometimes) name. The elements are arranged in seven horizontal rows,
called periods or series, and 18 vertical columns, called groups. Groups
are labeled at the top of each column. In the United States, the labels
traditionally were numerals with capital letters. However, IUPAC
recommends that the numbers 1 through 18 be used, and these labels are
more common. For the table to fit on a single page, parts of two of the
rows, a total of 14 columns, are usually written below the main body of
the table.
Many elements differ dramatically in their chemical and physical

properties, but some elements are similar in their behaviors. For example,
many elements appear shiny, are malleable (able to be deformed without
breaking) and ductile (can be drawn into wires), and conduct heat and
electricity well. Other elements are not shiny, malleable, or ductile, and
are poor conductors of heat and electricity. We can sort the elements into
large classes with common properties: metals (elements that are shiny,
malleable, good conductors of heat and electricity—shaded yellow);
nonmetals (elements that appear dull, poor conductors of heat and
electricity—shaded green); and metalloids (elements that conduct heat
and electricity moderately well, and possess some properties of metals
and some properties of nonmetals—shaded purple).
Figure 2. Elements in the periodic table are organized according to their

properties.
The elements can also be classified into the main-group elements (or
representative elements) in the columns labeled 1, 2, and 13–18; the
transition metals in the columns labeled 3–12; and inner transition
metals in the two rows at the bottom of the table (the top-row elements
are called lanthanides and the bottom-row elements are actinides; Figure
3). The elements can be subdivided further by more specific properties,
such as the composition of the compounds they form. For example, the
elements in group 1 (the first column) form compounds that consist of
one atom of the element and one atom of hydrogen. These elements
(except hydrogen) are known as alkali metals, and they all have similar
chemical properties. The elements in group 2 (the second column) form
compounds consisting of one atom of the element and two atoms of
hydrogen: These are called alkaline earth metals, with similar properties
among members of that group. Other groups with specific names are the
pnictogens (group 15), chalcogens (group 16), halogens (group 17), and
the noble gases (group 18, also known as inert gases). The groups can
also be referred to by the first element of the group: For example, the
chalcogens can be called the oxygen group or oxygen family. Hydrogen
is a unique, nonmetallic element with properties similar to both group 1A
and group 7A elements. For that reason, hydrogen may be shown at the
top of both groups, or by itself.
Figure 3. The periodic table organizes elements with similar properties into
groups.
You should also be familiar with the natural states of elements. Most
metals occur as solids. An exception to this is mercury (Hg) which occurs
as liquid. Noble gases, in the far right column, occur naturally as gas.
Many non-metals occur as multi-atomic molecules: (i.e. more than one
atom together is the natural state): H2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2 which are all
gases, S8, P4, Se8, I2 which are all solids and Br2 which is a liquid.
Click on this link for an interactive periodic table, which you can use to explore the properties of the
elements (includes podcasts and videos of each element). You may also want to try this one that shows
photos of all the elements.
Example 1
Atoms of each of the following elements are essential for life. Give the group name for the following
elements:
a) chlorine b) calcium c) sodium d) sulfur
Solution
The family names are as follows:
a) halogen b) alkaline earth metal c) alkali metal d) chalcogen
Test Yourself
Give the group name for each of the following elements:
a) krypton b) selenium c) barium d) lithium
Answers
a) noble gas b) chalcogen c) alkaline earth metal d) alkali metal
Example 2
For the following elements, list their symbol, their natural state, classify them as metal, nonmetal or
metalloid, and specify their group name (when applicable):
a) magnesium b) silver c) uranium d) chlorine
Solution
a) Magnesium = Mg, occurs as a solid, is a metal (main group metal) in the alkaline earth metals
group.
b) Silver = Ag, occurs as a solid, is a metal (transition metal)
c) Uranium = U, occurs as a solid, is a metal (inner transition metal) in the actinide group
d) Chlorine = Cl, occurs as Cl2in the gas state, is a nonmetal and is in the halogen group
Test Yourself
For the following elements, list their symbol, their natural state, classify them as metal, nonmetal or
metalloid, and specify their group name (when applicable):
a) germanium b) lead c) nitrogen d) potassium
Answers
a) Germanium = Ge, solid, metalloid b) lead = Pb, solid, metal (main group)
c) nitrogen = N, N2gas, nonmetal d) potassium = K, solid, metal (main group), alkali metal
In studying the periodic table, you might have noticed something about
the atomic masses of some of the elements. Element 43 (technetium),
element 61 (promethium), and most of the elements with atomic number
84 (polonium) and higher have their atomic mass given in square
brackets. This is done for elements that consist entirely of unstable,
radioactive isotopes (you will learn more about radioactivity in the
nuclear chemistry chapter). An average atomic weight cannot be
determined for these elements because their radioisotopes may vary
significantly in relative abundance, depending on the source, or may not
even exist in nature. The number in square brackets is the atomic mass
number (and approximate atomic mass) of the most stable isotope of that
element.
The discovery of the periodic recurrence of similar properties among

the elements led to the formulation of the periodic table, in which the
elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number in rows
known as periods and columns known as groups. Elements in the same

group of the periodic table have similar chemical properties. Elements
can be classified as metals, metalloids, and nonmetals, or as a main-
group elements, transition metals, and inner transition metals. Groups are
numbered 1–18 from left to right. The elements in group 1 are known as
the alkali metals; those in group 2 are the alkaline earth metals; those in
15 are the pnictogens; those in 16 are the chalcogens; those in 17 are the
halogens; and those in 18 are the noble gases.
Activity
Make yourself this Qcard to help you learn the name of the groups in the periodic table and add it to
your collection. Then use the Qcards to quiz yourself.
Side 1:
Side 2:
Exercises
1. Using the periodic table, classify each of the following elements as a metal or a nonmetal, and
then further classify each as a main-group (representative) element, transition metal, or inner transition
metal:
a) uranium b) bromine c) strontium d) neon
e) gold f) americium g) rhodium h) sulfur
i) carbon j) potassium
2. Using the periodic table, identify the lightest member of each of the following groups:
a) noble gases b) alkaline earth metals
c) alkali metals d) chalcogens
3. Use the periodic table to give the name and symbol for each of the following elements:
a) the noble gas in the same period as germanium
b) the alkaline earth metal in the same period as selenium
c) the halogen in the same period as lithium
d) the chalcogen in the same period as cadmium
4. Write a symbol for each of the following neutral isotopes. Include the atomic number and mass
number for each.
a) the alkali metal with 11 protons and a mass number of 23
b) the noble gas element with 75 neutrons in its nucleus and 54 electrons in the neutral atom
c) the isotope with 33 protons and 40 neutrons in its nucleus
d) the alkaline earth metal with 88 electrons and 138 neutrons
Answers
1. a) metal, inner transition metal; b) nonmetal, representative element; c) metal, representative
element; d) nonmetal, representative element; e) metal, transition metal; f) metal, inner transition
metal; g) metal, transition metal; h) nonmetal, representative element; i) nonmetal, representative
element; j) metal, representative element
2. a) He b) Be c) Li d) O
3. a) krypton, Kr b) calcium, Ca c) fluorine, F d) tellurium, Te
4. a) b)
c) d)
Glossary
actinide: inner transition metal in the bottom of the bottom two rows of
the periodic table
alkali metal: element in group 1
alkaline earth metal: element in group 2
chalcogen: element in group 16
group: vertical column of the periodic table
halogen: element in group 17
inert gas: (also, noble gas) element in group 18
inner transition metal: (also, lanthanide or actinide) element in the

bottom two rows; if in the first row, also called lanthanide, or if in the
second row, also called actinide
lanthanide: inner transition metal in the top of the bottom two rows of
the periodic table
main-group element: (also, representative element) element in columns

1, 2, and 12–18
metal: element that is shiny, malleable, good conductor of heat and

electricity
metalloid: element that conducts heat and electricity moderately well,

and possesses some properties of metals and some properties of
nonmetals
noble gas: (also, inert gas) element in group 18
nonmetal: element that appears dull, poor conductor of heat and

electricity
period: (also, series) horizontal row of the periodic table
periodic law: properties of the elements are periodic function of their

atomic numbers.
periodic table: table of the elements that places elements with similar
chemical properties close together
pnictogen: element in group 15
representative element: (also, main-group element) element in columns

1, 2, and 12–18
series: (also, period) horizontal row of the period table
transition metal: element in columns 3–11


1. How many electrons does it take to make the mass of one proton?
2. Dalton’s initial version of the modern atomic theory says that all atoms
of the same element are the same. Is this actually correct? Why or why
not?
3. Give complete atomic symbols for the three known isotopes of

hydrogen.
4. Use its place on the periodic table to determine if indium, In, atomic
number 49, is a metal or a nonmetal.
5. Americium-241 is a crucial part of many smoke detectors. How many

neutrons are present in its nucleus
6. Determine the atomic mass of ruthenium from the given abundance and
mass data.
265
Ruthenium-96 5.54% 95.907 u
Ruthenium-98 1.87% 97.905 u
Ruthenium-99 12.76% 98.906 u
Ruthenium-100 12.60% 99.904 u
Ruthenium-101 17.06% 100.906 u
Ruthenium-102 31.55% 101.904 u
Ruthenium-104 18.62% 103.905 u
7. One atomic mass unit has a mass of 1.6605 × 10−24 g. What is the mass
of one atom of sodium?
8. One atomic mass unit has a mass of 1.6605 × 10−24 g. What is the mass
of one molecule of H2O?
9. From their positions on the periodic table, will Cu and I form a

molecular compound or an ionic compound?
10. Mercury is an unusual element in that when it takes a 1+ charge as a

cation, it always exists as the diatomic ion. a) Propose a formula for the
mercury(I) ion. b)What is the formula of mercury(I) chloride?
11. The uranyl cation has the formula UO22+. Propose formulas and
names for the ionic compounds between the uranyl cation and F−, SO42−,
and PO43−.
12. Using a periodic table, identify the element symbol and group name
for the following elements and identify it as either a metal, non-metal or

metalloid:
a) Rubidium b) Strontium c) Californium d) Aluminum (no
group name required)
e) Iodine f) Krypton g) Tin (no group name required)
13. List 5 transition metals with their name, element symbol and atomic
number.
14. What is a diatomic element? Give several examples.
15. Explain the experiment and findings of each of the following

scientists:
a) Rutherford b) J. J. Thompson c) Millikan
16. Use Dalton’s theory to explain why potassium nitrate from India or
Italy has the same mass percents (or ratios) of K, N and O.
17. Street drugs are often mixed with an inactive substance, such as
ascorbic acid (vitamin C). By separating a drug mixture into component
substances and calculating the mass of vitamin C per gram of sample,
government chemists can track the drug’s distribution. For example, if
different cocaine samples from New York, L. A. and Paris all contain
0.6384 g of vitamin C per gram of sample, they likely come from a
common source. Is this street sample a compound, element or mixture? In
this case, does the constant mass ratio of the components exemplify the
law of constant composition? Explain.
18. For each of the following, based on the info given, fill in the blanks:
a) Zn, Z = 30, neutrons = 34, atomic number = ?, protons = ?

b) Protons = 53, neutrons = 74, symbol = ?, mass number = ?, A = ?, Z =
?
c) Eu, Z = ?, A = 153, protons = ?, neutrons = ?
19. Complete the following table:
Mass Atomic
Number number
Symbol Element Protons Neutrons Electrons
(A) (Z)
38Ar
Magnesium 13
18 37 17
Nickel 28 60
20. Write the complete atomic symbol for each of the following isotopes
and state the number of protons, electrons and neutrons for each:
a) Fluorine with a mass number of 18 b) Atomic number of 7 and 8
neutrons
c) Z = 18, neutrons = 22 d) He, with A = 3
e) Z = 82, A = 207 f) Beryllium with 5 neutrons
21. How many electrons are present in the following ions:
a)Fe3+ b) Cu+ c) Ni2+ d) Br– e) Eu3+ f) P3-
22. List the number of protons, electrons and neutrons for the following:
a) b)
23. List the number of atoms present in a molecule (or formula unit) of:
a) NaNO3 b) C2H5OH c) Fe(ClO4)3
24. Gallium has 2 naturally occurring isotopes, 69Ga (isotopic mass =

68.9256 amu, percent abundance = 60.11%) and 71Ga (isotopic mass
= 70.9247 amu, percent abundance = 39.89%). Calculate the average
atomic mass of Gallium.
25. Chlorine has 2 naturally occurring isotopes, 35Cl (isotopic mass =

34.9689 amu) and 37Cl (isotopic mass = 36.9659). If the average atomic
mass of Cl is 35.4527 amu, what is the percent abundance of each
isotope?
26. The two naturally occurring isotopes of nitrogen have masses of

14.0031 amu and 15.0001 amu, respectively. Determine the percentage of
15N atoms in naturally occurring nitrogen with average atomic mass of
14.0067 amu. (Hint, the TOTAL abundance of the two isotopes must =
100%.)
Answers
1. About 1,800 electrons
2. It is not strictly correct because of the existence of isotopes.
3. , , and
4. It is a metal.
5. 146 neutrons
6. 101.065 u
7. 3.817 × 10−23 g
8. 2.991 × 10−23 g
9. ionic
10. a) Hg22+ b) Hg2Cl2
11. Uranyl fluoride, UO2F2; uranyl sulfate, UO2SO4; uranyl phosphate,

(UO2)3(PO4)2
12. a) Rb, alkali metal, metal b) Sr, alkaline earth metal, metal c)
Cf, actinide, metal
d) Al (no group name required), metal e) I, halogen, non-metal f)
Kr, nobel gas, non-metal
g) Sn (no group name required), metal
13. (Variety of answers possible)
14. An element that exists in the natural state as 2 atoms bonded together
in a molecule. Examples include H2, O2, N2, halogens
15. a) Rutherford: performed an experiment where he shot alpha particles

at gold foil. He observed that many alphas were deflected and some
bounced back, suggesting that Thompson’s view of the atom was
incorrect. Instead, he proposed that atom had a nucleus of positive charge,
surrounded by a “sea” of negative charge (electrons)
b) J. J. Thompson: used a cathode ray tube (consisting of a negatively

charged beam), and calculations regarding the deflection of the beam
in a magnetic or electric field, to calculate the mass/charge ratio of the
electron.
c) Millikan: performed an experiment where, in a mist of oil in air,

droplets were covered with electrons (resulting from an X-ray hitting gas
molecules in the air). He measured the rate of fall of these charged oil
droplets through an electric field, and from this he determined the actual
charge of an electron, and thus (in conjunction with Thompson’s work)
the mass of an electron.
16. The law of constant composition tells us that a given compound will
always have the same mass percents of its components. Dalton used this
idea, and his concept of the atom, to form his forth postulate, which states
that atoms combine in fixed ratios of whole numbers to form compounds.
If ratios remain the same, and the masses of each constituent atom are the
same, the mass percents will remain the same regardless of the size of the
sample.
17. It is a mixture. It does not exemplify the law of constant composition.

The “constant” composition results from the fact that they are all part
of the same mixture (same source), but the composition COULD have
varied and still produced a mixture of cocaine and vitamin C (with
a different amount of vitamin C per sample) depending on the
manufacturer.
18. a) Zn: atomic number = 30, protons = 30

b) symbol = I (or a more complete symbol = ), mass number = 127, A
= 127, Z = 53
c) Eu: Z = 63, protons = 63, neutrons = 90
19.
Mass Atomic
Number number
Symbol Element Protons Neutrons Electrons
(A) (Z)
38
Ar Argon 18 20 18 38 18
Magnesium 12 13 12 25 12
Chlorine 17 20 18 37 17
Cobalt 27 33 27 60 27
Nickel 28 32 28 60 28
20. a) 189F, p = 9, e = 9, n = 9 b) 157N, p = 7, e = 7, n = 8

c) 4018Ar, p = 18, n = 22, e = 18 d) 32He, p = 2, e = 2, n = 1
e) 20782Pb, p = 82, e = 82, n = 125 f) 94Be, p = 4, n = 5, e = 4
21. a) 23 b) 28 c) 26 d) 36 e) 60 f) 18
22. a) p = 82, n = 126, e = 80 b) p = 7, n = 7, e = 10
23. a) 1 atom of Na, 1 atom of N and 3 atoms of O (5 atoms total)

b) 2 atoms of C, 6 atoms of H and 1 atom of O (9 atoms total)
c) 1 atom of Fe, 3 atoms of Cl and 12 atoms of O (16 atoms total)
24. 69.72 amu
25. 75.774% 35Cl and 24.226% 37Cl
26. 0.36% 15N



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Chapter 4. Chemical
Nomenclature
Chapter Topics
• Names of Elements
• Ionic and Molecular Compounds
• Nomenclature of Simple Ionic and Molecular Compounds
275
Introduction
Naming is fundamental to success in chemistry, regardless of the level

of chemistry! You will use this skill often. It is also a handy skill for
a greater understanding of the chemistry world around you, from the
ingredients in your kitchen (e.g. sodium bicarbonate), to cleaners in your
bathroom (e.g. ammonium hydroxide), to the medicines in your medicine
cabinet (e.g. magnesium hydroxide) and the preservatives in your food
(e.g. sodium nitrate).
You should NOT attempt to memorize every possible name. Instead,

focus on the rules and how to apply them. There is a major difference in
approach to naming depending on whether the compound contains ions or
is non-ionic (completely covalent). To illustrate the basic difference, we
will consider mainly simple compounds with only two elements, or just
two types of ions.
• Authored by: Shirley Wacowich-Sgarbi. License: Public

Domain: No Known Copyright
276

4.1 Names of Elements
Learning Objectives
• Recognize the symbols and knowing the names the elements.
To be able to name compounds, we need to start with knowing the names

of the elements. Table 1 lists the names of the elements, those in bold are
the 51 elements that students in an introductory chemistry course should
know.
278
1–H– 31 – Ga – 61 – Pm – 91 – Pa –
Hydrogen Gallium Promethium Protactinium
2 – He – Helium 32 – Ge – 62 – Sm – 92 – U –
3 – Li – Lithium Germanium Samarium Uranium
4 – Be – 33 – As – 63 – Eu – 93 – Np –
Beryllium Arsenic Europium Neptunium
5 – B – Boron 34 – Se – 64 – Gd – 94 – Pu –
6 – C – Carbon Selenium Gadolinium Plutonium
7 – N – Nitrogen 35 – Br – 65 – Tb – 95 – Am –
8 – O – Oxygen Bromine Terbium Americium
9 – F – Fluorine 36 – Kr – 66 – Dy – 96 – Cm –
10 – Ne – Neon Krypton Dysprosium Curium
11 – Na – 37 – Rb – 67 – Ho – 97 – Bk –
Sodium Rubidium Holmium Berkelium
12 – Mg – 38 – Sr – 68 – Er – Erbium 98 – Cf –
Magnesium Strontium 69 – Tm – Californium
13 – Al – 39 – Y – Yttrium Thulium 99 – Es –
Aluminum 40 – Zr – 70 – Yb – Einsteinium
14 – Si – Silicon Zirconium Ytterbium 100 – Fm –
15 – P – 41 – Nb – 71 – Lu – Fermium
Phosphorus Niobium Lutetium 101 – Md –
16 – S – Sulfur 42 – Mo – 72 – Hf – Mendelevium
17 – Cl – Molybdenum Hafnium 102 – No –
Chlorine 43 – Tc – 73 – Ta – Nobelium
18 – Ar – Argon Technetium Tantalum 103 – Lr –
19 – K – 44 – Ru – 74 – W – Lawrencium
Potassium Ruthenium Tungsten 104 – Rf –
20 – Ca – 45 – Rh – 75 – Re – Rutherfordium
Calcium Rhodium Rhenium 105 – Db –
21 – Sc – 46 – Pd – 76 – Os – Dubnium
Scandium Palladium Osmium 106 – Sg –
22 – Ti – 47 – Ag – Silver 77 – Ir – Iridium Seaborgium
Titanium 48 – Cd – 78 – Pt – 107 – Bh –
23 – V – Cadmium Platinum Bohrium
Vanadium 49 – In – Indium 79 – Au – Gold 108 – Hs –
24 – Cr – 50 – Sn – Tin 80 – Hg – Hassium
Chromium 51 – Sb – Mercury 109 – Mt –
25 – Mn – Antimony 81 – Tl – Meitnerium
4.1 NAMES OF ELEMENTS • 280
110 – Ds –
Thallium
Darmstadtium
52 – Te – 82 – Pb – Lead
111 – Rg –
Tellurium 83 – Bi –
Roentgenium
53 – I – Iodine Bismuth
112 – Cn –
54 – Xe – Xenon 84 – Po –
Copernicium
Manganese 55 – Cs – Polonium
113 – Uut –
26 – Fe – Iron Cesium 85 – At –
Ununtrium
27 – Co – Cobalt 56 – Ba – Astatine
114 – Fl –
28 – Ni – Nickel Barium 86 – Rn – Radon
Flerovium
29 – Cu – 57 – La – 87 – Fr –
115 – Uup –
Copper Lanthanum Francium
Ununpentium
30 – Zn – Zinc 58 – Ce – Cerium 88 – Ra –
116 – Lv –
59 – Pr – Radium
Livermorium
Praseodymium 89 – Ac –
117 – Uus –
60 – Nd – Actinium
Ununseptium
Neodymium 90 – Th –
118 – Uuo –
Thorium
Ununoctium
Table 1. The names of the elements. Those in bold are the elements that
students in an introductory chemistry course should know.
The chemical elements are named by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC), which generally adopts the name chosen by the discoverer of the element. Often the name
refers to a place, a property of the element or a scientist. At times, there has been some controversy
of which research group actually discovered the element, and therefore which group gets the privilege
of naming the element. This delayed the naming of the elements for a considerable amount of time.
Checkout element naming controversy to learn more about contention that existed in naming certain
elements.
Knowing the names and recognizing the symbol of the 51 elements

(bolded in Table 1) that students in an introductory chemistry course will
not only make it feasible for students to be able to name compounds but
will help them be familiar with the common elements and compounds
they may encounter in their daily lives.
Activity
Make yourself a stack of small sized Qcards. On one side have the name of the element (e.g.
hydrogen) and on the other side have its symbol (e.g. H). Make a complete set of all the elements you
should know (see bolded elements in Table 1). Then use these Qcards to quiz yourself.
Glossary
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC): is an

international federation that represents chemists in individual countries,
which has several responsibilities, one being the standardization of
chemical nomenclature including the naming of new elements in the
periodic table.

4.2 Ionic and Molecular Compounds
Learning Objectives
• Define ionic and molecular (covalent) compounds

• Predict the type of compound formed from elements based on their location within the
periodic table
• Learn the characteristic charges that ions have.
• Determine formulas for simple ionic compounds
In ordinary chemical reactions, the nucleus of each atom (and thus the
identity of the element) remains unchanged. Electrons, however, can be
added to atoms by transfer from other atoms, lost by transfer to other
atoms, or shared with other atoms. The transfer and sharing of electrons
among atoms govern the chemistry of the elements. During the formation
of some compounds, atoms gain or lose electrons, and form electrically
charged particles called ions (Figure 1).
282
Figure 1. (a) A sodium atom (Na) has equal numbers of protons and electrons (11)
and is uncharged. (b) A sodium cation (Na+) has lost an electron, so it has one
more proton (11) than electrons (10), giving it an overall positive charge, signified
by a superscripted plus sign.
You can use the periodic table to predict whether an atom will form an
anion or a cation, and you can often predict the charge of the resulting
ion. Atoms of many main-group metals lose enough electrons to leave
them with the same number of electrons as an atom of the preceding noble
gas. To illustrate, an atom of an alkali metal (group 1) loses one electron
and forms a cation with a 1+ charge; an alkaline earth metal (group 2)
loses two electrons and forms a cation with a 2+ charge, and so on.
For example, a neutral calcium atom, with 20 protons and 20 electrons,
readily loses two electrons. This results in a cation with 20 protons, 18
electrons, and a 2+ charge. It has the same number of electrons as atoms
of the preceding noble gas, argon, and is symbolized Ca2+. The name of a
metal ion is the same as the name of the metal atom from which it forms,
so Ca2+ is called a calcium ion.
4.2 IONIC AND MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS • 284
When atoms of nonmetal elements form ions, they generally gain enough
electrons to give them the same number of electrons as an atom of the
next noble gas in the periodic table. Atoms of group 17 gain one electron
and form anions with a 1− charge; atoms of group 16 gain two electrons
and form ions with a 2− charge, and so on. For example, the neutral
bromine atom, with 35 protons and 35 electrons, can gain one electron to
provide it with 36 electrons. This results in an anion with 35 protons, 36
electrons, and a 1− charge. It has the same number of electrons as atoms
of the next noble gas, krypton, and is symbolized Br−. (A discussion of
the theory supporting the favored status of noble gas electron numbers
reflected in these predictive rules for ion formation is provided in a later
chapter of this text.)
Note the usefulness of the periodic table in predicting likely ion formation
and charge (Figure 2). Moving from the far left to the right on the periodic
table, main-group elements tend to form cations with a charge equal to the
group number. That is, group 1 elements form 1+ ions; group 2 elements
form 2+ ions, and so on. Moving from the far right to the left on the
periodic table, elements often form anions with a negative charge equal
to the number of groups moved left from the noble gases. For example,
group 17 elements (one group left of the noble gases) form 1− ions;
group 16 elements (two groups left) form 2− ions, and so on. This trend
can be used as a guide in many cases, but its predictive value decreases
when moving toward the center of the periodic table. In fact, transition
metals and some other metals often exhibit variable charges that are not
predictable by their location in the table. For example, copper can form
ions with a 1+ or 2+ charge, and iron can form ions with a 2+ or 3+

charge.
Figure 2. Some elements exhibit a regular pattern of ionic charge when they form
ions.
Example 1
An ion found in some compounds used as antiperspirants contains 13 protons and 10 electrons. What
is its symbol?
Solution
Because the number of protons remains unchanged when an atom forms an ion, the atomic number
of the element must be 13. Knowing this lets us use the periodic table to identify the element as Al
(aluminum). The Al atom has lost three electrons and thus has three more positive charges (13) than it
has electrons (10). This is the aluminum cation, Al3+.
Test Yourself
Give the symbol and name for the ion with 34 protons and 36 electrons.
Answer
Se2−, the selenide ion
Example 2
Magnesium and nitrogen react to form an ionic compound. Predict which forms an anion, which
forms a cation, and the charges of each ion. Write the symbol for each ion and name them.
Solution
Magnesium’s position in the periodic table (group 2) tells us that it is a metal. Metals form positive ions
(cations). A magnesium atom must lose two electrons to have the same number electrons as an atom of
the previous noble gas, neon. Thus, a magnesium atom will form a cation with two fewer electrons than
protons and a charge of 2+. The symbol for the ion is Mg2+, and it is called a magnesium ion.
Nitrogen’s position in the periodic table (group 15) reveals that it is a nonmetal. Nonmetals form
negative ions (anions). A nitrogen atom must gain three electrons to have the same number of electrons
as an atom of the following noble gas, neon. Thus, a nitrogen atom will form an anion with three more
electrons than protons and a charge of 3−. The symbol for the ion is N3−, and it is called a nitride ion.
Test Yourself
Aluminum and carbon react to form an ionic compound. Predict which forms an anion, which forms a
cation, and the charges of each ion. Write the symbol for each ion and name them.
Answers
Al will form a cation with a charge of 3+: Al3+, an aluminum ion. Carbon will form an anion with a
charge of 4−: C4−, a carbide ion.
The ions that we have discussed so far are called monatomic ions, that is,
they are ions formed from only one atom. We also find many polyatomic
ions. These ions, which act as discrete units, are electrically charged
molecules (a group of bonded atoms with an overall charge). Some of
the more important polyatomic ions are listed in Table 1. Oxyanions are
polyatomic ions that contain one or more oxygen atoms. At this point in
your study of chemistry, you should memorize the names, formulas, and
charges of the most common polyatomic ions. Because you will use them
repeatedly, they will soon become familiar.
Note that there is a system for naming some polyatomic ions; -ate and
-ite are suffixes designating polyatomic ions containing more or fewer
oxygen atoms. Per- (short for “hyper”) and hypo- (meaning “under”)
are prefixes meaning more oxygen atoms than -ate and fewer oxygen
atoms than -ite, respectively. For example, perchlorate is ClO4−, chlorate
is ClO3−, chlorite is ClO2− and hypochlorite is ClO−. Unfortunately, the
number of oxygen atoms corresponding to a given suffix or prefix is not
consistent; for example, nitrate is NO3− while sulfate is SO42−. This will
be covered in more detail in the next module on nomenclature.
Related
Name Formula Acid Formula
ammonium
hydronium
oxide
peroxide
hydroxide
acetate acetic acid
hydrocyanic
cyanide
acid
hydrazoic
azide
acid
carbonate carbonic acid
bicarbonate
nitrate nitric acid
nitrite nitrous acid
sulfate sulfiric acid
hydrogen
sulfate
sulfurous
sulfite
acid
hydrogen
sulfite
Related
Name Formula Acid Formula
phosphoric
phosphate
acid
hydrogen
phosphate
dihydrogen
phosphate
phosphorous
phosphite
acid
hydrogen
phosphite
dihydrogen
phosphite
perchloric
perchlorate
acid
chlorate chloric acid
chlorite chlorous acid
hypochlorous
hypochlorite
acid
chromate chromic acid
dichromic
dichromate
acid
permanganic
permanganate
acid
Table 1. Common Polyatomic Ions

The nature of the attractive forces that hold atoms or ions together within
a compound is the basis for classifying chemical bonding. When electrons
are transferred and ions form, ionic bonds result. Ionic bonds are
electrostatic forces of attraction, that is, the attractive forces experienced
between objects of opposite electrical charge (in this case, cations and
anions). When electrons are “shared” and molecules form, covalent
bonds result. Covalent bonds are the attractive forces between the
positively charged nuclei of the bonded atoms and one or more pairs of
electrons that are located between the atoms. Compounds are classified as
ionic or molecular (covalent) on the basis of the bonds present in them.
Ionic Compounds
When an element composed of atoms that readily lose electrons (a metal)

reacts with an element composed of atoms that readily gain electrons
(a nonmetal), a transfer of electrons usually occurs, producing ions. The
compound formed by this transfer is stabilized by the electrostatic
attractions (ionic bonds) between the ions of opposite charge present
in the compound. For example, when each sodium atom in a sample
of sodium metal (group 1) gives up one electron to form a sodium
cation, Na+, and each chlorine atom in a sample of chlorine gas (group
17) accepts one electron to form a chloride anion, Cl−, the resulting
compound, NaCl, is composed of sodium ions and chloride ions in the
ratio of one Na+ ion for each Cl− ion. Similarly, each calcium atom (group
2) can give up two electrons and transfer one to each of two chlorine
atoms to form CaCl2, which is composed of Ca2+ and Cl− ions in the ratio
of one Ca2+ ion to two Cl− ions.
A compound that contains ions and is held together by ionic bonds is

called an ionic compound. The periodic table can help us recognize
many of the compounds that are ionic: When a metal is combined with
one or more nonmetals, the compound is usually ionic. This guideline
works well for predicting ionic compound formation for most of the
compounds typically encountered in an introductory chemistry course.
However, it is not always true (for example, aluminum chloride, AlCl3, is
not ionic).
You can often recognize ionic compounds because of their properties.

Ionic compounds are solids that typically melt at high temperatures and
boil at even higher temperatures. For example, sodium chloride melts at
801 °C and boils at 1413 °C. (As a comparison, the molecular compound
water melts at 0 °C and boils at 100 °C.) In solid form, an ionic compound
is not electrically conductive because its ions are unable to flow
(“electricity” is the flow of charged particles). When molten, however, it
can conduct electricity because its ions are able to move freely through
the liquid (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Sodium chloride melts at 801 °C and conducts electricity when molten.
(credit: modification of work by Mark Blaser and Matt Evans)
Watch this video to see a mixture of salts melt and conduct electricity.
In every ionic compound, the total number of positive charges of the

cations equals the total number of negative charges of the anions. Thus,
ionic compounds are electrically neutral overall, even though they
contain positive and negative ions. We can use this observation to help
us write the formula of an ionic compound. The formula of an ionic
compound must have a ratio of ions such that the numbers of positive and
negative charges are equal.
Example 3
The gemstone sapphire (Figure 4) is mostly a compound of aluminum and oxygen that contains
aluminum cations, Al3+, and oxygen anions, O2−. What is the formula of this compound?
Solution
Because the ionic compound must be electrically neutral, it must have
the same number of positive and negative charges. Two aluminum ions,
each with a charge of 3+, would give us six positive charges, and three
oxide ions, each with a charge of 2−, would give us six negative
charges. The formula would be Al2O3.
Figure 4. Although pure
aluminum oxide is colorless,
Test yourself
trace amounts of iron and
titanium give blue sapphire its Predict the formula of the ionic compound formed between the sodium
characteristic color. (credit: cation, Na+, and the sulfide anion, S2−.
modification of work by
Stanislav Doronenko)
Answer Na2S
Example 4
Write the proper ionic formula for each of the two given ions.
a) Ca2+ and Cl− b) Al3+ and F− c) Al3+ and O2−
Solution
a) We need two Cl− ions to balance the charge on one Ca2+ ion, so the proper ionic formula is CaCl2.
b) We need three F− ions to balance the charge on the Al3+ ion, so the proper ionic formula is AlF3.
c) With Al3+ and O2−, note that neither charge is a perfect multiple of the other. This means we have
to go to a least common multiple, which in this case will be six. To get a total of 6+, we need two Al3+
ions; to get 6−, we need three O2− ions. Hence the proper ionic formula is Al2O3.
Test Yourself
Write the proper ionic formulas for each of the two given ions.
a) Fe2+ and S2− b) Fe3+ and S2−
Answers
a) FeS b) Fe2S3
Many ionic compounds contain polyatomic ions (Table 1) as the cation,

the anion, or both. As with simple ionic compounds, these compounds
must also be electrically neutral, so their formulas can be predicted by
treating the polyatomic ions as discrete units. We use parentheses in a
formula to indicate a group of atoms that behave as a unit. For example,
the formula for calcium phosphate, one of the minerals in our bones, is
Ca3(PO4)2. This formula indicates that there are three calcium ions (Ca2+)
for every two phosphate (PO43−) groups. The PO43− groups are discrete
units, each consisting of one phosphorus atom and four oxygen atoms,
and having an overall charge of 3−. The compound is electrically neutral,
and its formula shows a total count of three Ca, two P, and eight O atoms.
Example 5
Baking powder contains calcium dihydrogen phosphate, an ionic compound composed of the ions
Ca2+ and H2PO4−. What is the formula of this compound?
Solution
The positive and negative charges must balance, and this ionic compound must be electrically neutral.
Thus, we must have two negative charges to balance the 2+ charge of the calcium ion. This requires
a ratio of one Ca2+ ion to two H2PO4− ions. We designate this by enclosing the formula for the
dihydrogen phosphate ion in parentheses and adding a subscript 2. The formula is Ca(H2PO4)2.
Test Yourself
Predict the formula of the ionic compound formed between the lithium ion and the peroxide ion, O22−
(Hint: Use the periodic table to predict the sign and the charge on the lithium ion.)
Answer
Li2O2
Because an ionic compound is not made up of single, discrete molecules,

it may not be properly symbolized using a molecular formula. Instead,
ionic compounds must be symbolized by a formula unit, a formula
indicating the relative numbers of its constituent ions. For compounds
containing only monatomic ions (such as NaCl) and for many compounds
containing polyatomic ions (such as CaSO4), these formulas are just
the empirical formulas introduced earlier in this chapter. However, the
formulas for some ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions are not
empirical formulas. For example, the ionic compound sodium oxalate
is comprised of Na+ and C2O42− ions combined in a 2:1 ratio, and its
formula is written as Na2C2O4. The subscripts in this formula are not the
smallest-possible whole numbers, as each can be divided by 2 to yield the
empirical formula, NaCO2. This is not the accepted formula for sodium
oxalate, however, as it does not accurately represent the compound’s
polyatomic anion, C2O42−.
Molecular Compounds
Many compounds do not contain ions but instead consist solely of

discrete, neutral molecules. These molecular compounds (covalent
compounds) result when atoms share, rather than transfer (gain or lose),
electrons. Covalent bonding is an important and extensive concept in
chemistry, and it will be treated in considerable detail in a later chapter
of this text. We can often identify molecular compounds on the basis of

their physical properties. Under normal conditions, molecular compounds
often exist as gases, low-boiling liquids, and low-melting solids, although
many important exceptions exist.
Whereas ionic compounds are usually formed when a metal and a

nonmetal combine, covalent compounds are usually formed by a
combination of nonmetals. Thus, the periodic table can help us recognize
many of the compounds that are covalent. While we can use the positions
of a compound’s elements in the periodic table to predict whether it is
ionic or covalent at this point in our study of chemistry, you should be
aware that this is a very simplistic approach that does not account for a
number of interesting exceptions. Shades of gray exist between ionic and
molecular compounds, and you’ll learn more about those later.
Figure 5. Classification of Pure Substances. Examples include atomic

hydrogen (H), molecular oxygen (O2), water (H2O) and sodium chloride
(NaCl).
Example 6
Predict whether the following compounds are ionic or molecular:

a) KI, the compound used as a source of iodine in table salt
b) H2O2, the bleach and disinfectant hydrogen peroxide
c) CHCl3, the anesthetic chloroform
d) Li2CO3, a source of lithium in antidepressants
Solution
a) Potassium (group 1) is a metal, and iodine (group 17) is a nonmetal; KI is predicted to be ionic.
b) Hydrogen (group 1) is a nonmetal, and oxygen (group 16) is a nonmetal; H2O2 is predicted to be
molecular.
c) Carbon (group 14) is a nonmetal, hydrogen (group 1) is a nonmetal, and chlorine (group 17) is a
nonmetal; CHCl3 is predicted to be molecular.
d) Lithium (group 1) is a metal, and carbonate is a polyatomic ion; Li2CO3 is predicted to be ionic.
Test Yourself
Using the periodic table, predict whether the following compounds are ionic or covalent:
a) SO2
b) CaF2
c) N2H4
d) Al2(SO4)3
Answers
a) molecular b) ionic c) molecular d) ionic
Metals (particularly those in groups 1 and 2) tend to lose the number of

electrons that would leave them with the same number of electrons as in
the preceding noble gas in the periodic table. By this means, a positively
charged ion is formed. Similarly, nonmetals (especially those in groups 16
and 17, and, to a lesser extent, those in Group 15) can gain the number of
electrons needed to provide atoms with the same number of electrons as
in the next noble gas in the periodic table. Thus, nonmetals tend to form
negative ions. Positively charged ions are called cations, and negatively
charged ions are called anions. Ions can be either monatomic (containing
only one atom) or polyatomic (containing more than one atom).
Compounds that contain ions are called ionic compounds. Ionic

compounds generally form from metals and nonmetals. Compounds that
do not contain ions, but instead consist of atoms bonded tightly together
in molecules (uncharged groups of atoms that behave as a single unit), are
called covalent compounds. Covalent compounds usually form from two
nonmetals.
Exercises
1. Explain how cations form.

2. Explain how anions form.
3. Give the charge each atom takes when it forms an ion. If more than one charge is possible, list
both.
a) K b) O c) Cu
4. Give the charge each atom takes when it forms an ion. If more than one charge is possible, list
both.
a) Ag b) Au c) Br
5. Name the ions from Exercise 3.
6. Name the ions from Exercise 4.

7. Give the formula for each ionic compound formed between the two listed ions.
a) Mg2+ and Cl− b) Fe2+ and O2− c) Fe3+ and O2−

a) Cu2+ and F− b) Ca2+ and O2− c) K+ and P3−

a) K+ and SO42− b) NH4+ and S2− c) NH4+ and PO43−

a) Pb4+ and SO42− b) Na+ and I3− c) Li+ and Cr2O72−

a) Ag+ and SO32− b) Na+ and HCO3− c) Fe3+ and ClO3−
12. What is the difference between SO3 and SO32−?

13. Using the periodic table, predict whether the following chlorides are ionic or covalent:
KCl, NCl3, ICl, MgCl2, PCl5, and CCl4.
14. Using the periodic table, predict whether the following chlorides are ionic or covalent:
SiCl4, PCl3, CaCl2, CsCl, CuCl2, and CrCl3.
15. For each of the following compounds, state whether it is ionic or covalent. If it is ionic, write the
symbols for the ions involved:
a) NF3 b) BaO c) (NH4)2CO3 d) Sr(H2PO4)2 e) IBr f) Na2O
16. For each of the following compounds, state whether it is ionic or covalent, and if it is ionic, write
the symbols for the ions involved:
a) KClO4 b) Mg(C2H3O2)2 c) H2S d) Ag2S e) N2Cl4 f) Co(NO3)2
17. For each of the following pairs of ions, write the symbol for the formula of the compound they
will form:
a) Ca2+, S2− b) NH4+, SO42− c) Al3+, Br− d) Na+, HPO42− e) Mg2+, PO43−
18. For each of the following pairs of ions, write the symbol for the formula of the compound they
will form: a) K+, O2− b) NH4+, PO43− c) Al3+, O2− d) Na+, CO32− e) Ba2+, PO43−
Answers
1. Cations form by losing electrons.
2. Anions form by gaining electrons.
3. a) 1+ b) 2− c) 1+, 2+
4. a) 1+ b) 1+, 3+ c) 1−
5. a) the potassium ion b) the oxide ion c) the cobalt(II) and cobalt(III) ions, respectively
6. a) the silver ion b) the gold(I) and gold(III) ions, respectively c) the bromide ion
7. a) MgCl2 b) FeO c) Fe2O3
8. a) CuF2 b) CaO c) K3P9. a) K2SO4 b) (NH4)2S c) (NH4)3PO4
10. a) Pb(SO4)2 b) NaI3 c) Li2Cr2O7
11. a) Ag2SO3 b) NaHCO3 c) Fe(ClO3)3
12. SO3 is sulfur trioxide, while SO32− is the sulfite ion.
13. Ionic: KCl, MgCl2; Covalent: NCl3, ICl, PCl5, CCl4
14. Ionic: CaCl2, CsCl, CuCl2, CrCl3.; Covalent: SiCl4, PCl3
15. a) covalent b) ionic, Ba2+, O2− c) ionic, NH4+,CO32−
d) ionic, Sr2+, H2PO4− e) covalent f) ionic, Na+, O2−
16. a) ionic, K+, ClO4– b) ionic, Mg+2, C2H3O2– c) covalent d) ionic, Ag+, S-2
e) covalent f) ionic, Co+2, NO3–
17. a) CaS b) (NH4)2SO4 c) AlBr3 d) Na2HPO4 e) Mg3 (PO4)2
18. a) K2O b) (NH4)3PO4 c) Al2O3 d) Na2CO3 e) Ba3(PO4)2
Glossary
isomers: compounds with the same chemical formula but different

structures
covalent bond: attractive force between the nuclei of a molecule’s atoms

and pairs of electrons between the atoms
covalent compound: (also, molecular compound) composed of

molecules formed by atoms of two or more different elements
formula unit: a formula indicating the relative numbers of its constituent

ions
ionic bond: electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely

charged ions of an ionic compound
ionic compound: compound composed of cations and anions combined

in ratios, yielding an electrically neutral substance
molecular compound: (also, covalent compound) composed of

molecules formed by atoms of two or more different elements
monatomic ion: ion composed of a single atom
oxyanion: polyatomic anion composed of a central atom bonded to

oxygen atoms
polyatomic ion: ion composed of more than one atom


Langley. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-
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4.3 Nomenclature of Simple Ionic and
Molecular Compounds
Learning Objectives
• Derive names for common types of inorganic compounds and simple molecular
compounds using a systematic approach
Nomenclature, a collection of rules for naming things, is important in

science and in many other situations. This module describes an approach
that is used to name simple ionic and molecular compounds, such as
NaCl, CaCO3, and N2O4. The simplest of these are binary compounds,
those containing only two elements, but we will also consider how to
name ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions, and one specific,
very important class of compounds known as acids – subsequent chapters
in this text will focus on these compounds in great detail. We will limit
our attention here to inorganic compounds, compounds that are composed
principally of elements other than carbon, and will follow the
nomenclature guidelines proposed by IUPAC. The rules for organic
302
compounds, in which carbon is the principle element, will be treated in a

later chapter on organic chemistry.
Nomenclature of Ionic Compounds
To name an inorganic compound, we need to consider the answers to

several questions. First, is the compound ionic or molecular? If the
compound is ionic, does the metal form ions of only one type (fixed
charge) or more than one type (variable charge)? Are the ions monatomic
or polyatomic? If the compound is molecular, does it contain hydrogen?
If so, does it also contain oxygen? From the answers we derive, we place
the compound in an appropriate category and then name it accordingly.
Compounds Containing Only Monatomic Ions
The name of a binary compound containing monatomic ions consists of

the name of the cation (the name of the metal) followed by the name of
the anion (the name of the nonmetallic element with its ending replaced
by the suffix –ide). Some examples are given in Table 1.
4.3 NOMENCLATURE OF SIMPLE IONIC AND MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS • 304
NaCl, sodium chloride Na2O, sodium oxide
KBr, potassium bromide CdS, cadmium sulfide
CaI2, calcium iodide Mg3N2, magnesium nitride
CsF, cesium fluoride Ca3P2, calcium phosphide
LiCl, lithium chloride Al4C3, aluminum carbide
Table 1. Names of Some Ionic Compounds
Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions
Compounds containing polyatomic ions are named similarly to those

containing only monatomic ions, except there is no need to change to an
–ide ending, since the suffix is already present in the name of the anion.
Examples are shown in Table 2. See Table 1 in Chapter 4.2 Ionic and
Molecular Compounds for the list of common polyatomic ions.
KC2H3O2, potassium acetate (NH4)Cl, ammonium chloride
NaHCO3, sodium bicarbonate CaSO4, calcium sulfate
Al2(CO3)3, aluminum carbonate Mg3(PO4)2, magnesium phosphate
Table 2. Names of Some Polyatomic Ionic Compounds

Example 1
Name the following ionic compounds:
a) NaCl b) AlBr3 c) BaH2
Solution
a) Identify the cation and anion.
Na is a Group 1 metal, and thus it forms the cation Na+, called “sodium” ion.
Cl is a nonmetal, and forms the anion Cl–, chloride. Thus, NaCl = sodium chloride.
b) AlBr3 consists of aluminum and bromine; we call it aluminum bromide.
c) BaH2is called barium hydride.
Test Yourself
a) Al2S3 b) ZnS c) MgI2
Answers
a) aluminum sulfide b) zinc sulfide c) magnesium iodide
Compounds Containing a Metal Ion with a Variable Charge
Most of the transition metals can form two or more cations with different
charges. Compounds of these metals with nonmetals are named with the
same method as compounds in the first category, except the charge of the
metal ion is specified by a Roman numeral in parentheses after the name
of the metal. The charge of the metal ion is determined from the formula
of the compound and the charge of the anion. For example, consider
binary ionic compounds of iron and chlorine. Iron typically exhibits a
charge of either 2+ or 3+ (see Figure 2 in Chapter 4.2 Ionic and Molecular
Compounds), and the two corresponding compound formulas are FeCl2

and FeCl3. The simplest name, “iron chloride,” will, in this case, be
ambiguous, as it does not distinguish between these two compounds.
In cases like this, the charge of the metal ion is included as a Roman
numeral in parentheses immediately following the metal name. These two
compounds are then unambiguously named iron(II) chloride and iron(III)
chloride, respectively. Other examples are provided in Table 4.
Transition Metal Ionic Compound Name
FeCl3 iron(III) chloride
Hg2O mercury(I) oxide
HgO mercury(II) oxide
Cu3(PO4)2 copper(II) phosphate
Table 4. Names of Some Transition Metal Ionic Compounds
An old naming convention used the suffixes –ic and –ous to designate
metals with higher and lower charges, respectively: Iron(III) chloride,
FeCl3, can be called called ferric chloride, and iron(II) chloride, FeCl2, is
also known as ferrous chloride. This older naming convention remains in
use by some segments of industry. For example, you may see the words
stannous fluoride on a tube of toothpaste. This represents the formula
SnF2, which is also named tin(II) fluoride following the more current
convention. The other fluoride of tin is SnF4, is now named tin(IV)
fluoride but is still often referred to as stannic fluoride. Knowing both
convention remains important.
Common Common Names for

Element Ions Ions
Cu Cu+/Cu2+ cuprous/cupric
Fe Fe2+/Fe3+ ferrous/ferric
Co Co2+/Co3+ cobaltous/cobaltic
Cr Cr2+/Cr3+ chromous/chromic
Sn Sn2+/Sn4+ stannous/stannic
Pb Pb2+/Pb4+ plumbous/plumbic
Hg Hg22+/Hg2+ mercurous/mercuric
Table 5. Common Names for Some Metal Ions with

Variable Charges
Example 2
Name each species.

a) O2− b) Co c) Co2+
Solution
a) This species has a 2− charge on it, so it is an anion. Anions are named using the stem of the element
name with the suffix -ide added. This is the oxide anion.
b) Because this species has no charge, it is an atom in its elemental form. This is cobalt.
c) In this case, there is a 2+ charge on the atom, so it is a cation. We note from Figure 2 in Chapter
4.2 Ionic and Molecular Compounds), that cobalt cations can have two possible charges, so the name
of the ion must specify which charge the ion has. This is the cobalt(II) cation.
Test Yourself
Name each species: P3− and Sr2+
Answers
the phosphide anion and the strontium cation
Example 3

a) SnBr4 b) CoCl3 c) Fe2O3
Solution
a) First, identify the charge on the cation (Sn).
Because Br has a charge of –1, we know that Sn must have a charge of +4.
0 = 1(x) + 4(-1) x = +4 Therefore SnBr4= tin(IV) bromide
b) Cl adopts a charge of –1
0 = 1(x) + 3(-1) x = +3 Therefore CoCl3= cobalt(III) chloride
c) O adopts a charge of –2
0 = 2(x) + 3(-2) x = +3 Therefore Fe2O3= iron(III) oxide
Test Yourself
a) HgO b) PbCl4 c) PbS d) Sc2O3 e) AgCl
Answers
a) mercury(II) oxide b) lead(IV) chloride c) lead(II) sulphide
d) scandium oxide e) silver chloride
Example 4

a) Fe2S3 b) CuSe c) GaN d) CrCl3 e) Ti2(SO4)3 f) Co2O3 g) CaCl2
h) AlF3
Solution
The anions in these compounds have a fixed negative charge (S2−, Se2− , N3−, Cl−, SO42−, O−2, and F−),
and the compounds must be neutral. Because the metal ions in questions a) to f) have a variable charge,
we must figure out the charge of the metal ion by ensuring that the total number of positive charges in
each compound must equal the total number of negative charges. Therefore the positive ions must be
Fe3+, Cu2+, Ga3+, Cr3+, Ti3+ and Co3+. These charges are used in the names of the metal ions:
a) iron(III) sulfide b) copper(II) selenide c) gallium(III) nitride
d) chromium(III) chloride e) titanium(III) sulfate f) cobalt(III) oxide
In questions g) and h) the metal ions do not have a variable charge, therefore
g) Using the names of the ions, this ionic compound is named calcium chloride. It is not calcium(II)
chloride because calcium forms only one cation when it forms an ion, and it has a characteristic charge
of 2+.
h)The name of this ionic compound is aluminum fluoride.
Test Yourself
Write the formulas of the following ionic compounds:
a) chromium(III) phosphide b) mercury(II) sulfide c) manganese(II) phosphate
d) copper(I) oxide e) chromium(VI) fluoride
Answers
a) CrP b) HgS c) Mn3(PO4)2 d) Cu2O e) CrF6
Erin Brockovich and Chromium Contamination
In the early 1990s, legal file clerk Erin Brockovich (Figure 1) discovered a high rate of serious
illnesses in the small town of Hinckley, California. Her investigation eventually linked the illnesses to
groundwater contaminated by Cr(VI) used by Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E) to fight corrosion in a
nearby natural gas pipeline. As dramatized in the film Erin Brokovich (for which Julia Roberts won an
Oscar), Erin and lawyer Edward Masry sued PG&E for contaminating the water near Hinckley in 1993.
The settlement they won in 1996—$333 million—was the largest amount ever awarded for a direct-
action lawsuit in the US at that time.
Figure 1. (a) Erin Brockovich found that Cr(VI), used by PG&E, had contaminated the Hinckley, California, water
supply. (b) The Cr(VI) ion is often present in water as the polyatomic ions chromate, CrO42− (left), and dichromate,
Cr2O72− (right).
Chromium compounds are widely used in industry, such as for chrome plating, in dye-making,
as preservatives, and to prevent corrosion in cooling tower water, as occurred near Hinckley. In the
environment, chromium exists primarily in either the Cr(III) or Cr(VI) forms. Cr(III), an ingredient of
many vitamin and nutritional supplements, forms compounds that are not very soluble in water, and it
has low toxicity. But Cr(VI) is much more toxic and forms compounds that are reasonably soluble in
water. Exposure to small amounts of Cr(VI) can lead to damage of the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and
immune systems, as well as the kidneys, liver, blood, and skin.
Despite cleanup efforts, Cr(VI) groundwater contamination remains a problem in Hinckley and other
locations across the globe. A 2010 study by the Environmental Working Group found that of 35 US
cities tested, 31 had higher levels of Cr(VI) in their tap water than the public health goal of 0.02 parts
per billion set by the California Environmental Protection Agency.
Example 5
Write the proper formula and give the proper name for each ionic compound formed between the two
listed ions.
a) NH4+ and S2− b) Al3+ and PO43− c) Fe2+ and PO43−
Solution
a) Because the ammonium ion has a 1+ charge and the sulfide ion has a 2− charge, we need two
ammonium ions to balance the charge on a single sulfide ion. Enclosing the formula for the ammonium
ion in parentheses, we have (NH4)2S. The compound’s name is ammonium sulfide.
b) Because the ions have the same magnitude of charge, we need only one of each to balance the
charges. The formula is AlPO4, and the name of the compound is aluminum phosphate.
c) Neither charge is an exact multiple of the other, so we have to go to the least common multiple
of 6. To get 6+, we need three iron(II) ions, and to get 6−, we need two phosphate ions. The proper
formula is Fe3(PO4)2, and the compound’s name is iron(II) phosphate.
Test Yourself
Write the proper formula and give the proper name for each ionic compound formed between the two
listed ions.
a) NH4+ and PO43− b) Co3+ and NO2−
Answers
a) (NH4)3PO4, ammonium phosphate b) Co(NO2)3, cobalt(III) nitrite
Ionic Compounds in Your Cabinets
Every day you encounter and use a large number of ionic compounds. Some of these compounds,
where they are found, and what they are used for are listed in Table 3. Look at the label or ingredients
list on the various products that you use during the next few days, and see if you run into any of those
in this table, or find other ionic compounds that you could now name or write as a formula.
Ionic Compound Use
NaCl, sodium chloride ordinary table salt
KI, potassium iodide added to “iodized” salt for thyroid health
NaF, sodium fluoride ingredient in toothpaste
NaHCO3, sodium bicarbonate baking soda; used in cooking (and as antacid)
Na2CO3, sodium carbonate washing soda; used in cleaning agents
NaOCl, sodium hypochlorite active ingredient in household bleach
CaCO3 calcium carbonate ingredient in antacids
Mg(OH)2, magnesium hydroxide ingredient in antacids
Al(OH)3, aluminum hydroxide ingredient in antacids
NaOH, sodium hydroxide lye; used as drain cleaner
K3PO4, potassium phosphate food additive (many purposes)
MgSO4, magnesium sulfate added to purified water
Na2HPO4, sodium hydrogen phosphate anti-caking agent; used in powdered products
Na2SO3, sodium sulfite preservative
Table 3. Everyday Ionic Compounds
Nomenclature of Molecular (Covalent) Compounds
The bonding characteristics of inorganic molecular compounds are

different from ionic compounds, and they are named using a different
system as well. The charges of cations and anions dictate their ratios in
ionic compounds, so specifying the names of the ions provides sufficient
information to determine chemical formulas. However, because covalent
bonding allows for significant variation in the combination ratios of the
atoms in a molecule, the names for molecular compounds must explicitly

identify these ratios.
Compounds Composed of Two Elements
When two nonmetallic elements form a molecular compound, several

combination ratios are often possible. For example, carbon and oxygen
can form the compounds CO and CO2. Since these are different
substances with different properties, they cannot both have the same
name (they cannot both be called carbon oxide). To deal with this
situation, we use a naming method that is somewhat similar to that used
for ionic compounds, but with added prefixes to specify the numbers of
atoms of each element. The name of the more metallic element (the one
farther to the left and/or bottom of the periodic table) is first, followed
by the name of the more nonmetallic element (the one farther to the right
and/or top) with its ending changed to the suffix –ide. The numbers of
atoms of each element are designated by the Greek prefixes shown in
Table 6.
Number Prefix Number Prefix
1 (sometimes omitted) mono- 6 hexa-
2 di- 7 hepta-
3 tri- 8 octa-
4 tetra- 9 nona-
5 penta- 10 deca-
Table 6. Nomenclature Prefixes
When only one atom of the first element is present, the prefix mono– is
usually deleted from that part. Thus, CO is named carbon monoxide, and
CO2 is called carbon dioxide. When two vowels are adjacent, the a in the
Greek prefix is usually dropped. Some other examples are shown in Table
7.
Compound Name Compound Name
SO2 sulfur dioxide BCl3 boron trichloride
SO3 sulfur trioxide SF6 sulfur hexafluoride
NO2 nitrogen dioxide PF5 phosphorus pentafluoride
N2O4 dinitrogen tetroxide P4O10 tetraphosphorus decaoxide
N2O5 dinitrogen pentoxide IF7 iodine heptafluoride
Table 7. Names of Some Molecular Compounds Composed of Two Elements
There are a few common names that you will encounter as you continue
your study of chemistry. For example, although NO is often called nitric

oxide, its proper name is nitrogen monoxide. Similarly, N2O is known as
nitrous oxide even though our rules would specify the name dinitrogen
monoxide. (And H2O is usually called water, not dihydrogen monoxide.)
You should commit to memory the common names of compounds as you
encounter them.
Example 6
Name the following covalent compounds:

a) SF6 b) N2O3 c) Cl2O7 d) P4O6 e) PF3 f) CO g) Se2Br2
Solution
Because these compounds consist solely of nonmetals, they are molecular compounds, therefore
according to the rules, we use prefixes to designate the number of atoms of each element:
a) sulfur hexafluoride b) dinitrogen trioxide c) dichloride heptoxide
d) tetraphosphorus hexoxide e) phosphorus trifluoride f) carbon monoxide (not carbon
monooxide)
g) diselenium dibromide
Test Yourself
Write the formulas for the following compounds:
a) phosphorus pentachloride b) dinitrogen monoxide c) iodine heptafluoride
d) carbon tetrachloride e) disulfur difluoride f) iodine pentabromide
Answers
a) PCl5 b) N2O c) IF7 d) CCl4 e) S2F2 f) IBr5
The following website provides practice with naming chemical compounds and writing chemical
formulas. You can choose binary, polyatomic, and variable charge ionic compounds, as well as
molecular compounds.
Binary Acids
Some compounds containing hydrogen are members of an important class

of substances known as acids, and these compounds have interesting
chemical properties. The chemistry of these compounds is explored in
more detail in later chapters of this text, but for now, it will suffice to
note that many acids release hydrogen ions, H+, when dissolved in water.
To indicate that something is dissolved in water, we will use the phase
label (aq) next to a chemical formula (where aq stands for “aqueous,” a
word that describes something dissolved in water). To denote this distinct
chemical property, a mixture of water with an acid is given a name
derived from the compound’s name. If the compound is a binary acid
(comprised of hydrogen and one other nonmetallic element):
1. The word “hydrogen” is changed to the prefix hydro-
2. The other nonmetallic element name is modified by adding the

suffix –ic
3. The word “acid” is added as a second word
For example, when the gas HCl (hydrogen chloride) is dissolved in water,
the solution is called hydrochloric acid. Several other examples of this
nomenclature are shown in Table 8.
Name of Gas Name of Acid
HF(g), hydrogen fluoride HF(aq), hydrofluoric acid
HCl(g), hydrogen chloride HCl(aq), hydrochloric acid
HBr(g), hydrogen bromide HBr(aq), hydrobromic acid
HI(g), hydrogen iodide HI(aq), hydroiodic acid
H2S(g), hydrogen sulfide H2S(aq), hydrosulfuric acid
HCN(g), hydrogen cyanide HCN(aq), hydrocyanic acid
Table 8. Names of Some Simple Acids
Oxyacids
Many compounds containing three or more elements (such as organic

compounds or coordination compounds) are subject to specialized
nomenclature rules that you will learn later. However, we will briefly
discuss the important compounds known as oxyacids, compounds that
contain hydrogen, oxygen, and at least one other element, and are bonded
in such a way as to impart acidic properties to the compound (you will
learn the details of this in a later chapter). Typical oxyacids consist of
hydrogen combined with a polyatomic, oxygen-containing ion. To name
oxyacids:
1. Omit “hydrogen”
2. Start with the root name of the anion

3. Replace –ate with –ic, or –ite with –ous
4. Add “acid”
For example, consider H2CO3 (which you might be tempted to call

“hydrogen carbonate”). To name this correctly, “hydrogen” is omitted;
the –ate of carbonate is replace with –ic; and acid is added—so its name
is carbonic acid. Other examples are given in Table 9. There are some
exceptions to the general naming method (e.g., H2SO4 is called sulfuric
acid, not sulfic acid, and H2SO3 is sulfurous, not sulfous, acid).
Formula Anion Name Acid Name
HC2H3O2 acetate acetic acid
HNO3 nitrate nitric acid
HNO2 nitrite nitrous acid
HClO4 perchlorate perchloric acid
HClO3 chlorate chloric acid
HClO2 chlorite chlorous acid
HClO hypochlorite hypochlorous acid
H2CO3 carbonate carbonic acid
H2SO4 sulfate sulfuric acid
H2SO3 sulfite sulfurous acid
H3PO4 phosphate phosphoric acid
H3PO3 phosphite phosphorous acid
H2CrO4 chromate chromic acid
Table 9. Names of Common Oxyacids
Example 7
Name each acid without consulting the tables.

a) HBr(aq) b) H2SO4 c) HF(g) d) HCN(aq) e) H2S(aq)
Solution
a) As an aqueous binary acid, the acid’s name is hydro- + stem name + -ic acid. Because this acid
contains a bromine atom, the name is hydrobromic acid.
b) Because this acid is derived from the sulfate ion, the name of the acid is the stem of the anion
name + -ic acid. The name of this acid is sulfuric acid.
c) Because HF(g) is in gaseous form, we name it hydrogen fluoride.
d) HCN(aq) contains the polyatomic ion cyanide. The root is “cyan”, thus HCN(aq) = hydrocyanic
acid.
e) H2S(aq) contains the ion sulfide. In this case, however, the root takes a slightly different form of
“sulfur” (the same as the element name). Thus H2S(aq) = hydrosulfuric acid.
Test Yourself
Name each acid.
a) HF(aq) b) HNO2 c) HClO4 d) H2SO4 e) H2CrO4(aq) f) H3PO4(aq) g)
HClO(aq)
Answers
a) hydrofluoric acid b) nitrous acid c) perchloric acid d) sulphuric acid e) chromic
acid
f) phosphoric acid g) hypochlorous acid
All acids have some similar properties. For example, acids have a sour
taste; in fact, the sour taste of some of our foods, such as citrus fruits
and vinegar, is caused by the presence of acids in food. Many acids react
with some metallic elements to form metal ions and elemental hydrogen.
Acids make certain plant pigments change colors; indeed, the ripening of
some fruits and vegetables is caused by the formation or destruction of
excess acid in the plant. In a later chapter, we will explore the chemical
behaviour of acids.
Acids are very prevalent in the world around us. We have already
mentioned that citrus fruits contain acid; among other compounds, they
contain citric acid, H3C6H5O7(aq). Oxalic acid, H2C2O4(aq), is found in

spinach and other green leafy vegetables. Hydrochloric acid not only is
found in the stomach (stomach acid) but also can be bought in hardware
stores as a cleaner for concrete and masonry. Phosphoric acid is an
ingredient in some soft drinks.
Sodium in Your Food
The element sodium, at least in its ionic form as Na+, is a necessary nutrient for humans to live. In
fact, the human body is approximately 0.15% sodium, with the average person having one-twentieth
to one-tenth of a kilogram in their body at any given time, mostly in fluids outside cells and in other
bodily fluids.
Sodium is also present in our diet. The common table salt we use on our foods is an ionic sodium
compound. Many processed foods also contain significant amounts of sodium added to them as a
variety of ionic compounds. Why are sodium compounds used so much? Usually sodium compounds
are inexpensive, but, more importantly, most ionic sodium compounds dissolve easily. This allows
processed food manufacturers to add sodium-containing substances to food mixtures and know that
the compound will dissolve and distribute evenly throughout the food. Simple ionic compounds such
as sodium nitrite (NaNO2) are added to cured meats, such as bacon and deli-style meats, while a
compound called sodium benzoate is added to many packaged foods as a preservative. Table 10 “Some
Sodium Compounds Added to Food” is a partial list of some sodium additives used in food. Some of
them you may recognize after reading this chapter. Others you may not recognize, but they are all ionic
sodium compounds with some negatively charged ion also present.
Sodium Compound Use in Food
Sodium acetate preservative, acidity regulator
Sodium adipate food acid
Sodium alginate thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier
Sodium aluminum phosphate acidity regulator, emulsifier
Sodium aluminosilicate anticaking agent
Sodium ascorbate antioxidant
Sodium benzoate preservative
Sodium bicarbonate mineral salt
Sodium bisulfite preservative, antioxidant
Sodium carbonate mineral salt
Sodium carboxymethylcellulose emulsifier
Sodium citrates food acid
Sodium dehydroacetate preservative
Sodium erythorbate antioxidant
Sodium erythorbin antioxidant
Sodium ethyl para-hydroxybenzoate preservative
Sodium ferrocyanide anticaking agent
Sodium formate preservative
Sodium fumarate food acid
Sodium gluconate stabilizer
Sodium hydrogen acetate preservative, acidity regulator
Sodium hydroxide mineral salt
Sodium lactate food acid
Sodium malate food acid
Sodium metabisulfite preservative, antioxidant, bleaching agent
Sodium methyl para-hydroxybenzoate preservative
Sodium nitrate preservative, color fixative
Sodium nitrite preservative, color fixative

Sodium Compound Use in Food
Sodium orthophenyl phenol preservative
Sodium propionate preservative
Sodium propyl para-hydroxybenzoate preservative
Sodium sorbate preservative
Sodium stearoyl lactylate emulsifier
Sodium succinates acidity regulator, flavour enhancer
Sodium salts of fatty acids emulsifier, stabilizer, anticaking agent
Sodium sulfite mineral salt, preservative, antioxidant
Sodium sulfite preservative, antioxidant
Sodium tartrate food acid
Sodium tetraborate preservative
Table 10. Some Sodium Compounds Added to Food

The use of so many sodium compounds in prepared and processed foods has alarmed some
physicians and nutritionists. They argue that the average person consumes too much sodium from his or
her diet. The average person needs only about 500 mg of sodium every day; most people consume more
than this—up to 10 times as much. Some studies have implicated increased sodium intake with high
blood pressure; newer studies suggest that the link is questionable. However, there has been a push to
reduce the amount of sodium most people ingest every day: avoid processed and manufactured foods,
read labels on packaged foods (which include an indication of the sodium content), don’t oversalt foods,
and use other herbs and spices besides salt in cooking.
Chemists use nomenclature rules to clearly name compounds. Ionic and

molecular compounds are named using somewhat-different methods.
Binary ionic compounds typically consist of a metal and a nonmetal.
The name of the metal is written first, followed by the name of the
nonmetal with its ending changed to –ide. For example, K2O is called
potassium oxide. If the metal can form ions with different charges, a
Roman numeral in parentheses follows the name of the metal to specify
its charge. Thus, FeCl2 is iron(II) chloride and FeCl3 is iron(III) chloride.
Some compounds contain polyatomic ions; the names of common
polyatomic ions should be memorized. Molecular compounds can form
compounds with different ratios of their elements, so prefixes are used
to specify the numbers of atoms of each element in a molecule of the
compound. Examples include SF6, sulfur hexafluoride, and N2O4,
dinitrogen tetroxide. Acids are an important class of compounds
containing hydrogen and having special nomenclature rules. Binary acids
are named using the prefix hydro-, changing the –ide suffix to –ic, and
adding “acid;” HCl is hydrochloric acid. Oxyacids are named by
changing the ending of the anion to –ic, and adding “acid;” H2CO3 is
carbonic acid.
Figure 3. Flowchart illustrating the thought process involved in naming

simple ionic and covalent compounds and the rules needed to follow.
Activity
Make yourself a stack of small sized Qcards. On one side have the name of an ionic compound (e.g.
sodium hydroxide) and on the other side have its chemical formula (e.g. NaOH). Use every example
found in this chapter – including those in the exercises. Then use these Qcards to quiz yourself.
Exercises
1. Give the formula and name for each ionic compound formed between the two listed ions.
a) Mg2+ and Cl− b) Fe2+ and O2− c) Fe3+ and O2−

a) Cu2+ and F− b) Ca2+ and O2− c) K+ and P3−

a) K+ and SO42− b) NH4+ and S2− c) NH4+ and PO43−

a) Pb4+ and SO42− b) Na+ and I3− c) Li+ and Cr2O72−

a) Ag+ and SO32− b) Na+ and HCO3− c) Fe3+ and ClO3−

6. .Which of these formulas represent molecules? State how many atoms are in each molecule.
a) Fe b) PCl3 c) P4 d) Ar
7. What is the difference between CO and Co?
8. Give the proper formula for each diatomic element.
9. What is the stem of fluorine used in molecule names? CF4 is one example.
10. Give the proper name for each molecule.
a) PF3 b) TeCl2 c) N2O3

a) XeF2 b) O2F2 c) SF6

a) N2O b) N2O4 c) N2O5
13. Give the proper formula for each name.

a) dinitrogen pentoxide b) tetraboron tricarbide c) phosphorus pentachloride
a) dioxygen dichloride b) dinitrogen trisulfide c) xenon tetrafluoride

a) iodine trifluoride b) xenon trioxide c) disulfur decafluoride

16. Give the formula for each acid.
a) perchloric acid b) hydroiodic acid
17. Name each acid.

a) HF(aq) b) HNO3(aq) c) H2C2O4(aq)
18. Name the following compounds:
a) CsCl b) BaO c) K2S d) BeCl2 e) HBr f) AlF3
19. Write the formulas of the following compounds:
a) rubidium bromide b) magnesium selenide c) sodium oxide d) calcium chloride
e) hydrogen fluoride f) gallium phosphide g) aluminum bromide h) ammonium sulfate
20. Write the formulas of the following compounds:
a) chlorine dioxide b) dinitrogen tetraoxide c) potassium phosphide
d) silver(I) sulfide e) aluminum nitride f) silicon dioxide
21. Each of the following compounds contains a metal that can exhibit more than one ionic charge.
Name these compounds:
a) Cr2O3 b) FeCl2 c) CrO3 d) TiCl4 e) CoO f) MoS2
22. The following ionic compounds are found in common household products. Write the formulas
for each compound:
a) potassium phosphate b) copper(II) sulfate c) calcium chloride
d) titanium dioxide e) ammonium nitrate
f) sodium bisulfate (the common name for sodium hydrogen sulfate)
23. What are the IUPAC names of the following compounds?
a) manganese dioxide b) mercurous chloride (Hg2Cl2) c) ferric nitrate [Fe(NO3)3]
d) titanium tetrachloride e) cupric bromide (CuBr2)
Answers
1. a) magnesium chloride, MgCl2 b) iron(II) oxide, FeO c) iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3
2. a) copper(II) fluoride, CuF2 b) calcium oxide, CaO c) potassium phosphide, K3P
3. a) potassium sulfate, K2SO4 b) ammonium sulfide, (NH4)2S c) ammonium phosphate,
(NH4)3PO4
4. a) lead(IV) sulfate, Pb(SO4)2 b) sodium triiodide, NaI3 c) lithium dichromate, Li2Cr2O7
5. a) silver sulfite, Ag2SO3 b) sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHCO3 c) iron(III) chlorate,
Fe(ClO3)3
6. a) not a molecule b) a molecule; four atoms total c) a molecule; four atoms total
d) not a molecule
7. CO is a compound of carbon and oxygen; Co is the element cobalt.
8. H2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
9. fluor-
10. a) phosphorus trifluoride b) tellurium dichloride c) dinitrogen trioxide
11. a) xenon difluoride b) dioxygen difluoride c) sulfur hexafluoride
12. a) dinitrogen monoxide b) dinitrogen tetroxide c) dinitrogen pentoxide
13. a) N2O5 b) B4C3 c) PCl5
14. a) O2Cl2 b) N2S3 c) XeF4
15. a) IF3 b) XeO3 c) S2F10
16. a) HClO4(aq) b) HI(aq)
17. a) hydrofluoric acid b) nitric acid c) oxalic acid
18. a) cesium chloride b) barium oxide c) potassium sulfide
d) beryllium chloride e) hydrogen bromide f) aluminum fluoride
19. a) RbBr b) MgSe c) Na2O d) CaCl2 e) HF f) GaP g) AlBr3 h)
(NH4)2SO4
20. a) ClO2 b) N2O4 c) K3P d) Ag2S e) AlN f) SiO2
21. a) chromium(III) oxide b) iron(II) chloride c) chromium(VI) oxide
d) titanium(IV) chloride e) cobalt(II) oxide f) molybdenum(IV) sulfide
22. a) K3PO4 b) CuSO4 c) CaCl2 d) TiO2 e) NH4NO3 f) NaHSO4
23. a) manganese(IV) oxide b) mercury(I) chloride c) iron(III) nitrate
d) titanium(IV) chloride e) copper(II) bromide
Glossary
binary acid: compound that contains hydrogen and one other element,
bonded in a way that imparts acidic properties to the compound (ability
to release H+ ions when dissolved in water)
binary compound: compound containing two different elements.
nomenclature: system of rules for naming objects of interest
oxyacid: compound that contains hydrogen, oxygen, and one other

element, bonded in a way that imparts acidic properties to the compound
(ability to release H+ ions when dissolved in water)


1. Name the following:

a) CaC2H3O2 b) Fe2O3 c) S2F5 d) H2SO3
e) CuNO3
f) PbCO3 g) PF4 h) KMnO4 i) B2O3
j) HNO2

a) CoCl2 b) Cr(OH)3 c) ICl d) Mg3P2
e) Ag3N
f) NH4F g) BaO h) Na3As i) ZnBr2
j) SF6
k) Ba(NO3)2 l) Ni(ClO4)2 m) Zn(ClO2)2 n) HNO3
o) Ca(MnO4)2
p) CuHCO3 q) HF r) NH4HSO4 s) HgO

a) Cd3P2 b) H2SO3 c) (NH4)2S d) MnF3
e) Al2O3
f) HCN g) OF2 h) CrN i) Co2S3
330
j) P2O3
k) CS2 l) CdO m) AsH3 n) IF3
o) FePO4
p) H3PO4 q) TiO2 r) HClO s) HI
4. Determine the formula for the following compounds:

a) aluminum sulfide b) ammonium iodide c)
nickel(II) iodide
d) lithium phosphide e) gold(III) phosphide f)
phosphoric acid
g) lithium oxide h) nickel(II) phosphate i) bromic
acid
j) xenon dioxide k) bromine monofluoride l)
aluminum bisulfate
m) cobalt(II) carbonate n) potassium phosphate o) lithium
nitrite
5. Determine the formula for the following compounds:

a) gold(III) chloride b) iron(III) oxide c) chloric
acid
d) manganese(II) bromide e) cobalt(II) hydroxide f) arsenic
dioxide
g) copper(II) hydroxide h) sulfurous acid i) calcium
iodide
j) cadmium oxide k) nitrogen triiodide l) sulfur
monoxide
m) iron(III) chromate n) boron trihydride

o) manganese(III) oxide
p) sulfur hexafluoride q) strontium hypochlorite r) cobalt(II)
phosphate
s) magnesium bicarbonate
6. Write the formula for the following:

a) chloric acid b) xenon hexafluoride c)
iron(III) nitrate
d) acetic acid e) chromium(III) sulfide f)
lithium hydrogen carbonate
g) aluminum oxide h) hydrofluoric acid i)
copper(II) permanganate
7. Name each molecule:
a) PF3 b) CO c) Se2Br2 d) SF4 e) P2S5 f) N2O3

g) PCl5 h) O2F2
i) CO2 j) SeF6 k) NO
8. Name the following ionic compounds:

a) CuSO4 b) FeBr3 c) CsClO4
d) (NH4)2Cr2O7 e) KHSO4 d) CrF2
9. Determine the formula for the following ionic compounds:

a) manganese(IV) oxide b) magnesium perchlorate

c) antimony(III) nitrate d) sodium iodide
10. Determine the formula for the following ionic compounds:

a) potassium permanganate b) iron(II) sulfate
c) sodium phosphate d) copper(II) nitride
e) aluminum sulfide f) chromium(III) oxide
11. Determine the chemical formula for each of the following:
a) dinitrogen pentoxide b) hydrochloric acid c) hypochlorous

acid d) nitric acid
12. Determine the chemical formulas of the following:
a) boron trifluoride b) bromic acid c) sulfurous acid
Answers
1. a) calcium acetate b) iron(III) oxide c) disulfur

pentafluoride d) sulfurous acid
e) copper(I) nitrate f) lead(II) carbonate g) phosphorous
tetrafluoride h) potassium permanganate
i) diboron trioxide j) nitrous acid
2. a) cobalt(II) chloride b) chromium(III) hydroxide c) iodine

monochloride d) magnesium phosphide
e) silver nitride f) ammonium fluoride g) barium oxide h)
sodium arsenide
i) zinc bromide j) sulfur hexafluoride k) barium nitrate l)
nickel(II) perchlorate
m) zinc chlorite n) nitric acid o) calcium permanganate p)
copper(I) hydrogen carbonate
q) hydrofluoric acid r) ammonium hydrogen sulfate s) mercury(II)

oxide
3. a) cadmium phosphide b) sulphurous acid c) ammonium sulfide d)

manganese(III) fluoride
e) aluminum oxide f) hydrocyanic acid g) oxygen difluoride h)
chromium(III) nitride
i) cobalt(III) sulfide j) diphosphorous trioxide k) carbon
disulfide l) cadmium oxide
m) arsenic trihydride n) iodine trifluoride o) iron(III) phosphate p)
phosphoric acid
q) titanium(IV) oxide r) hypochlorous acid s) hydroiodic acid
4. a) Al2S3 b) NH4I c) NiI2 d) Li3P e) AuP f)

H3PO4 g) Li2O h) Ni3(PO4)2
i) HBrO3 j) XeO2 k) BrF l) Al(HSO4)3 m) CoCO3 n)
K3PO4 o) LiNO2
5. a) AuCl3 b) Fe2O3 c) HClO3 d) MnBr2 e) Co(OH)2 f)

AsO2 g) Cu(OH)2 h) H2SO3
i) CaI2 j) CdO k) NI3 l) SO m) Fe(CrO4)3 n)
BH3 o) Mn2O3 p) SF6

q) SrClO r) Co3(PO4)2 s) Mg(HCO3)2
6. a) HClO3 b) XeF6 c) Fe(NO3)3 d) CH3COOH e) Cr2S3

f) LiHCO3
g) Al2O3 h) HF i) Cu(MnO4)2
7. a) phosphorus trifluoride b) carbon monoxide c) diselenium

dibromide
d) sulfur tetrafluoride e) diphosphorus pentasulfide f) dinitrogen

trioxide
g) phosphorous pentachloride h) dioxin difluoride i) carbon

dioxide
j) selenium hexafluoride k) nitrogen monoxide
8. a) copper(II) sulfate b) iron(III) bromide c) cesium perchlorate

d) ammonium dichromate
e) potassium hydrogen sulfate f) chromium(II) fluoride
9. a) First, identify the anion and cation and their charges. Manganese
is Mn, and we are told from the name (type II) that it has a charge of +4.
Oxide is O2-. Now, do the “cross” method of the charges, and reduce:
manganese(IV) oxide = MnO2
b) Magnesium is Mg2+(type I), and perchlorate is ClO4–; magnesium

perchlorate = Mg(ClO4)2
c) Antimony(III) is Sb with a charge of +3, according to the type II name.

Nitrate is NO3–
antimony(III) nitrate = Sb(NO3)3
d) Sodium is Na+and iodide is I– ; sodium iodide = NaI
10. a) KMnO4 b) FeSO4 c) Na3PO4 d) Cu3N2 e) Al2S3 f) Cr2O3
11.a) Dinitrogen means 2 nitrogen atoms and pentoxide is five oxygen

atoms = N2O5
b) Hydro means that it must be a general acid. “Chlor” is the root for Cl,
which has a charge of –1. Thus H+and Cl–together make HCl (note that
we have to treat this as an ionic compound, the charges must balance).
c) Be careful! Hypo does NOT mean it is a general acid. It is simply

the prefix for the polyatomic oxyanion. Because the ending is “ous”, we
know that the ion ending must be “ite”. Thus, this originates from the
hypochlorite ion = ClO–. Together with H+this makes HClO.
d) “Nitric” tells us that this originates from the nitrate ion = NO3–. With
H+, this makes HNO3
12. a) BF3; b) HBrO3; c) H2SO3



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Chapter 5. Chemical
Composition
Chapter Topics
• Mass Terminology
• The Mole
• Percent Composition
• Determining the Empirical and Molecular Formulas
338
Introduction
Swimming pools have long been a popular means of recreation, exercise, and physical therapy. Since it is
impractical to refill large pools with fresh water on a frequent basis, pool water is regularly treated with
chemicals to prevent the growth of harmful bacteria and algae.
Figure 1. The water in a swimming pool is a complex mixture of substances

whose relative amounts must be carefully maintained to ensure the health and
comfort of people using the pool. (credit: modification of work by Vic Brincat)
Proper pool maintenance requires regular additions of various chemical

compounds in carefully measured amounts. For example, the relative
339
INTRODUCTION • 340
amount of calcium ion, Ca2+, in the water should be maintained within

certain limits to prevent eye irritation and avoid damage to the pool
bed and plumbing. To maintain proper calcium levels, calcium cations
are added to the water in the form of an ionic compound that also
contains anions; thus, it is necessary to know both the relative amount of
Ca2+ in the compound and the volume of water in the pool in order to
achieve the proper calcium level. Quantitative aspects of the composition
of substances (such as the calcium-containing compound) and mixtures
(such as the pool water) are the subject of this chapter.

5.1 Mass Terminology
Learning Objectives
• Calculate formula masses for covalent and ionic compounds
We can argue that modern chemical science began when scientists started
exploring the quantitative as well as the qualitative aspects of chemistry.
For example, Dalton’s atomic theory was an attempt to explain the results
of measurements that allowed him to calculate the relative masses of
elements combined in various compounds. Understanding the
relationship between the masses of atoms and the chemical formulas
of compounds allows us to quantitatively describe the composition of
substances.
Formula Mass
In an earlier chapter, we described the development of the atomic mass

unit, the concept of average atomic masses, and the use of chemical
341
5.1 MASS TERMINOLOGY • 342
formulas to represent the elemental makeup of substances. These ideas

can be extended to calculate the formula mass of a substance by
summing the average atomic masses of all the atoms represented in the
substance’s formula.
Formula Mass for Covalent Substances
For covalent substances, the formula represents the numbers and types
of atoms composing a single molecule of the substance; therefore, the
formula mass may be correctly referred to as a molecular mass. Consider
chloroform (CHCl3), a covalent compound once used as a surgical
anesthetic and now primarily used in the production of the “anti-stick”
polymer, Teflon. The molecular formula of chloroform indicates that a
single molecule contains one carbon atom, one hydrogen atom, and three
chlorine atoms. The average molecular mass of a chloroform molecule is
therefore equal to the sum of the average atomic masses of these atoms.
Figure 1 outlines the calculations used to derive the molecular mass of
chloroform, which is 119.377 amu.
1 C mass = 12.011 amu
1 H masses = 1.00794 amu
3 Cl masses = 3 x 35.4527
= 106.3581
amu
= 119.377 amu = the molecular mass of

CHCl3
Total
Figure 1. The average mass of a chloroform molecule, CHCl3, is

119.377 amt, which is the sum of the average atomic masses of each of
its constituent atoms. The molecular structure of chloroform.
Likewise, the molecular mass of an aspirin molecule, C9H8O4, is the sum

of the atomic masses of nine carbon atoms, eight hydrogen atoms, and
four oxygen atoms, which amounts to 180.15 amu (Figure 2).
9 C mass = 9 x 12.011 amu = 108.099 amu
8 H masses = 8 x 1.00794
= 8.06352 amu
amu
4 O masses = 4 x 15.9994
= 63.9976 amu
amu
= 180.160 amu = the molecular mass of

C9H8O4
Total
Figure 2. The average mass of an aspirin molecule is 180.160 amu. The

molecular structure of aspirin.
Example 1
Ibuprofen, C13H18O2, is a covalent compound and the active ingredient in several popular
nonprescription pain medications, such as Advil and Motrin. What is the molecular mass for this
compound?
Solution
Molecules of this compound are comprised of 13 carbon atoms, 18 hydrogen atoms, and 2 oxygen
atoms. Following the approach described above, the average molecular mass for this compound is
therefore:
13 C mass = 13 x 12.011 amu = 156.143 amu
18 H masses = 18 x 1.00794 amu = 18.14292 amu
2 O masses = 2 x 15.9994 amu = 31.9988 amu
= 206.285 amu = the molecular mass of C13H18O2
Total
Test Yourself
Acetaminophen, C8H9NO2, is a covalent compound and the active ingredient in several popular
nonprescription pain medications, such as Tylenol. What is the molecular mass for this compound?
Answer
151.16 amu
Example 2
What is the molecular mass of each substance?

a) NBr3 b) C2H6
Solution
a) Add one atomic mass of nitrogen and three atomic masses of bromine:
1 N mass = 14.0067 amu
3 Br masses = 3 × 79.904 amu = 239.712 amu
Total = 253.719 amu = the molecular mass of NBr3
b) Add two atomic masses of carbon and six atomic masses of hydrogen:
2 C masses = 2 × 12.011 amu = 24.022 amu
6 H masses = 6 × 1.00794 amu = 6.04764 amu
Total = 30.070 amu = the molecular mass of C2H6
The compound C2H6 also has a common name—ethane.
Test Yourself
What is the molecular mass of each substance?
a) SO2 b) PF3
Answers
a) 64.065 amu b) 87.969 amu
Formula Mass for Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are composed of discrete cations and anions combined

in ratios to yield electrically neutral bulk matter. The formula mass for
an ionic compound is calculated in the same way as the formula mass
for covalent compounds: by summing the average atomic masses of all
the atoms in the compound’s formula. Keep in mind, however, that the
formula for an ionic compound does not represent the composition of a
discrete molecule, so it may not correctly be referred to as the “molecular
mass.”
As an example, consider sodium chloride, NaCl, the chemical name for

common table salt. Sodium chloride is an ionic compound composed of
sodium cations, Na+, and chloride anions, Cl−, combined in a 1:1 ratio.
The formula mass for this compound is computed as 58.44 amu (Figure
3).
1 Na mass = 22.9898 amu
1 Cl masses = 35.4527 amu
Total
= 58.4425 amu = the molecular

mass of NaCl
Figure 3. Table salt, NaCl, contains an array of sodium and chloride ions
combined in a 1:1 ratio. Its formula mass is 58.44 amu.
Note that the average masses of neutral sodium and chlorine atoms were
used in this computation, rather than the masses for sodium cations and
chlorine anions. This approach is perfectly acceptable when computing
the formula mass of an ionic compound. Even though a sodium cation
has a slightly smaller mass than a sodium atom (since it is missing an
electron), this difference will be offset by the fact that a chloride anion
is slightly more massive than a chloride atom (due to the extra electron).
Moreover, the mass of an electron is negligibly small with respect to the
mass of a typical atom. Even when calculating the mass of an isolated
ion, the missing or additional electrons can generally be ignored, since
their contribution to the overall mass is negligible, reflected only in the
nonsignificant digits that will be lost when the computed mass is properly
rounded. The few exceptions to this guideline are very light ions derived
from elements with precisely known atomic masses.
Example 3
Aluminum sulfate, Al2(SO4)3, is an ionic compound that is used in the manufacture of paper and in
various water purification processes. What is the formula mass (amu) of this compound?
Solution
The formula for this compound indicates it contains Al3+ and SO42− ions combined in a 2:3 ratio.
For purposes of computing a formula mass, it is helpful to rewrite the formula in the simpler format,
Al2S3O12. Following the approach outlined above, the formula mass for this compound is calculated as
follows:
2 Al mass = 2 x 26.9815 amu = 53.9630 amu
3 S masses = 3 x 32.066 amu = 96.198 amu
12 O masses = 12 x 15.9994 amu = 191.9928 amu
= 342.154 amu = the molecular mass of Al2S3O12
Total
Test Yourself
Calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2, is an ionic compound and a common anti-caking agent added to food
products. What is the formula mass (amu) of calcium phosphate?
Answer
310.18 amu
Example 4
What is the molecular mass of Fe(NO3)3?
Solution
There is 1 atom of Fe, 3 atoms of N and 3(3) = 9 atoms of O
Thus, the molecular mass:
1(55.847amu) + 3(14.0067amu) + 9(15.9994amu) = 241.862 amu
Test Yourself
What is the mass, in amu’s, of 5.292 x 1021 molecules of Ni(NO3)2?
Answer
9.669 x 1023 amu
Chemistry Is Everywhere: Sulfur Hexafluoride
On March 20, 1995, the Japanese terrorist group Aum Shinrikyo (Sanskrit for “Supreme Truth”)
released some sarin gas in the Tokyo subway system; twelve people were killed, and thousands were
injured. Sarin (molecular formula C4H10FPO2) is a nerve toxin that was first synthesized in 1938
(Figure 4). It is regarded as one of the most deadly toxins known, estimated to be about 500 times
more potent than cyanide. Scientists and engineers who study the spread of chemical weapons such as
sarin (yes, there are such scientists) would like to have a less dangerous chemical, indeed one that is
nontoxic, so they are not at risk themselves.
Figure 4. The nerve toxin Sarin (molecular formula C4H10FPO2).
Sulfur hexafluoride is used as a model compound for sarin. SF6 (Figure 5) has a similar molecular
mass (about 146 amu) as sarin (about 140 amu), so it has similar physical properties in the vapour
phase. Sulfur hexafluoride is also very easy to accurately detect, even at low levels, and it is not
a normal part of the atmosphere, so there is little potential for contamination from natural sources.
Consequently, SF6 is also used as an aerial tracer for ventilation systems in buildings. It is nontoxic
and very chemically inert, so workers do not have to take special precautions other than watching for
asphyxiation.
Figure 5. Sulfur hexafluoride
Sulfur hexafluoride also has another interesting use: a spark suppressant in high-voltage electrical
equipment. High-pressure SF6 gas is used in place of older oils that may have contaminants that are
environmentally unfriendly (part (c) in the accompanying figure).
Isotopic mass (the mass of an isotope of an element, expressed in amu)

of naturally occurring isotopes of a given element, is used to calculate
the atomic mass of that element (expressed in amu). The formula mass
of a substance is the sum of the average atomic masses of each atom
represented in the chemical formula and is expressed in atomic mass
units. The formula mass of a covalent compound is also called the

molecular mass.
Exercises
1. a) What is the atomic mass of an oxygen atom?
b) What is the molecular mass of oxygen in its elemental form (meaning in the form it naturally
occurs in)?
2. a) What is the atomic mass of bromine?
b) What is the molecular mass of bromine in its elemental form?

3. Determine the molecular mass of each substance.
a) F2 b) CO c) CO2
4. Determine the mass of each substance.
a) Na b) B2O3 c) S2Cl2
5. Determine the formula mass of each substance.
a) GeO2 b) IF3 c) XeF6

6. What is the total mass (amu) of carbon in each of the following molecules?
a) CH4 b) CHCl3 c) C12H10O6 d) CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
7. Calculate the molecular or formula mass of each of the following:
a) P4 b) H2O c) Ca(NO3)2 d) CH3CO2H (acetic acid)
e) C12H22O11 (sucrose, cane sugar)
8. Determine the molecular mass of the following compounds:
a)
b)
c)
d)
9. Which molecule has a molecular mass of 28.05 amu?

a)
b)
c)
Answers
1. a) 15.999 amu b) The elemental for of oxygen is O2. Its moleculass mass is 31.998 amu.
2. a) 79.904 amu b) 159.808 amu
3. a) 37.997 amu b) 28.010 amu c) 44.010 amu

4. a) 22.9898 amu b) 69.620 amu c) 135.037 amu
5. a) 104.59 amu b) 183.900 amu c) 245.280 amu
6. a) 12.011 amu b) 12.011 amu c) 144.132 amu d) 60.055 amu
7. a) 123.895 amu b) 18.015 amu c) 164.088 amu d) 60.052 amu e) 342.300 amu
8. a) 56.108 amu b) 54.092 amu c) 199.9977 amu d) 97.9952 amu
9. B
Glossary
formula mass: sum of the average masses for all atoms represented in
a chemical formula; for covalent compounds, this is also the molecular
mass

5.2 The Mole
Learning Objectives
• Define the amount unit mole and Avogadro’s number

• Explain the relation between mass, moles, and numbers of atoms or molecules, and
perform calculations to derive these quantities from one another
Counting by Weighing
Atomic and molecular mass provides a way of understanding/predicting

the weights of substances in a reaction. For example, consider the
reaction:
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
This equation tells us that carbon reacts with oxygen gas to produce
carbon dioxide in a 1:1:1 ratio. In other words, the equation tells us that 1
atom of carbon reacts with 1 molecule of O2 to form 1 molecule of CO2,
or 500 C atoms will react with 500 O2 molecules to form 500 molecules
for CO2, and so on. That is, we need an equal number of C atoms and
353
5.2 THE MOLE • 354
O2 molecules. Now, it’s impractical to actually count out a number of

atoms or molecules, they are just too small, but we can do this in effect
by weighing. Looking at an everyday item as an example of counting by
weight, see example 1.
Example 1
How many grams should you weigh to get 5000 nails if each nail has an average mass of 0.25g?
Solution
Test Yourself
If nails have an average mass of 0.25g, how many nails are present in 62.5g of nails?
Answer
2.5×102 nails
Furthermore, if two different types of things are measured by weighing,

the same number of each will be present if the ratio of the masses weighed
out is equal to the ratio of masses of the individual units.
For example: If 1 nail weighs 0.25 g and 1 screw weighs 0.50 g, then 300
g of nails will contain the same number of items as 600 g of screws.
Why? 1 screw weighs twice as much as 1 nail, therefore you must have
the same number of each item when you weigh out a total mass of screws
that’s twice the total mass of nails.
Proof:
It is the same idea, with:
2 kg screws & 1 kg nails, or

2 tons screws & 1 ton nails, or
2 dozen tons of screws & 1 dozen tons of nails…
We know that in every case the number of screws is the same as the
number of nails.
Note: in each example, we don’t necessarily know what the number of
items is, but we can be sure that it’s the same number of each item.
So, for the above reaction, C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g), as long as we weigh
out amounts of C and O2 in the same ratio as the weights of 1 C atom
(12.011 amu) and 1 O2 molecule (31.9988 amu), we can be sure we’ll
have an equal number of C atoms and O2 molecules.
Now, the easiest way to choose total weights in the desired ratio—without
doing any math—is to just mimic the numerical values of the known
5.2 THE MOLE • 356
atomic and molecular weights. For example, to make sure we have a

12.011 to 31.9988 weight ratio of C and O2, we could just weigh out:
12.011 grams of C and 31.9988 grams of O2

or 12.011 kg of C and 31.9988 kg of O2
or 12.011 lbs of C and 31.9988 lbs of O2
or 12.011 tons of C and 31.9988 tons of O2
or etc.. They all will have equal numbers of C atoms and O2 molecules.
The Mole
The identity of a substance is defined not only by the types of atoms

or ions it contains, but by the quantity of each type of atom or ion.
For example, water, H2O, and hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, are alike in
that their respective molecules are composed of hydrogen and oxygen
atoms. However, because a hydrogen peroxide molecule contains two
oxygen atoms, as opposed to the water molecule, which has only one,
the two substances exhibit very different properties. Today, we possess
sophisticated instruments that allow the direct measurement of these
defining microscopic traits; however, the same traits were originally
derived from the measurement of macroscopic properties (the masses
and volumes of bulk quantities of matter) using relatively simple tools
(balances and volumetric glassware). This experimental approach
required the introduction of a new unit for amount of substances, the
mole, which remains indispensable in modern chemical science.
The mole is an amount unit similar to familiar units like pair, dozen,
gross, etc. It provides a specific measure of the number of atoms or

molecules in a bulk sample of matter.
Estimating the numerical value of Avogadro’s number
The mole, the SI unit for “substance”, is a unit for counting, and it’s often said that we can think of
the mole as like a dozen. A subtle difference, however is that a dozen is defined as a specific number
(12) of items, but a mole (Avogadro’s number of items) is defined as whatever number of H atoms
you’d have if you weighed out 1.00794 g of H, (or S atoms in 32.066 g of S, or 12C atoms in 12 g of
12C, and so on).
This usually isn’t a problem, as these terms are normally encountered. If we bought a dozen donuts,
we’d want to know how many we got—is there one for each person, etc.. But if we weigh out a mole of
Na (22.9898 g) and a mole of Cl (35.4527 g), we probably don’t care how many atoms we have—we’re
just happy to know we have the same number of atoms of each, in order to make NaCl without any
atoms of Na or Cl leftover.
However, in some relatively rare circumstances, we may need to know how many atoms or molecules
do we have when we weigh out a certain amount. For this, we’d actually like to know a numerical value
for Avogadro’s number. To get this value, someone has to measure how many H atoms are there in
1.00794 g of H, (or S atoms in 32.066 g of S, or 12C atoms in 12 g of 12C, or…). To do that, someone
has to measure the mass, in grams, of a single atom.
Many different ways have been dreamed up for estimating, in effect, the mass of a single atom. One
very good one is to weigh, in grams, a crystal of a measured volume, and use the diffraction of x-rays
to measure the distance between adjacent atoms, and thus estimate the number of atoms in the crystal.
Calculating the number of things in a mole (Avogadro’s number) can be illustrated using 12C as an
example. 12C provides a good basis because it’s the only substance where we can start with the mass of
an atom in amu exactly (12 g).
First, from the definition of a mole: one 12C atom weighs 12 amu’s (exactly),
so a mole of 12C means 12 g of 12C (exactly).
The current best measurements give the mass of a 12C atom to 8 significant figures as 1.9926465 x
10-23g, so to determine Avogadro’s number we ask how many times 1.99264654 x 10-23g goes into 12
g (exactly).
This works out as:

5.2 THE MOLE • 358
So, based on current best measurements, we can write:

1 Mole of things = Avogadro’s number of them
Avogadro’s number = 6.0221418 x 1023 = 6.022 x 1023 approximately
Remember: this value, 6.022… x 1023, refers to entities/particles/atoms/ molecules/ions —whatever

you have a mole of—per mole, just like dozen can be for muffins, donuts, cookies, etc….
Therefore, a mole is defined as the amount of substance containing the

same number of discrete entities (such as atoms, molecules, and ions) as
the number of atoms in a sample of pure 12C weighing exactly 12 g. One
Latin connotation for the word “mole” is “large mass” or “bulk,” which
is consistent with its use as the name for this unit. The mole provides a
link between an easily measured macroscopic property, bulk mass, and an
extremely important fundamental property, number of atoms, molecules,
and so forth.
The number of entities composing a mole has been experimentally

determined to be 6.0221418 × 1023, a fundamental constant named
Avogadro’s number (NA) or the Avogadro constant in honor of Italian
scientist Amedeo Avogadro. This constant is properly reported with an
explicit unit of “per mole,” a conveniently rounded version being 6.022 ×
1023/mol.
Consistent with its definition as an amount unit, 1 mole of any element

contains the same number of atoms as 1 mole of any other element. The
masses of 1 mole of different elements, however, are different, since the

masses of the individual atoms are drastically different. The molar mass
of an element (or compound) is the mass in grams of 1 mole of that
substance, a property expressed in units of grams per mole (g/mol) (see
Figure 1).
Figure 1. Each sample contains 6.022 × 1023 atoms

—1.00 mol of atoms. From left to right (top row): 65.4 g
zinc, 12.0 g carbon, 24.3 g magnesium, and 63.5 g copper.
From left to right (bottom row): 32.1 g sulfur, 28.1 g
silicon, 207 g lead, and 118.7 g tin. (credit: modification of
work by Mark Ott)
Because the definitions of both the mole and the atomic mass unit are
based on the same reference substance, 12C, the molar mass of any
substance is numerically equivalent to its atomic or formula weight in
amu. Per the amu definition, a single 12C atom weighs 12 amu (its
atomic mass is 12 amu). According to the definition of the mole, 12
5.2 THE MOLE • 360
g of 12C contains 1 mole of 12C atoms (its molar mass is 12 g/mol).

This relationship holds for all elements, since their atomic masses are
measured relative to that of the amu-reference substance, 12C. Extending
this principle, the molar mass of a compound in grams is likewise
numerically equivalent to its formula mass in amu (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Each sample contains 6.022 × 1023 molecules or formula

units—1.00 mol of the compound or element. Clock-wise from the upper
left: 130.2 g of C8H17OH (1-octanol, formula mass 130.2 amu), 454.4 g of
HgI2 (mercury(II) iodide, formula mass 454.4 amu), 32.0 g of CH3OH
(methanol, formula mass 32.0 amu) and 256.5 g of S8 (sulfur, formula mass
256.5 amu). (credit: Sahar Atwa)
Average Atomic Mass Molar Mass (g/ Atoms/

Element (amu) mol) Mole
C 12.011 12.011 6.022 × 1023
H 1.00794 1.00794 6.022 × 1023
O 15.9994 15.9994 6.022 × 1023
Na 22.9898 22.9898 6.022 × 1023
Cl 35.4527 35.4527 6.022 × 1023
Table 1.
While atomic mass and molar mass are numerically equivalent, keep in
mind that they are vastly different in terms of scale, as represented by the
vast difference in the magnitudes of their respective units (amu versus g).
To appreciate the enormity of the mole, consider a small drop of water
weighing about 0.03 g (see Figure 3). Although this represents just a tiny
fraction of 1 mole of water (~18 g), it contains more water molecules than
can be clearly imagined. If the molecules were distributed equally among
the roughly seven billion people on earth, each person would receive
more than 100 billion molecules.
5.2 THE MOLE • 362
Figure 3. The number of

molecules in a single droplet
of water is roughly 100
billion times greater than the
number of people on earth.
(credit:
“tanakawho”/Wikimedia
commons)
The mole is used in chemistry to represent 6.022 × 1023 of something, but it can be difficult to
conceptualize such a large number. Watch this video and then complete the “Think” questions that
follow. Explore more about the mole by reviewing the information under “Dig Deeper.”
The relationships between formula mass, the mole, and Avogadro’s

number can be applied to compute various quantities that describe the
composition of substances and compounds. For example, if we know
the mass and chemical composition of a substance, we can determine
the number of moles and calculate number of atoms or molecules in the
sample. Likewise, if we know the number of moles of a substance, we can
derive the number of atoms or molecules and calculate the substance’s

mass.
Example 2
According to nutritional guidelines from the US Department of Agriculture, the estimated average
requirement for dietary potassium is 4.7 g. What is the estimated average requirement of potassium in
moles?
Solution
The mass of K is provided, and the corresponding amount of K in moles is requested. Referring to the
periodic table, the atomic mass of K is 39.0983 amu, and so its molar mass is 39.0983 g/mol. The given
mass of K (4.7 g) is a bit more than one-tenth the molar mass (39.0983 g), so a reasonable “ballpark”
estimate of the number of moles would be slightly greater than 0.1 mol.
The molar amount of a substance may be calculated by dividing its mass (g) by its molar mass (g/
mol):
The factor-label method supports this mathematical approach since the unit “g” cancels and the
answer has units of “mol:”
The calculated magnitude (0.12 mol K) is consistent with our ballpark expectation, since it is a bit
greater than 0.1 mol.
Test Yourself
Beryllium is a light metal used to fabricate transparent X-ray windows for medical imaging
instruments. How many moles of Be are in a thin-foil window weighing 3.24 g?
Answer
0.360mol
5.2 THE MOLE • 364
Example 3
A liter of air contains 9.2 × 10−4 mol argon. What is the mass of Ar in a liter of air?
Solution
The molar amount of Ar is provided and must be used to derive the corresponding mass in grams. Since
the amount of Ar is less than 1 mole, the mass will be less than the mass of 1 mole of Ar, approximately
40 g. The molar amount in question is approximately one-one thousandth (~10−3) of a mole, and so the
corresponding mass should be roughly one-one thousandth of the molar mass (~0.04 g):
In this case, logic dictates (and the factor-label method supports) multiplying the provided amount
(mol) by the molar mass (g/mol):
The result is in agreement with our expectations, around 0.04 g of argon.
Test Yourself
What is the mass of 2.561 mol of gold?
Answer
504.4 g
Example 4
Copper is commonly used to fabricate electrical wire (Figure 4). How many copper atoms are in 5.00
g of copper wire?
Figure 4. Copper wire is

composed of many, many
atoms of Cu. (credit:
Emilian Robert Vicol)
Solution
The number of Cu atoms in the wire may be conveniently derived from its mass by a two-step
computation: first calculating the molar amount of Cu, and then using Avogadro’s number (NA) to
convert this molar amount to number of Cu atoms:
Considering that the provided sample mass (5.00 g) is a little less than one-tenth the mass of 1 mole
of Cu (~64 g), a reasonable estimate for the number of atoms in the sample would be on the order of
one-tenth NA, or approximately 1022 Cu atoms. Carrying out the two-step computation yields:
The factor-label method yields the desired cancellation of units, and the computed result is on the
order of 1022 as expected.
Test Yourself
A prospector panning for gold in a river collects 15.00 g of pure gold. How many Au atoms are in this
quantity of gold?
Answer
4.586 × 1022 Au atoms
We can calculate the total molar mass of a compound the same way we
calculated total molecular mass—just replace amu (for molecular mass)
5.2 THE MOLE • 366
with grams (for molar mass)—but keep in mind the difference between
what these two terms mean.
Example 5
Our bodies synthesize protein from amino acids. One of these amino acids is glycine, which has
the molecular formula C2H5O2N. How many moles of glycine molecules are contained in 28.35 g of
glycine?
Solution
We can derive the number of moles of a compound from its mass following the same procedure we
used for an element in Example 2:
The molar mass of glycine is required for this calculation, and it is computed in the same fashion as
its molecular mass. One mole of glycine, C2H5O2N, contains 2 moles of carbon, 5 moles of hydrogen,
2 moles of oxygen, and 1 mole of nitrogen:
2 C mass = 2 x 12.011 g/mol = 24.022 g/mol
5 H masses = 5 x 1.00794 g/mol = 5.0397 g/mol
2 O masses = 2 x 15.9994 g/mol = 31.9988 g/mol
1 N masses = 1 x 14.0067 g/mol = 14.0067 g/mol
Total
= 75.067 g/mol = the molar mass of C2H5O2N
Figure 5. The average mass of a mole of glycine, C2H5O2N, is 75.067 g/mol, which is the sum of
the average molar masses of each of its constituent atoms. The molecular structure of glycine.
The provided mass of glycine (~28 g) is a bit more than one-third the molar mass (~75 g/mol), so we
would expect the computed result to be a bit greater than one-third of a mole (~0.33 mol). Dividing the
compound’s mass by its molar mass yields:
This result is consistent with our rough estimate.
Test Yourself
How many moles of sucrose, C12H22O11, are in a 25-g sample of sucrose?
Answer
0.073 mol
Example 6
Vitamin C is a covalent compound with the molecular formula C6H8O6. The recommended daily
dietary allowance of vitamin C for children aged 4–8 years is 1.42 × 10−4 mol. What is the mass of this
allowance in grams?
Solution
As for elements, the mass of a compound can be derived from its molar amount as shown:
The molar mass for this compound is computed to be 176.126 g/mol. The given number of moles
is a very small fraction of a mole (~10−4 or one-ten thousandth); therefore, we would expect the
corresponding mass to be about one-ten thousandth of the molar mass (~0.02 g). Performing the
calculation, we get:
This is consistent with the anticipated result.
Test Yourself
What is the mass of 0.443 mol of hydrazine, N2H4?
Answer
14.2 g
5.2 THE MOLE • 368
Just as we can use the chemical formula to go between molecules of a

compound and atoms of an element in the compound (and vice versa):
we can also use chemical

formulas as conversion factors to convert from moles of a compound to
moles of an element in the compound (and vice versa).
Be particularly careful when looking at the mass of an element in a

compound. Remember, the only way you can change from molecule to
atoms, or vice-versa, is by using the chemical formula, and the chemical
formula relates ONLY to particles or moles, not to mass.
Example 7
A packet of an artificial sweetener contains 40.0 mg of saccharin (C7H5NO3S), which has the
structural formula:
Given that saccharin has a molar mass of 183.188 g/mol, how many saccharin molecules are in a
40.0-mg (0.0400-g) sample of saccharin? How many carbon atoms are in the same sample?
Solution
The number of molecules in a given mass of compound is computed by first deriving the number of
moles, as demonstrated in Example 5, and then multiplying by Avogadro’s number:
Using the provided mass and molar mass for saccharin yields:
The compound’s formula shows that each molecule contains seven carbon atoms, and so the number
of C atoms in the provided sample is:
Test Yourself
How many C4H10 molecules are contained in 9.213 g of this compound? How many hydrogen atoms?
Answers
9.545 × 1022 molecules C4 H10; 9.545 × 1023 atoms H
Counting Neurotransmitter Molecules in the Brain
The brain is the control center of the central nervous system (Figure 6). It sends and receives signals
to and from muscles and other internal organs to monitor and control their functions; it processes stimuli
detected by sensory organs to guide interactions with the external world; and it houses the complex
physiological processes that give rise to our intellect and emotions. The broad field of neuroscience
spans all aspects of the structure and function of the central nervous system, including research on
the anatomy and physiology of the brain. Great progress has been made in brain research over the
past few decades, and the BRAIN Initiative, a federal initiative announced in 2013, aims to accelerate
and capitalize on these advances through the concerted efforts of various industrial, academic, and
government agencies (more details available at www.whitehouse.gov/share/brain-initiative).
5.2 THE MOLE • 370
Figure 6. (a) A typical human brain weighs about 1.5 kg and occupies a volume of
roughly 1.1 L. (b) Information is transmitted in brain tissue and throughout the central
nervous system by specialized cells called neurons (micrograph shows cells at 1600×
magnification).
Specialized cells called neurons transmit information between different parts of the central nervous
system by way of electrical and chemical signals. Chemical signaling occurs at the interface between
different neurons when one of the cells releases molecules (called neurotransmitters) that diffuse across
the small gap between the cells (called the synapse) and bind to the surface of the other cell. These
neurotransmitter molecules are stored in small intracellular structures called vesicles that fuse to the
cell wall and then break open to release their contents when the neuron is appropriately stimulated.
This process is called exocytosis (see Figure 7). One neurotransmitter that has been very extensively
studied is dopamine, C8H11NO2. Dopamine is involved in various neurological processes that impact a
wide variety of human behaviors. Dysfunctions in the dopamine systems of the brain underlie serious
neurological diseases such as Parkinson’s and schizophrenia.
Figure 7. (a) Chemical signals are transmitted from neurons to other cells by the release
of neurotransmitter molecules into the small gaps (synapses) between the cells. (b)
Dopamine, C8H11NO2, is a neurotransmitter involved in a number of neurological
processes.
One important aspect of the complex processes related to dopamine signaling is the number of
neurotransmitter molecules released during exocytosis. Since this number is a central factor in
determining neurological response (and subsequent human thought and action), it is important to
know how this number changes with certain controlled stimulations, such as the administration of
drugs. It is also important to understand the mechanism responsible for any changes in the number
of neurotransmitter molecules released—for example, some dysfunction in exocytosis, a change in the
number of vesicles in the neuron, or a change in the number of neurotransmitter molecules in each
vesicle.
Significant progress has been made recently in directly measuring the number of dopamine
molecules stored in individual vesicles and the amount actually released when the vesicle undergoes
exocytosis. Using miniaturized probes that can selectively detect dopamine molecules in very small
amounts, scientists have determined that the vesicles of a certain type of mouse brain neuron contain an
average of 30,000 dopamine molecules per vesicle (about 5 × 10−20 mol or 50 zmol). Analysis of these
neurons from mice subjected to various drug therapies shows significant changes in the average number
of dopamine molecules contained in individual vesicles, increasing or decreasing by up to three-fold,
depending on the specific drug used. These studies also indicate that not all of the dopamine in a given
vesicle is released during exocytosis, suggesting that it may be possible to regulate the fraction released
1
using pharmaceutical therapies.
Summary of using the mole idea:
Note:
• there is no direct conversion between number of atoms (or

other entities) and grams of a substance. You need to first
change to moles!
• which entities you’re expressing a number of will depend on

what you are discussing. For example: Fe would be discussed
1. Omiatek, Donna M., Amanda J. Bressler, Ann-Sofie Cans, Anne M. Andrews, Michael L. Heien, and Andrew G. Ewing. “The Real
Catecholamine Content of Secretory Vesicles in the CNS Revealed by Electrochemical Cytometry.” Scientific Report 3 (2013): 1447,
accessed January 14, 2015, doi:10.1038/srep01447.
5.2 THE MOLE • 372
in number of atoms, whereas Fe3+ would be expressed in ions,

and H2O would be expressed in molecules.
Example 8
a) How many atoms are present in a 25.0 g sample of Na?

b) What is the mass (in grams) of 5.00 x 1025atoms of Cr?
Solution
a) Convert grams to mol using molar mass, then to atoms with Avogadro’s no. (g mol atoms):
b) Now we are going from atoms mol g
Test Yourself
How many atoms are present in 21.2 mg of Ag?
Answer
1.18×1020 atoms of Ag
Notice that the Test Yourself question above included a metric

conversion. We can add metric and other conversions from Chapter 2 to
our “road maps”. Remember that there is often more than one approach
for a question.
Example 9
How many atoms are in a piece of gold measuring 1 cm x 2 cm x 0.5 cm?

(Density of gold is 19.32 g/mL)
Solution
Our “road map” for this question:
Measurements volume g mol atoms
Keep in mind that 1 cm3 = 1 mL, we use the density to get the mass based on the measurements, and
then follow the standard procedure to atoms using the molar mass and Avogadro’s number.
1 cm x 2 cm x 0.5 cm = 1 cm3 of Au
Test Yourself
The density of mercury (Hg) is 13.53 g/mL. How many litres will 4.2 x 1021 atoms of Hg occupy?
Answer
1.0×10-4 L
More Worked Out Problems
Example 10
How many molecules are present in 2.76 mol of H2O? How many atoms is this?
5.2 THE MOLE • 374
Solution
The definition of a mole is an equality that can be used to construct a conversion factor. Also, because
we know that there are three atoms in each molecule of H2O, we can also determine the number of
atoms in the sample.
To determine the total number of atoms, we have
Test Yourself
How many molecules are present in 4.61 × 10−2 mol of O2?
Answer
2.78 × 1022 molecules
Example 11
What is the molar mass of C6H12O6?
Solution
To determine the molar mass, we simply add the atomic masses of the atoms in the molecular formula
but express the total in grams per mole, not atomic mass units. The masses of the atoms can be taken
from the periodic table:
6 C = 6 × 12.011 = 72.066
12 H = 12 × 1.00794 = 12.09528
6 O = 6 × 15.9994 = 95.9964
TOTAL = 180.158 g/mol
Per convention, the unit grams per mole is written as a fraction.

Test Yourself
What is the molar mass of AgNO3?
Answer
169.873 g/mol
Example 12
What is the mass of 3.56 mol of HgCl2? The molar mass of HgCl2 is 271.50 g/mol.
Solution
Use the molar mass as a conversion factor between moles and grams. Because we want to cancel the
mole unit and introduce the gram unit, we can use the molar mass as given:
Test Yourself
What is the mass of 33.7 mol of H2O?
Answer
607 g
Example 13
How many moles of H2O are present in 240.0 g of water (about the mass of a cup of water)?
Solution
Use the molar mass of H2O as a conversion factor from mass to moles. The molar mass of water is
(1.00794 + 1.00794 + 15.9994) = 18.0153 g/mol. However, because we want to cancel the gram unit
and introduce moles, we need to take the reciprocal of this quantity, or 1 mol/18.0153 g:
5.2 THE MOLE • 376
Test Yourself
How many moles are present in 35.6 g of H2SO4 (molar mass = 98.079 g/mol)?
Answer
0.363 mol
Example 14
The density of ethanol is 0.789 g/mL. How many moles are in 100.0 mL of ethanol? The molar mass
of ethanol is 46.069 g/mol.
Solution
Here, we use density to convert from volume to mass and then use the molar mass to determine the
number of moles.
Test Yourself
If the density of benzene, C6H6, is 0.879 g/mL, how many moles are present in 17.9 mL of benzene?
Answer
0.201 mol
A convenient amount unit for expressing very large numbers of atoms

or molecules is the mole. Experimental measurements have determined
the number of entities composing 1 mole of substance to be 6.022 ×
1023, a quantity called Avogadro’s number. The mass in grams of 1 mole
of substance is its molar mass. Due to the use of the same reference
substance in defining the atomic mass unit and the mole, the formula
mass (amu) and molar mass (g/mol) for any substance are numerically
equivalent (for example, one H2O molecule weighs approximately 18
amu and 1 mole of H2O molecules weighs approximately 18 g).
Exercises
1. Write a sentence that describes how to determine the number of moles of a compound in a known
mass of the compound if we know its molecular formula.
2. Which contains the greatest mass of oxygen: 0.75 mol of ethanol (C2H5OH), 0.60 mol of formic
acid (HCO2H), or 1.0 mol of water (H2O)? Explain why.
3. How are the molecular mass and the molar mass of a compound similar and how are they different?
4. Calculate the molar mass of each of the following:
a) S8 b) C5H12 c) Sc2(SO4)3
d) CH3COCH3 (acetone) e) C6H12O6 (glucose)
5. Calculate the molar mass of each of the following:
a) the anesthetic halothane, C2HBrClF3
b) the herbicide paraquat, C12H14N2Cl2
c) caffeine, C8H10N4O2
d) urea, CO(NH2)2
e) a typical soap, C17H35CO2Na
6. Determine the mass of each of the following:
a) 0.0146 mol KOH
b) 10.2 mol ethane, C2H6
c) 1.6 × 10−3 mol Na2 SO4
d) 6.854 × 103 mol glucose, C6 H12 O6
e) 2.86 mol Co(NH3)6Cl3
7. Determine the mass of each of the following:
a) 2.345 mol LiCl
b) 0.0872 mol acetylene, C2H2
c) 3.3 × 10−2 mol Na2 CO3
d) 1.23 × 103 mol fructose, C6 H12 O6
e) 0.5758 mol FeSO4•(H2O)7
8. Determine the mass in grams of each of the following:
5.2 THE MOLE • 378
a) 0.600 mol of oxygen atoms

b) 0.600 mol of oxygen molecules, O2
c) 0.600 mol of ozone molecules, O3
9. Determine the number of atoms and the mass of zirconium, silicon, and oxygen found in 0.3384
mol of zircon, ZrSiO4, a semiprecious stone.
10. Determine which of the following contains the greatest mass of aluminum: 122 g of AlPO4, 266
g of Al2C16, or 225 g of Al2S3.
11. The Cullinan diamond was the largest natural diamond ever found (January 25, 1905). It weighed
3104 carats (1 carat = 200 mg). How many carbon atoms were present in the stone?
12. A certain nut crunch cereal contains 11.0 grams of sugar (sucrose, C12H22O11) per serving size
of 60.0 grams. How many servings of this cereal must be eaten to consume 0.0278 moles of sugar?
13. Which of the following represents the least number of molecules?
a) 20.0 g of H2O (18.02 g/mol)
b) 77.0 g of CH4 (16.06 g/mol)
c) 68.0 g of CaH2 (42.09 g/mol)
d) 100.0 g of N2O (44.02 g/mol)
e) 84.0 g of HF (20.01 g/mol)
14. How many atoms are present in 4.55 mol of Fe?
15. How many molecules are present in 2.509 mol of H2S?
16. How many moles are present in 3.55 × 1024 Pb atoms?
17. How many moles are present in 1.00 × 1023 PF3 molecules?
18. Determine the molar mass of each substance.
a) Si b) SiH4 c) K2O
19. Determine the molar mass of each substance.

a) Al b) Al2O3 c) CoCl3
20. What is the mass of 4.44 mol of Rb?
21. What is the mass of 12.34 mol of Al2(SO4)3?
22. How many moles are present in 45.6 g of CO?
23. How many moles are present in 1.223 g of SF6?
24. How many moles are present in 54.8 mL of mercury if the density of mercury is 13.6 g/mL?
Answers
1. Use the molecular formula to find the molar mass; to obtain the number of moles, divide the mass
of compound by the molar mass of the compound expressed in grams.
2. Formic acid. Its formula has twice as many oxygen atoms as the other two compounds (one each).
Therefore, 0.60 mol of formic acid would be equivalent to 1.20 mol of a compound containing a single
oxygen atom.
3. The two masses have the same numerical value, but the units are different: The molecular mass is
the mass of 1 molecule while the molar mass is the mass of 6.022 × 1023 molecules.
4. a) 256.528 g/mol b) 72.150 g mol−1 c) 378.103 g mol−1
d) 58.080 g mol−1 e) 180.158 g mol−1
5. a) 197.382 g mol−1 b) 257.162 g mol−1 c) 194.193 g mol−1
d) 60.056 g mol−1 e) 306.464 g mol−1
6. a) 0.819 g b) 307 g c) 0.23 g d) 1.235 × 106 g (1235 kg)
e) 765 g
7. a) 99.41 b) 2.27 g c) 3.5 g d) 222 kg e) 160.1 g
8. a) 9.60 g b) 19.2 g c) 28.8 g
9. zirconium: 2.038 × 1023 atoms; 30.87 g; silicon: 2.038 × 1023 atoms; 9.504 g; oxygen: 8.151 ×
1023 atoms; 21.66 g
10. 122 g of AlPO4 = 27.0 g of Al 266 g of Al2Cl6 = 53.8 g of Al 225 g of Al2S3 = 80.8 g
Al; therefore 225 g of Al2S3 has the greatest mass of Al.
11. 3.113 × 1025 C atoms
12. 0.865 servings, or about 1 serving.
13. 20.0 g H2O represents the least number of molecules since it has the least number of moles.
14. 2.74 × 1024 atoms
15. 1.511 × 1024 molecules
16. 5.90 mol
17. 0.166 mol
18. a) 28.0855 g b) 32.1172 g c) 94.1960 g
19. a) 26.9815 g b) 101.9612 g c) 165.2913 g
20. 379 g
21. 4,222 g
22. 1.63 mol
23. 0.008373 mol
24. 3.72 mol
5.2 THE MOLE • 380
Glossary
Avogadro’s number (NA): experimentally determined value of the

number of entities comprising 1 mole of substance, equal to 6.022 × 1023
mol−1
formula mass: sum of the average masses for all atoms represented in
a chemical formula; for covalent compounds, this is also the molecular
mass
molar mass: mass in grams of 1 mole of a substance
mole: amount of substance containing the same number of atoms,

molecules, ions, or other entities as the number of atoms in exactly 12
grams of 12C

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5.3 Percent Composition
Learning Objectives
• Compute the percent composition of a compound from experimental mass measurements

• Compute the percent composition of a compound from its chemical formula
In the previous section, we discussed the relationship between the bulk

mass of a substance and the number of atoms or molecules it contains
(moles). Given the chemical formula of the substance, we were able to
determine the amount of the substance (moles) from its mass, and vice
versa. But what if the chemical formula of a substance is unknown?
In this section, we will begin exploring how a chemist may go about
determining the identity of a compound from experimental mass
measurements and calculating percent composition.
Percent Composition
The elemental makeup of a compound defines its chemical identity,

and chemical formulas are the most succinct way of representing this
382
elemental makeup. When a compound’s formula is unknown, measuring

the mass of each of its constituent elements is often the first step in
the process of determining the formula experimentally. The results of
these measurements permit the calculation of the compound’s percent
composition, defined as the percentage by mass of each element in the
compound. For example, consider a gaseous compound composed solely
of carbon and hydrogen. The percent composition of this compound could
be represented as follows:
If analysis of a 10.0-g sample of this gas showed that it contains 2.5 g H

and 7.5 g C, the percent composition would be calculated to be 25% H
and 75% C:
Example 1
Analysis of a 12.04-g sample of a liquid compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen
showed that it contains 7.34 g C, 1.85 g H, and 2.85 g N. What is the percent composition of this
compound?
Solution
To calculate percent composition, we divide the experimentally derived mass of each element by the
overall mass of the compound, and then convert to a percentage:
5.3 PERCENT COMPOSITION • 384
The analysis results indicate that the compound is 61.0% C, 15.4% H, and 23.7% N by mass.
Test Yourself
A 24.81-g sample of a gaseous compound containing only carbon, oxygen, and chlorine is determined
to contain 3.01 g C, 4.00 g O, and 17.81 g Cl. What is this compound’s percent composition?
Answer
12.1% C, 16.1% O, 71.8% Cl
Determining Percent Composition from The Chemical Formula
Percent composition is also useful for evaluating the relative abundance

of a given element in different compounds of known formulas. As one
example, consider the common nitrogen-containing fertilizers ammonia
(NH3), ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), and urea (CH4N2O). The element
nitrogen is the active ingredient for agricultural purposes, so the mass
percentage of nitrogen in the compound is a practical and economic
concern for consumers choosing among these fertilizers. For these sorts
of applications, the percent composition of a compound is easily derived
from its formula mass and the atomic masses of its constituent elements.
A molecule of NH3 contains one N atom weighing 14.0067 amu and three
H atoms weighing a total of (3 × 1.00794 amu) = 3.02382 amu. The
formula mass of ammonia is therefore (14.0067 amu + 3.02382 amu) =
17.0305 amu, and its percent composition is:
This same approach may be taken for a pair of molecules, a dozen

molecules, or a mole of molecules, etc. The latter amount is most
convenient and would simply involve the use of molar masses instead of
atomic and formula masses, as demonstrated in Example 2. As long as we
know the chemical formula of the substance in question, we can easily
derive percent composition from the formula mass or molar mass.
Example 2
Aspirin is a compound with the molecular formula C9H8O4. What is its percent composition?
Solution
To calculate the percent composition, we need to know the masses of C, H, and O in a known mass
of C9H8O4. It is convenient to consider 1 mol of C9H8O4 and use its molar mass (180.160 g/mole,
determined from the chemical formula) to calculate the percentages of each of its elements:
Note that these percentages sum to equal 100.00% when appropriately rounded.
Test Yourself
To three significant digits, what is the mass percentage of iron in the compound Fe2O3?
Answer
69.9% Fe
Example 3
What is the percent by mass of H in 5.00g of H2O
Solution
We are given the total mass of the compound (5.00g). To solve for percent composition, we need to
determine the mass of H in the sample. Remember that ONLY the chemical formula gives us the ability
to go from H2O to H, and it only refers to particles or moles. Thus, our pathway:
grams H2O mol H2O mol H grams H
Then we will apply the percent composition formula.
Test Yourself
What is the percent by mass of O in 10.0 g of Cu(NO3)2?
Answer
51.18%
Example 4
Determine the percent composition of H in propanol (C3H7OH)
Solution
Considering one mol of C3H7OH, % of H in C3H7OH =
Test Yourself
What is the percent composition of each element in H2SO4?
Answer
H = 2.06%, S = 32.69%, O = 65.25%
Example 5
Hemoglobin contains 0.33% Fe by mass. The molar mass of hemoglobin is 6.8 x 104g/mol. How
many grams of Fe are in 0.020 mol of hemoglobin?
Solution
The percent composition essentially refers to the mass of element in 100 g of compound. Thus 0.33%
= 0.33g of Fe in 100 g of hemoglobin. We can use this as a conversion factor (but don’t forget that it’s
based on 100 g of compound!)
Mol hemoglobin mass hemoglobin mass of Fe
Test Yourself
How many grams of Ba3P2 would contain 4.23 g of Ba, if Ba3P2 contains 86.9% Ba by mass?
Answer
4.87 g Ba3P2
The chemical identity of a substance is defined by the types and relative

numbers of atoms composing its fundamental entities (molecules in the
case of covalent compounds, ions in the case of ionic compounds). A
compound’s percent composition provides the mass percentage of each
element in the compound.
Key Equations
Exercises
1. Calculate the following to four significant figures:

a) the percent composition of ammonia, NH3
b) the percent composition of photographic “hypo,” Na2S2O3
c) the percent of calcium ion in Ca3(PO4)2
2. Determine the percent ammonia, NH3, in Co(NH3)6Cl3, to three significant figures.
Answers
1. a) % N = 82.24%, % H = 17.76%
b) % Na = 29.08%, % S = 40.56%, % O = 30.36%
c) % Ca2+ = 38.76%
2. % NH3 = 38.2%
Glossary
percent composition: percentage by mass of the various elements in a

compound


5.4 Determining Empirical and
Molecular Formulas
Learning Objectives
• Determine the empirical formula of a compound

• Determine the molecular formula of a compound
In the previous section, we discussed how to calculate percent

compositon from experimental mass measurements. Now we will see
how to apply this to the determination of of the chemical formula of a compound.
Empirical Formulas
The empirical formula is the simplest formula of a compound. It is the

smallest whole number ratio of atoms, but does not necessarily represent
the arrangement of atoms in the actual molecule.
For example: a molecule of hydrogen peroxide is made up of two atoms

389
5.4 DETERMINING EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAS • 390
of O and two atoms of H bonded together—the molecular formula is thus

H2O2. Since the simplest ratio of H and O atoms is 1:1, the empirical
formula (though not the actual arrangement of atoms within the molecule)
is HO.
Example 1
Determine the empirical formula for dioxin (C12H4Cl4O2), a very powerful poison.
Solution
The subscripts are 12, 4, 4, and 2. These are all divisible by 2.
Thus, the empirical formula = C12/2H4/2Cl4/2O2/2= C6H2Cl2O
Test Yourself
Determine the empirical formula for the following compounds:
a) C6H16N2 b) CCl4 c) C4H10
Answers
a) C3H8N b) CCl4 c) C2H5
Determination of Empirical Formulas
As previously mentioned, the most common approach to determining

a compound’s chemical formula is to first measure the masses of its
constituent elements. However, we must keep in mind that chemical
formulas represent the relative numbers, not masses, of atoms in the
substance. Therefore, any experimentally derived data involving mass
must be used to derive the corresponding numbers of atoms in the
compound. To accomplish this, we can use molar masses to convert the

mass of each element to a number of moles. We then consider the moles
of each element relative to each other, converting these numbers into a
whole-number ratio that can be used to derive the empirical formula of
the substance. Consider a sample of compound determined to contain
1.71 g C and 0.287 g H. The corresponding numbers of atoms (in moles)
are:
Thus, we can accurately represent this compound with the formula

C0.974H0.284. Of course, per accepted convention, formulas contain
whole-number subscripts, which can be achieved by dividing each
subscript by the smaller subscript:
(Recall that subscripts of “1” are not written but rather assumed if no
other number is present.)
The empirical formula for this compound is thus CH3. This may or may
not be the compound’s molecular formula; however, we would need
additional information to make that determination (as discussed later in
this section).
Consider another example, a sample of compound determined to contain

5.31 g Cl and 8.40 g O. Following the same approach yields a tentative

empirical formula of:
In this case, dividing by the smallest subscript still leaves us with a

decimal subscript in the empirical formula. To convert this into a whole
number, we must multiply each of the subscripts by two, retaining the
same atom ratio and yielding Cl2O7 as the final empirical formula.
In summary, empirical formulas are derived from experimentally

measured element masses by:
1. Deriving the number of moles of each element from its mass
2. Dividing each element’s molar amount by the smallest molar

amount to yield subscripts for a tentative empirical formula
3. Multiplying all coefficients by an integer, if necessary, to

ensure that the smallest whole-number ratio of subscripts is
obtained
Note that it is important to follow the usual rule not to round-off values
in the middle of a calculation. (Keep track of the significant figures after
each step, but then use digits in your calculator beyond the last significant
figure when you carry a value into a subsequent calculation.) In the end,
you will round to whole numbers.
Figure 1 outlines this procedure in flow chart fashion for a substance

containing elements A and X.
Figure 1. The empirical formula of a compound can be derived from the masses of
all elements in the sample.
Example 2
A sample of the black mineral hematite (Figure 2), an oxide of iron found in many iron ores, contains
34.97 g of iron and 15.03 g of oxygen. What is the empirical formula of hematite?
Figure 2. Hematite is an iron oxide that is used in

jewelry. (credit: Mauro Cateb)
Solution
For this problem, we are given the mass in grams of each element. Begin by finding the moles of each:
Next, derive the iron-to-oxygen molar ratio by dividing by the lesser number of moles:
The ratio is 1.000 mol of iron to 1.500 mol of oxygen (Fe1O1.5). Finally, multiply the ratio by two
to get the smallest possible whole number subscripts while still maintaining the correct iron-to-oxygen
ratio:
The empirical formula is Fe2O3.
Test Yourself
What is the empirical formula of a compound if a sample contains 0.130 g of nitrogen and 0.370 g of
oxygen?
Answer
N2O5
It is helpful to remember some common fractions in decimal form so you

can identify when you should multiply through:
1/2 = 0.500, therefore multiply by 2
1/3 = 0.333…, (x3) 1/4 = 0.25, (x4)
2/3 = 0.666…, (x3) 3/4 = 0.75, (x4)
Note: if you have a formula that has more than one of these decimals, you
can do the multiplication stepwise:
For example: C1.50H1.33O1x 2 = C3H2.66O2x 3 = C9H8O6
Example 3
A 2.500 g sample of a compound containing only carbon and hydrogen is found to contain 2.002 g
of carbon. Determine the empirical formula.
Solution
Step 1: We are told the compound contains 2.002 g of C. To find H, subtract the C from the total
amount 2.500 g – 2.002 g = 0.498 g of H
Step 2: Convert each to mol:
Step 3: C0.16668/0.16668H0.4941/0.16668= C1.000H2.96 Because 2.96 is within a few hundredths of the

whole number 3, we can round to C1H3. [Note: As long as the ratio value is < ± 0.2 of a whole number,
it can be rounded.]
We have the empirical formula: CH3
Test Yourself
A sample of para-dichlorobenzene contains 11.314 g of carbon, 0.6330 g of hydrogen and 11.132 g
of chlorine. What is the empirical formula of this compound?
Answer
C3H2Cl
For additional worked examples illustrating the derivation of empirical formulas, watch the brief
video clip.
Deriving Empirical Formulas from Percent Composition
Finally, with regard to deriving empirical formulas, consider instances

in which a compound’s percent composition is available rather than the
absolute masses of the compound’s constituent elements. In such cases,
the percent composition can be used to calculate the masses of elements
present in any convenient mass of compound; these masses can then be
used to derive the empirical formula in the usual fashion.
Example 4
The bacterial fermentation of grain to produce ethanol forms a gas with a percent composition of
27.29% C and 72.71% O (Figure 3). What is the empirical formula for this gas?
Figure 3. An oxide of carbon is removed from these

fermentation tanks through the large copper pipes at
the top. (credit: “Dual Freq”/Wikimedia Commons)
Solution
Since the scale for percentages is 100, it is most convenient to calculate the mass of elements present
in a sample weighing 100 g. The calculation is “most convenient” because, per the definition for
percent composition, the mass of a given element in grams is numerically equivalent to the element’s
mass percentage. This numerical equivalence results from the definition of the “percentage” unit,
whose name is derived from the Latin phrase per centum meaning “by the hundred.” Considering this
definition, the mass percentages provided may be more conveniently expressed as fractions:
The molar amounts of carbon and hydrogen in a 100-g sample are calculated by dividing each
element’s mass by its molar mass:
Coefficients for the tentative empirical formula are derived by dividing each molar amount by the
lesser of the two:
Since the resulting ratio is one carbon to two oxygen atoms, the empirical formula is CO 2.
Test Yourself
What is the empirical formula of a compound containing 40.0% C, 6.71% H, and 53.28% O?
Answer
CH2O
Example 5
An iron oxide contains 69.9% Fe by mass. Find its empirical formula. Note: “oxide” means it
contains oxygen, as well as iron.
Solution
Step 1: If we assume 100 g sample, it must contain 69.9 g of Fe and thus 100-69.9 = 30.1 g of O.
Step 3: 1.2516… is the smallest number, so we will divide each subscript by that value:
Fe1.2516O1.8813= Fe1.2516/1.2516 O1.8813/1.2516 = Fe1.0000O1.503
Step 4: Since the ratio for oxygen is 1.503 and does not fall into the acceptable limit where we can
round off [Note: As long as the ratio value is < ± 0.2 of a whole number, it can be rounded.], we cannot
interpret 1.503 as a whole number (i.e. NOT 1 or 2!). We recognize that 1.503 is approximately 1.50,
so we can multiply each subscript by 2 to get a whole numbers: Fe1×2O1.5×2= Fe2O3.
The empirical formula is Fe2O3
Test Yourself
Nylon-6 contains 63.68% C, 12.38% N and 9.80% H and 14.14% O by mass. What is the empirical
formula for Nylon-6?
Answer
C6H11NO
Derivation of Molecular Formulas
Recall that empirical formulas are symbols representing the relative

numbers of a compound’s elements. Determining the absolute numbers
of atoms that compose a single molecule of a covalent compound requires
knowledge of both its empirical formula and its molecular mass or molar
mass. These quantities may be determined experimentally by various
measurement techniques. Molecular mass, for example, is often derived
from the mass spectrum of the compound (see discussion of this
technique in the previous chapter on atoms and molecules). Molar mass
can be measured by a number of experimental methods, many of which
will be introduced in later chapters of this text.
Molecular formulas are derived by comparing the compound’s molecular

or molar mass to its empirical formula mass. As the name suggests, an
empirical formula mass is the sum of the average atomic masses of all
the atoms represented in an empirical formula. If we know the molecular
(or molar) mass of the substance, we can divide this by the empirical
formula mass in order to identify the number of empirical formula units
per molecule, which we designate as n:
The molecular formula is then obtained by multiplying each subscript in

the empirical formula by n, as shown by the generic empirical formula
AxBy:
For example, consider a covalent compound whose empirical formula is

determined to be CH2O. The empirical formula mass for this compound
is approximately 30 amu (the sum of 12 amu for one C atom, 2 amu for
two H atoms, and 16 amu for one O atom). If the compound’s molecular
mass is determined to be 180 amu, this indicates that molecules of this
compound contain six times the number of atoms represented in the
empirical formula:
Molecules of this compound are then represented by molecular formulas

whose subscripts are six times greater than those in the empirical formula:
Note that this same approach may be used with the molar mass (g/mol)
instead of the molecular mass (amu).
Example 6
Nicotine, an alkaloid in the nightshade family of plants that is mainly responsible for the addictive
nature of cigarettes, contains 74.02% C, 8.710% H, and 17.27% N. If 40.57 g of nicotine contains
0.2500 mol nicotine, what is the molecular formula?
Solution
Determining the molecular formula from the provided data will require comparison of the compound’s
empirical formula mass to its molar mass. As the first step, use the percent composition to derive the
compound’s empirical formula. Assuming a convenient, a 100-g sample of nicotine yields the following
molar amounts of its elements:
Next, we calculate the molar ratios of these elements relative to the least abundant element, N.
The C-to-N and H-to-N molar ratios are adequately close to whole numbers, and so the empirical
formula is C5H7N. The empirical formula mass for this compound is therefore 81.117 amu/formula
unit, or 81.117 g/mol formula unit.
We calculate the molar mass for nicotine from the given mass and molar amount of compound:
Comparing the molar mass and empirical formula mass indicates that each nicotine molecule
contains two formula units:
Thus, we can derive the molecular formula for nicotine from the empirical formula by multiplying
each subscript by two:
Test Yourself
What is the molecular formula of a compound with a percent composition of 49.47% C, 5.201% H,
28.84% N, and 16.48% O, and a molecular mass of 194.2 amu?
Answer
C8H10N4O2
Example 7
A 13.8 g sample of a compound containing only nitrogen and oxygen produced 4.2 g of nitrogen
upon decomposition. What is its empirical formula and molecular formula if the molar mass is 90.3 g/
mol?
Solution
First, we need to determine the empirical formula:
Step 1: We are told it contains 4.2 g of N. Thus it must contain 13.8 g – 4.2 g = 9.6 g of O.
Step 3: N0.307/0.307O0.594/0.307= N1.00O1.93

Step 4: The value 1.93 (calc. to 2 sig fig’s) is close enough to round to the whole number, or NO2
Then, we need to use the molar mass values to determine the molecular formula:
Step 1:
Empirical formula molar mass = 14.0067 g/mol + 2(15.9994 g/mol) = 46.0055 g/mol
Step 2:
Molar mass of molecular formula / Molar mass empirical formula = 90.3 g/mol / 46.0055 g/mol =
1.963 (to 3 SF) = 2
Step 3: N1×2O2×2= N2O4
Test Yourself
Caffeine contains hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen. The mass % composition is as follows:
C = 49.47%; H = 5.191%; N = 28.86%; O = 16.48 %. The molar mass is approximately 194 g/mol.
Determine the molecular formula.
Answer
C8H10N4O2
The chemical identity of a substance is defined by the types and relative

numbers of atoms composing its fundamental entities (molecules in the
case of covalent compounds, ions in the case of ionic compounds). A
compound’s percent composition provides the mass percentage of each
element in the compound, and it is often experimentally determined and
used to derive the compound’s empirical formula. The empirical formula
mass of a covalent compound may be compared to the compound’s

molecular or molar mass to derive a molecular formula.
Determining an Empirical Formula
STEP 1: Determine the mass of each element in a particular sample. If you are given the data in
percent composition, it’s easiest to assume a total sample size of 100g. (If the percent of one element is
64%, 100 g of the compound would contain 64 g of that particular element.)
STEP 2: For each element, change from g mol. These mole values become first-try subscripts for
the formula—for example, C0.1H0.4O0.1
STEP 3: Now divide each element’s subscript by the lowest subscript value.
E.g.: C0.1H0.4O0.1, divide each subscript by 0.1 and get CH4O
STEP 4: If any subscript is NOT a whole number (or easily rounded to one), then multiply ALL
subscripts by the smallest integer that will turn all subscripts to whole integers. This is now the
empirical formula. E.g.: C1.5N0.5H4 multiply each by 2 and get C3NH8
Determining the Molecular Formula from the Empirical Formula
STEP 1: Calculate the molar mass of the empirical formula.

STEP 2: Divide the given molecular molar mass by the molar mass calculated for the empirical
formula.
STEP 3: Multiply each subscript by the whole number that resulted from step 2. This is now the
molecular formula.
Key Equations
•
• (AxBy)n = AnxBny
Exercises
1. Determine the empirical formulas for compounds with the following percent compositions:
a) 15.8% carbon and 84.2% sulfur
b) 40.0% carbon, 6.7% hydrogen, and 53.3% oxygen
2. A compound of carbon and hydrogen contains 92.3% C and has a molar mass of 78.1 g/mol. What
is its molecular formula?
3. Determine the empirical and molecular formula for chrysotile asbestos. Chrysotile has the
following percent composition: 28.03% Mg, 21.60% Si, 1.16% H, and 49.21% O. The molar mass for
chrysotile is 520.8 g/mol.
4. A major textile dye manufacturer developed a new yellow dye. The dye has a percent composition
of 75.95% C, 17.72% N, and 6.33% H by mass with a molar mass of about 240 g/mol. Determine the
molecular formula of the dye.
Answers
1. a) CS2 b) CH2O
2. C6H6
3. Mg3Si2H3O8 (empirical formula), Mg6Si4H6O16 (molecular formula)
4. C15H15N3
Glossary
empirical formula: is the simplest formula of a compound. It is the

smallest whole number ratio of atoms, but does not necessarily represent
the arrangement of atoms in the actual molecule.
empirical formula mass: sum of average atomic masses for all atoms
represented in an empirical formula
percent composition: percentage by mass of the various elements in a

compound


1. How many gidgets are present in 4.23 mol of gidgets?
2. How many mol are represented by 5.2 x 1072atoms of Fe?
3. a) What is the mass (in grams) of 9.01 mol of Ca?
b) How many mol are present in 21.2 g of Zn?
4. a) How many mol are present in 10.421 g of Fe?

b) What is the mass (in kilograms) of 905.25 mol of lead?
5. a) How many atoms are present in a 25.0 g sample of Na?

b) What is the mass (in grams) of 5.00 x 1025atoms of Cr?
6. How many atoms are present in 21.2 mg of Ag?
7. How many atoms are in a piece of gold measuring 1 cm x 2 cm x 0.5

cm?
(Density of gold is 19.32 g/mL)
405
8. The density of mercury (Hg) is 13.53 g/mL. How many litres will 4.2
x 1021atoms of Hg occupy?
9. What is the molar mass of Cu(SO4)2?
10. What is the molar mass of: a) H2O b) Ca3(PO4)2

c) C2H5OH
11. How many mol of O are present in 4.32 x 1032 molecules of

Cu(SO4)2?
12. How many atoms of H are present in 4.2 mol of H2O?
13. How many grams of S are present in 32.1 grams of Cu(SO4)2?
14. How many grams of Ni are present in 50.0 g of NiNO3?
15. Complete the following conversions:
9.024 x 1023 Hg atoms = ____ g Hg
96.35 g NO = ____ molecules NO
253.52 g CO2= ____ TOTAL atoms
521.2 g (NH4)2Cr2O7 = _____ g H
1.371 g C2H5OH = ____ atoms of H
16. The hemoglobin content of blood is about 15.5 g/100 mL of blood.

The molar mass of hemoglobin is about 64,500 g/mol and there are 4 iron
atoms in a hemoglobin molecule. Approximately how many Fe atoms are
present in 6 L of blood in a typical adult?
17. List the conversion factors, or combination of conversion factors

that you would use in the following problem situations (no calculations
required):
a) You need to go from g H2O to mol H2O

b) You need to go from mol H2SO4 to molecules H2SO4
c) From g HCl to molecules HCl
d) From mol KMnO4 to atoms O
e) From g KCN to g C
f) From mL CH3OH to mol CH3OH
g) From molecules NaCl to atoms Cl
h) From kg KBr to number of Br-ions
i) From mol H2SO4 to mL of H2SO4
j) From mol MgO to g O
k) From mm3 NaOH to mol NaOH
l) From molecules HCl to g H
m) From mol C in C6H6 to g C6H6
18. For all the situations in #17, calculate the final answer based on a
starting unit of 5.
E.g.: for (a) How many mol H2O are in 5 g of H2O?

for (b) How many molecules of H2SO4 are in 5 mol H2SO4? etc…
NOTE: for f, i and k, the following densities are needed:

CH3OH d = 0.791 g/mL H2SO4 d = 1.45 g/mL NaOH d =
1.22 g/mL
19. Calculate the following:

a) Total number of ions in 38.1 g of CaF2 (hint… how many ions TOTAL
are in one molecule of CaF2?)
b) Mass in g of 2.04 x 1021 molecules of N2O5
c) Mass in mg of 3.58 mol CuCl2
d) Mass in g of 9.64 x 1024 molecules of Cl2O7
20. Oxygen is required for metabolic combustion of foods. Calculate the

number of atoms in 38.0 g of oxygen gas, the amount absorbed from the
lungs at rest in about 15 minutes.
21. An imperial quart of oil is spilled on a lake. If the molecules were to

spread out in an film one molecule deep, what would be the area of the
oil slick, in square miles? The density of oil = 0.8g/mL ; area covered by
one molecule = 0.5 nm2. Although oil is really a mixture of compounds
of C & H, assume the oil is simply C16H34 and 1 qt = 1.1L and 1 mile =
1.6 km.
22. Why would it be necessary to clarify what you mean when you say “1
mole of nitrogen” or “1 mole of hydrogen”? Why is this clarification not
necessary when referring to “1 mole of lead” or “1 mole of water”?
23. How many magnesium ions and how many nitride ions are in 4.75
mol of Mg3N2?
24. What mass of O2 contains the same number of moles of molecules as

52.0 g of N2?
25. What mass of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) contains the same number
of moles as 126 g of nitric acid (HNO3)?
26. Ringer’s lactate is an aqueous (in water) physiological solution used

for intraveneous fluid therapy. A 1.00 L sample of the solution contains
5.96 g of NaCl, 3.1 g of NaC3H5O3(sodium lactate), 0.3 g of KCl and 0.2
g CaCl2.
a) How many moles of each compound are in 1.00 L of solution?
b) The ingredients dissolve to form Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cl– and

C3H5O3– ions. How many moles of each ion are in 1.00 L of solution.
Note: there are several sources of Na+and Cl–.
27. The density of liquid benzene, C6H6 is 0.879 g/mL at 15oC. What is
the volume in milliliters of 1.00 mol of benzene at this temperature?
28. A sample of 0.370 mol of a metal oxide (M2O3) weighs 55.4 g.

a) How many moles of O are in the sample?
b) How many grams of M are in the sample?
c) What element is represented by M?
29. a) How many grams of H2S are there in 0.400 moles of H2S?
b) How many grams of hydrogen and sulfur are contained in 0.400 moles
of H2S?
c) How many molecules of H2S are contained in 0.400 moles of H2S?
d) How many atoms of H and S are contained in 0.400 moles of H2S?
30. a) How many moles of SO2 are represented by 9.54 g of SO2?

b) How many atoms of oxygen does this represent?
31. What is the average mass (in grams) of one oxygen atom?
32. What is the mass in grams of one molecule of CH3OH?
33. The density of gold is approx. 2 x 101 g/cm3. What is the volume of
one gold atom?
34. How many moles are there in one atom?
35. What is the mass percent of each atom in (NH4)2Cr2O7?
36. Calculate the following mass percents:

a) Mass % of H in NH4HCO3 b) Mass % of Mn in KMnO4
37. Calculate the following mass fractions:

a) Mass fraction of Cl in CaCl2 b) Mass fraction of P in P4O7
38. The effectiveness of nitrogen fertilizer is determined mainly by its

mass % N. Rank the following in terms of their effectiveness: KNO3;
NH4NO3; Co(NH2)2; NH4SO4. Show your calculations.
39. A compound of iodine and cesium contains 63.94 g of metal and

61.06 g of nonmetal. How many grams of cesium are in 38.77 g of the
compound? How many grams of iodine?
40. What is the empirical formula and the empirical formula molar mass
of each of the following: a) C2H4 b) C2H6O2 c) N2O5 d) Ba3(PO4)2
e) Te4I16
41. What is the molecular formula of each of the following:

a) Empirical formula = CH2; molecular molar mass = 42.08 g/mol
b) EF = NH2; MMM = 32.05 g/mol
c) EF = NO2; MMM = 92.02 g/mol
d) EF = CHN; MMM = 135.14 g/mol
e) EF = CH; MMM = 78.11 g/mol
f) EF = C3H6O2; MMM = 74.08 g/mol
g) EF = C7H4O2; MMM = 240.02 g/mol
42. A 3.450 g sample of nitrogen reacts with 1.970 g of oxygen to form a

compound. Determine the empirical formula for this compound.
43. A compound containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen is found to be

40.00% carbon and 6.700% hydrogen by mass. The molar mass of the
compound is between 115 g/mol and 125 g/mol. Determine the empirical
formula and molecular formula of this compound.
44. Determine the empirical formula for the following situations:

a) 0.0630 mol of chlorine atom combined with 0.220 mol of oxygen
atoms
b) 2.45 g silicon combined with 12.4 g of chlorine
c) a compound with 27.3% carbon and 72.7% oxygen by mass
d) a hydrocarbon (containing only C and H) which has 79.9% by mass C
45. A compound containing only silicon and chlorine contains 79.1%

chlorine by mass and has a molar mass of 269 g/mol. What is the
molecular formula?
46. A sample of 0.600 mole of metal reacts completely with fluorine to

form 46.8 g of MF2.
a) How moles of F are in the sample of MF2 that formed?
b) How many grams of M are in this sample of MF2?
c) What element is represented by M?
47. A sample of nicotine contains 6.16 mmol of C, 8.56 mmol of H and

1.23 mmol of N. What is its empirical formula? (note: 1000 mmol = 1
mol)
48. Cortisol (molar mass = 362.47 g/mol), one of the major steroid
hormones, is a key factor in the synthesis of protein. Its profound effect
on the reduction of inflammation explains its use in the treatment of
rheumatoid arthritis. Cortisol is 69.6% C, 8.34% H and 22.1% O by mass.
What is its molecular formula?
49. 3.00g of molybdenum (Mo) combines with sulfur to produce 5.50 g

of a compound. What is the empirical formula of this compound?
50. A 5.70 g sample of an iron oxide compound was heated in a stream

of hydrogen gas, which reacted with the oxygen in the compound to form
water. The water vapor was carried away in the stream of gas, leaving
only pure metallic iron weighing 4.20g. Calculate the simplest possible
formula for the original iron oxide.
51. When 2.31g of a carboxylic acid compound is burned in O2, the only
products are 1.33g of H2O and 3.38g of CO2. Calculate the empirical
(simplest possible) formula for this compound.
52. A compound was analyzed and found to have the following

percentage composition: aluminum = 15.7%, sulfur = 28.11%, oxygen =
56.12%. The molar mass of the compound is known to be approximately
684 g/mol. What is the molecular formula?
Answers
1. 2.55 x 1024 gidgets
2. 8.6 x 1048 mol of Fe
3. a) 361 g of Ca b) 0.324 mol of Zn
4. a) 0.18660 mol of Fe b) 187.57 kg of Pb
5. a) 6.55 x 1023 atoms of Na b) 4.32 x 103 g of Cr

6. 1.18 x 1020 atoms
7. 6 x 1022 Au atoms
8. 1.0 x 10-4 L
9. 255.673 g/mol of Cu(SO4)2
10. a) 18.0152 g/mol b) 310.177 g/mol c) 46.069 g/mol
11. 5.74 x 109 mol of O
12. 5.1 x 1024 atoms of H
13. 8.05 g of S
14. 24.3 g of Ni
15. a) 300.6 g Hg
b) 1.934 x 1024 molecules of NO
c) 1.0407 x 1025 atoms
d) 16.67 g H
e) 1.075 x 1023 atoms
16. 3 x 1022 iron atoms
17. a) g H2O mol H2O using molar mass of H2O
b) mol H2SO4 molecules H2SO4 using Avogadro’s number

c) g HCl mol HCl using molar mass HCl molecules HCl using
Avogadro’s number
d) mol KMnO4 mol O using chemical formula atoms O using

Avogadro’s number
e) g KCN mol KCN using molar mass of KCN mol C using chemical
formula g C using molar mass of C
f) mL CH3OH g CH3OH using density mol CH3OH using molar

mass of CH3OH
g) molecules NaCl atoms Cl using formula ratio

OR
molecules NaCl moles NaCl using Avogadro’s number moles Cl
using the chemical formula atoms Cl using Avogadro’s number
h) kg KBr g KBr using metric conversions mol KBr using the molar
mass of KBr moles Br– ions using chemical formula number of
Br– ions using Avogadro’s number
i) mol H2SO4 g H2SO4 using molar mass of H2SO4

mL H2SO4 using density of H2SO4
j) mol MgO mol O using the chemical formula g O using molar mass
of O
k) mm3 NaOH cm3 NaOH using metric conversions g NaOH using

the density mol NaOH using the molar mass of NaOH
l) molecules HCl moles HCl using Avogadro’s number moles H

using the chemical formula g H using the molar mass of H
m) mol C mol C6H6 using the chemical formula g C6H6 using the
molar mass of C6H6
18. a) 0.3 mol b) 3 x 1024 molecules c) 8 x 1022 molecules

d) 1 x 1025 atoms e) 0.9 g f) 0.1 mol
g) 5 ions (or 5 atoms) h) 3 x 1025 ions i) 3 x 102 mL
j) 8 x 101 g k) 2 x 10-4 mol l) 8 x 10-24 g
m) 7 x 101 g
19. a) 8.82 x 1023 ions b) 0.366 g c) 4.81 x 105 mg

d) 2.93 x 103 g
20. 1.43 x 1024 atoms of O (7.15 x 1023 molecules O2)
21. 0.5 mile2
22. Because 1 mole of nitrogen may be 1 mole of N or 1 mole of N2, etc.

Nitrogen and hydrogen (but not lead and water) are commonly found as
diatomic molecules.
23 8.58 x 1024Mg2+ions and 5.72 x 1024N3-ions
24. 59.4 g of O2 (note: the nitrogen is given as N2)

25. 80.0 g of NaOH
26. a) 0.102 mol NaCl, 0.028 mol NaC3H5O3, 0.004mol KCl

and 0.002 mol CaCl2
b) Na+ = 0.130 mol, K+ = 0.004 mol, Ca2+ = 0.002,
Cl– = 0.110 mol; C3H5O3– = 0.028 mol
27. 88.9 mL
28. a) 1.11 mol O b) 37.6 g M c) V
29. a) 13.6 g H2S b) 0.806 g H, 12.8 g S

c) 2.41 x 1023 molecules H2S d) 4.82 x 1023H atoms and 2.41 x
1023 S atoms
30. a) 0.149 mol SO2 b) 1.79 x 1023atoms O
31. 2.65682 x 10-23 g
32. 5.3208 x 10-23 g
33. 2 x 10-23 cm3
34. 1.6605388 x 10-24 mol
35. N= 11.114%, H= 3.1990%, Cr= 41.256%, O= 44.431%
36. a) 6.3749% b) 34.7634%
37. a) 0.638883 b) 0.525222

38. NH4NO3> Co(NH2)2> KNO3 > NH4SO4
39. 19.83 g Cs, 18.94 g I
40. a) C2H4= CH2; 14.027 g/mol

b) C2H6O2= CH3O; 31.034 g/mol
c) N2O5= N2O5; 108.0104 g/mol
d) Ba3(PO4)2= Ba3(PO4)2; 601.924 g/mol
e) Te4I16= TeI4; 635.22 g/mol
41. a) C3H6 b) N2H4 c) N2O4

d) C5H5N5 e) C6H6 f) C3H6O2
g) C14H8O4
42. N2O
43. EF = CH2O, MF = C4H8O4
44. a) Cl2O7 b) SiCl4 c) CO2 d) CH3
45. Si2Cl6
46. a) 1.20 mol F b) 24.0 g M c) Ca
47. C5H7N
48. C21H30O5
49. Mo2S5
50. Fe4O5(Fe8O10etc. are also possible, but not the simplest)
51. CH2O (Note that, based on the products, the unknown compound
could only contain C, H and O, and note that all of the C in the original
compound ends up in the CO2and all the H ends up in the H2O.)
52. Al4S6O24


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Chapter 6. Chemical
Reactions and Equations
Chapter Topics
• Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

• Precipitation Reactions
• Acid-Base Reactions
• Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
420
Introduction
421
Introduction
The space shuttle—and any other rocket-based system—uses chemical reactions to propel
itself into space and maneuver itself when it gets into orbit. The rockets that lift the orbiter are
of two different types. The three main engines are powered by reacting liquid hydrogen with
liquid oxygen to generate water. Then there are the two solid rocket boosters, which use a solid
fuel mixture that contains mainly ammonium perchlorate and powdered aluminum.
Source: “Delta IV
Medium Rocket
DSCS” by U.S. Air
Force is is in the public
domain
422
The chemical reaction between these substances produces aluminum
oxide, water, nitrogen gas, and hydrogen chloride. Although the solid
rocket boosters each have a significantly lower mass than the liquid
oxygen and liquid hydrogen tanks, they provide over 80% of the lift
needed to put the shuttle into orbit—all because of chemical reactions.
Chemistry is largely about chemical changes. Indeed, if there were no

chemical changes, chemistry as such would not exist! Chemical changes
are a fundamental part of chemistry. Because chemical changes are so
central, it may be no surprise that chemistry has developed some special
ways of presenting them.

423
6.1 Writing and Balancing Chemical
Equations
Learning Objectives
• Derive chemical equations from narrative descriptions of chemical reactions.

• Write and balance chemical equations in molecular, total ionic, and net ionic formats.
The preceding chapter introduced the use of element symbols to represent

individual atoms. When atoms gain or lose electrons to yield ions, or
combine with other atoms to form molecules, their symbols are modified
or combined to generate chemical formulas that appropriately represent
these species. Extending this symbolism to represent both the identities
and the relative quantities of substances undergoing a chemical (or
physical) change involves writing and balancing a chemical equation.
Consider as an example the reaction between one methane molecule
(CH4) and two diatomic oxygen molecules (O2) to produce one carbon
dioxide molecule (CO2) and two water molecules (H2O). The chemical
equation representing this process is provided in the upper half of Figure
424
1, with space-filling molecular models shown in the lower half of the

figure.
Figure 1. The reaction between methane and oxygen to yield carbon dioxide and
water (shown at bottom) may be represented by a chemical equation using
formulas (top).
This example illustrates the fundamental aspects of any chemical

equation:
1. The substances undergoing reaction are called reactants, and

their formulas are placed on the left side of the equation.
2. The substances generated by the reaction are called products,

and their formulas are placed on the right sight of the equation.
3. Plus signs (+) separate individual reactant and product

formulas, and an arrow ( ) separates the reactant and product
(left and right) sides of the equation.
6.1 WRITING AND BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS • 426
4. The relative numbers of reactant and product species are

represented by coefficients (numbers placed immediately to
the left of each formula). A coefficient of 1 is typically
omitted.
It is common practice to use the smallest possible whole-number

coefficients in a chemical equation, as is done in this example. Realize,
however, that these coefficients represent the relative numbers of
reactants and products, and, therefore, they may be correctly interpreted
as ratios. Methane and oxygen react to yield carbon dioxide and water in
a 1:2:1:2 ratio. This ratio is satisfied if the numbers of these molecules
are, respectively, 1-2-1-2, or 2-4-2-4, or 3-6-3-6, and so on (Figure 2).
Likewise, these coefficients may be interpreted with regard to any amount
(number) unit, and so this equation may be correctly read in many ways,
including:
• One methane molecule and two oxygen molecules react to

yield one carbon dioxide molecule and two water molecules.
• One dozen methane molecules and two dozen oxygen

molecules react to yield one dozen carbon dioxide molecules
and two dozen water molecules.
• One mole of methane molecules and 2 moles of oxygen

molecules react to yield 1 mole of carbon dioxide molecules
and 2 moles of water molecules.
Figure 2. Regardless of the absolute numbers of molecules involved, the ratios

between numbers of molecules of each species that react (the reactants) and
molecules of each species that form (the products) are the same and are given by
the chemical reaction equation.
Balancing Equations
The chemical equation described in Figure 1 is balanced, meaning that

equal numbers of atoms for each element involved in the reaction are
represented on the reactant and product sides. This is a requirement the
equation must satisfy to be consistent with the law of conservation of
matter. It may be confirmed by simply summing the numbers of atoms
on either side of the arrow and comparing these sums to ensure they are
equal. Note that the number of atoms for a given element is calculated
by multiplying the coefficient of any formula containing that element by
the element’s subscript in the formula. If an element appears in more
than one formula on a given side of the equation, the number of atoms
represented in each must be computed and then added together. For
example, both product species in the example reaction, CO2 and H2O,
contain the element oxygen, and so the number of oxygen atoms on the
product side of the equation is
The equation for the reaction between methane and oxygen to yield
carbon dioxide and water is confirmed to be balanced per this approach,
as shown here:
Element Reactants Products Balanced?
C 1×1=1 1×1=1 1 = 1, yes
H 4×1=4 2×2=4 4 = 4, yes
O 2×2=4 (1 × 2) + (2 × 1) = 4 4 = 4, yes
Table 1.
A balanced chemical equation often may be derived from a qualitative

description of some chemical reaction by a fairly simple approach known
as balancing by inspection. Consider as an example the decomposition
of water to yield molecular hydrogen and oxygen. This process is
represented qualitatively by an unbalanced chemical equation:
Comparing the number of H and O atoms on either side of this equation

confirms its imbalance:
H 1×2=2 1×2=2 2 = 2, yes
O 1×1=1 1×2=2 1 ≠ 2, no
Table 2.
The numbers of H atoms on the reactant and product sides of the equation
are equal, but the numbers of O atoms are not. To achieve balance, the
coefficients of the equation may be changed as needed. Keep in mind,
of course, that the formula subscripts define, in part, the identity of the
substance, and so these cannot be changed without altering the qualitative
meaning of the equation. For example, changing the reactant formula
from H2O to H2O2 would yield balance in the number of atoms, but
doing so also changes the reactant’s identity (it’s now hydrogen peroxide
and not water). The O atom balance may be achieved by changing the
coefficient for H2O to 2.
H 2×2=4 1×2=2 4 ≠ 2, no
O 2×1=2 1×2=2 2 = 2, yes
Table 3.
The H atom balance was upset by this change, but it is easily

reestablished by changing the coefficient for the H2 product to 2.
H 2×2=4 2×2=4 4 = 4, yes
O 2×1=2 1×2=2 2 = 2, yes
Table 4.
These coefficients yield equal numbers of both H and O atoms on the

reactant and product sides, and the balanced equation is, therefore:
Example 1
Write a balanced equation for the reaction of molecular nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) to form
dinitrogen pentoxide.
Solution
First, write the unbalanced equation.
Next, count the number of each type of atom present in the unbalanced equation.
N 1×2=2 1×2=2 2 = 2, yes
O 1×2=2 1×5=5 2 ≠ 5, no
Table 5.
Though nitrogen is balanced, changes in coefficients are needed to balance the number of oxygen
atoms. To balance the number of oxygen atoms, a reasonable first attempt would be to change the
coefficients for the O2 and N2O5 to integers that will yield 10 O atoms (the least common multiple for
the O atom subscripts in these two formulas).
N 1 ×× 2 = 2 2 × 2 = 4 2 ≠ 4, no
O 5 × 2 = 10 2 × 5 = 10 10 = 10, yes
Table 6.
The N atom balance has been upset by this change; it is restored by changing the coefficient for the
reactant N2 to 2.
N 2×2=4 2×2=4 4 = 4, yes
O 5 × 2 = 10 2 × 5 = 10 10 = 10, yes
Table 7.
The numbers of N and O atoms on either side of the equation are now equal, and so the equation is
balanced.
Test Yourself
Write a balanced equation for the decomposition of ammonium nitrate to form molecular nitrogen,
molecular oxygen, and water. (Hint: Balance oxygen last, since it is present in more than one molecule
on the right side of the equation.)
Answer
It is sometimes convenient to use fractions instead of integers as

intermediate coefficients in the process of balancing a chemical equation.
When balance is achieved, all the equation’s coefficients may then be
multiplied by a whole number to convert the fractional coefficients to
integers without upsetting the atom balance. For example, consider the
reaction of ethane (C2H6) with oxygen to yield H2O and CO2, represented
by the unbalanced equation:
Following the usual inspection approach, one might first balance C and H
atoms by changing the coefficients for the two product species, as shown:
This results in seven O atoms on the product side of the equation, an odd
number—no integer coefficient can be used with the O2 reactant to yield
an odd number, so a fractional coefficient, , is used instead to yield a
provisional balanced equation:
A conventional balanced equation with integer-only coefficients is

derived by multiplying each coefficient by 2:
Finally with regard to balanced equations, recall that convention dictates

use of the smallest whole-number coefficients. Although the equation
for the reaction between molecular nitrogen and molecular hydrogen to
produce ammonia is, indeed, balanced,
the coefficients are not the smallest possible integers representing the
relative numbers of reactant and product molecules. Dividing each
coefficient by the greatest common factor, 3, gives the preferred equation:
Use this interactive tutorial for additional practice balancing equations.
Additional Information in Chemical Equations
The physical states of reactants and products in chemical equations very

often are indicated with a parenthetical abbreviation following the
formulas. Common abbreviations include s for solids, l for liquids, g for
gases, and aq for substances dissolved in water (aqueous solutions, as
introduced in the preceding chapter). These notations are illustrated in the
example equation here:
This equation represents the reaction that takes place when sodium metal
is placed in water. The solid sodium reacts with liquid water to produce
molecular hydrogen gas and the ionic compound sodium hydroxide (a
solid in pure form, but readily dissolved in water).
Special conditions necessary for a reaction are sometimes designated

by writing a word or symbol above or below the equation’s arrow. For
example, a reaction carried out by heating may be indicated by the
uppercase Greek letter delta (Δ) over the arrow.
Other examples of these special conditions will be encountered in more

depth in later chapters.
Ionic Compounds in Solution
One important aspect about ionic compounds that differs from molecular
compounds has to do with dissolving in a liquid, such as water. When
molecular compounds, such as sugar, dissolve in water, the individual
molecules drift apart from each other. When ionic compounds dissolve,
the ions physically separate from each other. We can use a chemical
equation to represent this process—for example, with NaCl:
Figure 3. The dissolution of sodium chloride.
When NaCl dissolves in water, the ions separate and go their own way
in solution; the ions are now written with their respective charges, and
the (aq) phase label emphasizes that they are dissolved (Figure 3 “Ionic
Solutions”). This process is called dissociation; we say that the ions
dissociate.
When an ionic compound dissociates in water, water molecules surround

each ion and separate it from the rest of the solid. Each ion goes its own
way in solution.
All ionic compounds that dissolve behave this way. (This behaviour
was first suggested by the Swedish chemist Svante August Arrhenius
[1859–1927] as part of his PhD dissertation in 1884. Interestingly, his
PhD examination team had a hard time believing that ionic compounds
would behave like this, so they gave Arrhenius a barely passing grade.
Later, this work was cited when Arrhenius was awarded the Nobel Prize
in Chemistry.)
Keep in mind that when the ions separate, all of the ions separate. Thus,
when CaCl2 dissolves, the one Ca2+ ion and the two Cl− ions separate
from each other:
CaCl2(s) Ca2+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + Cl–(aq)
or
CaCl2(s) Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq)
That is, the two chloride ions go off on their own. They do not remain as
Cl2 (that would be elemental chlorine; these are chloride ions); they do
not stick together to make Cl2− or Cl22−. They become dissociated ions
in their own right. Polyatomic ions also retain their overall identity when
they are dissolved.
Example 2
Write the chemical equation that represents the dissociation of each ionic compound.
a) KBr b) Na2SO4
Solution
a) KBr(s) K+(aq) + Br−(aq)
b) Not only do the two sodium ions go their own way, but the sulfate ion stays together as the sulfate
ion. The dissolving equation is
Na2SO4(s) 2Na+(aq) + SO42−(aq)
Test Yourself
Write the chemical equation that represents the dissociation of (NH4)2S.
Answer
(NH4)2S(s) 2NH4+(aq) + S2−(aq)
Equations for Ionic Reactions
Given the abundance of water on earth, it stands to reason that a great

many chemical reactions take place in aqueous media. When ions are
involved in these reactions, the chemical equations may be written with
various levels of detail appropriate to their intended use. To illustrate this,
consider a reaction between ionic compounds taking place in an aqueous
solution. When aqueous solutions of CaCl2 and AgNO3 are mixed, a
reaction takes place producing aqueous Ca(NO3)2 and solid AgCl:
This balanced equation, derived in the usual fashion, is called a

molecular equation because it doesn’t explicitly represent the ionic
species that are present in solution. When ionic compounds dissolve
in water, they may dissociate into their constituent ions, which are
subsequently dispersed homogenously throughout the resulting solution
(a thorough discussion of this important process is provided in the chapter
on solutions). Ionic compounds dissolved in water are, therefore, more
realistically represented as dissociated ions, in this case:
Unlike these three ionic compounds, AgCl does not dissolve in water to a
significant extent, as signified by its physical state notation, s.
Explicitly representing all dissolved ions results in a complete ionic

equation. In this particular case, the formulas for the dissolved ionic
compounds are replaced by formulas for their dissociated ions:
Examining this equation shows that two chemical species are present
in identical form on both sides of the arrow, Ca2+(aq) and
NO3−(aq).NO3−(aq). These spectator ions—ions whose presence is
required to maintain charge neutrality—are neither chemically nor
physically changed by the process, and so they may be eliminated from
the equation to yield a more succinct representation called a net ionic
equation:
Following the convention of using the smallest possible integers as

coefficients, this equation is then written:
This net ionic equation indicates that solid silver chloride may be
produced from dissolved chloride and silver(I) ions, regardless of the
source of these ions. These molecular and complete ionic equations
provide additional information, namely, the ionic compounds used as

sources of Cl− and Ag+.
Example 3
Write the complete ionic equation for each chemical reaction.

a) KBr(aq) + AgC2H3O2(aq) KC2H3O2(aq) + AgBr(s)
b) MgSO4(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) Mg(NO3)2(aq) + BaSO4(s)
Solution
For any ionic compound that is aqueous, we will write the compound as separated ions.
a) The complete ionic equation is
K+(aq) + Br−(aq) + Ag+(aq) + C2H3O2−(aq) K+(aq) + C2H3O2−(aq) + AgBr(s)
b) The complete ionic equation is
Mg2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) + Ba2+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq) Mg2+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq) + BaSO4(s)
Test Yourself
Write the complete ionic equation for
CaCl2(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + PbCl2(s)
Answer
Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl−(aq) + Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq) + PbCl2(s)
Example 4
Write the net ionic equation for each chemical reaction.

a) K+(aq) + Br−(aq) + Ag+(aq) + C2H3O2−(aq) K+(aq) + C2H3O2−(aq) + AgBr(s)
b) Mg2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) + Ba2+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) Mg2+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) + BaSO4(s)
Solution
a) In the first equation, the K+(aq) and C2H3O2−(aq) ions are spectator ions, so they are canceled:
K+(aq) + Br−(aq) + Ag+(aq) + C2H3O2−(aq) K+(aq) + C2H3O2−(aq) + AgBr(s)

The net ionic equation is
Br−(aq) + Ag+(aq) AgBr(s)
b) In the second equation, the Mg2+(aq) and NO3−(aq) ions are spectator ions, so they are canceled:
Mg2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) + Ba2+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) Mg2+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) + BaSO4(s)
The net ionic equation is
SO42−(aq) + Ba2+(aq) BaSO4(s)
Test Yourself
Write the net ionic equation for
CaCl2(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + PbCl2(s)
Answer
Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl−(aq) PbCl2(s)
Example 5
When carbon dioxide is dissolved in an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide, the mixture reacts to
yield aqueous sodium carbonate and liquid water. Write balanced molecular, complete ionic, and net
ionic equations for this process.
Solution
Begin by identifying formulas for the reactants and products and arranging them properly in chemical
equation form:
Balance is achieved easily in this case by changing the coefficient for NaOH to 2, resulting in the
molecular equation for this reaction:
The two dissolved ionic compounds, NaOH and Na2CO3, can be represented as dissociated ions to
yield the complete ionic equation:
Finally, identify the spectator ion(s), in this case Na+(aq), and remove it from each side of the
equation to generate the net ionic equation:
Test Yourself
Diatomic chlorine and sodium hydroxide (lye) are commodity chemicals produced in large quantities,
along with diatomic hydrogen, via the electrolysis of brine, according to the following unbalanced
equation:
Write balanced molecular, complete ionic, and net ionic equations for this process.
Answers
Chemistry Is Everywhere: Soluble and Insoluble Ionic Compounds
The concept of solubility versus insolubility in ionic compounds is a matter of degree. Some ionic
compounds are very soluble, some are only moderately soluble, and some are soluble so little that they
are considered insoluble. For most ionic compounds, there is also a limit to the amount of compound
can be dissolved in a sample of water. For example, you can dissolve a maximum of 36.0 g of NaCl in
100 g of water at room temperature, but you can dissolve only 0.00019 g of AgCl in 100 g of water. We
consider NaCl soluble but AgCl insoluble.
Figure 4. The Grand Canyon was formed by water running through

rock for billions of years, very slowly dissolving it. Note the
Colorado River is still present in the lower part of the photo.
“Grand canyon yavapal point 2010′′ by chensiyuan is licensed
under Creative Commons
One place where solubility is important is in the tank-type water heater found in many homes in
the United States. Domestic water frequently contains small amounts of dissolved ionic compounds,
including calcium carbonate (CaCO3). However, CaCO3 has the relatively unusual property of being
less soluble in hot water than in cold water. So as the water heater operates by heating water, CaCO3
can precipitate if there is enough of it in the water. This precipitate, called limescale, can also contain
magnesium compounds, hydrogen carbonate compounds, and phosphate compounds. The problem is
that too much limescale can impede the function of a water heater, requiring more energy to heat
water to a specific temperature or even blocking water pipes into or out of the water heater, causing
dysfunction.
Another place where solubility versus insolubility is an issue is the Grand Canyon. We usually think
of rock as insoluble. But it is actually ever so slightly soluble. This means that over a period of about
two billion years, the Colorado River carved rock from the surface by slowly dissolving it, eventually
generating a spectacular series of gorges and canyons. And all because of solubility!
Chemical equations are symbolic representations of chemical and

physical changes. Formulas for the substances undergoing the change
(reactants) and substances generated by the change (products) are
separated by an arrow and preceded by integer coefficients indicating
their relative numbers. Balanced equations are those whose coefficients
result in equal numbers of atoms for each element in the reactants and
products. Chemical reactions in aqueous solution that involve ionic
reactants or products may be represented more realistically by complete
ionic equations and, more succinctly, by net ionic equations.
Exercises
1. What does it mean to say an equation is balanced? Why is it important for an equation to be
balanced?
2. Balance the following equations:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
4. Write a balanced molecular equation describing each of the following chemical reactions.
a) Solid calcium carbonate is heated and decomposes to solid calcium oxide and carbon dioxide gas.
b) Gaseous butane, C4H10, reacts with diatomic oxygen gas to yield gaseous carbon dioxide and
water vapor.
c) Aqueous solutions of magnesium chloride and sodium hydroxide react to produce solid
magnesium hydroxide and aqueous sodium chloride.
d) Water vapor reacts with sodium metal to produce solid sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
5. Colorful fireworks often involve the decomposition of barium nitrate and potassium chlorate and
the reaction of the metals magnesium, aluminum, and iron with oxygen.
a) Write the formulas of barium nitrate and potassium chlorate.
b) The decomposition of solid potassium chlorate leads to the formation of solid potassium chloride
and diatomic oxygen gas. Write an equation for the reaction.
c) The decomposition of solid barium nitrate leads to the formation of solid barium oxide, diatomic
nitrogen gas, and diatomic oxygen gas. Write an equation for the reaction.
d) Write separate equations for the reactions of the solid metals magnesium, aluminum, and iron with
diatomic oxygen gas to yield the corresponding metal oxides. (Assume the iron oxide contains Fe3+
ions.)
6. Fill in the blank with a single chemical formula for a covalent compound that will balance
the equation:
7. Aqueous hydrogen fluoride (hydrofluoric acid) is used to etch glass and to analyze minerals for
their silicon content. Hydrogen fluoride will also react with sand (silicon dioxide).
a) Write an equation for the reaction of solid silicon dioxide with hydrofluoric acid to yield gaseous
silicon tetrafluoride and liquid water.
b) The mineral fluorite (calcium fluoride) occurs extensively in Illinois. Solid calcium fluoride can
also be prepared by the reaction of aqueous solutions of calcium chloride and sodium fluoride, yielding
aqueous sodium chloride as the other product. Write complete and net ionic equations for this reaction.
8. From the balanced molecular equations, write the complete ionic and net ionic equations for the
following:
a)
b)
c)
9. From the statement “nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas react to produce ammonia gas,” identify the
reactants and the products.
10. From the statement “a solution of magnesium hydroxide reacts with a solution of nitric acid to
produce a solution of magnesium nitrate and water,” identify the reactants and the products.
11. Write and balance the chemical equation described by Exercise 1.
12. Write and balance the chemical equation described by Exercise 2.
13. Balance: ___NaClO3 ___NaCl + ___O2
14. Balance: ___N2 + ___H2 ___N2H4
15. Balance: ___Al + ___O2 ___Al2O3
16. Balance: ___C2H4 + ___O2 ___CO2 + ___H2O
17. Balance: ___N2(g) + ___H2(g) ___NH3(g)
18. Write a chemical equation that represents NaBr(s) dissociating in water.
19. Write a chemical equation that represents (NH4)3PO4(s) dissociating in water.
20. Write the complete ionic equation for the reaction of FeCl2(aq) and AgNO3(aq). You may have
to consult the solubility rules.
21. Write the complete ionic equation for the reaction of KCl(aq) and NaC2H3O2(aq). You may have
to consult the solubility rules.
22. Write the net ionic equation for the reaction of FeCl2(aq) and AgNO3(aq). You may have to
consult the solubility rules.
23. Write the net ionic equation for the reaction of KCl(aq) and NaC2H3O2(aq). You may have to
consult the solubility rules.
24. Identify the spectator ions in Exercises 20 and 21.
Answers
1. An equation is balanced when the same number of each element is represented on the reactant and
product sides. Equations must be balanced to accurately reflect the law of conservation of matter.
2. a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
3. a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
4.a)
b)
c)
d)
5. a) ,
b)
c)
d) ; ;
6. H2O
7. a)
b) complete:
net:
8. a) complete:
net:
b) complete:
net:
c) complete:
net:
9. reactants: nitrogen and hydrogen; product: ammonia
10. reactants: magnesium hydroxide and nitric acid; products: magnesium nitrate and water
11. N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g)
12. Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2 HNO3(aq) Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2 H2O(ℓ)
13. 2 NaClO3 2 NaCl + 3 O2
14. N2 + 2 H2 N2H4
15. 4Al + 3O2 2Al2O3
16. C2H4 + 3 O2 2 CO2 + 2 H2O
17. N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g)
18. NaBr(s) Na+(aq) + Br−(aq)
19. (NH4)3PO4(s) 3 NH4+(aq) + PO43−(aq)
20. Fe2+(aq) + 2 Cl−(aq) + 2 Ag+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) Fe2+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) + 2 AgCl(s)
21. K+(aq) + Cl−(aq) + Na+(aq) + C2H3O2−(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq) + K+(aq) + C2H3O2−(aq)
22. 2 Cl−(aq) + 2 Ag+(aq) 2 AgCl(s)
23. There is no overall reaction.
24. In Exercise 20, Fe2+(aq) and NO3−(aq) are spectator ions; in Exercise 21, Na+(aq) and Cl−(aq)
are spectator ions.
Glossary
balanced equation: chemical equation with equal numbers of atoms for

each element in the reactant and product
chemical equation: symbolic representation of a chemical reaction

coefficient: number placed in front of symbols or formulas in a chemical

equation to indicate their relative amount
complete ionic equation: chemical equation in which all dissolved ionic

reactants and products, including spectator ions, are explicitly represented
by formulas for their dissociated ions
molecular equation: chemical equation in which all reactants and

products are represented as neutral substances
net ionic equation: chemical equation in which only those dissolved

ionic reactants and products that undergo a chemical or physical change
are represented (excludes spectator ions)
product: substance formed by a chemical or physical change; shown on

the right side of the arrow in a chemical equation
reactant: substance undergoing a chemical or physical change; shown on

the left side of the arrow in a chemical equation
spectator ion: ion that does not undergo a chemical or physical change
during a reaction, but its presence is required to maintain charge
neutrality



6.2 Precipitation Reactions
Learning Objectives
• Define precipitation reactions

• Recognize and identify examples of precipitation reactions
• Predict the solubility of common inorganic compounds by using solubility rules
Humans interact with one another in various and complex ways, and
we classify these interactions according to common patterns of behavior.
When two humans exchange information, we say they are
communicating. When they exchange blows with their fists or feet, we
say they are fighting. Faced with a wide range of varied interactions
between chemical substances, scientists have likewise found it
convenient (or even necessary) to classify chemical interactions by
identifying common patterns of reactivity. The following sections of this
chapter (section 6.2-6.4) will provide an introduction to three of the
most prevalent types of chemical reactions: precipitation, acid-base, and
oxidation-reduction.
449
6.2 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS • 450
Precipitation Reactions and Solubility Rules
A precipitation reaction is one in which dissolved substances react to

form one (or more) solid products. Many reactions of this type involve
the exchange of ions between ionic compounds in aqueous solution and
are sometimes referred to as double displacement, double replacement,
or metathesis reactions. These reactions are common in nature and are
responsible for the formation of coral reefs in ocean waters and kidney
stones in animals. They are used widely in industry for production of
a number of commodity and specialty chemicals. Precipitation reactions
also play a central role in many chemical analysis techniques, including
spot tests used to identify metal ions and gravimetric methods for
determining the composition of matter (see the last module of this
chapter).
The extent to which a substance may be dissolved in water, or any

solvent, is quantitatively expressed as its solubility, defined as the
maximum concentration of a substance that can be achieved under
specified conditions. Substances with relatively large solubilities are said
to be soluble. A substance will precipitate when solution conditions
are such that its concentration exceeds its solubility. Substances with
relatively low solubilities are said to be insoluble, and these are the
substances that readily precipitate from solution. More information on
these important concepts is provided in the text chapter on solutions. For
purposes of predicting the identities of solids formed by precipitation
reactions, one may simply refer to patterns of solubility that have been
observed for many ionic compounds (Table 1).
Table 1. Solubilities of Common Ionic Compounds in Water
A vivid example of precipitation is observed when solutions of potassium

iodide and lead nitrate are mixed, resulting in the formation of solid lead
iodide:
This observation is consistent with the solubility guidelines: The only

insoluble compound among all those involved is lead iodide, one of the
exceptions to the general solubility of iodide salts.
The net ionic equation representing this reaction is:
Lead iodide is a bright yellow solid that was formerly used as an artist’s
pigment known as iodine yellow (Figure 1). The properties of pure PbI2
crystals make them useful for fabrication of X-ray and gamma ray
detectors.
Figure 1. A precipitate of
PbI2 forms when solutions
containing Pb2+ and I− are
mixed. (credit: Der Kreole/
Wikimedia Commons)
The solubility table in Table 1 may be used to predict whether a

precipitation reaction will occur when solutions of soluble ionic
compounds are mixed together. One merely needs to identify all the ions
present in the solution and then consider if possible cation/anion pairing
could result in an insoluble compound.
For example, mixing solutions of silver nitrate and sodium fluoride will
yield a solution containing Ag+, NO3−, Na+, and F− ions. Aside from the
two ionic compounds originally present in the solutions, AgNO3 and NaF,
two additional ionic compounds may be derived from this collection of
ions: NaNO3 and AgF.
The solubility table indicate all nitrate salts are soluble but that AgF is one
of the exceptions to the general solubility of fluoride salts. A precipitation
reaction, therefore, is predicted to occur, as described by the following
equations:
Example 1
Predict the result of mixing reasonably concentrated solutions of the following ionic compounds. If
precipitation is expected, write a balanced net ionic equation for the reaction.
a) potassium sulfate and barium nitrate
b) lithium chloride and silver acetate
c) lead nitrate and ammonium carbonate
Solution
a) The two possible products for this combination are KNO3 and BaSO4. The solubility guidelines
indicate BaSO4 is insoluble, and so a precipitation reaction is expected. The net ionic equation for this
reaction, derived in the manner detailed in the previous module, is
b) The two possible products for this combination are LiC2H3O2 and AgCl. The solubility guidelines
indicate AgCl is insoluble, and so a precipitation reaction is expected. The net ionic equation for this
c) The two possible products for this combination are PbCO3 and NH4NO3. The solubility guidelines
indicate PbCO3 is insoluble, and so a precipitation reaction is expected. The net ionic equation for this
Test Yourself
Which solution could be used to precipitate the barium ion, Ba2+, in a water sample: sodium chloride,
sodium hydroxide, or sodium sulfate? What is the formula for the expected precipitate?
Answers
sodium sulfate, BaSO4
Chemical reactions are classified according to similar patterns of

behavior. Precipitation is one type of chemical reaction which involves
the formation of one or more insoluble products. Precipitation reactions,
also called double displacement reactions can be summarized with the
following reaction equation:
The formation of the solid is the DRIVING FORCE of the reaction (the
factor that makes the reaction go).
A precipitation reaction can be predicted to occur with the help of a

solubility table (Table 1). There are three ways of representing a
precipitation reaction, using a molecular equation, complete ionic
equation or net ionic equation, as described in section 6.1.
Exercises
1. What are the general characteristics that help you recognize double replacement reactions?
2. Assuming that each double replacement reaction occurs, predict the products and write each
balanced chemical equation.
a) Zn(NO3)2 + NaOH ? b) HCl + Na2S ?

a) Ca(C2H3O2)2 + HNO3 ? b) Na2CO3 + Sr(NO2)2 ?

a) Pb(NO3)2 + KBr ? b) K2O + MgCO3 ?

a) Sn(OH)2 + FeBr3 ? b) CsNO3 + KCl ?

6. Use the solubility table (Table 1) to predict if each double replacement reaction will occur and, if
so, write a balanced chemical equation.
a) Pb(NO3)2 + KBr ? b) K2O + Na2CO3 ?

7. Use the solubility table (Table 1) to predict if each double replacement reaction will occur and, if
so, write a balanced chemical equation.
a) Na2CO3 + Sr(NO3)2 ? b) (NH4)2SO4 + Ba(NO3)2 ?

8. Use the solubility rules to predict if each double replacement reaction will occur and, if so, write
a balanced chemical equation.
a) K3PO4 + SrCl2 ? b) NaOH + MgCl2 ?

9. Use the solubility rules to predict if each double replacement reaction will occur and, if so, write
a balanced chemical equation.
a) KC2H3O2 + Li2CO3 ? b) KOH + AgNO3 ?
Answers
1. A double replacement reaction occurs when parts of two ionic compounds are exchanged, making
two new compounds. A characteristic of a double-replacement equation is that there are two compounds
as reactants and two different compounds as products.
2. a) Zn(NO3)2 + 2 NaOH Zn(OH)2 + 2 NaNO3
b) 2 HCl + Na2S 2 NaCl + H2S
3. a) Ca(C2H3O2)2 + 2 HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 + 2 HC2H3O2
b) Na2CO3 + Sr(NO2)2 2 NaNO2 + SrCO3
4.a) Pb(NO3)2 + 2 KBr PbBr2 + 2 KNO3
b) K2O + MgCO3 K2CO3 + MgO
5. a) 3 Sn(OH)2 + 2 FeBr3 3 Sn(Br)2 + 2 Fe(OH)3
b) CsNO3 + KCl KNO3 + CsCl
6.a) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2 KBr(aq) PbBr2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
b) No reaction occurs.
7. a) Na2CO3(aq) + Sr(NO3)2(aq) 2 NaNO3(aq) + SrCO3(s)
b) (NH4)2SO4(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2 NH4NO3(aq)

8.a) 2 K3PO4(aq) + 3 SrCl2(aq) Sr3(PO4)2(s) + 6 KCl(aq)
b) 2 NaOH(aq) + MgCl2(aq) 2 NaCl(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
9. a) No reaction occurs.
b) KOH(aq) + AgNO3(aq) AgOH(s) + KNO3(aq)
Glossary
insoluble: of relatively low solubility; dissolving only to a slight extent
precipitate: insoluble product that forms from reaction of soluble

reactants
precipitation reaction: reaction that produces one or more insoluble

products; when reactants are ionic compounds, sometimes called double
displacement or metathesis
salt: ionic compound that can be formed by the reaction of an acid with a
base that contains a cation and an anion other than hydroxide or oxide
soluble: of relatively high solubility; dissolving to a relatively large

extent
solubility: the extent to which a substance may be dissolved in water, or

any solvent




6.3 Acid-Base Reactions
Learning Objectives
• Identify common acids and bases

• Define acid-base reactions
• Recognize and identify examples of acid-base reactions
• Predict the products of acid-base reactions.
Acids and Bases
The definition of an acid is often cited as: any compound that increases
the amount of hydrogen ion (H+) in an aqueous solution. The chemical
opposite of an acid is a base. The equivalent definition of a base is
that a base is a compound that increases the amount of hydroxide ion
(OH−) in an aqueous solution. These original definitions were proposed
by Arrhenius (the same person who proposed ion dissociation) in 1884,
so they are referred to as the Arrhenius definition of an acid and a base,
respectively.
458
You may recognize that, based on the description of a hydrogen atom, an

H+ ion is a hydrogen atom that has lost its lone electron; that is, H+ is
simply a proton. Do we really have bare protons moving about in aqueous
solution? No. What is more likely is that the H+ ion has attached itself to
one (or more) water molecule(s). To represent this chemically, we define
the hydronium ion H3O+(aq), a water molecule with an extra hydrogen
ion attached to it. as H3O+, which represents an additional proton attached
to a water molecule. We use the hydronium ion as the more logical way a
hydrogen ion appears in an aqueous solution, although in many chemical
reactions H+ and H3O+ are treated equivalently.
For purposes of this brief introduction, we will consider only the more
common types of acid-base reactions that take place in aqueous solutions.
In this context, an acid is a substance that will dissolve in water to yield
hydronium ions, H3O+. As an example, consider the equation shown
here:
The process represented by this equation confirms that hydrogen chloride

is an acid. When dissolved in water, H3O+ ions are produced by a
chemical reaction in which H+ ions are transferred from HCl molecules
to H2O molecules (Figure 1).
6.3 ACID-BASE REACTIONS • 460
Figure 1. When hydrogen chloride gas

dissolves in water, (a) it reacts as an acid,
transferring protons to water molecules to
yield (b) hydronium ions (and solvated
chloride ions).
The nature of HCl is such that its reaction with water as just described
is essentially 100% efficient: Virtually every HCl molecule that dissolves
in water will undergo this reaction. Acids that completely react in this
fashion are called strong acids, and HCl is one among just a handful of
common acid compounds that are classified as strong (Table 1).
Compound Formula Name in Aqueous Solution
HBr hydrobromic acid
HCl hydrochloric acid
HI hydroiodic acid
HNO3 nitric acid
HClO4 perchloric acid
HClO3 chloric acid
H2SO4 sulfuric acid
Table 1. Common Strong Acids
A far greater number of compounds behave as weak acids and only

partially react with water, leaving a large majority of dissolved molecules
in their original form and generating a relatively small amount of
hydronium ions.
Compound Name in Aqueous

Formula Solution
HF hydrofluoric acid
HCN hydrocyanic acid
HC2H3O2 acetic acid
HNO2 nitrous acid
HClO hypochlorous acid
HClO2 chlorous acid
H2SO3 sulfurous acid
H2CO3 carbonic acid
H3PO4 phosphoric acid
Table 2. Common Weak Acids
Weak acids are commonly encountered in nature, being the substances

partly responsible for the tangy taste of citrus fruits, the stinging sensation
of insect bites, and the unpleasant smells associated with body odor. A
familiar example of a weak acid is acetic acid, the main ingredient in food
vinegars:
When dissolved in water under typical conditions, only about 1% of acetic acid molecules are
present in the ionized form, (Figure 2). The use of a double-arrow in the equation
above denotes the partial reaction aspect of this process, a concept addressed fully in the
chapters on chemical equilibrium.)

Figure 2. (a) Fruits such as

oranges, lemons, and grapefruit
contain the weak acid citric acid.
(b) Vinegars contain the weak acid
acetic acid. (credit a: modification
of work by Scott Bauer; credit b:
modification of work by
Brücke-Osteuropa/Wikimedia
Commons)
A base is a substance that will dissolve in water to yield hydroxide

ions, OH−. The most common bases are ionic compounds composed
of alkali or alkaline earth metal cations (groups 1 and 2) combined
with the hydroxide ion—for example, NaOH and Ca(OH)2. When these
compounds dissolve in water, hydroxide ions are released directly into
the solution. For example, KOH and Ba(OH)2 dissolve in water and
dissociate completely to produce cations (K+ and Ba2+, respectively)
and hydroxide ions, OH−. These bases, along with other hydroxides that
completely dissociate in water, are considered strong bases.
Consider as an example the dissolution of lye (sodium hydroxide) in

water:
This equation confirms that sodium hydroxide is a base. When dissolved

in water, NaOH dissociates to yield Na+ and OH− ions. This is also
true for any other ionic compound containing hydroxide ions. Since
the dissociation process is essentially complete when ionic compounds
dissolve in water under typical conditions, NaOH and other ionic
hydroxides are all classified as strong bases.
Unlike ionic hydroxides, some compounds produce hydroxide ions when

dissolved by chemically reacting with water molecules. In all cases, these
compounds react only partially and so are classified as weak bases.
These types of compounds are also abundant in nature and important
commodities in various technologies. For example, global production of
the weak base ammonia is typically well over 100 metric tons annually,
being widely used as an agricultural fertilizer, a raw material for chemical
synthesis of other compounds, and an active ingredient in household
cleaners (Figure 3). When dissolved in water, ammonia reacts partially to
yield hydroxide ions, as shown here:
Under typical conditions, only about 1% of the dissolved ammonia is

present as NH4+ ions.
Figure 3. Ammonia is a weak base used in a variety of applications. (a) Pure

ammonia is commonly applied as an agricultural fertilizer. (b) Dilute solutions of
ammonia are effective household cleansers. (credit a: modification of work by
National Resources Conservation Service; credit b: modification of work by
pat00139)
Acid-Base Reactions
An acid-base reaction is one in which a hydrogen ion, H+, is transferred

from one chemical species to another. Such reactions are of central
importance to numerous natural and technological processes, ranging
from the chemical transformations that take place within cells and the
lakes and oceans, to the industrial-scale production of fertilizers,
pharmaceuticals, and other substances essential to society. The subject of
acid-base chemistry, therefore, is worthy of thorough discussion.
The reaction between an acid and a base is called an acid-base reaction

or a neutralization reaction. Although acids and bases have their own
unique chemistries, the acid and base cancel each other’s chemistry to
produce a rather innocuous substance—water. In fact, the general acid-
base reaction is
acid + base water + salt
where the term salt is used to define any ionic compound (soluble or
insoluble) that is formed from a reaction between an acid and a base. In
chemistry, the word salt refers to more than just table salt. For example,
the balanced chemical equation for the reaction between HCl(aq) and
KOH(aq) is
HCl(aq) + KOH(aq) H2O(ℓ) + KCl(aq)
where the salt is KCl. By counting the number of atoms of each element,
we find that only one water molecule is formed as a product. However, in
the reaction between HCl(aq) and Mg(OH)2(aq), additional molecules of
HCl and H2O are required to balance the chemical equation:
2 HCl(aq) + Mg(OH)2(aq) 2 H2O(ℓ) + MgCl2(aq)
Here, the salt is MgCl2. This is one of several reactions that take place
when a type of antacid—a base—is used to treat stomach acid.
There are acid-base reactions that do not follow the “general acid-base”
equation given above. For example, , the balanced chemical equation for
the reaction between HCl(aq) and NH3(aq) is
HCl(aq) + NH3(aq) NH4Cl(aq)

Example 1
Write the neutralization reactions between each acid and base.

a) HNO3(aq) and Ba(OH)2(aq) b)H3PO4(aq) and Ca(OH)2(aq)
Solution
First, we will write the chemical equation with the formulas of the reactants and the expected
products; then we will balance the equation.
a) The expected products are water and barium nitrate, so the initial chemical reaction is
HNO3(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) H2O(ℓ) + Ba(NO3)2(aq)
To balance the equation, we need to realize that there will be two H2O molecules, so two HNO3
molecules are required:
2HNO3(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) 2H2O(ℓ) + Ba(NO3)2(aq)
This chemical equation is now balanced.
b) The expected products are water and calcium phosphate, so the initial chemical equation is
H3PO4(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) H2O(ℓ) + Ca3(PO4)2(s)
According to the solubility rules, Ca3(PO4)2 is insoluble, so it has an (s) phase label. To balance this
equation, we need two phosphate ions and three calcium ions; we end up with six water molecules to
balance the equation:
2 H3PO4(aq) + 3 Ca(OH)2(aq) 6 H2O(ℓ) + Ca3(PO4)2(s)
This chemical equation is now balanced.
Test Yourself
Write the neutralization reaction between H2SO4(aq) and Sr(OH)2(aq).
Answer
H2SO4(aq) + Sr(OH)2(aq) 2 H2O(ℓ) + SrSO4(aq)
Neutralization reactions are one type of chemical reaction that proceeds

even if one reactant is not in the aqueous phase. For example, the
chemical reaction between HCl(aq) and Fe(OH)3(s) still proceeds
according to the equation
3 HCl(aq) + Fe(OH)3(s) 3 H2O(ℓ) + FeCl3(aq)
even though Fe(OH)3 is not soluble. When one realizes that Fe(OH)3(s)
is a component of rust, this explains why some cleaning solutions for rust
stains contain acids—the neutralization reaction produces products that
are soluble and wash away. Washing with acids like HCl is one way to
remove rust and rust stains, but HCl must be used with caution!
Complete and net ionic reactions for neutralization reactions will depend
on whether the reactants and products are soluble, even if the acid and
base react. For example, in the reaction of HCl(aq) and NaOH(aq),
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) H2O(ℓ) + NaCl(aq)
the complete ionic reaction is
H+(aq) + Cl−(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH−(aq) H2O(ℓ) + Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq)
The Na+(aq) and Cl−(aq) ions are spectator ions, so we can remove them
to have
H+(aq) + OH−(aq) H2O(ℓ)
as the net ionic equation. If we wanted to write this in terms of the

hydronium ion, H3O+(aq), we would write it as
H3O+(aq) + OH−(aq) 2H2O(ℓ)

With the exception of the introduction of an extra water molecule, these

two net ionic equations are equivalent.
However, for the reaction between HCl(aq) and Cr(OH)2(s), because

chromium(II) hydroxide is insoluble, we cannot separate it into ions for
the complete ionic equation:
2 H+(aq) + 2 Cl−(aq) + Cr(OH)2(s) 2 H2O(ℓ) + Cr2+(aq) + 2 Cl−(aq)
The chloride ions are the only spectator ions here, so the net ionic
equation is
2 H+(aq) + Cr(OH)2(s) 2 H2O(ℓ) + Cr2+(aq)
Example 2
Write balanced chemical equations for the acid-base reactions described here:
a) the weak acid hydrogen hypochlorite reacts with water
b) a solution of barium hydroxide is neutralized with a solution of nitric acid
Solution
a) The two reactants are provided, HOCl and H2O. Since the substance is reported to be an acid, its
reaction with water will involve the transfer of H+ from HOCl to H2O to generate hydronium ions,
H3O+ and hypochlorite ions, OCl−.
A double-arrow is appropriate in this equation because it indicates the HOCl is a weak acid that has
not reacted completely.
b) The two reactants are provided, Ba(OH)2 and HNO3. Since this is a neutralization reaction, the
two products will be water and a salt composed of the cation of the ionic hydroxide (Ba2+) and the
anion generated when the acid transfers its hydrogen ion (NO3−).
Test Yourself
Write the net ionic equation representing the neutralization of any strong acid with an ionic hydroxide.
Hint: Consider the ions produced when a strong acid is dissolved in water.
Answer
Example 3
Oxalic acid, H2C2O4(s), and Ca(OH)2(s) react very slowly. What is the net ionic equation between
these two substances if the salt formed is insoluble? The anion in oxalic acid is the oxalate ion, C2O42−.
Solution
The products of the neutralization reaction will be water and calcium oxalate:
H2C2O4(s) + Ca(OH)2(s) 2 H2O(ℓ) + CaC2O4(s)
Because nothing is dissolved, there are no substances to separate into ions, so the net ionic equation
is the equation of the three solids and one liquid.
Test Yourself
What is the net ionic equation between HNO3(aq) and Ti(OH)4(s)?
Answer
4 H+(aq) + Ti(OH)4(s) 4 H2O(ℓ) + Ti4+(aq)
Explore the microscopic view of strong and weak acids and bases.
Gas-forming Acid-Base reactions
A driving force for certain acid-base reactions is the formation of a gas.

Common gases formed are H2, O2, and CO2.
For example:
2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) H2CO3(aq) + 2NaCl(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)

+ 2NaCl(aq)
The above example can be viewed as an acid-base reaction followed by

a decomposition. The driving force in this case is the gas formation. The
decomposition of H2CO3 into CO2 and H2O is a very common reaction.
Both Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 mixed with acid result in a gas-forming acid-
base reaction.
HCl(aq) + NaHCO3(aq) H2CO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l) +

NaCl(aq)
Food and Drink App: Acids in Foods
Many foods and beverages contain acids. Acids impart a sour note to the taste of foods, which
may add some pleasantness to the food. For example, orange juice contains citric acid, H3C6H5O7.
Note how this formula shows hydrogen atoms in two places; the first hydrogen atoms written are the
hydrogen atoms that can form H+ ions, while the second hydrogen atoms written are part of the citrate
ion, C6H5O73−. Lemons and limes contain much more citric acid—about 60 times as much—which
accounts for these citrus fruits being more sour than most oranges. Vinegar is essentially a ~5% solution
of acetic acid (HC2H3O2) in water. Apples contain malic acid (H2C4H4O5; the name malic acid comes
from the apple’s botanical genus name, malus), while lactic acid (HC3H5O3) is found in wine and sour
milk products, such as yogurt and some cottage cheeses.
Table 3 “Various Acids Found in Food and Beverages” lists some acids found in foods, either
naturally or as an additive. Frequently, the salts of acid anions are used as additives, such as
monosodium glutamate (MSG), which is the sodium salt derived from glutamic acid. As you read the
list, you should come to the inescapable conclusion that it is impossible to avoid acids in food and
beverages.
Acid
Acid Name Formula Use and Appearance
acetic acid HC2H3O2 flavouring; found in vinegar
adipic acid H2C6H8O4 flavouring; found in processed foods and some antacids
alginic acid various thickener; found in drinks, ice cream, and weight loss products
ascorbic acid HC6H7O6 antioxidant, also known as vitamin C; found in fruits and vegetables
benzoic acid HC6H5CO2 preservative; found in processed foods
citric acid H3C6H5O7 flavouring; found in citrus fruits
dehydroacetic
HC8H7O4 preservative, especially for strawberries and squash
acid
erythrobic acid HC6H7O6 antioxidant; found in processed foods
fatty acids various thickener and emulsifier; found in processed foods
fumaric acid H2C4H2O4 flavouring; acid reactant in some baking powders
flavouring; found in processed foods and in tomatoes, some cheeses, and soy
glutamic acid H2C5H7NO4
products
flavouring; found in wine, yogurt, cottage cheese, and other sour milk
lactic acid HC3H5O3
products
malic acid H2C4H4O5 flavouring; found in apples and unripe fruit
phosphoric acid H3PO4 flavouring; found in some colas
propionic acid HC3H5O2 preservative; found in baked goods
sorbic acid HC6H7O2 preservative; found in processed foods
stearic acid HC18H35O2 anticaking agent; found in hard candies
succinic acid H2C4H4O4 flavouring; found in wine and beer
tartaric acid H2C4H4O6 flavouring; found in grapes, bananas, and tamarinds
Table 3. Various Acids Found in Food and Beverages


behaviour. Acid-base reactions involve the transfer of hydrogen ions
between reactants.
General acid-base reactions, also called neutralization reactions can be

summarized with the following reaction equation:
ACID(aq) + BASE(aq) H2O(l) + SALT(aq) or (s)
The DRIVING FORCE for a general acid-base reaction is the formation

of water.
Gas-forming acid-base reactions can be summarized with the following

reaction equation:
ACID(aq) + NaHCO3 or Na2CO3(aq) H2O(l) + CO2(g) + SALT(aq)

or (s)
The DRIVING FORCE for a gas-forming acid-base reaction is the

formation of gas. There are three ways of
There are three ways of representing a neutralization reaction, using a

molecular equation, complete ionic equation or net ionic equation, as
described in section 6.1.
Exercises
1. What is the Arrhenius definition of an acid?

2. What is the Arrhenius definition of a base?
3. Predict the products of each acid-base combination listed. Assume that a neutralization reaction
occurs.
a) HCl and KOH
b) H2SO4 and KOH
c) H3PO4 and Ni(OH)2
4. Write a balanced chemical equation for each neutralization reaction in Exercise 3.

5. Write a balanced chemical equation for the neutralization reaction between each given acid and
base. Include the proper phase labels.
a) HI(aq) + KOH(aq) ?
b) H2SO4(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) ?
6. Write the net ionic equation for each neutralization reaction in Exercise 7.
7. Write the complete and net ionic equations for the neutralization reaction between HClO3(aq) and
Zn(OH)2(s). Assume the salt is soluble.
8. Explain why the net ionic equation for the neutralization reaction between HCl(aq) and KOH(aq)
is the same as the net ionic equation for the neutralization reaction between HNO 3(aq) and RbOH.
9. Write the complete and net ionic equations for the neutralization reaction between HCl(aq) and
KOH(aq) using the hydronium ion in place of H+. What difference does it make when using the
hydronium ion?
10. Complete and balance the following acid-base equations:
a) HCl gas reacts with solid Ca(OH)2(s).
b) A solution of Sr(OH)2 is added to a solution of HNO3.
11. Complete and balance the equations for the following acid-base neutralization reactions. If water
is used as a solvent, write the reactants and products as aqueous ions. In some cases, there may be more
than one correct answer, depending on the amounts of reactants used.
a)
b)
12. Complete and balance the equations of the following reactions, each of which could be used to
remove hydrogen sulfide from natural gas:
a)
b)
Answers
1. An Arrhenius acid increases the amount of H+ ions in an aqueous solution.
2. An Arrhenius base increases the amount of OH– ions in an aqueous solution.

3. a) KCl and H2O
b) K2SO4 and H2O

c) Ni3(PO4)2 and H2O
4. a) HCl + KOH KCl + H2O
b) H2SO4 + 2 KOH K2SO4 + 2 H2O
c) 2 H3PO4 + 3 Ni(OH)2 Ni3(PO4)2 + 6 H2O
5. a) HI(aq) + KOH(aq) KCl(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
b) H2SO4(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2 H2O(ℓ)

6. a) H+(aq) + OH−(aq) H2O(ℓ)
b) 2 H+(aq) + SO42−(aq) + Ba2+(aq) + 2 OH−(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2 H2O(ℓ)

7. Complete ionic equation:
2 H+(aq) + 2 ClO3−(aq) + Zn2+(aq) + 2 OH−(aq) Zn2+(aq) + 2 ClO3−(aq) + 2 H2O(ℓ)
Net ionic equation:

2 H+(aq) + 2 OH−(aq) 2 H2O(ℓ)
8. Because the salts are soluble in both cases, the net ionic reaction is just H+(aq) + OH−(aq)
H2O(ℓ).
9. Complete ionic equation:
H3O+(aq) + Cl−(aq) + K+(aq) + OH−(aq) 2 H2O(ℓ) + K+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

Net ionic equation:
H3O+(aq) + OH−(aq) 2 H2O(ℓ)
The difference is simply the presence of an extra water molecule as a product.
10. a) ;
b) ;
11. a)
b)
12. a)
b)
Glossary
acid: substance that produces H3O+ when dissolved in water
acid-base reaction: reaction involving the transfer of a hydrogen ion

between reactant species
base: substance that produces OH− when dissolved in water
neutralization reaction: reaction between an acid and a base to produce

salt and water
salt: ionic compound that can be formed by the reaction of an acid with a
base that contains a cation and an anion other than hydroxide or oxide
strong acid: acid that reacts completely when dissolved in water to yield
hydronium ions
strong base: base that reacts completely when dissolved in water to yield
hydroxide ions
weak acid: acid that reacts only to a slight extent when dissolved in water
to yield hydronium ions
weak base: base that reacts only to a slight extent when dissolved in
water to yield hydroxide ions




6.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Learning Objectives
• Define oxidation and reduction.

• Assign oxidation numbers to atoms in simple compounds.
• Recognize a reaction as an oxidation-reduction reaction.
• Recognize composition, decomposition, combustion and single replacement reactions.
• Predict the products of a combustion reaction.
Redox Reactions
Earth’s atmosphere contains about 20% molecular oxygen, O2, a

chemically reactive gas that plays an essential role in the metabolism
of aerobic organisms and in many environmental processes that shape
the world. The term oxidation was originally used to describe chemical
reactions involving O2, but its meaning has evolved to refer to a broad
and important reaction class known as oxidation-reduction (redox)
reactions. A few examples of such reactions will be used to develop a
clear picture of this classification.
478
Some redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons between reactant

species to yield ionic products, such as the reaction between sodium and
chlorine to yield sodium chloride:
It is helpful to view the process with regard to each individual reactant,

that is, to represent the fate of each reactant in the form of an equation
called a half-reaction:
These equations show that Na atoms lose electrons while Cl atoms (in
the Cl2 molecule) gain electrons, the “s” subscripts for the resulting ions
signifying they are present in the form of a solid ionic compound. For
redox reactions of this sort, the loss and gain of electrons define the
complementary processes that occur:
In this reaction, then, sodium is oxidized and chlorine undergoes

reduction. Viewed from a more active perspective, sodium functions as
a reducing agent (reductant), since it provides electrons to (or reduces)
chlorine. Likewise, chlorine functions as an oxidizing agent (oxidant),
as it effectively removes electrons from (oxidizes) sodium.
6.4 OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS • 480
Some redox processes, however, do not involve the transfer of electrons.

Consider, for example, a reaction similar to the one yielding NaCl:
The product of this reaction is a covalent compound, so transfer of

electrons in the explicit sense is not involved. To clarify the similarity of
this reaction to the previous one and permit an unambiguous definition
of redox reactions, a property called oxidation number has been defined.
The oxidation number (or oxidation state) of an element in a
compound is the charge its atoms would possess if the compound was
ionic.
The following guidelines are used to assign oxidation numbers to each
element in a molecule or ion:
1. The oxidation number of an atom in an elemental substance is

zero.
2. The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is equal to the ion’s

charge.
3. Oxidation numbers for common non-metals are usually

assigned as follows:
◦ Hydrogen: +1 when combined with nonmetals, −1

when combined with metals
◦ Oxygen: −2 in most compounds, sometimes −1 (so-

called peroxides, O22−), very rarely (so-called

superoxides, O2−), positive values when combined
with F (values vary)
◦ Halogens: −1 for F always, −1 for other halogens

except when combined with oxygen or other
halogens (positive oxidation numbers in these cases,
varying values)
4. The sum of oxidation numbers for all atoms in a molecule or

polyatomic ion equals the charge on the molecule or ion.
Note: The proper convention for reporting charge is to write the number
first, followed by the sign (e.g., 2+), while oxidation number is written
with the reversed sequence, sign followed by number (e.g., +2). This
convention aims to emphasize the distinction between these two related
properties.
Example 1
Follow the guidelines in this section of the text to assign oxidation numbers to all the elements in the
following species:
a) H2S
b) SO32−
c) Na2SO4
Solution
a) According to guideline 1, the oxidation number for H is +1.
Using this oxidation number and the compound’s formula, guideline 4 may then be used to calculate
the oxidation number for sulfur:
b) Guideline 3 suggests the oxidation number for oxygen is −2.

Using this oxidation number and the ion’s formula, guideline 4 may then be used to calculate the
oxidation number for sulfur:
c) For ionic compounds, it’s convenient to assign oxidation numbers for the cation and anion
separately.
According to guideline 2, the oxidation number for sodium is +1.
Assuming the usual oxidation number for oxygen (-2 per guideline 3), the oxidation number for
sulfur is calculated as directed by guideline 4:
Test Yourself
Assign oxidation states to the elements whose atoms are underlined in each of the following compounds
or ions:
a) KNO3 b) AlH3 c) NH4+ d) H2PO4−
Answers
a) N, +5 b) Al, +3 c) N, −3 d) P, +5
Example 2
Assign oxidation numbers to the atoms in each substance.

a) Br2 b) SiO2 c) Ba(NO3)2
Solution
a) Br2 is the elemental form of bromine. Therefore, by rule 1, each atom has an oxidation number of
0.
b) By rule 3, oxygen is normally assigned an oxidation number of −2. For the sum of the oxidation
numbers to equal the charge on the species (which is zero), the silicon atom is assigned an oxidation
number of +4.
c) The compound barium nitrate can be separated into two parts: the Ba2+ ion and the nitrate ion.
Considering these separately, the Ba2+ ion has an oxidation number of +2 by rule 2. Now consider the
NO3− ion. Oxygen is assigned an oxidation number of −2, and there are three oxygens. According to
rule 4, the sum of the oxidation number on all atoms must equal the charge on the species, so we have
the simple algebraic equation
x + 3(−2) = −1
where x is the oxidation number of the nitrogen atom and −1 represents the charge on the species.
Evaluating,
x + (−6) = −1
x = +5
Thus, the oxidation number on the N atom in the nitrate ion is +5.
Test Yourself
Assign oxidation numbers to the atoms in H3PO4.
Answer
H = +1, O = −2, P = +5
Using the oxidation number concept, an all-inclusive definition of redox

reaction has been established. Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions
are those in which one or more elements involved undergo a change in
oxidation number. While the vast majority of redox reactions involve
changes in oxidation number for two or more elements, a few interesting
exceptions to this rule do exist Example 5c). Definitions for the
complementary processes of this reaction class are correspondingly
revised as shown here:
Returning to the reactions used to introduce this topic, they may now
both be identified as redox processes. In the reaction between sodium
and chlorine to yield sodium chloride, sodium is oxidized (its oxidation
number increases from 0 in Na to +1 in NaCl) and chlorine is reduced

(its oxidation number decreases from 0 in Cl2 to −1 in NaCl). In the
reaction between molecular hydrogen and chlorine, hydrogen is oxidized
(its oxidation number increases from 0 in H2 to +1 in HCl) and chlorine
is reduced (its oxidation number decreases from 0 in Cl2 to −1 in HCl).
Classification of Redox Reactions
Four classifications of chemical reactions will be reviewed in this section.

Predicting the products in some of them may be difficult, but the reactions
are still easy to recognize.
1 – A composition reaction (sometimes also called a combination

reaction or a synthesis reaction) produces a single substance from
multiple reactants. A single substance as a product is the key
characteristic of the composition reaction. There may be a coefficient
other than one for the substance, but if the reaction has only a single
substance as a product, it can be called a composition reaction. In the
reaction
2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(ℓ)
water is produced from hydrogen and oxygen. Although there are two
molecules of water being produced, there is only one
substance—water—as a product. So this is a composition reaction.
2 – A decomposition reaction starts from a single substance and

produces more than one substance; that is, it decomposes. One substance
as a reactant and more than one substance as the products is the key
characteristic of a decomposition reaction. For example, in the
decomposition of sodium hydrogen carbonate (also known as sodium
bicarbonate),
2 NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(ℓ)
sodium carbonate, carbon dioxide, and water are produced from the
single substance sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Composition and decomposition reactions are difficult to predict;

however, they should be easy to recognize.
Example 3
Identify each equation as a composition reaction, a decomposition reaction, or neither.

a) Fe2O3 + 3 SO3 Fe2(SO4)3
b) NaCl + AgNO3 AgCl + NaNO3
c) (NH4)2Cr2O7 Cr2O3 + 4 H2O + N2
Solution
a) In this equation, two substances combine to make a single substance. This is a composition
reaction.
b) Two different substances react to make two new substances. This does not fit the definition of
either a composition reaction or a decomposition reaction, so it is neither. In fact, you may recognize
this as a double-replacement reaction.
c) A single substance reacts to make multiple substances. This is a decomposition reaction.
Test Yourself
Identify the equation as a composition reaction, a decomposition reaction, or neither.

C3H8 C 3H 4 + 2 H 2
Answer
decomposition
3 – Combustion reactions in which the reductant, also called a fuel, and

oxidant, molecular oxygen, react vigorously and produce significant
amounts of heat, and often light, in the form of a flame. Combustion
reactions produce oxides of all other elements as products; any nitrogen
in the reactant is converted to elemental nitrogen, N2. Many reactants,
called fuels, contain mostly carbon and hydrogen atoms, reacting with
oxygen to produce CO2 and H2O. For example, the balanced chemical
equation for the combustion of methane, CH4, is as follows:
CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O
Kerosene can be approximated with the formula C12H26, and its

combustion equation is
2 C12H26 + 37 O2 24 CO2 + 26 H2O
Sometimes fuels contain oxygen atoms, which must be counted when

balancing the chemical equation. One common fuel is ethanol, C2H5OH,
whose combustion equation is
C2H5OH + 3 O2 2 CO2 + 3 H2O

If nitrogen is present in the original fuel, it is converted to N2, not

to a nitrogen-oxygen compound. Thus, for the combustion of the fuel
dinitroethylene, whose formula is C2H2N2O4, we have
2 C2H2N2O4 + O2 4 CO2 + 2 H2O + 2 N2
Example 4
Complete and balance each combustion equation.

a) the combustion of propane, C3H8
b) the combustion of ammonia, NH3
Figure 1. Propane is a fuel used to provide heat

for some homes. Propane is stored in large
tanks like that shown here. Source: “flowers
and propane” by vistavision is licensed under
the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.0
Generic
Solution
a) The products of the reaction are CO2 and H2O, so our unbalanced equation is
C3H8 + O2 CO2 + H2O
Balancing (and you may have to go back and forth a few times to balance this), we get
C3H8 + 5 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
b) The nitrogen atoms in ammonia will react to make N2, while the hydrogen atoms will react with
O2 to make H2O:
NH3 + O2 N2 + H2O
To balance this equation without fractions (which is the convention), we get
4 NH3 + 3 O2 2 N2 + 6 H2O
Test Yourself
Complete and balance the combustion equation for cyclopropanol, C3H6O.
Answer
C3H6O + 4 O2 3 CO2 + 3 H2O
Watch a brief video showing the test firing of a small-scale, prototype, hybrid rocket engine planned
for use in the new Space Launch System being developed by NASA. The first engines firing at 3 s
(green flame) use a liquid fuel/oxidant mixture, and the second, more powerful engines firing at 4 s
(yellow flame) use a solid mixture.
4 – Single-displacement (replacement) reactions are redox reactions in

which an ion in solution is displaced (or replaced) via the oxidation of
a metallic element. One common example of this type of reaction is the
acid oxidation of certain metals:
Metallic elements may also be oxidized by solutions of other metal salts;

for example:
This reaction may be observed by placing copper wire in a solution

containing a dissolved silver salt. Silver ions in solution are reduced to
elemental silver at the surface of the copper wire, and the resulting Cu2+
ions dissolve in the solution to yield a characteristic blue color (Figure 2).
Figure 2. (a) A copper wire is shown next to a solution containing silver(I) ions.
(b) Displacement of dissolved silver ions by copper ions results in (c)
accumulation of gray-colored silver metal on the wire and development of a blue
color in the solution, due to dissolved copper ions. (credit: modification of work
by Mark Ott)
Example 5
Identify which equations represent redox reactions, providing a name for the reaction if appropriate.
For those reactions identified as redox, name the oxidant and reductant.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Solution
Redox reactions are identified per definition if one or more elements undergo a change in oxidation
number.
a) This is not a redox reaction, since oxidation numbers remain unchanged for all elements.
b) This is a redox reaction. Gallium is oxidized, its oxidation number increasing from 0 in Ga(l) to
+3 in GaBr3(s). The reducing agent is Ga(l). Bromine is reduced, its oxidation number decreasing from
0 in Br2(l) to −1 in GaBr3(s). The oxidizing agent is Br2(l).
c) This is a redox reaction. It is a particularly interesting process, as it involves the same element,
oxygen, undergoing both oxidation and reduction (a so-called disproportionation reaction). Oxygen is
oxidized, its oxidation number increasing from −1 in H2O2(aq) to 0 in O2(g). Oxygen is also reduced,
its oxidation number decreasing from −1 in H2O2(aq) to −2 in H2O(l). For disproportionation reactions,
the same substance functions as an oxidant and a reductant.
d) This is not a redox reaction, since oxidation numbers remain unchanged for all elements.
e) This is a redox reaction (combustion). Carbon is oxidized, its oxidation number increasing from
−2 in C2H4(g) to +4 in CO2(g). The reducing agent (fuel) is C2H4(g). Oxygen is reduced, its oxidation
number decreasing from 0 in O2(g) to −2 in H2O(l). The oxidizing agent is O2(g).
Test Yourself
This equation describes the production of tin(II) chloride:
Is this a redox reaction? If so, provide a more specific name for the reaction if appropriate, and
identify the oxidant and reductant.
Answer
Yes, a single-replacement reaction. Sn(s) is the reductant, HCl(g) is the oxidant.

behavior. Redox reactions involve a change in oxidation number for
one or more reactant elements. There are four classifications of chemical
reactions: composition, decomposition, combustion and single
displacement.
Exercises
1. Is the reaction
2 K(s) + Br2(ℓ) 2 KBr(s)
an oxidation-reduction reaction? Explain your answer.
2. In the reaction
2 Ca(s) + O2(g) 2 CaO

indicate what has lost electrons and what has gained electrons.
3. In the reaction
2 Li(s) + O2(g) Li2O2(s)

indicate what has been oxidized and what has been reduced.
4. Assign oxidation numbers to each atom in each substance.
a) P4 b) SO2
c) SO22− d) Ca(NO3)2
5. . Assign oxidation numbers to each atom in each substance.
a) CO b) CO2
c) NiCl2 d) NiCl3
6. Assign oxidation numbers to each atom in each substance.
a) CH2O b) NH3
c) Rb2SO4 d) Zn(C2H3O2)2
7. Identify what is being oxidized and reduced in this redox equation by assigning oxidation numbers
to the atoms.
2 NO + Cl2 2 NOCl
8. Identify what is being oxidized and reduced in this redox equation by assigning oxidation numbers
to the atoms.
2 KrF2 + 2 H2O 2 Kr + 4 HF + O2
9. Identify what is being oxidized and reduced in this redox equation by assigning oxidation numbers to
the atoms.
2 K + MgCl2 2 KCl + Mg
10. Indicate what type, or types, of reaction each of the following represents:
a)
b)
c)
11. Indicate what type, or types, of reaction each of the following represents:
a)
b)
c)
d)
12. Silver can be separated from gold because silver dissolves in nitric acid while gold does not. Is the
dissolution of silver in nitric acid an acid-base reaction or an oxidation-reduction reaction? Explain your
answer.
13. Determine the oxidation states of the elements in the compounds listed. None of the oxygen-
containing compounds are peroxides or superoxides.
a) H3PO4 b) Al(OH)3 c) SeO2
d) KNO2 e) In2S3 f) P4O6
14. Classify the following as acid-base reactions or oxidation-reduction reactions:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
15. Complete and balance the following acid-base equations:
a) HCl gas reacts with solid Ca(OH)2(s).
b) A solution of Sr(OH)2 is added to a solution of HNO3.
16. Complete and balance the following oxidation-reduction reactions, which give the highest possible
oxidation state for the oxidized atoms.
a)
b)
c)
d)
17. The military has experimented with lasers that produce very intense light when fluorine combines
explosively with hydrogen. What is the balanced equation for this reaction?
18. Great Lakes Chemical Company produces bromine, Br2, from bromide salts such as NaBr, in
Arkansas brine by treating the brine with chlorine gas. Write a balanced equation for the reaction of NaBr
with Cl2.
19. Lithium hydroxide may be used to absorb carbon dioxide in enclosed environments, such as
manned spacecraft and submarines. Write an equation for the reaction that involves 2 mol of LiOH per 1
mol of CO2. (Hint: Water is one of the products.)
20. Complete and balance the equations of the following reactions, each of which could be used to
remove hydrogen sulfide from natural gas:
a)
b)
21. Write balanced chemical equations for the reactions used to prepare each of the following
compounds from the given starting material(s). In some cases, additional reactants may be required.
a) solid ammonium nitrate from gaseous molecular nitrogen via a two-step process (first reduce the
nitrogen to ammonia, then neutralize the ammonia with an appropriate acid)
b) gaseous hydrogen bromide from liquid molecular bromine via a one-step redox reaction
c) gaseous H2S from solid Zn and S via a two-step process (first a redox reaction between the starting
materials, then reaction of the product with a strong acid)
22. Which is a composition reaction and which is not?
a) NaCl + AgNO3 AgCl + NaNO3
b) CaO + CO2 CaCO3
23. Which is a composition reaction and which is not?
a) 2 SO2 + O2 2 SO3
b) 6 C + 3 H2 C6H6
24. Which is a decomposition reaction and which is not?
a) HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

b) CaCO3 CaO + CO2
25. Which is a decomposition reaction and which is not?
a) Na2O + CO2 Na2CO3

b) H2SO3 H2O + SO2
26. Which is a combustion reaction and which is not?
a) C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

b) 2 Fe2S3 + 9 O2 2 Fe2O3 + 6 SO2
27. Which is a combustion reaction and which is not?
a) P4 + 5 O2 2 P2O5
b) 2 Al2S3 + 9 O2 2 Al2O3 + 6 SO2
28. Is it possible for a composition reaction to also be a combustion reaction? Give an example to
support your case.
29. Complete and balance each combustion equation.
a) C4H9OH + O2 ?
b) CH3NO2 + O2 ?
Answers
1. Yes; both K and Br are changing oxidation numbers.
2. Ca has lost electrons, and O has gained electrons.
3. Li has been oxidized, and O has been reduced.
4. a) P: 0
b) S: +4; O: −2
c) S: +2; O: −2
d) Ca: 2+; N: +5; O: −2
5. a) C: +2; O: −2
b) C: +4; O: −2
c) Ni: +2; Cl: −1
d) Ni: +3; Cl: −1
6. a) C: 0; H: +1; O: −2
b) N: −3; H: +1
c) Rb: +1; S: +6; O: −2
d) Zn: +2; C: 0; H: +1; O: −2
7. N is being oxidized, and Cl is being reduced.
8. O is being oxidized, and Kr is being reduced.
9. K is being oxidized, and Mg is being reduced.
10. a) oxidation-reduction (addition); b) acid-base (neutralization); c) oxidation-reduction
(combustion)
11. a) single replacement; b) decomposition; c) acid-base; d) precipitation
12. It is an oxidation-reduction reaction because the oxidation state of the silver changes during the
reaction.
13. a) H +1, P +5, O −2; b) Al +3, H +1, O −2; c) Se +4, O −2;
d) K +1, N +3, O −2; e) In +3, S −2; f) P +3, O −2
14. a) acid-base; b) oxidation-reduction: Na is oxidized, H+ is reduced;
c) oxidation-reduction: Mg is oxidized, Cl2 is reduced; d) acid-base;

e) oxidation-reduction: P3− is oxidized, O2 is reduced; f) acid-base
15. a) ;
b) ;
16. a) ;
b) ;
c) ;
d) ;
17.
18.
19.
20. a)
b)
21. a) step 1: ,
step 2:
b)
c)
22. a) not composition b) composition
23. a) composition b) composition
24. a) not decomposition b) decomposition

25. a) not decomposition b) decomposition
26. a) combustion b) combustion
27. a) combustion b) combustion
28. Yes; 2 H2 + O2 2 H2O (answers will vary)

29. a) C4H9OH + 6 O2 4 CO2 + 5 H2O
b) 4 CH3NO2 + 3 O2 4 CO2 + 6 H2O + 2 N2
Glossary
combustion reaction: vigorous redox reaction producing significant

amounts of energy in the form of heat and, sometimes, light
half-reaction: an equation that shows whether each reactant loses or

gains electrons in a reaction.
oxidation: process in which an element’s oxidation number is increased

by loss of electrons
oxidation-reduction reaction: (also, redox reaction) reaction involving

a change in oxidation number for one or more reactant elements
oxidation number: (also, oxidation state) the charge each atom of an

element would have in a compound if the compound were ionic
oxidizing agent: (also, oxidant) substance that brings about the oxidation
of another substance, and in the process becomes reduced
reduction: process in which an element’s oxidation number is decreased

by gain of electrons
reducing agent: (also, reductant) substance that brings about the

reduction of another substance, and in the process becomes oxidized
single-displacement reaction: (also, replacement) redox reaction

involving the oxidation of an elemental substance by an ionic species



1. Chemical equations can also be used to represent physical processes.

Write a chemical equation for the boiling of water, including the proper
phase labels.
2. Chemical equations can also be used to represent physical processes.

Write a chemical equation for the freezing of water, including the proper
phase labels.
3. Explain why the following chemical equation should not be considered

a proper chemical equation:
4 Na(s) + 2 Cl2(g) 4 NaCl(s)
4. Does the following chemical reaction proceed as written? Why or why

not?
3 Zn(s) + 2 Al(NO3)3(aq) 3 Zn(NO3)2(aq) + 2 Al(s)
5. Explain what is wrong with this double-replacement reaction.
NaCl(aq) + KBr(aq) NaK(aq) + ClBr(aq)

498
6. Predict the products of and balance this double-replacement reaction.
Ag2SO4(aq) + SrCl2(aq) ?
7. Write the complete and net ionic equations for this double-replacement
reaction.
BaCl2(aq) + Ag2SO4(aq) ?
8. Write the complete and net ionic equations for this double-replacement
reaction.
Ag2SO4(aq) + SrCl2(aq) ?
9. Identify the spectator ions in this reaction. What is the net ionic
equation?
NaCl(aq) + KBr(aq) NaBr(aq) + KCl(aq)
10. Can a reaction be a composition reaction and a redox reaction at the

same time? Give an example to support your answer.
11. Can a reaction be a decomposition reaction and a redox reaction at the

same time? Give an example to support your answer.
12. Why is CH4 not normally considered an acid?
13. What are the oxidation numbers of the nitrogen atoms in these
substances?
a) N2 b) NH3 c) NO d) N2O
e) NO2 f) N2O4 g) N2O5 h) NaNO3
14. Disproportion is a type of redox reaction in which the same

substance is both oxidized and reduced. Identify the element that is
disproportionating and indicate the initial and final oxidation numbers of
that element.
2 CuCl(aq) CuCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
15. Write the unbalanced chemical equation for each of the following
reactions.
a) solid mercury(II) oxide decomposes to produce liquid mercury metal

and gaseous oxygen.
b) Solid zinc metal reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce zinc chloride
dissolved in water and hydrogen gas.
c) Propane (C3H8) gas reacts with oxygen in air to produce gaseous

carbon dioxide and water vapor.
d) Solid ammonium nitrate can be produced by bubbling ammonia gas

through nitric acid solution.
e) Elemental boron can be produced by heating solid diboron trioxide

with magnesium metal, also producing solid magnesium oxide as a by-
product.
16. Beneath each word equation, write the formula equation and balance
it:
a) zinc + sulfuric acid zinc sulfate + hydrogen
b) carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide
c) hydrogen + oxygen water
d) aluminum + hydrochloric acid aluminum chloride + hydrogen
e) chromium + oxygen chromium(III) oxide
f) potassium + water potassium hydroxide + hydrogen
g) copper(II) oxide + hydrochloric acid copper(II) chloride + water
h) sodium hydrogen carbonate + nitric acid sodium nitrate + water +

carbon dioxide
a) H3PO4 + CaO Ca3(PO4)2 + H2O
b) NH3 + O2 NO2 + H2O
c) Cl2O7 + H2O HClO4
d) Mg3N2 + H2O Mg(OH)2 + NH3

e) FeSO4 Fe2O3 + SO2 + O2
f)P4 + Cl2 PCl3
g) MnO2 + C Mn + CO2
h) Na2O2 + H2O NaOH + O2
i) CaH2 + H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2
j)NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
a) Mg + O2 MgO
b) KClO3 KCl + O2
c) Fe + O2 Fe3O4
d) Mg + HCl MgCl2 + H2
e) Na + H2O NaOH + H2
f) N2+ H2 NH3
g) Na2CO3•10H2O Na2CO3+ H2O
h) Fe + H2O Fe3O4+ H2
i) F2 + H2O HF + O2
19. Balance the following chemical equations.
a) Ca3(PO4)2 + SiO2 + C P4 + CaSiO3 + CO2
b) C2H6O2 + O3 CO2 + H2O
c) Fe3O4 + S8 Fe2S3 + SO3
d) P2S5 + O2 S8 + P 3O 8
e) C3H8 + SO2 C2H4O4 + H2O + S8
20. Predict whether or not a reaction will occur when each of the
following pairs of solutions are mixed. If no reaction occurs, write NR
on the right hand side of the equation. If a reaction does occur, complete
and balance the equations as molecular equations, and give the balanced
complete ionic and net ionic equations as well. Be sure to indicate the
states of all reagents.
a) NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq)
b) BaCl2(aq) + H2SO4(aq)
c) FeCl3(aq) + NH4OH(aq)
d) K2CrO4(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq)
e) KClO3(aq) + MgCl2(aq)
f) (NH4)2CO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq)
g) NaC2H3O2(aq) + BaCl2(aq)
21. Identify each of the following unbalanced reaction equations as

belonging to one or more of the following categories: precipitation, acid-
base, or redox.
a) Fe(s)+ H2SO4(aq) Fe3(SO4)2(aq)+ H2(g)
b) HClO4(aq)+ RbOH(aq) RbClO4(aq)+ H2O(l)
c) Ca(s)+ O2(g) CaO(s)
d) H2SO4(aq)+ NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq)+ H2O(l)
e) Pb(NO3)2(aq)+ Na2CO3(aq) PbCO3(s)+ NaNO3(aq)
f) K2SO4(aq)+ CaCl2(aq) KCl(aq)+ CaSO4(s)
22. Classify the following unbalanced chemical reactions by as many

methods as possible.
a) I4O9(s) I2O6(s)+ I2(s)+ O2(g)
b) Mg(s)+ AgNO3(aq) Mg(NO3)2(aq)+ Ag(s)
c) SiCl4(l)+ Mg(s) MgCl2(aq)+ Si(s)
d) CuCl2(aq)+ AgNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq)+ AgCl(s)

e) Al(s)+ Br2(l) AlBr3(s)
f) HBr(aq)+ NaOH(aq) NaBr(aq)+ H2O(l)
Answers
1. H2O(ℓ) H2O(g)
2. H2O(ℓ) H2O(s)
3. The coefficients are not in their lowest whole-number ratio.
4. No; zinc is lower in the activity series than aluminum.
5. In the products, the cation is pairing with the cation, and the anion is
pairing with the anion.
6. Ag2SO4(aq) + SrCl2(aq) SrSO4(s) + 2 AgCl(s)
7. Complete ionic equation: Ba2+(aq) + 2 Cl−(aq) + 2 Ag+(aq)

+ SO42−(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2 AgCl(s)
Net ionic equation: The net ionic equation is the same as the complete
ionic equation.
8. Complete ionic equation: Sr2+(aq) + 2 Cl−(aq) + 2 Ag+(aq)

+ SO42−(aq) SrSO4(s) + 2 AgCl(s)
Net ionic equation: The net ionic equation is the same as the complete
ionic equation.
9. Each ion is a spectator ion; there is no overall net ionic equation.
10. Yes; H2 + Cl2 2 HCl (answers will vary)
11. Yes; 2 HCl H2 + Cl2 (answers will vary)
12. It does not increase the H+ ion concentration; it is not a compound of

H+ .
13. a) 0 b) −3 c) +2 d) +1
e) +4 f) +4 g) +5 h) +5
14. Copper is disproportionating. Initially, its oxidation number is +1; in

the products, its oxidation numbers are +2 and 0, respectively.
15. a) HgO(s) Hg(l) + O2(g)

b) Zn(s) + HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
c) C3H8(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g)
d) NH3(g) + HNO3(aq) NH4NO3(s)
e) B2O3(s) + Mg(s) B(s) + MgO(s)
16. a) Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

b) C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
c) 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
d) 2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
e) 4Cr(s) + 3O2(g) 2Cr2O3(s)

f) 2K(s) + 2H2O(aq) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
g) CuO(s) + 2HCl(aq) CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
h) NaHCO3(aq) + HNO3(aq) NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
17. a) 2H3PO4 + 3CaO Ca3(PO4)2 + 3H2O

b) 4NH3 + 7O2 4NO2 + 6H2O
c) Cl2O7 + H2O 2HClO4
d) Mg3N2 + 6H2O 3Mg(OH)2 + 2NH3
e) 4FeSO4 2Fe2O3 + 4SO2 + O2
f) P4+ 6Cl2 4PCl3
g) MnO2 + C Mn + CO2
h) 2Na2O2 + 2H2O 4NaOH + O2
i) CaH2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + 2H2
j) 2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
18. a) 2Mg + O2 2MgO

b) 2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
c) 3Fe + 2O2 Fe3O4
d) Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2
e) 2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2
f) N2+ 3H2 2NH3
g) Na2CO3• 10H2O Na2CO3+ 10H2O
h) 3Fe + 4H2O Fe3O4+ 4H2
i) 2F2 + 2H2O 4HF + O2
19. Balance the following chemical equations.

a) 2 Ca3(PO4)2+ 6 SiO2+ 5 C P4+ 6 CaSiO3+ 5 CO2
b) 3 C2H6O2 + 5 O3 6 CO2 + 9 H2O
c) 48 Fe3O4 + 35 S8 72 Fe2S3 + 64 SO3
d) 24 P2S5 + 64O2 15 S8 + 16 P3O8
e) 16 C3H8 + 56 SO2 24 C2H4O4 + 16 H2O + 7 S8
20. a) NaCl(aq)+ AgNO3(aq) AgCl(s)+ NaNO3(aq)

Na+(aq)+ Cl–(aq)+ Ag+(aq)+ NO3–(aq)
AgCl(s)+ Na+(aq)+ NO3–(aq)
Cl–(aq)+ Ag+(aq) AgCl(s)
b) BaCl2(aq)+ H2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s)+ 2HCl(aq)

Ba2+(aq)+ 2Cl–(aq)+ 2H+(aq)+ SO42-(aq)
BaSO4(s)+ 2H+(aq)+ 2Cl–(aq)
Ba2+(aq)+ SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)
c) FeCl3(aq)+ 3NH4OH(aq) Fe(OH)3(s)+ 3NH4Cl(aq)

Fe3+(aq)+ 3Cl–(aq)+ 3 NH4+(aq)+ 3OH–(aq)
Fe(OH)3(s)+ 3 NH4+(aq)+ 3Cl–(aq)
Fe3+(aq)+ 3OH–(aq) Fe(OH)3(s)
d) K2CrO4(aq)+ Pb(NO3)2(aq) PbCrO4(s)+ 2KNO3(aq)

2K+(aq)+ CrO42-(aq)+ Pb2+(aq)+ 2NO3–(aq)
PbCrO4(s)+ 2K+(aq)+ 2NO3–(aq)

CrO42-(aq)+ Pb2+(aq) PbCrO4(s)
e) KClO3(aq)+ MgCl2(aq) N.R.
f) (NH4)2CO3(aq)+ CaCl2(aq) CaCO3(s)+ 2NH4Cl(aq)

2NH4+(aq)+ CO32-(aq)+ Ca2+(aq)+ 2Cl–(aq)
CaCO3(s)+ 2NH4+(aq)+ 2Cl–(aq)
CO32-(aq)+ Ca2+(aq) CaCO3(s)
g) NaC2H3O2(aq)+ BaCl2(aq) N.R.
21. a) redox b) acid-base c) redox

d) acid-base e) precipitation f) precipitation
22. a) decomposition, which is a type of redox
b) single-replacement, which is a type of redox
c) single-replacement, which is a type of redox
d) precipitation, which is a type of double replacement (but not redox!)
e) composition (sometimes also called a combination reaction or a

synthesis reaction), which is a type of redox
f) acid-base, which is a type of double replacement (but not redox!)



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Chapter 7. Stoichiometry of
Chemical Reactions
Chapter Topics
• Reaction Stoichiometry
• Limiting Reagent and Reaction Yields
• Molarity
• Other Units for Solution Concentrations
• Quantitative Chemical Analysis
511
Introduction
Figure 1. Many modern rocket fuels are solid mixtures of substances combined in
carefully measured amounts and ignited to yield a thrust-generating chemical
reaction. (credit: modification of work by NASA)
Solid-fuel rockets are a central feature in the world’s space exploration

programs, including the new Space Launch System being developed by
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to replace
the retired Space Shuttle fleet (Figure 1). The engines of these rockets
rely on carefully prepared solid mixtures of chemicals combined in
512
precisely measured amounts. Igniting the mixture initiates a vigorous

chemical reaction that rapidly generates large amounts of gaseous
products. These gases are ejected from the rocket engine through its
nozzle, providing the thrust needed to propel heavy payloads into space.
Both the nature of this chemical reaction and the relationships between
the amounts of the substances being consumed and produced by the
reaction are critically important considerations that determine the success
of the technology. This chapter will describe how to symbolize chemical
reactions using chemical equations, how to classify some common
chemical reactions by identifying patterns of reactivity, and how to
determine the quantitative relations between the amounts of substances
involved in chemical reactions—that is, the reaction stoichiometry.

7.1 Reaction Stoichiometry
Learning Objectives
• Explain the concept of stoichiometry as it pertains to chemical reactions

• Use balanced chemical equations to derive stoichiometric factors relating amounts of
reactants and products
• Perform stoichiometric calculations involving mass, moles, and solution molarity
A balanced chemical equation provides a great deal of information in

a very succinct format. Chemical formulas provide the identities of the
reactants and products involved in the chemical change, allowing
classification of the reaction. Coefficients provide the relative numbers
of these chemical species, allowing a quantitative assessment of the
relationships between the amounts of substances consumed and produced
by the reaction. These quantitative relationships are known as the
reaction’s stoichiometry, a term derived from the Greek words
stoicheion (meaning “element”) and metron (meaning “measure”). In
this module, the use of balanced chemical equations for various
stoichiometric applications is explored.
514
The general approach to using stoichiometric relationships is similar

in concept to the way people go about many common activities. Food
preparation, for example, offers an appropriate comparison. A recipe for
making eight pancakes calls for 1 cup pancake mix, cup milk, and one
egg. The “equation” representing the preparation of pancakes per this
recipe is
If two dozen pancakes are needed for a big family breakfast, the
ingredient amounts must be increased proportionally according to the
amounts given in the recipe. For example, the number of eggs required to
make 24 pancakes is
Balanced chemical equations are used in much the same fashion to

determine the amount of one reactant required to react with a given
amount of another reactant, or to yield a given amount of product, and
so forth. The coefficients in the balanced equation are used to derive
stoichiometric factors that permit computation of the desired quantity.
To illustrate this idea, consider the production of ammonia by reaction of
hydrogen and nitrogen:
This equation shows ammonia molecules are produced from hydrogen

7.1 REACTION STOICHIOMETRY • 516
molecules in a 2:3 ratio, and stoichiometric factors may be derived using

any amount (number) unit:
These stoichiometric factors can be used to compute the number of

ammonia molecules produced from a given number of hydrogen
molecules, or the number of hydrogen molecules required to produce a
given number of ammonia molecules. Similar factors may be derived for
any pair of substances in any chemical equation.
Example 1
How many moles of I2 are required to react with 0.429 mol of Al according to the following equation
(see Figure 1)?
Figure 1. Aluminum and iodine react to produce aluminum iodide. The heat of the reaction vaporizes some of the
solid iodine as a purple vapor. (credit: modification of work by Mark Ott)
Solution
Referring to the balanced chemical equation, the stoichiometric factor relating the two substances of
interest is . The molar amount of iodine is derived by multiplying the provided molar amount of
aluminum by this factor:
Test Yourself
How many moles of Ca(OH)2 are required to react with 1.36 mol of H3PO4 to produce Ca3(PO4)2
according to the equation ?
Answer
2.04 mol
Example 2
How many carbon dioxide molecules are produced when 0.75 mol of propane is combusted
according to this equation?
Solution
The approach here is the same as for Example 1, though the absolute number of molecules is requested,
not the number of moles of molecules. This will simply require use of the moles-to-numbers conversion
factor, Avogadro’s number.
The balanced equation shows that carbon dioxide is produced from propane in a 3:1 ratio:
Using this stoichiometric factor, the provided molar amount of propane, and Avogadro’s number,
Test Yourself
How many NH3 molecules are produced by the reaction of 4.0 mol of Ca(OH)2 according to the
following equation:
Answer
4.8 × 1024 NH3 molecules
These examples illustrate the ease with which the amounts of substances
involved in a chemical reaction of known stoichiometry may be related.
Directly measuring numbers of atoms and molecules is, however, not an
easy task, and the practical application of stoichiometry requires that we
use the more readily measured property of mass.
Example 3
What mass of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, would be required to produce 16 g of the antacid milk of
magnesia [magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2] by the following reaction?
Solution
The approach used previously in Example 1 and Example 2 is likewise used here; that is, we must
derive an appropriate stoichiometric factor from the balanced chemical equation and use it to relate
the amounts of the two substances of interest. In this case, however, masses (not molar amounts) are
provided and requested, so additional steps of the sort learned in the previous chapter are required. The
calculations required are outlined in this flowchart:
Test Yourself
What mass of gallium oxide, Ga2O3, can be prepared from 29.0 g of gallium metal? The equation for
the reaction is
Answer
39.0 g
Example 4
What mass of oxygen gas, O2, from the air is consumed in the combustion of 702 g of octane, C8H18,
one of the principal components of gasoline?
Solution
The approach required here is the same as for the Example 3, differing only in that the provided and
requested masses are both for reactant species.
Test Yourself
What mass of CO is required to react with 25.13 g of Fe2O3 according to the equation
Answer
13.22 g
These examples illustrate just a few instances of reaction stoichiometry

calculations. Numerous variations on the beginning and ending
computational steps are possible depending upon what particular
quantities are provided and sought (volumes, solution concentrations,
and so forth). Regardless of the details, all these calculations share a
common essential component: the use of stoichiometric factors derived
from balanced chemical equations. Figure 2 provides a general outline
of the various computational steps associated with many reaction
stoichiometry calculations.
Figure 2. The flowchart depicts the various computational steps involved in most
reaction stoichiometry calculations.
Airbags
Airbags (Figure 3) are a safety feature provided in most automobiles since the 1990s. The effective
operation of an airbag requires that it be rapidly inflated with an appropriate amount (volume) of gas
when the vehicle is involved in a collision. This requirement is satisfied in many automotive airbag
systems through use of explosive chemical reactions, one common choice being the decomposition
of sodium azide, NaN3. When sensors in the vehicle detect a collision, an electrical current is passed
through a carefully measured amount of NaN3 to initiate its decomposition:
Figure 3. Airbags deploy upon impact to minimize serious injuries

to passengers. (credit: Jon Seidman)
This reaction is very rapid, generating gaseous nitrogen that can deploy and fully inflate a typical
airbag in a fraction of a second (~0.03–0.1 s).
Among many engineering considerations, the amount of sodium azide used must be appropriate for
generating enough nitrogen gas to fully inflate the air bag and ensure its proper function.
For example, a small mass (~100 g) of NaN3 will generate approximately 50 L of N2.
Example 5
How many molecules of SO3 are needed to react with 144 molecules of Fe2O3 given this balanced
chemical equation?
Fe2O3(s) + 3SO3(g) Fe2(SO4)3
Solution
We use the balanced chemical equation to construct a conversion factor between Fe2O3 and SO3. The
number of molecules of Fe2O3 goes on the bottom of our conversion factor so it cancels with our given
amount, and the molecules of SO3 go on the top. Thus, the appropriate conversion factor is
Starting with our given amount and applying the conversion factor, the result is
We need 432 molecules of SO3 to react with 144 molecules of Fe2O3.
Test Yourself
How many molecules of H2 are needed to react with 29 molecules of N2 to make ammonia if the
balanced chemical equation is N2 + 3H2 2NH3?
Answer
87 molecules
Example 6
How many molecules of NH3 can you make if you have 228 atoms of H2?
Solution
From the formula, we know that one molecule of NH3 has three H atoms. Use that fact as a
conversion factor:
Test Yourself
How many molecules of Fe2(SO4)3 can you make from 777 atoms of S?
Answer
259 molecules
Example 7
How many moles of HCl will be produced when 249 g of AlCl3 are reacted according to this
chemical equation? The molar mass of AlCl3 is 133.34 g/mol.
2 AlCl3 + 3 H2O(ℓ) Al2O3 + 6 HCl(g)
Solution
We will do this in two steps: convert the mass of AlCl3 to moles and then use the balanced chemical
equation to find the number of moles of HCl formed. The molar mass of AlCl3 is 133.34 g/mol, which
we have to invert to get the appropriate conversion factor:
Now we can use this quantity to determine the number of moles of HCl that will form. From the
balanced chemical equation, we construct a conversion factor between the number of moles of AlCl3
and the number of moles of HCl:
Applying this conversion factor to the quantity of AlCl3, we get
Alternatively, we could have done this in one line:
The last digit in our final answer is slightly different because of rounding differences, but the answer
is essentially the same.
Test Yourself
How many moles of Al2O3 will be produced when 23.9 g of H2O are reacted according to this
chemical equation?
2 AlCl3 + 3 H2O(ℓ) Al2O3 + 6 HCl(g)
Answer
0.442 mol
Example 8
How many grams of NH3 will be produced when 33.9 mol of H2 are reacted according to this
chemical equation? Use 17.03 g/mol as the molar mass of NH3.
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g)
Solution
The conversions are the same, but they are applied in a different order. Start by using the balanced
chemical equation to convert to moles of another substance and then use its molar mass to determine
the mass of the final substance. In two steps, we have
Now, using the molar mass of

NH3, which is 17.03 g/mol, we get
Test Yourself
How many grams of N2 are needed to produce 2.17 mol of NH3 when reacted according to this
chemical equation?
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g)
Answer
30.4 g (Note: here we go from a product to a reactant, showing that mole-mass problems can begin
and end with any substance in the chemical equation.)
Example 9
What mass of Mg will be produced when 86.4 g of K are reacted? Use 39.09 g/mol as the molar
mass of potassium and 24.31 g/mol as the molar mass of magnesium.
MgCl2(s) + 2 K(s) Mg(s) + 2 KCl(s)
Solution
We will simply follow the steps
mass K mol K mol Mg mass Mg
In addition to the balanced chemical equation, we need the molar masses of K (39.09 g/mol) and Mg
(24.31 g/mol). In one line,
Test Yourself
What mass of H2 will be produced when 122 g of Zn are reacted?
Zn(s) + 2 HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Answer
3.77 g
Example 10
Interpret this balanced chemical equation in terms of moles.

P4 + 5 O2 P4O10
Solution
The coefficients represent the number of moles that react, not just molecules. We would speak of this
equation as “one mole of molecular phosphorus reacts with five moles of elemental oxygen to make
one mole of tetraphosphorus decoxide.”
Test Yourself
Interpret this balanced chemical equation in terms of moles.
N2 + 3 H2 2 NH3
Answer
One mole of elemental nitrogen reacts with three moles of elemental hydrogen to produce two moles
of ammonia.
Example 11
For the balanced chemical equation

2 C4H10(g) + 13 O2 8 CO2(g) + 10 H2O(ℓ)
if 154 mol of O2 are reacted, how many moles of CO2 are produced?
Solution
We are relating an amount of oxygen to an amount of carbon dioxide, so we need the equivalence
between these two substances. According to the balanced chemical equation, the equivalence is 13 mol
O2 to 8 mol CO2
We can use this equivalence to construct the proper conversion factor. We start with what we are
given and apply the conversion factor:
The mol O2 unit is in the denominator of the conversion factor so it cancels. Both the 8 and the 13
are exact numbers, so they don’t contribute to the number of significant figures in the final answer.
Test Yourself
Using the above equation, how many moles of H2O are produced when 154 mol of O2 react?
Answer
118 mol
A balanced chemical equation may be used to describe a reaction’s

stoichiometry (the relationships between amounts of reactants and
products). Coefficients from the equation are used to derive
stoichiometric factors that subsequently may be used for computations
relating reactant and product masses, molar amounts, and other
quantitative properties.
Exercises
1. Determine the number of moles and the mass requested for each of the following reactions:
(Hint: Write the balanced equation for each before attempting calculations.)
a) The number of moles and the mass of chlorine, Cl2, required to react with 10.0 g of sodium metal,
Na, to produce sodium chloride, NaCl.
b) The number of moles and the mass of oxygen formed by the decomposition of 1.252 g of
mercury(II) oxide.
c) The number of moles and the mass of sodium nitrate, NaNO3, required to produce 128 g of
oxygen. (NaNO2 is the other product.)
d) The number of moles and the mass of carbon dioxide formed by the combustion of 20.0 kg of
carbon in an excess of oxygen.
e) The number of moles and the mass of copper(II) carbonate needed to produce 1.500 kg of
copper(II) oxide. (CO2 is the other product.)
f)
2. Determine the number of moles and the mass requested for each of the following reactions:
(Hint: Write the balanced equation for each before attempting calculations.)
a) The number of moles and the mass of Mg required to react with 5.00 g of HCl and produce MgCl2
and H2.
b) The number of moles and the mass of oxygen formed by the decomposition of 1.252 g of silver(I)
oxide.
c) The number of moles and the mass of magnesium carbonate, MgCO3, required to produce 283 g
of carbon dioxide. (MgO is the other product.)
d) The number of moles and the mass of water formed by the combustion of 20.0 kg of acetylene,
C2H2, in an excess of oxygen.
e) The number of moles and the mass of barium peroxide, BaO2, needed to produce 2.500 kg of
barium oxide, BaO (O2 is the other product.)
f)
3. Gallium chloride is formed by the reaction of 2.6 L of a 1.44 M solution of HCl according to the
following equation: .
a) Outline the steps necessary to determine the number of moles and mass of gallium chloride.
b) Perform the calculations outlined.
4. Silver is often extracted from ores such as K[Ag(CN)2] and then recovered by the reaction
a) How many molecules of Zn(CN)2 are produced by the reaction of 35.27 g of K[Ag(CN)2]?
b) What mass of Zn(CN)2 is produced?
5. Carborundum is silicon carbide, SiC, a very hard material used as an abrasive on sandpaper and
in other applications. It is prepared by the reaction of pure sand, SiO2, with carbon at high temperature.
Carbon monoxide, CO, is the other product of this reaction. Write the balanced equation for the
reaction, and calculate how much SiO2 is required to produce 3.00 kg of SiC.
6. Urea, CO(NH2)2, is manufactured on a large scale for use in producing urea-formaldehyde plastics
and as a fertilizer. What is the maximum mass of urea that can be manufactured from the CO2 produced
by combustion of 1.00×103kg1.00×103kg of carbon followed by the reaction?
7. A compact car gets 37.5 miles per gallon on the highway. If gasoline contains 84.2% carbon
by mass and has a density of 0.8205 g/mL, determine the mass of carbon dioxide produced during a
500-mile trip (3.785 liters per gallon).
8. What volume of a 0.2089 M KI solution contains enough KI to react exactly with the Cu(NO3)2 in
43.88 mL of a 0.3842 M solution of Cu(NO3)2?
9. The toxic pigment called white lead, Pb3(OH)2(CO3)2, has been replaced in white paints by rutile,
TiO2. How much rutile (g) can be prepared from 379 g of an ore that contains 88.3% ilmenite (FeTiO3)
by mass?
10. Think back to the pound cake recipe. What possible conversion factors can you construct relating
the components of the recipe?
11. What are all the conversion factors that can be constructed from the balanced chemical reaction
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(ℓ)?
12. Given the chemical equation
Na(s) + H2O(ℓ) NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

a) Balance the equation.
b) How many molecules of H2 are produced when 332 atoms of Na react?
13. For the balanced chemical equation
6 H+(aq) + 2 MnO4−(aq) + 5 H2O2(ℓ) 2 Mn2+(aq) + 5 O2(g) + 8 H2O(ℓ)

how many molecules of H2O are produced when 75 molecules of H2O2 react?
14. Given the balanced chemical equation
Fe2O3(s) + 3SO3(g) Fe2(SO4)3

how many molecules of Fe2(SO4)3 are produced if 321 atoms of S are reacted?
Fe2O3(s) + 3 SO3(g) Fe2(SO4)3

suppose we need to make 145,000 molecules of Fe2(SO4)3. How many molecules of SO3 do we
need?
16. Construct the three independent conversion factors possible for these two reactions:
2 H2 + O2 2 H2O
H2 + O2 H2O2
Why are the ratios between H2 and O2 different?
The conversion factors are different because the stoichiometries of the balanced chemical reactions
are different.
17. What mass of CO2 is produced by the combustion of 1.00 mol of CH4?
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) CO2(g) + 2 H2O(ℓ)

18. What mass of HgO is required to produce 0.692 mol of O2?
2 HgO(s) 2 Hg(ℓ) + O2(g)

19. How many moles of Al can be produced from 10.87 g of Ag?
Al(NO3) 3(s) + 3 Ag Al + 3 AgNO3

20. How many moles of O2 are needed to prepare 1.00 g of Ca(NO3)2?
Ca(s) + N2(g) + 3 O2(g) Ca(NO3) 2(s)

21. What mass of O2 can be generated by the decomposition of 100.0 g of NaClO3?
2 NaClO3 2 NaCl(s) + 3 O2(g)

22. What mass of Fe2O3 must be reacted to generate 324 g of Al2O3?
Fe2O3(s) + 2 Al(s) 2 Fe(s) + Al2O3(s)

23. What mass of MnO2 is produced when 445 g of H2O are reacted?
H2O(ℓ) + 2 MnO4−(aq) + Br−(aq) BrO3−(aq) + 2 MnO2(s) + 2 OH−(aq)

24. If 83.9 g of ZnO are formed, what mass of Mn2O3 is formed with it?
Zn(s) + 2 MnO2(s) ZnO(s) + Mn2O3(s)

25. If 88.4 g of CH2S are reacted, what mass of HF is produced?
CH2S + 6 F2 CF4 + 2 HF + SF6

26. Express in mole terms what this chemical equation means.
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

27. How many molecules of each substance are involved in the equation in Exercise 1 if it is
interpreted in terms of moles?
28. For the chemical equation
2 C2H6 + 7 O2 4 CO2 + 6 H2O

what equivalences can you write in terms of moles? Use the ? sign.
29. Write the balanced chemical reaction for the combustion of C5H12 (the products are CO2 and
H2O) and determine how many moles of H2O are formed when 5.8 mol of O2 are reacted.
3 Cu(s) + 2 NO3−(aq) + 8 H+(aq) 3 Cu2+(aq) + 4 H2O(ℓ) + 2 NO(g)

how many moles of Cu2+ are formed when 55.7 mol of H+ are reacted?
31. For the balanced chemical reaction
4 NH3(g) + 5 O2(g) 4 NO(g) + 6 H2O(ℓ)

how many moles of H2O are produced when 0.669 mol of NH3 react?
32. For the balanced chemical reaction
4 KO2(s) + 2 CO2(g) 2 K2CO3(s) + 3 O2(g)

determine the number of moles of both products formed when 6.88 mol of KO2 react.
Answers
1. a) 0.435 mol Na, 0.217 mol Cl2, 15.4 g Cl2
b) 0.005780 mol HgO, 2.890 × 10−3 mol O2, 9.248 × 10−2 g O2
c) 8.00 mol NaNO3, 6.8 × 102 g NaNO3
d) 1665 mol CO2, 73.3 kg CO2
e) 18.86 mol CuO, 2.330 kg CuCO3
f) 0.4580 mol C2H4Br2, 86.05 g C2H4Br2
2. a) 0.0686 mol Mg, 1.67 g Mg
b) 2.701 × 10−3 mol O2, 0.08644 g O2
c) 6.43 mol MgCO3, 542 g MgCO3
d) 713 mol H2O, 12.8 kg H2O
e) 16.31 mol BaO2, 2762 g BaO2
f) 0.207 mol C2H4, 5.81 g C2H4
3. a) ; b) 1.25 mol GaCl3, 2.2 × 102 g GaCl3
4. a) 5.337 × 1022 molecules b) 10.41 g Zn(CN)2
5. , 4.50 kg SiO2
6. 5.00 × 103 kg
7. 1.28 × 105 g CO2
8. 161.40 mL KI solution
9. 176 g TiO2
10.
are two conversion factors that can be constructed from the pound cake
recipe. Other conversion factors are also possible.
11.
and their reciprocals are the conversion factors that can be

constructed.
12. 2Na(s) + 2H2O(ℓ) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) and 166 molecules

13. 120 molecules
14. 107 molecules
15. 435,000 molecules
16.
17. 44.0 g
18. 3.00 × 102 g
19. 0.0336 mol
20. 0.0183 mol
21. 45.1 g
22. 507 g
23. 4.30 × 103 g
24. 163 g
25. 76.7 g
26. One mole of CH4 reacts with 2 mol of O2 to make 1 mol of CO2 and 2 mol of H2O.
27. 6.022 × 1023 molecules of CH4, 1.2044 × 1024 molecules of O2, 6.022 × 1023 molecules of CO2,
and 1.2044 × 1024 molecules of H2O
28. 2 mol of C2H6 to 7 mol of O2 to 4 mol of CO2 to 6 mol of H2O
29. C5H12 + 8 O2 5CO2 + 6H2O; 4.4 mol
30. 20.9 mol
31. 1.00 mol
32. 3.44 mol of K2CO3; 5.16 mol of O2
Glossary
stoichiometric factor: ratio of coefficients in a balanced chemical

equation, used in computations relating amounts of reactants and
products
stoichiometry: relationships between the amounts of reactants and

products of a chemical reaction




7.2 Limiting Reagent and Reaction
Yields
Learning Objectives
• Explain the concepts of theoretical yield and limiting reactants/reagents.

• Derive the theoretical yield for a reaction under specified conditions.
• Calculate the percent yield for a reaction.
The relative amounts of reactants and products represented in a balanced

chemical equation are often referred to as stoichiometric amounts. All
the exercises of the preceding module involved stoichiometric amounts of
reactants. For example, when calculating the amount of product generated
from a given amount of reactant, it was assumed that any other reactants
required were available in stoichiometric amounts (or greater). In this
module, more realistic situations are considered, in which reactants are
not present in stoichiometric amounts.
534
Limiting Reactant
Consider another food analogy, making grilled cheese sandwiches

(Figure 1):
Stoichiometric amounts of sandwich ingredients for this recipe are bread

and cheese slices in a 2:1 ratio. Provided with 28 slices of bread and 11
slices of cheese, one may prepare 11 sandwiches per the provided recipe,
using all the provided cheese and having six slices of bread left over.
In this scenario, the number of sandwiches prepared has been limited by
the number of cheese slices, and the bread slices have been provided in
excess.
7.2 LIMITING REAGENT AND REACTION YIELDS • 536
Figure 1. Sandwich making can illustrate the concepts of limiting and excess
reactants.
Consider this concept now with regard to a chemical process, the reaction
of hydrogen with chlorine to yield hydrogen chloride:
The balanced equation shows the hydrogen and chlorine react in a 1:1
stoichiometric ratio. If these reactants are provided in any other amounts,
one of the reactants will nearly always be entirely consumed, thus
limiting the amount of product that may be generated. This substance
is the limiting reactant, and the other substance is the excess reactant.
Identifying the limiting and excess reactants for a given situation requires
computing the molar amounts of each reactant provided and comparing
them to the stoichiometric amounts represented in the balanced chemical
equation. For example, imagine combining 3 moles of H2 and 2 moles

of Cl2. This represents a 3:2 (or 1.5:1) ratio of hydrogen to chlorine
present for reaction, which is greater than the stoichiometric ratio of 1:1.
Hydrogen, therefore, is present in excess, and chlorine is the limiting
reactant. Reaction of all the provided chlorine (2 mol) will consume 2 mol
of the 3 mol of hydrogen provided, leaving 1 mol of hydrogen unreacted.
An alternative approach to identifying the limiting reactant involves

comparing the amount of product expected for the complete reaction of
each reactant. Each reactant amount is used to separately calculate the
amount of product that would be formed per the reaction’s stoichiometry.
The reactant yielding the lesser amount of product is the limiting reactant.
For the example in the previous paragraph, complete reaction of the
hydrogen would yield
Complete reaction of the provided chlorine would produce
The chlorine will be completely consumed once 4 moles of HCl have

been produced. Since enough hydrogen was provided to yield 6 moles
of HCl, there will be unreacted hydrogen remaining once this reaction is
complete. Chlorine, therefore, is the limiting reactant and hydrogen is the
excess reactant (Figure 2).
Figure 2. When H2 and Cl2 are combined in nonstoichiometric amounts, one of

these reactants will limit the amount of HCl that can be produced. This illustration
shows a reaction in which hydrogen is present in excess and chlorine is the
limiting reactant.
View this interactive simulation illustrating the concepts of limiting and excess reactants.
Example 1
Silicon nitride is a very hard, high-temperature-resistant ceramic used as a component of turbine

blades in jet engines. It is prepared according to the following equation:
Which is the limiting reactant when 2.00 g of Si and 1.50 g of N2 react?

Solution
Compute the provided molar amounts of reactants, and then compare these amounts to the balanced
equation to identify the limiting reactant.
The provided Si:N2 molar ratio is:
The stoichiometric Si:N2 ratio is:
Comparing these ratios shows that Si is provided in a less-than-stoichiometric amount, and so is the
limiting reactant.
Alternatively, compute the amount of product expected for complete reaction of each of the provided
reactants. The 0.0712 moles of silicon would yield
while the 0.0535 moles of nitrogen would produce
Since silicon yields the lesser amount of product, it is the limiting reactant.
Test Yourself
Which is the limiting reactant when 5.00 g of H2 and 10.0 g of O2 react and form water?
Answer
O2
Percent Yield
The amount of product that may be produced by a reaction under

specified conditions, as calculated per the stoichiometry of an appropriate
balanced chemical equation, is called the theoretical yield of the
reaction. In practice, the amount of product obtained is called the actual
yield, and it is often less than the theoretical yield for a number of
reasons. Some reactions are inherently inefficient, being accompanied
by side reactions that generate other products. Others are, by nature,

incomplete (consider the partial reactions of weak acids and bases
discussed earlier in this chapter). Some products are difficult to collect
without some loss, and so less than perfect recovery will reduce the actual
yield. The extent to which a reaction’s theoretical yield is achieved is
commonly expressed as its percent yield:
Actual and theoretical yields may be expressed as masses or molar

amounts (or any other appropriate property; e.g., volume, if the product
is a gas). As long as both yields are expressed using the same units, these
units will cancel when percent yield is calculated.
Example 2
Upon reaction of 1.274 g of copper sulfate with excess zinc metal, 0.392 g copper metal was obtained
according to the equation:
What is the percent yield?
Solution
The provided information identifies copper sulfate as the limiting reactant, and so the theoretical yield
is found by the approach illustrated in the previous module, as shown here:
Using this theoretical yield and the provided value for actual yield, the percent yield is calculated to
be
Test Yourself
What is the percent yield of a reaction that produces 12.5 g of the gas Freon CF2Cl2 from 32.9 g of
CCl4 and excess HF?
Answer
48.3%
Green Chemistry and Atom Economy
The purposeful design of chemical products and processes that minimize the use of environmentally
hazardous substances and the generation of waste is known as green chemistry. Green chemistry is a
philosophical approach that is being applied to many areas of science and technology, and its practice
is summarized by guidelines known as the “Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry” (see details at this
website). One of the 12 principles is aimed specifically at maximizing the efficiency of processes for
synthesizing chemical products. The atom economy of a process is a measure of this efficiency, defined
as the percentage by mass of the final product of a synthesis relative to the masses of all the reactants
used:
Though the definition of atom economy at first glance appears very similar to that for percent yield,
be aware that this property represents a difference in the theoretical efficiencies of different chemical
processes. The percent yield of a given chemical process, on the other hand, evaluates the efficiency
of a process by comparing the yield of product actually obtained to the maximum yield predicted by
stoichiometry.
The synthesis of the common nonprescription pain medication, ibuprofen, nicely illustrates the
success of a green chemistry approach (Figure 3). First marketed in the early 1960s, ibuprofen was
produced using a six-step synthesis that required 514 g of reactants to generate each mole (206 g) of
ibuprofen, an atom economy of 40%.
Figure 3. (a) Ibuprofen is a popular nonprescription pain medication

commonly sold as 200 mg tablets. (b) The BHC process for synthesizing
ibuprofen requires only three steps and exhibits an impressive atom
economy. (credit a: modification of work by Derrick Coetzee)
In the 1990s, an alternative process was developed by the BHC Company (now BASF Corporation)
that requires only three steps and has an atom economy of ~80%, nearly twice that of the original
process. The BHC process generates significantly less chemical waste; uses less-hazardous and
recyclable materials; and provides significant cost-savings to the manufacturer (and, subsequently, the
consumer). In recognition of the positive environmental impact of the BHC process, the company
received the Environmental Protection Agency’s Greener Synthetic Pathways Award in 1997.
Example 3
A 5.00 g quantity of Rb are combined with 3.44 g of MgCl2 according to this chemical reaction:
2 Rb(s) + MgCl2(s) Mg(s) + 2 RbCl(s)
What mass of Mg is formed, and what mass of what reactant is left over?
Solution
Because the question asks what mass of magnesium is formed, we can perform two mass-mass
calculations and determine which amount is less.
The 0.712 g of Mg is the lesser quantity, so the associated reactant—5.00 g of Rb—is the limiting
reagent. To determine how much of the other reactant is left, we have to do one more mass-mass
calculation to determine what mass of MgCl2 reacted with the 5.00 g of Rb and then subtract the amount
reacted from the original amount.
Because we started with 3.44 g of MgCl2, we have

3.44 g MgCl2 − 2.78498 g MgCl2 reacted = 0.66 g MgCl2 left
Test Yourself
Given the initial amounts listed, what is the limiting reagent, and what is the mass of the leftover
reagent?
Answer
H2S is the limiting reagent; 1.5 g of MgO are left over.
Example 4
A worker reacts 30.5 g of Zn with nitric acid and evapourates the remaining water to obtain 65.2 g
of Zn(NO3)2. What are the theoretical yield, the actual yield, and the percent yield?
Zn(s) + 2 HNO3(aq) Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)
Solution
A mass-mass calculation can be performed to determine the theoretical yield. We need the molar
masses of Zn (65.37 g/mol) and Zn(NO3)2 (189.38 g/mol). In three steps, the mass-mass calculation is
Thus, the theoretical yield is 88.4 g of Zn(NO3)2. The actual yield is the amount that was actually
made, which was 65.2 g of Zn(NO3)2. To calculate the percent yield, we take the actual yield and divide
it by the theoretical yield and multiply by 100:
The worker achieved almost three-fourths of the possible yield.
Test Yourself
A synthesis produced 2.05 g of NH3 from 16.5 g of N2. What is the theoretical yield and the percent
yield?
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g)
Answer
theoretical yield = 20.1 g; percent yield = 10.2%
Chemistry Is Everywhere: Actual Yields in Drug Synthesis and Purification
Many drugs are the product of several steps of chemical synthesis. Each step typically occurs with
less than 100% yield, so the overall percent yield might be very small. The general rule is that the
overall percent yield is the product of the percent yields of the individual synthesis steps. For a drug
synthesis that has many steps, the overall percent yield can be very tiny, which is one factor in the huge
cost of some drugs. For example, if a 10-step synthesis has a percent yield of 90% for each step, the
overall yield for the entire synthesis is only 35%. Many scientists work every day trying to improve
percent yields of the steps in the synthesis to decrease costs, improve profits, and minimize waste.
Even purifications of complex molecules into drug-quality purity are subject to percent yields.
Consider the purification of impure albuterol. Albuterol (C13H21NO2; accompanying figure) is an
inhaled drug used to treat asthma, bronchitis, and other obstructive pulmonary diseases. It is
synthesized from norepinephrine, a naturally occurring hormone and neurotransmitter. Its initial
synthesis makes very impure albuterol that is purified in five chemical steps. The details of the steps do
not concern us; only the percent yields do:
impure albuterol → intermediate A percent yield = 70%
intermediate A → intermediate B percent yield = 100%
intermediate B → intermediate C percent yield = 40%
intermediate C → intermediate D percent yield = 72%
intermediate D → purified albuterol percent yield = 35%
overall percent yield = 70% × 100% × 40% × 72% × 35% = 7.5%
That is, only about one-fourteenth of the original material was turned into the purified drug. This
gives you one reason why some drugs are so expensive; a lot of material is lost in making a high-purity
pharmaceutical.
When reactions are carried out using less-than-stoichiometric quantities

of reactants, the amount of product generated will be determined by
the limiting reactant. The amount of product generated by a chemical
reaction is its actual yield. This yield is often less than the amount of
product predicted by the stoichiometry of the balanced chemical equation
representing the reaction (its theoretical yield). The extent to which a
reaction generates the theoretical amount of product is expressed as its
percent yield.
Key Equations
•
Exercises
1. What is the limiting reactant in a reaction that produces sodium chloride from 8 g of sodium and 8
g of diatomic chlorine?
2. A student isolated 25 g of a compound following a procedure that would theoretically yield 81 g.
What was his percent yield?
3. Freon-12, CCl2F2, is prepared from CCl4 by reaction with HF. The other product of this reaction
is HCl. Outline the steps needed to determine the percent yield of a reaction that produces 12.5 g of
CCl2F2 from 32.9 g of CCl4. Freon-12 has been banned and is no longer used as a refrigerant because
it catalyzes the decomposition of ozone and has a very long lifetime in the atmosphere. Determine the
percent yield.
4. Toluene, C6H5CH3, is oxidized by air under carefully controlled conditions to benzoic acid,
C6H5CO2H, which is used to prepare the food preservative sodium benzoate, C6H5CO2Na. What is the
percent yield of a reaction that converts 1.000 kg of toluene to 1.21 kg of benzoic acid?
5. Outline the steps needed to solve the following problem, then do the calculations. Ether, (C2H5)2O,
which was originally used as an anesthetic but has been replaced by safer and more effective
medications, is prepared by the reaction of ethanol with sulfuric acid.
What is the percent yield of ether if 1.17 L (d = 0.7134 g/mL) is isolated from the reaction of 1.500
L of C2H5OH (d = 0.7894 g/mL)?
6. Outline the steps needed to determine the limiting reactant when 0.50 mol of Cr and 0.75 mol of
H3PO4 react according to the following chemical equation.
Determine the limiting reactant.

7. Uranium can be isolated from its ores by dissolving it as UO2(NO3)2, then separating it as solid
UO2(C2O4)·3H2O. Addition of 0.4031 g of sodium oxalate, Na2C2O4, to a solution containing 1.481 g
of uranyl nitrate, UO2(NO3)2, yields 1.073 g of solid UO2(C2O4)·3H2O.
Determine the limiting reactant and the percent yield of this reaction.
8. How many molecules of the sweetener saccharin can be prepared from 30 C atoms, 25 H atoms,
12 O atoms, 8 S atoms, and 14 N atoms?
9. Would you agree to buy 1 trillion (1,000,000,000,000) gold atoms for $5? Explain why or why
not. Find the current price of gold at http://money.cnn.com/data/commodities/ (1 troy ounce = 31.1 g)
10. The box below shows a group of nitrogen and hydrogen molecules that will react to produce
ammonia, NH3. What is the limiting reagent?
11. Given the statement “20.0 g of methane is burned in excess oxygen,” is it obvious which reactant
is the limiting reagent?
12. Acetylene (C2H2) is formed by reacting 7.08 g of C and 4.92 g of H2.
2 C(s) + H2(g) C2H2(g)

What is the limiting reagent? How much of the other reactant is in excess?
13. Given the initial amounts listed, what is the limiting reagent, and how much of the other reactant is
in excess?
14. To form the precipitate PbCl2, 2.88 g of NaCl and 7.21 g of Pb(NO3)2 are mixed in solution. How
much precipitate is formed? How much of which reactant is in excess?
15. What is the difference between the theoretical yield and the actual yield?
16. A worker isolates 2.675 g of SiF4 after reacting 2.339 g of SiO2 with HF. What are the theoretical
yield and the actual yield?
SiO2(s) + 4 HF(g) SiF4(g) + 2 H2O(ℓ)

17. A chemist decomposes 1.006 g of NaHCO3 and obtains 0.0334 g of Na2CO3. What are the
theoretical yield and the actual yield?
2 NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + H2O(ℓ) + CO2(g)

18. What is the percent yield in Exercise 16?
19. What is the percent yield in Exercise 17?
Answers
1. The limiting reactant is Cl2.
2. Percent yield = 31%
3. g CCl4 mol CCl4 mol CCl2F2 g CCl2F2, percent yield = 48.3%
4. percent yield = 91.3%
5. Convert mass of ethanol to moles of ethanol; relate the moles of ethanol to the moles of ether
produced using the stoichiometry of the balanced equation. Convert moles of ether to grams; divide the
actual grams of ether (determined through the density) by the theoretical mass to determine the percent
yield; 87.6%
6. The conversion needed is . Then compare the amount of Cr to the amount of
acid present. Cr is the limiting reactant.
7. Na2C2O4 is the limiting reactant. percent yield = 86.6%
8. Only four molecules can be made.
9. This amount cannot be weighted by ordinary balances and is worthless.
10. Nitrogen is the limiting reagent.
11. Yes; methane is the limiting reagent.
12. C is the limiting reagent; 4.33 g of H2 are left over.
13. H2O is the limiting reagent; 25.9 g of P4O6 are left over.
14. 6.06 g of PbCl2 are formed; 0.33 g of NaCl is left over.
15. Theoretical yield is what you expect stoichiometrically from a chemical reaction; actual yield is
what you actually get from a chemical reaction.
16. theoretical yield = 4.052 g; actual yield = 2.675 g
17. theoretical yield = 0.635 g; actual yield = 0.0334 g
18. 66.02%
19. 5.26%
Glossary
actual yield: amount of product formed in a reaction

excess reactant: reactant present in an amount greater than required by

the reaction stoichiometry
limiting reactant: reactant present in an amount lower than required by

the reaction stoichiometry, thus limiting the amount of product generated
percent yield: measure of the efficiency of a reaction, expressed as a

percentage of the theoretical yield
theoretical yield: amount of product that may be produced from a given

amount of reactant(s) according to the reaction stoichiometry



7.3 Molarity
Learning Objectives
• Describe the fundamental properties of solutions

• Calculate solution concentrations using molarity
• Perform dilution calculations using the dilution equation
In preceding sections, we focused on the composition of substances:

samples of matter that contain only one type of element or compound.
However, mixtures—samples of matter containing two or more
substances physically combined—are more commonly encountered in
nature than are pure substances.
Similar to a pure substance, the relative composition of a mixture plays an important role in determining its
properties. The relative amount of oxygen in a planet’s atmosphere determines its ability to sustain aerobic
life. The relative amounts of iron, carbon, nickel, and other elements in steel (a mixture known as an “alloy”)
determine its physical strength and resistance to corrosion. The relative amount of the active ingredient in a
medicine determines its effectiveness in achieving the desired pharmacological effect. The relative amount of
sugar in a beverage determines its sweetness (see Figure 1). In this section, we will describe one of the most
550
common ways in which the relative compositions of mixtures may be quantified.
Figure 1. Sugar is one of many

components in the complex
mixture known as coffee. The
amount of sugar in a given
amount of coffee is an important
determinant of the beverage’s
sweetness. (credit: Jane
Whitney)
Solutions
We have previously defined solutions as homogeneous mixtures, meaning

that the composition of the mixture (and therefore its properties) is
uniform throughout its entire volume. Solutions occur frequently in
nature and have also been implemented in many forms of manmade
technology. We will explore a more thorough treatment of solution
properties in the chapter on solutions and colloids, but here we will
introduce some of the basic properties of solutions.
The relative amount of a given solution component is known as its

7.3 MOLARITY • 552
concentration. Often, though not always, a solution contains one

component with a concentration that is significantly greater than that of
all other components. This component is called the solvent and may be
viewed as the medium in which the other components are dispersed, or
dissolved. Solutions in which water is the solvent are, of course, very
common on our planet. A solution in which water is the solvent is called
an aqueous solution.
A solute is a component of a solution that is typically present at a

much lower concentration than the solvent. Solute concentrations are
often described with qualitative terms such as dilute (of relatively low
concentration) and concentrated (of relatively high concentration).
Concentrations may be quantitatively assessed using a wide variety of

measurement units, each convenient for particular applications. Molarity
(M) is a useful concentration unit for many applications in chemistry.
Molarity is defined as the number of moles of solute in exactly 1 liter (1
L) of the solution:
Example 1
A 355-mL soft drink sample contains 0.133 mol of sucrose (table sugar). What is the molar
concentration of sucrose in the beverage?
Solution
Since the molar amount of solute and the volume of solution are both given, the molarity can be
calculated using the definition of molarity. Per this definition, the solution volume must be converted
from mL to L:
Test Yourself
A teaspoon of table sugar contains about 0.01 mol sucrose. What is the molarity of sucrose if a teaspoon
of sugar has been dissolved in a cup of tea with a volume of 200 mL?
Answer
0.05 M
Example 2
How much sugar (mol) is contained in a modest sip (~10 mL) of the soft drink from Example 1?
Solution
In this case, we can rearrange the definition of molarity to isolate the quantity sought, moles of sugar.
We then substitute the value for molarity that we derived in Example 1, 0.375 M:
Test Yourself
What volume (mL) of the sweetened tea described in Example 1 contains the same amount of sugar
(mol) as 10 mL of the soft drink in this example?
Answer
80 mL
Example 3
Distilled white vinegar (Figure 2) is a solution of acetic acid, CH3CO2H, in water. A 0.500-L vinegar
solution contains 25.2 g of acetic acid. What is the concentration of the acetic acid solution in units of
molarity?
Figure 2. Distilled white vinegar is a solution of

acetic acid in water.
Solution
As in previous textbox shaded, the definition of molarity is the primary equation used to calculate the
quantity sought. In this case, the mass of solute is provided instead of its molar amount, so we must use
the solute’s molar mass to obtain the amount of solute in moles:
Test Yourself
Calculate the molarity of 6.52 g of CoCl2 (128.9 g/mol) dissolved in an aqueous solution with a total
volume of 75.0 mL.
Answer
0.674 M
Example 4
How many grams of NaCl are contained in 0.250 L of a 5.30-M solution?
Solution
The volume and molarity of the solution are specified, so the amount (mol) of solute is easily computed
as demonstrated in Example 2:
Finally, this molar amount is used to derive the mass of NaCl:
Test Yourself
How many grams of CaCl2 (110.98 g/mol) are contained in 250.0 mL of a 0.200-M solution of
calcium chloride?
Answer
5.55 g CaCl2
When performing calculations stepwise, as in Example 4, it is important

to refrain from rounding any intermediate calculation results, which can
lead to rounding errors in the final result. In Example 4, the molar amount
of NaCl computed in the first step, 1.325 mol, would be properly rounded
to 1.32 mol if it were to be reported; however, although the last digit (5)
is not significant, it must be retained as a guard digit in the intermediate
calculation. If we had not retained this guard digit, the final calculation
for the mass of NaCl would have been 77.1 g, a difference of 0.3 g.
In addition to retaining a guard digit for intermediate calculations, we can

also avoid rounding errors by performing computations in a single step
(see Example 5). This eliminates intermediate steps so that only the final
result is rounded.
Example 5
In Example 3, we found the typical concentration of vinegar to be 0.839 M. What volume of vinegar
contains 75.6 g of acetic acid?
Solution
First, use the molar mass to calculate moles of acetic acid from the given mass:
Then, use the molarity of the solution to calculate the volume of solution containing this molar
amount of solute:
Combining these two steps into one yields:
Test Yourself
What volume of a 1.50-M KBr solution contains 66.0 g KBr?
Answer
0.370 L
Dilution of Solutions
Dilution is the process whereby the concentration of a solution is

lessened by the addition of solvent. For example, we might say that a
glass of iced tea becomes increasingly diluted as the ice melts. The water
from the melting ice increases the volume of the solvent (water) and the
overall volume of the solution (iced tea), thereby reducing the relative
concentrations of the solutes that give the beverage its taste (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Both solutions contain the same mass

of copper nitrate. The solution on the right is
more dilute because the copper nitrate is
dissolved in more solvent. (credit: Mark Ott)
Dilution is also a common means of preparing solutions of a desired

concentration. By adding solvent to a measured portion of a more
concentrated stock solution, we can achieve a particular concentration.
For example, commercial pesticides are typically sold as solutions in
which the active ingredients are far more concentrated than is appropriate
for their application. Before they can be used on crops, the pesticides
must be diluted. This is also a very common practice for the preparation
of a number of common laboratory reagents (Figure 4).
Figure 4. A solution of KMnO4 is prepared by mixing water with 4.74 g of

KMnO4 in a flask. (credit: modification of work by Mark Ott)
A simple mathematical relationship can be used to relate the volumes

and concentrations of a solution before and after the dilution process.
According to the definition of molarity, the molar amount of solute in a
solution is equal to the product of the solution’s molarity and its volume
in liters:
Expressions like these may be written for a solution before and after it is
diluted:
where the subscripts “1” and “2” refer to the solution before and after
the dilution, respectively. Since the dilution process does not change the
amount of solute in the solution,n1 = n2. Thus, these two equations may
be set equal to one another:
This relation is commonly referred to as the dilution equation. Although

we derived this equation using molarity as the unit of concentration and
liters as the unit of volume, other units of concentration and volume may
be used, so long as the units properly cancel per the factor-label method.
Reflecting this versatility, the dilution equation is often written in the
more general form:
where C and V are concentration and volume, respectively.
Use the simulation to explore the relations between solute amount, solution volume, and
concentration and to confirm the dilution equation.
Example 6
If 0.850 L of a 5.00-M solution of copper nitrate, Cu(NO3)2, is diluted to a volume of 1.80 L by the
addition of water, what is the molarity of the diluted solution?
Solution
We are given the volume and concentration of a stock solution, V1 and C1, and the volume of the
resultant diluted solution, V2. We need to find the concentration of the diluted solution, C2. We thus
rearrange the dilution equation in order to isolate C2:
Since the stock solution is being diluted by more than two-fold (volume is increased from 0.85 L
to 1.80 L), we would expect the diluted solution’s concentration to be less than one-half 5 M. We will
compare this ballpark estimate to the calculated result to check for any gross errors in computation (for
example, such as an improper substitution of the given quantities). Substituting the given values for the
terms on the right side of this equation yields:
This result compares well to our ballpark estimate (it’s a bit less than one-half the stock
concentration, 5 M).
Test Yourself
What is the concentration of the solution that results from diluting 25.0 mL of a 2.04-M solution of
CH3OH to 500.0 mL?
Answer
0.102 M CH3OH
Example 7
What volume of 0.12 M HBr can be prepared from 11 mL (0.011 L) of 0.45 M HBr?
Solution
We are given the volume and concentration of a stock solution, V1 and C1, and the concentration of the
resultant diluted solution, C2. We need to find the volume of the diluted solution, V2. We thus rearrange
the dilution equation in order to isolate V2:
Since the diluted concentration (0.12 M) is slightly more than one-fourth the original concentration
(0.45 M), we would expect the volume of the diluted solution to be roughly four times the original
volume, or around 44 mL. Substituting the given values and solving for the unknown volume yields:
The volume of the 0.12-M solution is 0.041 L (41 mL). The result is reasonable and compares well
with our rough estimate.
Test Yourself
A laboratory experiment calls for 0.125 M HNO3. What volume of 0.125 M HNO3 can be prepared
from 0.250 L of 1.88 M HNO3?
Answer
3.76 L
Example 8
What volume of 1.59 M KOH is required to prepare 5.00 L of 0.100 M KOH?
Solution
We are given the concentration of a stock solution, C1, and the volume and concentration of the
resultant diluted solution, V2 and C2. We need to find the volume of the stock solution, V1. We thus
rearrange the dilution equation in order to isolate V1:
Since the concentration of the diluted solution 0.100 M is roughly one-sixteenth that of the stock
solution (1.59 M), we would expect the volume of the stock solution to be about one-sixteenth that of
the diluted solution, or around 0.3 liters. Substituting the given values and solving for the unknown
volume yields:
Thus, we would need 0.314 L of the 1.59-M solution to prepare the desired solution. This result is
consistent with our rough estimate.
Test Yourself
What volume of a 0.575-M solution of glucose, C6H12O6, can be prepared from 50.00 mL of a 3.00-M
glucose solution?
Answer
0.261 L
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures. Many solutions contain one

component, called the solvent, in which other components, called solutes,
are dissolved. An aqueous solution is one for which the solvent is water.
The concentration of a solution is a measure of the relative amount of
solute in a given amount of solution. Concentrations may be measured
using various units, with one very useful unit being molarity, defined
as the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. The solute
concentration of a solution may be decreased by adding solvent, a process
referred to as dilution. The dilution equation is a simple relation between
concentrations and volumes of a solution before and after dilution.
Key Equations
• C1V1 = C2V2
Exercises
1. What information do we need to calculate the molarity of a sulfuric acid solution?

2. Determine the molarity for each of the following solutions:
a) 0.444 mol of CoCl2 in 0.654 L of solution
b) 98.0 g of phosphoric acid, H3PO4, in 1.00 L of solution
c) 0.2074 g of calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, in 40.00 mL of solution
d) 10.5 kg of Na2SO4·10H2O in 18.60 L of solution
e) 7.0 × 10−3 mol of I2 in 100.0 mL of solution
f) 1.8 × 104 mg of HCl in 0.075 L of solution

3. Consider this question: What is the mass of the solute in 0.500 L of 0.30 M glucose, C6H12O6,
used for intravenous injection?
a) Outline the steps necessary to answer the question.
b) Answer the question.
4. Calculate the number of moles and the mass of the solute in each of the following solutions:
a) 2.00 L of 18.5 M H2SO4, concentrated sulfuric acid
b) 100.0 mL of 3.8 × 10−5M NaCN, the minimum lethal concentration of sodium cyanide in blood
serum
c) 5.50 L of 13.3 M H2CO, the formaldehyde used to “fix” tissue samples
d) 325 mL of 1.8 × 10−6M FeSO4, the minimum concentration of iron sulfate detectable by taste in
drinking water
5. Consider this question: What is the molarity of KMnO4 in a solution of 0.0908 g of KMnO4 in
0.500 L of solution?
6. Calculate the molarity of each of the following solutions:
a) 0.195 g of cholesterol, C27H46O, in 0.100 L of serum, the average concentration of cholesterol in
human serum
b) 4.25 g of NH3 in 0.500 L of solution, the concentration of NH3 in household ammonia
c) 1.49 kg of isopropyl alcohol, C3H7OH, in 2.50 L of solution, the concentration of isopropyl
alcohol in rubbing alcohol
d) 0.029 g of I2 in 0.100 L of solution, the solubility of I2 in water at 20 °C
7. There is about 1.0 g of calcium, as Ca2+, in 1.0 L of milk. What is the molarity of Ca2+ in milk?
8. If 0.1718 L of a 0.3556-M C3H7OH solution is diluted to a concentration of 0.1222 M, what is the
volume of the resulting solution?
9. What volume of a 0.33-M C12H22O11 solution can be diluted to prepare 25 mL of a solution with
a concentration of 0.025 M?
10. What is the molarity of the diluted solution when each of the following solutions is diluted to the
given final volume?
a) 1.00 L of a 0.250-M solution of Fe(NO3)3 is diluted to a final volume of 2.00 L
b) 0.5000 L of a 0.1222-M solution of C3H7OH is diluted to a final volume of 1.250 L
c) 2.35 L of a 0.350-M solution of H3PO4 is diluted to a final volume of 4.00 L
d) 22.50 mL of a 0.025-M solution of C12H22O11 is diluted to 100.0 mL
11. A 2.00-L bottle of a solution of concentrated HCl was purchased for the general chemistry
laboratory. The solution contained 868.8 g of HCl. What is the molarity of the solution?
12. What volume of a 0.20-M K2SO4 solution contains 57 g of K2SO4?
Answers
1. We need to know the number of moles of sulfuric acid dissolved in the solution and the volume of
the solution.
2. a) 0.679 M; b) 1.00 M; c) 0.06998 M;
d) 1.75 M; e) 0.070 M; f) 6.6 M
3. a) determine the number of moles of glucose in 0.500 L of solution; determine the molar mass of
glucose; determine the mass of glucose from the number of moles and its molar mass;
b) 27 g
4. a) 37.0 mol H2SO4; 3.63 × 103 g H2SO4;
b) 3.8 × 10−6 mol NaCN; 1.9 × 10−4 g NaCN;
c) 73.2 mol H2CO; 2.20 kg H2CO;
d) 5.9 × 10−7 mol FeSO4; 8.9 × 10−5 g FeSO4
5. a) Determine the molar mass of KMnO4; determine the number of moles of KMnO4 in the
solution; from the number of moles and the volume of solution, determine the molarity;
b) 1.15 × 10−3M
6. a) 5.04 × 10−3M; b) 0.499 M;
c) 9.92 M; d) 1.1 × 10−3M
7. 0.025 M
8. 0.5000 L
9. 1.9 mL
10. a) 0.125 M; b) 0.04888 M;
c) 0.206 M; d) 0.0056 M
11. 11.9 M
12. 1.6 L
Glossary
aqueous solution: solution for which water is the solvent
concentrated: qualitative term for a solution containing solute at a

relatively high concentration
concentration: quantitative measure of the relative amounts of solute

and solvent present in a solution
dilute: qualitative term for a solution containing solute at a relatively low

concentration
dilution: process of adding solvent to a solution in order to lower the

concentration of solutes
dissolved: describes the process by which solute components are

dispersed in a solvent
molarity (M): unit of concentration, defined as the number of moles of

solute dissolved in 1 liter of solution
solute: solution component present in a concentration less than that of the

solvent
solvent: solution component present in a concentration that is higher

relative to other components


7.4 Other Units for Solution
Concentrations
Learning Objectives
• Define the concentration units of mass percentage, volume percentage, mass-volume

percentage, parts-per-million (ppm), and parts-per-billion (ppb)
• Perform computations relating a solution’s concentration and its components’ volumes
and/or masses using these units
In the previous section, we introduced molarity, a very useful

measurement unit for evaluating the concentration of solutions. However,
molarity is only one measure of concentration. In this section, we will
introduce some other units of concentration that are commonly used in
various applications, either for convenience or by convention.
Mass Percentage
Earlier in this chapter, we introduced percent composition as a measure

of the relative amount of a given element in a compound. Percentages are
566
also commonly used to express the composition of mixtures, including

solutions. The mass percentage of a solution component is defined as
the ratio of the component’s mass to the solution’s mass, expressed as a
percentage:
We are generally most interested in the mass percentages of solutes, but

it is also possible to compute the mass percentage of solvent.
Mass percentage is also referred to by similar names such as percent

mass, percent weight, weight/weight percent, and other variations on this
theme. The most common symbol for mass percentage is simply the
percent sign, %, although more detailed symbols are often used including
%mass, %weight, and (w/w)%. Use of these more detailed symbols can
prevent confusion of mass percentages with other types of percentages,
such as volume percentages (to be discussed later in this section).
Mass percentages are popular concentration units for consumer products.

The label of a typical liquid bleach bottle (Figure 1) cites the
concentration of its active ingredient, sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), as
being 7.4%. A 100.0-g sample of bleach would therefore contain 7.4 g of
NaOCl.
7.4 OTHER UNITS FOR SOLUTION CONCENTRATIONS • 568
Figure 1. Liquid bleach is an aqueous solution

of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl). This brand
has a concentration of 7.4% NaOCl by mass.
Example 1
A 5.0-g sample of spinal fluid contains 3.75 mg (0.00375 g) of glucose. What is the percent by mass
of glucose in spinal fluid?
Solution
The spinal fluid sample contains roughly 4 mg of glucose in 5000 mg of fluid, so the mass fraction of
glucose should be a bit less than one part in 1000, or about 0.1%. Substituting the given masses into the
equation defining mass percentage yields:
The computed mass percentage agrees with our rough estimate (it’s a bit less than 0.1%).
Note that while any mass unit may be used to compute a mass percentage (mg, g, kg, oz, and so on),
the same unit must be used for both the solute and the solution so that the mass units cancel, yielding
a dimensionless ratio. In this case, we converted the units of solute in the numerator from mg to g to
match the units in the denominator. We could just as easily have converted the denominator from g to
mg instead. As long as identical mass units are used for both solute and solution, the computed mass
percentage will be correct.
Test Yourself
A bottle of a tile cleanser contains 135 g of HCl and 775 g of water. What is the percent by mass of HCl
in this cleanser?
Answer
14.8%
Example 2
“Concentrated” hydrochloric acid is an aqueous solution of 37.2% HCl that is commonly used as a
laboratory reagent. The density of this solution is 1.19 g/mL. What mass of HCl is contained in 0.500
L of this solution?
Solution
The HCl concentration is near 40%, so a 100-g portion of this solution would contain about 40 g of
HCl. Since the solution density isn’t greatly different from that of water (1 g/mL), a reasonable estimate
of the HCl mass in 500 g (0.5 L) of the solution is about five times greater than that in a 100 g portion,
or 5 ×× 40 = 200 g. In order to derive the mass of solute in a solution from its mass percentage, we need
to know the corresponding mass of the solution. Using the solution density given, we can convert the
solution’s volume to mass, and then use the given mass percentage to calculate the solute mass. This
mathematical approach is outlined in this flowchart:
For proper unit cancellation, the 0.500-L volume is converted into 500. mL, and the mass percentage
is expressed as a ratio, 37.2 g HCl/g solution:
This mass of HCl is consistent with our rough estimate of approximately 200 g.
Test Yourself
What volume of concentrated HCl solution contains 125 g of HCl?
Answer
282 mL
Volume Percentage
Liquid volumes over a wide range of magnitudes are conveniently

measured using common and relatively inexpensive laboratory
equipment. The concentration of a solution formed by dissolving a liquid
solute in a liquid solvent is therefore often expressed as a volume
percentage, %vol or (v/v)%:
Example 3
Rubbing alcohol (isopropanol) is usually sold as a 70.0%vol aqueous solution. If the density of
isopropyl alcohol is 0.785 g/mL, how many grams of isopropyl alcohol are present in a 355 mL bottle
of rubbing alcohol?
Solution
Per the definition of volume percentage, the isopropanol volume is 70.0% of the total solution volume.
Multiplying the isopropanol volume by its density yields the requested mass:
Test Yourself
Wine is approximately 12% ethanol (CH3CH2OH) by volume. Ethanol has a molar mass of 46.06 g/
mol and a density 0.789 g/mL. How many moles of ethanol are present in a 750-mL bottle of wine?
Answer
1.5 mol ethanol
Mass-Volume Percentage
“Mixed” percentage units, derived from the mass of solute and the
volume of solution, are popular for certain biochemical and medical
applications. A mass-volume percent is a ratio of a solute’s mass to the

solution’s volume expressed as a percentage. The specific units used for
solute mass and solution volume may vary, depending on the solution.
For example, physiological saline solution, used to prepare intravenous
fluids, has a concentration of 0.9% mass/volume (m/v), indicating that the
composition is 0.9 g of solute per 100 mL of solution. The concentration
of glucose in blood (commonly referred to as “blood sugar”) is also
typically expressed in terms of a mass-volume ratio. Though not
expressed explicitly as a percentage, its concentration is usually given in
milligrams of glucose per deciliter (100 mL) of blood (Figure 2).
Figure 2. “Mixed” mass-volume units are commonly encountered in medical

settings. (a) The NaCl concentration of physiological saline is 0.9% (m/v). (b) This
device measures glucose levels in a sample of blood. The normal range for glucose
concentration in blood (fasting) is around 70–100 mg/dL. (credit a: modification
of work by “The National Guard”/Flickr; credit b: modification of work by
Biswarup Ganguly)
Parts per Million and Parts per Billion
Very low solute concentrations are often expressed using appropriately

small units such as parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb).
Like percentage (“part per hundred”) units, ppm and ppb may be defined
in terms of masses, volumes, or mixed mass-volume units. There are
also ppm and ppb units defined with respect to numbers of atoms and
molecules.
The mass-based definitions of ppm and ppb are given here:
Both ppm and ppb are convenient units for reporting the concentrations of
pollutants and other trace contaminants in water. Concentrations of these
contaminants are typically very low in treated and natural waters, and
their levels cannot exceed relatively low concentration thresholds without
causing adverse effects on health and wildlife. For example, the EPA
has identified the maximum safe level of fluoride ion in tap water to be
4 ppm. Inline water filters are designed to reduce the concentration of
fluoride and several other trace-level contaminants in tap water (Figure
3).
Figure 3. (a) In some areas, trace-level concentrations of contaminants can render

unfiltered tap water unsafe for drinking and cooking. (b) Inline water filters reduce
the concentration of solutes in tap water. (credit a: modification of work by Jenn
Durfey; credit b: modification of work by “vastateparkstaff”/Wikimedia commons)
Example 4
According to the EPA, when the concentration of lead in tap water reaches 15 ppb, certain remedial
actions must be taken. What is this concentration in ppm? At this concentration, what mass of lead (μg)
would be contained in a typical glass of water (300 mL)?
Solution
The definitions of the ppm and ppb units may be used to convert the given concentration from ppb to
ppm. Comparing these two unit definitions shows that ppm is 1000 times greater than ppb (1 ppm =
103 ppb). Thus:
The definition of the ppb unit may be used to calculate the requested mass if the mass of the solution
is provided. However, only the volume of solution (300 mL) is given, so we must use the density to
derive the corresponding mass. We can assume the density of tap water to be roughly the same as that
of pure water (~1.00 g/mL), since the concentrations of any dissolved substances should not be very
large. Rearranging the equation defining the ppb unit and substituting the given quantities yields:
Finally, convert this mass to the requested unit of micrograms:
Test Yourself
A 50.0-g sample of industrial wastewater was determined to contain 0.48 mg of mercury. Express the
mercury concentration of the wastewater in ppm and ppb units.
Answer
9.6 ppm, 9600 ppb
In addition to molarity, a number of other solution concentration units

are used in various applications. Percentage concentrations based on the
solution components’ masses, volumes, or both are useful for expressing
relatively high concentrations, whereas lower concentrations are
conveniently expressed using ppm or ppb units. These units are popular
in environmental, medical, and other fields where mole-based units such
as molarity are not as commonly used.
Key Equations
•
Exercises
1. Consider this question: What mass of a concentrated solution of nitric acid (68.0% HNO3 by mass)
is needed to prepare 400.0 g of a 10.0% solution of HNO3 by mass?
2. What mass of solid NaOH (97.0% NaOH by mass) is required to prepare 1.00 L of a 10.0%
solution of NaOH by mass? The density of the 10.0% solution is 1.109 g/mL.
3. The hardness of water (hardness count) is usually expressed in parts per million (by mass) of
CaCO3, which is equivalent to milligrams of CaCO3 per liter of water. What is the molar concentration
of Ca2+ ions in a water sample with a hardness count of 175 mg CaCO3/L?
4. In Canada and the United Kingdom, devices that measure blood glucose levels provide a reading
in millimoles per liter. If a measurement of 5.3 mM is observed, what is the concentration of glucose
(C6H12O6) in mg/dL?
5. Copper(I) iodide (CuI) is often added to table salt as a dietary source of iodine. How many moles
of CuI are contained in 1.00 lb (454 g) of table salt containing 0.0100% CuI by mass?
6. D5W is a solution used as an intravenous fluid. It is a 5.0% by mass solution of dextrose
(C6H12O6) in water. If the density of D5W is 1.029 g/mL, calculate the molarity of dextrose in the
solution.
Answers
1. a) The dilution equation can be used, appropriately modified to accommodate mass-based
concentration units:
This equation can be rearranged to isolate mass1 and the given quantities substituted into this
equation.
b) 58.8 g
2. 114 g
3. 1.75 × 10−3M
4. 95 mg/dL
5. 2.38 × 10−4 mol
6. 0.29 mol
Glossary
mass percentage: ratio of solute-to-solution mass expressed as a

percentage
mass-volume percent: ratio of solute mass to solution volume, expressed

as a percentage
parts per billion (ppb): ratio of solute-to-solution mass multiplied by

109
parts per million (ppm): ratio of solute-to-solution mass multiplied by

106
volume percentage: ratio of solute-to-solution volume expressed as a

percentage


7.5 Quantitative Chemical Analysis
Learning Objectives
• Describe the fundamental aspects of titrations and gravimetric analysis.

• Perform stoichiometric calculations using typical titration and gravimetric data.
In the 18th century, the strength (actually the concentration) of vinegar

samples was determined by noting the amount of potassium carbonate,
K2CO3, which had to be added, a little at a time, before bubbling ceased.
The greater the weight of potassium carbonate added to reach the point
where the bubbling ended, the more concentrated the vinegar.
We now know that the effervescence that occurred during this process
was due to reaction with acetic acid, CH3CO2H, the compound primarily
responsible for the odor and taste of vinegar. Acetic acid reacts with
potassium carbonate according to the following equation:
The bubbling was due to the production of CO2.

577
7.5 QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS • 578
The test of vinegar with potassium carbonate is one type of quantitative

analysis—the determination of the amount or concentration of a
substance in a sample. In the analysis of vinegar, the concentration of
the solute (acetic acid) was determined from the amount of reactant that
combined with the solute present in a known volume of the solution. In
other types of chemical analyses, the amount of a substance present in a
sample is determined by measuring the amount of product that results.
Titration
The described approach to measuring vinegar strength was an early

version of the analytical technique known as titration analysis. A typical
titration analysis involves the use of a buret (Figure 1) to make
incremental additions of a solution containing a known concentration
of some substance (the titrant) to a sample solution containing the
substance whose concentration is to be measured (the analyte). The
titrant and analyte undergo a chemical reaction of known stoichiometry,
and so measuring the volume of titrant solution required for complete
reaction with the analyte (the equivalence point of the titration) allows
calculation of the analyte concentration. The equivalence point of a
titration may be detected visually if a distinct change in the appearance
of the sample solution accompanies the completion of the reaction. The
halt of bubble formation in the classic vinegar analysis is one such
example, though, more commonly, special dyes called indicators are
added to the sample solutions to impart a change in color at or very
near the equivalence point of the titration. Equivalence points may also
be detected by measuring some solution property that changes in a

predictable way during the course of the titration. Regardless of the
approach taken to detect a titration’s equivalence point, the volume of
titrant actually measured is called the end point. Properly designed
titration methods typically ensure that the difference between the
equivalence and end points is negligible. Though any type of chemical
reaction may serve as the basis for a titration analysis, the three described
in this chapter (precipitation, acid-base, and redox) are most common.
Additional details regarding titration analysis are provided in the chapter
on acid-base equilibria.
Figure 1. (a) A student fills a buret in preparation for a

titration analysis. (b) A typical buret permits volume
measurements to the nearest 0.1 mL. (credit a: modification
of work by Mark Blaser and Matt Evans; credit b:
modification of work by Mark Blaser and Matt Evans)
Example 1
The end point in a titration of a 50.00-mL sample of aqueous HCl was reached by addition of 35.23
mL of 0.250 M NaOH titrant. The titration reaction is:
What is the molarity of the HCl?
Solution
As for all reaction stoichiometry calculations, the key issue is the relation between the molar amounts
of the chemical species of interest as depicted in the balanced chemical equation. The approach outlined
in previous modules of this chapter is followed, with additional considerations required, since the
amounts of reactants provided and requested are expressed as solution concentrations.
For this exercise, the calculation will follow the following outlined steps:
The molar amount of HCl is calculated to be:
Using the provided volume of HCl solution and the definition of molarity, the HCl concentration is:
Note: For these types of titration calculations, it is convenient to recognize that solution molarity is
also equal to the number of millimoles of solute per milliliter of solution:
Using this version of the molarity unit will shorten the calculation by eliminating two conversion
factors:
Test Yourself
A 20.00-mL sample of aqueous oxalic acid, H2C2O4, was titrated with a 0.09113-M solution of
potassium permanganate.
A volume of 23.24 mL was required to reach the end point. What is the oxalic acid molarity?
Answer
0.2648 M
Gravimetric Analysis
A gravimetric analysis is one in which a sample is subjected to some

treatment that causes a change in the physical state of the analyte that
permits its separation from the other components of the sample. Mass
measurements of the sample, the isolated analyte, or some other
component of the analysis system, used along with the known
stoichiometry of the compounds involved, permit calculation of the
analyte concentration. Gravimetric methods were the first techniques
used for quantitative chemical analysis, and they remain important tools
in the modern chemistry laboratory.
The required change of state in a gravimetric analysis may be achieved

by various physical and chemical processes. For example, the moisture
(water) content of a sample is routinely determined by measuring the
mass of a sample before and after it is subjected to a controlled heating
process that evaporates the water. Also common are gravimetric
techniques in which the analyte is subjected to a precipitation reaction
of the sort described earlier in this chapter. The precipitate is typically

isolated from the reaction mixture by filtration, carefully dried, and then
weighed (Figure 2). The mass of the precipitate may then be used, along
with relevant stoichiometric relationships, to calculate analyte
concentration.
Figure 2. Precipitate
may be removed from a
reaction mixture by
filtration.
Example 2
A 0.4550-g solid mixture containing MgSO4 is dissolved in water and treated with an excess of
Ba(NO3)2, resulting in the precipitation of 0.6168 g of BaSO4.
What is the concentration (percent) of MgSO4 in the mixture?
Solution
The plan for this calculation is similar to others used in stoichiometric calculations, the central step
being the connection between the moles of BaSO4 and MgSO4 through their stoichiometric factor. Once
the mass of MgSO4 is computed, it may be used along with the mass of the sample mixture to calculate
the requested percentage concentration.
The mass of MgSO4 that would yield the provided precipitate mass is
The concentration of MgSO4 in the sample mixture is then calculated to be
Test Yourself
What is the percent of chloride ion in a sample if 1.1324 g of the sample produces 1.0881 g of AgCl
when treated with excess Ag+?
Answer
23.76%
The elemental composition of hydrocarbons and related compounds may

be determined via a gravimetric method known as combustion analysis.
In a combustion analysis, a weighed sample of the compound is heated to
a high temperature under a stream of oxygen gas, resulting in its complete
combustion to yield gaseous products of known identities. The complete
combustion of hydrocarbons, for example, will yield carbon dioxide and
water as the only products. The gaseous combustion products are swept
through separate, preweighed collection devices containing compounds
that selectively absorb each product (Figure 3). The mass increase of
each device corresponds to the mass of the absorbed product and may be
used in an appropriate stoichiometric calculation to derive the mass of the
relevant element.
Figure 3. This schematic diagram illustrates the basic components of a

combustion analysis device for determining the carbon and hydrogen content of a
sample.
Example 3
Polyethylene is a hydrocarbon polymer used to produce food-storage bags and many other flexible
plastic items. A combustion analysis of a 0.00126-g sample of polyethylene yields 0.00394 g of CO2
and 0.00161 g of H2O. What is the empirical formula of polyethylene?
Solution
The primary assumption in this exercise is that all the carbon in the sample combusted is converted to
carbon dioxide, and all the hydrogen in the sample is converted to water:
Note that a balanced equation is not necessary for the task at hand. To derive the empirical formula
of the compound, only the subscripts x and y are needed.
First, calculate the molar amounts of carbon and hydrogen in the sample, using the provided masses
of the carbon dioxide and water, respectively. With these molar amounts, the empirical formula for the
compound may be written as described in the previous chapter of this text. An outline of this approach
is given in the following flow chart:
The empirical formula for the compound is then derived by identifying the smallest whole-number
multiples for these molar amounts. The H-to-C molar ratio is
and the empirical formula for polyethylene is CH2.
Test Yourself
A 0.00215-g sample of polystyrene, a polymer composed of carbon and hydrogen, produced 0.00726 g
of CO2 and 0.00148 g of H2O in a combustion analysis. What is the empirical formula for polystyrene?
Answer
CH
The stoichiometry of chemical reactions may serve as the basis for

quantitative chemical analysis methods. Titrations involve measuring the

volume of a titrant solution required to completely react with a sample
solution. This volume is then used to calculate the concentration of
analyte in the sample using the stoichiometry of the titration reaction.
Gravimetric analysis involves separating the analyte from the sample by
a physical or chemical process, determining its mass, and then calculating
its concentration in the sample based on the stoichiometry of the relevant
process. Combustion analysis is a gravimetric method used to determine
the elemental composition of a compound by collecting and weighing the
gaseous products of its combustion.
Exercises
1. Titration of a 20.0-mL sample of acid rain required 1.7 mL of 0.0811 M NaOH to reach the end
point. If we assume that the acidity of the rain is due to the presence of sulfuric acid, what was the
concentration of sulfuric acid in this sample of rain?
2. In a common medical laboratory determination of the concentration of free chloride ion in blood
serum, a serum sample is titrated with a Hg(NO3)2 solution.
What is the Cl− concentration in a 0.25-mL sample of normal serum that requires 1.46 mL of 8.25 ×
10−4M Hg(NO3)2(aq) to reach the end point?
3. A sample of gallium bromide, GaBr2, weighing 0.165 g was dissolved in water and treated with
silver nitrate, AgNO3, resulting in the precipitation of 0.299 g AgBr. Use these data to compute the
%Ga (by mass) GaBr2.
4. A 0.025-g sample of a compound composed of boron and hydrogen, with a molecular mass of ~28
amu, burns spontaneously when exposed to air, producing 0.063 g of B2O3. What are the empirical and
molecular formulas of the compound?
5. What volume of 0.600 M HCl is required to react completely with 2.50 g of sodium hydrogen
carbonate?
6. What volume of a 0.3300-M solution of sodium hydroxide would be required to titrate 15.00 mL
of 0.1500 M oxalic acid?
7. A sample of solid calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, is allowed to stand in water until a saturated
solution is formed. A titration of 75.00 mL of this solution with 5.00 × 10−2M HCl requires 36.6 mL of
the acid to reach the end point.
What is the molarity?

8. How many milliliters of a 0.1500-M solution of KOH will be required to titrate 40.00 mL of a
0.0656-M solution of H3PO4?
9. The reaction of WCl6 with Al at ~400 °C gives black crystals of a compound containing only
tungsten and chlorine. A sample of this compound, when reduced with hydrogen, gives 0.2232 g of
tungsten metal and hydrogen chloride, which is absorbed in water. Titration of the hydrochloric acid
thus produced requires 46.2 mL of 0.1051 M NaOH to reach the end point. What is the empirical
formula of the black tungsten chloride?
Answers
1. 3.4 × 10−3M H2SO4
2. 9.6 × 10−3M Cl−
3. 22.4%
4. The empirical formula is BH3. The molecular formula is B2H6.
5. 49.6 mL
6. 13.64 mL
7. 1.22 M
8. 34.99 mL KOH
9. The empirical formula is WCl4.
Glossary
analyze: chemical species of interest
buret: device used for the precise delivery of variable liquid volumes,
such as in a titration analysis
combustion analysis: gravimetric technique used to determine the

elemental composition of a compound via the collection and weighing of

its gaseous combustion products
end point: measured volume of titrant solution that yields the change in
sample solution appearance or other property expected for stoichiometric
equivalence (see equivalence point)
equivalence point: volume of titrant solution required to react

completely with the analyte in a titration analysis; provides a
stoichiometric amount of titrant for the sample’s analyte according to the
titration reaction
gravimetric analysis: quantitative chemical analysis method involving

the separation of an analyte from a sample by a physical or chemical
process and subsequent mass measurements of the analyte, reaction
product, and/or sample
indicator: substance added to the sample in a titration analysis to permit

visual detection of the end point
quantitative analysis: the determination of the amount or concentration

of a substance in a sample
titrant: solution containing a known concentration of substance that will

react with the analyte in a titration analysis
titration analysis: quantitative chemical analysis method that involves

measuring the volume of a reactant solution required to completely react

with the analyte in a sample


1. How many molecules of O2 will react with 6.022 × 1023 molecules of

H2 to make water?
The reaction is 2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(ℓ).
2. How many moles are present in 6.411 kg of CO2? How many

molecules is this?
3. What is the mass in milligrams of 7.22 × 1020 molecules of CO2?
4. What is the mass in grams of 1 molecule of H2O?
5. What is the volume of 3.44 mol of Ga if the density of Ga is 6.08 g/

mL?
6. For the chemical reaction
2 C4H10(g) + 13 O2(g) 8 CO2(g) + 10 H2O(ℓ)
assume that 13.4 g of C4H10 reacts completely to products. The density

of CO2 is 1.96 g/L. What volume in liters of CO2 is produced?
590
7. Calculate the mass of each product when 100.0 g of CuCl react

according to the reaction
2 CuCl(aq) CuCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
What do you notice about the sum of the masses of the products? What
concept is being illustrated here?
8. What mass of CO2 is produced from the combustion of 1 gal of

gasoline? The chemical formula of gasoline can be approximated as
C8H18. Assume that there are 2,801 g of gasoline per gallon.
9. A chemical reaction has a theoretical yield of 19.98 g and a percent

yield of 88.40%. What is the actual yield?
10. Given the initial amounts listed, what is the limiting reagent, and how
much of the other reactants are in excess?
2 P4 + 6 NaOH + 6 H2O 3 Na2HPO4 + 5 PH3
Initial amounts used: P4 = 35.0 g; NaOH = 12.7 g; H2O = 9.33 g
11. Verify that it does not matter which product you use to predict the
limiting reagent by using both products in this combustion reaction to
determine the limiting reagent and the amount of the reactant in excess.
Initial amounts of each reactant are given.
12. Chlorine can be produced by the reaction of hydrochloric acid with

excess manganese(IV) oxide according to the following reaction:
4HCl(aq) + MnO2(s) Cl2(g) + 2H2O(l) + MnCl2(aq). How many moles
of HCl are needed to form 12.5 mol Cl2?
13. How many moles of aluminum oxide will be produced by reacting 9.5
mol of Al with O2?
How many moles of O2will react?
14. Nitrogen monoxide is oxidized in air to give brown nitrogen dioxide:
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)

Starting with 2.2 mol NO, how many moles and how many grams of
O2 are required for complete reaction? What mass of NO2, in grams, is
produced?
15. How many grams of Mg will react with 7.5 grams of H2SO4 in the
reaction:
Mg + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2
16. Zinc will react with hydrochloric acid producing hydrogen gas and
zinc chloride:
Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
How many grams of H2 will be produced if 5.0 grams of zinc are used?
17. The final step in the manufacture of platinum metal (for use in
automotive catalytic converters and other products) is the reaction:
3(NH4)2PtCl6(s) 3Pt(s) + 2NH4Cl(s) + 2N2(g) + 16HCl(g)
How many grams of Pt can be produced by decomposing 12.35 g
(NH4)2PtCl6?
18. How many kilograms of NH3 will be produced when 25.0 kg of

H2 reacts with excess N2?
19. A 3.00 cm3 piece of aluminum reacts with a solution of HCl and
produces H2 gas and AlCl3. Determine the mass of H2 formed. (Al has a
density of 2.70 g/cm3)
20. One of the most important commercial reactions is the “Haber”

production of ammonia:
3H2(g) + N2(g) 2NH3(g)
Chiefly by this reaction, the industrial “fixation” of nitrogen now
accounts for about one-third of all the nitrogen fixed on our planet. If 3.0
kg of H2 and 1.0 kg of N2 are mixed and allowed to react until one or both
of the reactants is used up,
a) how many moles of the NH3 molecules are produced?
b) how many moles of the H2 are left?
c) how many moles of the N2 are left?
21. Iron reacts with chlorine to produce FeCl3 as: 2Fe + 3Cl2 2FeCl3
If 10.6 grams of iron are mixed with 18.9 grams of chlorine and allowed
to react,
a) how many grams of FeCl3 will be produced?

b) how many grams of excess reactant will be left after the reaction is
complete?
22. Silver tarnishes in the presence of hydrogen sulfide in the following

reaction:
4Ag + 2H2S + O2 2Ag2S + 2H2O
How many grams of Ag2S can be obtained by this reaction from a mixture
of 0.950 g Ag, 0.140 g H2S, and 0.0800 g O2?
23. 11.92 g of Pb(NO3)2 and 20.31 g of KI react as: Pb(NO3)2+ 2 KI

PbI2 + 2 KNO3
How many grams of PbI2 are produced if the yield of the reaction is 81%?
24. Reaction of H2 and N2 produces ammonia (NH3) with 65.5%yield. If

30.0 g of NH3 are required, how many grams of N2 and how many of
H2 must be used?
25. Solid calcium carbonate dissolves in a solution of hydrochloric acid

and reacts to form a solution of calcium chloride and water, and bubbles
of carbon dioxide.
How many grams of calcium chloride will form if 40.0 g of CaCO3 is

mixed with 0.500 mol of HCl?
How many grams of calcium carbonate, if any, will remain unreacted?
26. Freon-12 (CCl2F2) is a gas that has been used as a refrigerant. It

is prepared by the reaction between carbon tetrachloride and antimony
trifluoride. The other product that is produced is SbCl3. If the percent

yield is 72.0%, how many grams of antimony trifluoride must be treated
with excess carbon tetrachloride to obtain an actual yield of 25.0 grams
of Freon-12?
27. Aluminum chloride (Al2Cl6) can be made by the following reaction:

2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) Al2Cl6(s)
a) which reactant is limiting if 2.70 g Al and 4.05 g Cl2 are mixed?
b) what mass of Al2Cl6 can be produced?
c) What mass of the excess reactant will remain when the reaction is
complete?
28. Iron oxide can be reduced to the metal as follows: Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g)
2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
How many grams of iron can be obtained from 1.00 kg of the iron oxide?
If 654 g Fe was obtained from the reaction, what was the percent yield?
29. Disulfur dichloride can be prepared by the following reaction:

3SCl2(l) + 4NaF(s) SF4(g) + S2Cl2(l) + 4NaCl(s)
What mass of SCl2is needed to react with excess NaF to prepare 1.19 g
S2Cl2, if the yield is 51%?
30. You have a 0.12 M solution of BaCl2. What ions exist in the solution,
and what are their concentrations?
31. Assume that 6.73 g Na2CO3is dissolved in enough water to make 250.
mL of solution,
a) what is the molarity of the sodium carbonate?

b) What are the concentrations of the Na+and CO32-ions?
32. What is the mass, in grams, of solute in 250. mL of a 0.0125 M

solution of KMnO4?
33. What volume of 0.123 M NaOH, in mL, contains 25.0 g NaOH?
34. What is the maximum mass, in grams, of AgCl that can be

precipitated by mixing 50.0 mL 0.025 M AgNO3solution with 100.0 mL
of 0.025 M NaCl solution? Which reactant is in excess? What is the
concentration of the excess reactant remaining in solution after the AgCl
has precipitated?
35. How many moles of NaOH react with 7.80 mol of the acid H2SO4?
36. How many mL of 0.512 M NaOH is required to react completely with

25.0 mL of 0.234 M H2SO4?
37. What mass, in grams, of Na2CO3is required for complete reaction

with 25.0 mL of 0.155 M HNO3? Na2CO3(aq)+ 2HNO3(aq)
2NaNO3(aq)+ CO2(g)+ H2O(l)
Answers
1. 3.011 × 1023 molecules of O2
2. 145.7 mol; 8.77 × 1025 molecules

3. 52.8 mg
4. 2.99 × 10−23 g
5. 39.4 mL
6. 20.7 L
7. 67.91 g of CuCl2; 32.09 g of Cu. The two masses add to 100.0 g, the
initial amount of starting material, demonstrating the law of conservation
of matter.
8. 8633 g
9. 17.66 g
10. The limiting reagent is NaOH; 21.9 g of P4 and 3.61 g of H2O are left
over.
11. Both products predict that O2 is the limiting reagent; 20.3 g of C3H8
are left over.
12. 50.0 mol HCl
13. 4.8 mol Al2O3 7.1 mol O2
14. 1.1 mol O2 35 g O2 1.0 x 102g NO2
15. 1.9 g Mg
16. 0.15 g H2
17. 5.428 g Pt
18. 141 kg NH3
19. 0.908 g H2
20. 71 mol NH3 1.4 x 103mol H2 0 mol N2
21. 28.8 g FeCl3 0.7 g Fe
22. 1.02 g Ag2S
23. 13 g PbI2
24. 37.7 g N2 8.13 g H2
25. Must use a balanced equation to solve this:
1 CaCO3(s) + 2 HCl(aq) 1 CaCl2(aq) + 1 H2O(l) + 1 CO2(g)
27.7g CaCl2 15.0g CaCO3 unreacted
26. 34.2 g SbF3
27. a) Cl2 is limiting b) 5.08 g Al2Cl6 c) 1.67 g Al unreacted
28. 699 g 93.5%
29. 5.3 g SCl2

30. 0.12 M Ba2+, 0.24 M Cl–
31. a) 0.254 M Na2CO3 b) 0.508 M Na+, 0.254 M CO32-
32. 0.494 g KMnO4
33. 5.08 x 103mL
34. 0.18 g AgCl, NaCl, 0.0083 M NaCl
35. 15.6 mol NaOH
36. 22.9 mL NaOH solution
37. 0.205 g Na2CO3


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Chapter 8. Electronic
Structure of Atoms
Chapter Topics
• Electromagnetic Energy
• Quantization of the Energy of Electrons
• Development of Quantum Theory
• Electronic Structure of Atoms
• Periodic Trends
600
Introduction
601
Introduction
Normal light microscopes can magnify objects up to about 1,500 times.

Electron microscopes can magnify objects up to 1,000,000 times. Why
can electron microscopes magnify images so much?
A microscope’s resolution depends on the wavelength of light used. The

smaller the wavelength, the more a microscope can magnify. Light is a
wave, and, as such, it has a wavelength associated with it. The wavelength
of visible light, which is detected by the eyes, varies from about 700 nm
to 400 nm.
One of the startling conclusions about modern science is that electrons

also act as waves. However, the wavelength of electrons is much, much
shorter—about 0.5 to 1 nm. This allows electron microscopes to magnify
600–700 times more than light microscopes. This allows us to see even
smaller features in a world that are invisible to the naked eye.
Atoms act the way they do because of their structure. We already know
that atoms are composed of protons and neutrons which are located in the
nucleus, and of electrons which orbit around the nucleus. But we need to
know the structural details to understand why atoms react the way they
do.
Virtually everything we know about atoms ultimately comes from light.
602
Before we can understand the composition of atoms (especially

electrons), we need to understand the properties of light.

8.1 Electromagnetic Energy
Learning Objectives
• Describe light with its frequency and wavelength.

• Describe light as a particle of energy.
Our last “picture” of the atom consisted of a nucleus containing protons

and neutrons (constituting most of the atom’s mass), surrounded by a sea
of electrons. The limitations of this model are that it doesn’t show how the
electrons are arranged or how they move. It turns out that this electronic
structure is the primary factor controlling how an atom behaves.
To get a more complete view of the atom, we need more experimental

evidence and interpretation. One of the main ways to investigate electrons
in atoms is to use light with two techniques; 1) by shining a light on the
atoms and seeing what happens to the light (absorption spectroscopy),
and 2) by heating the atoms and seeing what kind of light is given
off (emission spectroscopy). Clearly, we will need to start with an
understanding of the nature of light. We will then move on to describe
604
and interpret experiments with light that give us our understanding of

what electrons in atoms are doing. Finally, we see how the properties of
electrons are related to the way the atoms behave.
What we know as light is more properly called electromagnetic radiation.

We know from experiments that light acts as a wave. As such, it can be
described as having a frequency and a wavelength.
The wavelength of light is the distance between corresponding points

in two adjacent light cycles. Wavelength is typically represented by
λ, the lowercase Greek letter lambda, and has units of length (meters,
centimeters, etc.). Figure 1 shows how wavelength is defined.
Figure 1. The wavelength of light is the

distance between corresponding points in
two adjacent light cycles.
The frequency of light is the number of cycles of light that pass a given
point in one second. Frequency is represented by ν, the lowercase Greek
letter nu, and has units of per second, written as s−1 and sometimes called
a hertz (Hz). The amplitude (a) corresponds to the magnitude of the
wave’s displacement and so, in Figure 2, this corresponds to one-half the
height between the peaks and troughs. The amplitude is related to the
8.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY • 606
intensity of the wave, which for light is the brightness, and for sound is
the loudness.
Figure 2. One-dimensional sinusoidal waves show the relationship among

wavelength, frequency, and speed. The wave with the shortest wavelength has the
highest frequency. Amplitude is one-half the height of the wave from peak to
trough.
Light acts as a wave and can be described by a wavelength λ and a

frequency ν.
One property of waves is that their speed is equal to their wavelength

times their frequency. That means we have
speed = λν
m/s = m x s-1
For light, however, speed is actually a universal constant when light is

traveling through a vacuum (or, to a very good approximation, air). The

measured speed of light (c) in a vacuum is 2.9979 × 108 m/s, or about
3.00 × 108 m/s. Thus, we have
c = λν
m/s = m x s-1
Because the speed of light is a constant, the wavelength and the frequency
of light are related to each other: as one increases, the other decreases and
vice versa. We can use this equation to calculate what one property of
light has to be when given the other property.
Example 1
What is the frequency of light if its wavelength is 5.55 × 10−7 m?
Solution
We use the equation that relates the wavelength and frequency of light with its speed. We have
3.00×108m/s = (5.55×10-7m)ν
We divide both sides of the equation by 5.55 × 10−7 m and get
ν = 5.41×1014 s-1
Note how the m units cancel, leaving s in the denominator. A unit in a denominator is indicated by a
−1 power—s−1—and read as “per second.”
Test Yourself
What is the wavelength of light if its frequency is 1.55 × 1010 s−1?
Answer
0.0194 m, or 19.4 mm
Example 2
A sodium streetlight gives off yellow light that has a wavelength of 589 nm (1 nm = 1 × 10−9 m).
What is the frequency of this light?
Solution
We can rearrange the equation c = λν to solve for the frequency:
Since c is expressed in meters per second, we must also convert 589 nm to meters.
Test Yourself
One of the frequencies used to transmit and receive cellular telephone signals in the United States is
850 MHz. What is the wavelength in meters of these radio waves?
Answer
0.353 m = 35.3 cm
Light also behaves like a package of energy. It turns out that for light, the
energy of the “package” of energy is proportional to its frequency. (For
most waves, energy is proportional to wave amplitude, or the height of
the wave.) The mathematical equation that relates the energy (E) of light
to its frequency is
E = hν
where ν is the frequency of the light, and h is a constant called Planck’s

constant. Its value is 6.626 × 10−34 J·s — a very small number that is
another fundamental constant of our universe, like the speed of light. The
units on Planck’s constant may look unusual, but these units are required
so that the algebra works out.
Example 3
What is the energy of light if its frequency is 1.55 × 1010 s−1?
Solution
Using the formula for the energy of light, we have
E = (6.626 × 10−34 J·s)(1.55 × 1010 s−1)
Seconds are in the numerator and the denominator, so they cancel, leaving us with joules, the unit of
energy. So
E = 1.03 × 10−23 J
This is an extremely small amount of energy—but this is for only one light wave.
Test Yourself
What is the frequency of a light wave if its energy is 4.156 × 10−20 J?
Answer
6.27 × 1013 s−1
Because a light wave behaves like a little particle of energy, light waves
have a particle-type name: the photon. It is not uncommon to hear light
described as photons.
Wavelengths, frequencies, and energies of light span a wide range; the

entire range of possible values for light is called the electromagnetic
spectrum. We are mostly familiar with visible light, which is light having
a wavelength range between about 400 nm and 700 nm. Light can have
much longer and much shorter wavelengths than this, with corresponding
variations in frequency and energy. Figure 3 “The Electromagnetic
Spectrum” shows the entire electromagnetic spectrum and how certain
regions of the spectrum are labelled. You may already be familiar with
some of these regions; they are all light—with different frequencies,

wavelengths, and energies.
Figure 3. The Electromagnetic Spectrum The electromagnetic

spectrum, with its various regions labelled. The borders of each region
are approximate.
Example 4
Using Figure 3, determine which category of EM radiation has more energetic photons, UV or IR.
Solution
Looking at Figure 3 we see that IR radiation has LONGER wavelengths. Applying the property that
the energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength of the light, we can conclude that the
IR light has LESS energetic photons.
Test Yourself
Which light has carries less energy in its photons, light with a frequency of 4.0 x 1013s-1or light with
a frequency of 1.0 x 1014s-1?
Answer
The lower frequency light of 4.0 x 1013s-1would have the lower energy photons.
Technology and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Figure 4 shows the electromagnetic spectrum, the range of all types of electromagnetic radiation.
Each of the various colors of visible light has specific frequencies and wavelengths associated with
them, and you can see that visible light makes up only a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Because the technologies developed to work in various parts of the electromagnetic spectrum are
different, for reasons of convenience and historical legacies, different units are typically used for
different parts of the spectrum. For example, radio waves are usually specified as frequencies (typically
in units of MHz), while the visible region is usually specified in wavelengths (typically in units of nm
or angstroms).
Figure 4. Portions of the electromagnetic spectrum are shown in order of decreasing frequency and increasing
wavelength. Examples of some applications for various wavelengths include positron emission tomography (PET)
scans, X-ray imaging, remote controls, wireless Internet, cellular telephones, and radios. (credit “Cosmic ray”:
modification of work by NASA; credit “PET scan”: modification of work by the National Institute of Health; credit
“X-ray”: modification of work by Dr. Jochen Lengerke; credit “Dental curing”: modification of work by the
Department of the Navy; credit “Night vision”: modification of work by the Department of the Army; credit
“Remote”: modification of work by Emilian Robert Vicol; credit “Cell phone”: modification of work by Brett
Jordan; credit “Microwave oven”: modification of work by Billy Mabray; credit “Ultrasound”: modification of work
by Jane Whitney; credit “AM radio”: modification of work by Dave Clausen)
Wireless Communication
Many valuable technologies operate in the radio (3 kHz-300 GHz) frequency region of the
electromagnetic spectrum (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Radio and cell towers are typically used to transmit long-wavelength electromagnetic radiation.
Increasingly, cell towers are designed to blend in with the landscape, as with the Tucson, Arizona, cell tower (right)
disguised as a palm tree. (credit left: modification of work by Sir Mildred Pierce; credit middle: modification of
work by M.O. Stevens)
At the low frequency (low energy, long wavelength) end of this region are AM (amplitude
modulation) radio signals (540-2830 kHz) that can travel long distances. FM (frequency modulation)
radio signals are used at higher frequencies (87.5-108.0 MHz). In AM radio, the information is
transmitted by varying the amplitude of the wave (Figure 6). In FM radio, by contrast, the amplitude is
constant and the instantaneous frequency varies.
Figure 6. This schematic depicts how amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) can be used to
transmit a radio wave.
Other technologies also operate in the radio-wave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. For
example, 4G cellular telephone signals are approximately 880 MHz, while Global Positioning System
(GPS) signals operate at 1.228 and 1.575 GHz, local area wireless technology (Wi-Fi) networks operate
at 2.4 to 5 GHz, and highway toll sensors operate at 5.8 GHz. The frequencies associated with these
applications are convenient because such waves tend not to be absorbed much by common building
materials.
Light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation move through a

vacuum with a constant speed, c, of 2.998 × 108 m s−1. This radiation
shows wavelike behavior, which can be characterized by a frequency, ν,
and a wavelength, λ. The frequency and wavelength of light are related
by the speed of light, a constant, such that c = λν. Light acts like a
particle of energy, whose value is related to the frequency of light.
Key Equations
• c = λν
• , where h = 6.626 × 10−34 J·s
Exercises
1. Describe the characteristics of a light wave.

2. What is the frequency of light if its wavelength is 7.33 × 10−5 m?
3. What is the frequency of light if its wavelength is 733 nm?
4. What is the wavelength of light if its frequency is 8.19 × 1014 s−1?
5. What is the wavelength of light if its frequency is 1.009 × 106 Hz?
6. What is the energy of a photon if its frequency is 5.55 × 1013 s−1?
7. What is the energy of a photon if its wavelength is 5.88 × 10−4 m?
8. FM-95, an FM radio station, broadcasts at a frequency of 9.51 × 107 s−1 (95.1 MHz). What is the
wavelength of these radio waves in meters?
9. One of the radiographic devices used in a dentist’s office emits an X-ray of wavelength 2.090 ×
10−11 m. What is the energy, in joules, and frequency of this X-ray?
10. RGB color television and computer displays use cathode ray tubes that produce colors by mixing
red, green, and blue light. If we look at the screen with a magnifying glass, we can see individual dots
turn on and off as the colors change. Using a spectrum of visible light, determine the approximate
wavelength of each of these colors. What is the frequency and energy of a photon of each of these
colors?
Answers
1. Light has a wavelength and a frequency.
2. 4.09 × 1012 s−1
3. 4.09 × 1014 s−1
4. 3.66 × 10−7 m
5. 297 m
6. 3.68 × 10−20 J
7. 3.38 × 10−22 J
8. 3.15 m
9. E = 9.502 × 10−15 J; ν = 1.434 × 1019 s−1

10. Red: 660 nm; 4.54 × 1014 Hz; 3.01 × 10−19 J. Green: 520 nm; 5.77 × 1014 Hz; 3.82 × 10−19 J.
Blue: 440 nm; 6.81 × 1014 Hz; 4.51 × 10−19 J. Somewhat different numbers are also possible.
Glossary
amplitude: extent of the displacement caused by a wave (for sinusoidal

waves, it is one-half the difference from the peak height to the trough
depth, and the intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude)
continuous spectrum: electromagnetic radiation given off in an

unbroken series of wavelengths (e.g., white light from the sun)
electromagnetic radiation: energy transmitted by waves that have an

electric-field component and a magnetic-field component
electromagnetic spectrum: range of energies that electromagnetic

radiation can comprise, including radio, microwaves, infrared, visible,
ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays; since electromagnetic radiation
energy is proportional to the frequency and inversely proportional to the
wavelength, the spectrum can also be specified by ranges of frequencies
or wavelengths
frequency (ν): number of wave cycles (peaks or troughs) that pass a

specified point in space per unit time
hertz (Hz): the unit of frequency, which is the number of cycles per
second, s−1
intensity: property of wave-propagated energy related to the amplitude

of the wave, such as brightness of light or loudness of sound
photon: smallest possible packet of electromagnetic radiation, a particle

of light
wave: oscillation that can transport energy from one point to another in
space
wavelength (λ): distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs in a

wave



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8.2 Quantization of the Energy of
Electrons
Learning Objectives
• Explain what spectra are.

• Describe Bohr’s Model of the hydrogen atom.
• Describe the Electron Shell Model.
There are two fundamental ways of generating light: either heat an object
up so hot it glows or pass an electrical current through a sample of matter
(usually a gas). Incandescent lights and fluorescent lights generate light
via these two methods, respectively.
A hot object gives off a continuum of light. We notice this when the
visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is passed through a prism:
the prism separates light into its constituent colors, and all colors are
present in a continuous rainbow (part (a) in Figure 1 “Prisms and Light”).
This image is known as a continuous spectrum. However, when
618
electricity is passed through a gas and light is emitted and this light is
passed though a prism, we see only certain lines of light in the image (part
(b) in Figure 1 “Prisms and Light”). This image is called a line spectrum.
It turns out that every element has its own unique, characteristic line
spectrum.
Figure 1. Prisms and Light (a) A glowing object gives off a full
rainbow of colors, which are noticed only when light is passed through
a prism to make a continuous spectrum. (b) However, when electricity
is passed through a gas, only certain colors of light are emitted. Here
are the colors of light in the line spectrum of Hg.
Why does the light emitted from an electrically excited gas have only
certain colors, while light given off by hot objects has a continuous
spectrum? For a long time, it was not well explained. Particularly simple
was the spectrum of hydrogen gas, which could be described easily by an
equation; no other element has a spectrum that is so predictable (Figure 2
“Hydrogen Spectrum”).
8.2 QUANTIZATION OF THE ENERGY OF ELECTRONS • 620
Figure 2. Hydrogen Spectrum
Late-nineteenth-century scientists found that the positions of the lines

obeyed a pattern given by the equation
where n = 3, 4, 5, 6,…, but they could not explain why this was so. The
spectrum of hydrogen was particularly simple and could be predicted by
a simple mathematical expression.
In 1913, the Danish scientist Niels Bohr suggested a reason why the
hydrogen atom spectrum looked this way. He suggested that the electron
in a hydrogen atom could not have any random energy, having only
certain fixed values of energy that were indexed by the number n (the
same n in the equation above and now called a quantum number) (Figure
3). Quantities that have certain specific values are called quantized. Bohr
suggested that the energy of the electron in hydrogen was quantized
because it was in a specific orbit. Because the energies of the electron can
have only certain values, the changes in energies can have only certain
values (somewhat similar to a staircase: not only are the stair steps set at
specific heights but the height between steps is fixed).
Figure 3. Some emission possibilities from the energy levels

of an atom.
Finally, Bohr suggested that the energy of light emitted from electrified
hydrogen gas was equal to the energy difference of the electron’s energy
states:
Elight = hν = ΔEelectron
This means that only certain frequencies (and thus, certain wavelengths)
of light are emitted. Figure 4 “Bohr’s Model of the Hydrogen Atom”
shows a model of the hydrogen atom based on Bohr’s ideas.
Figure 4. Bohr’s Model of the Hydrogen

Atom
Bohr’s description of the hydrogen atom had specific orbits for the
electron, which had quantized energies.
Postulates of the Bohr Model:

1) Electrons move in specific circular orbits only.
2) As an atom absorbs energy, the electron jumps to a larger orbit, of higher energy (an excited state).
3) As an atom emits energy, it “falls” to a smaller, lower energy orbit.
This model represented a great intellectual achievement by Bohr, as

it was the first atom model that invoked quantization of the electron
energy in some way. Also his mathematical formula which calculated the
energy of the electron in any orbit, matched the real energies observed
in experiments with hydrogen. However, the theory had significant
limitations.
Some Key Problems with the Bohr Model:
• It only works for hydrogen (though can be adapted to other one electron ions). If there are
2 or more electrons, the mathematical formula does not match real data.
• It is fundamentally incorrect in that electrons do not move in fixed orbits!
The Electron Shell Model of the Atom
We can overcome one of the key objections to the Bohr Model by

abandoning the concept of electrons moving in fixed diameter orbits.
Instead we envision a series of spherical shells of increasing size
surrounding the nucleus in which the electrons reside (Figure 5). The
Electron Shell Model does not attempt to describe the movement of the
electrons, only that each shell has a different size and energy and the
electron moves within that space. The quantum jumps of the electron are
thus the electron moving from one shell to another.
Figure 5. Electron Shell Model of the

Atom (showing only the first three
shells)
We also account for other experimental evidence and specify that the
shells can hold a certain maximum number of electrons. Table 1 shows
this maximum filling, as well as some other aspects of these shells.
Table 1. Properties of Electron Shells in Atoms
The Electron Configuration of Atoms using the Shell Model
So, for a given atom or ion, in which shell(s) do the electrons reside? It
turns out the electrons follow a simple principle, namely, they go into the
lowest energy shell that is available. If a lower energy shell is full, they
go into the next lowest energy shell. A crude analogy is putting water into
a pail; the water always fills from the bottom! So to establish this electron
configuration, first determine the number of electrons the atom has, then
“put” them into the shells as the above rule dictates. Look at Figure 5
again, which represents an atom with 13 electrons. Notice how the lower
energy shells are full, and the last three electrons go into shell 3, which is
not full. Additional electrons would continue to go into shell 3 until it is
full with 8 electrons, for a total of 18. A 19th electron would be forced to
go into shell 4.
Example 1
Draw an electron shell model of an aluminum atom.
Solution
Step 1: Determine the number of electrons.
Since it is not specified that the atom is charged, we presume it is neutral. Aluminum has 13 protons,
so neutral aluminum would have 13 electrons.
Step 2: Determine the electron configuration.
Put 2 electrons in shell 1 which fills it, next put 8 electrons in shell 2 which fills it, and the last three
electrons go into shell 3.
Step 3: Draw the image.
Test Yourself
Draw an electron shell model of a calcium atom.
Answer
Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
Look at the number of elements in each row of the periodic table. Rows
1 through 4 contain 2, 8, 8, and 18 elements respectively. Now look at
Table 1. Is this a coincidence? No! In fact this shows that the patterns
of elemental properties that the periodic table reflects have their basis in
electron configurations. Consider Figure 6 which shows the electron shell
models of hydrogen, lithium, sodium, and potassium.
Figure 6. Electron shell models of hydrogen, lithium, sodium,

and potassium
See how each has one electron in its highest energy shell. Now find these
elements on the periodic table. They are all in the first column of the
periodic table. Consider the elements of the last column of the periodic
table (draw them out for yourself). They all have full outer shells. A
general relationship begins to emerge: elements in the same column on
the periodic table have similar electron configurations.
Originally, the periodic table was constructed based on observable

chemical and physical properties. Elements that behaved similarly were
placed in the same column; however the chemists had no explanation
of why they were similar. Now with the electron shell model we have a
theory that helps us understand the reasons for these similarities.
Chemistry Is Everywhere: Neon Lights
A neon light is basically an electrified tube with a small amount of gas in it. Electricity excites electrons
in the gas atoms, which then give off light as the electrons go back into a lower energy state. However,
many so-called “neon” lights don’t contain neon!
Although we know now that a gas discharge gives off only certain colors of light, without a prism or
other component to separate the individual light colors, we see a composite of all the colors emitted. It is
not unusual for a certain color to predominate. True neon lights, with neon gas in them, have a reddish-
orange light due to the large amount of red-, orange-, and yellow-colored light emitted. However,
if you use krypton instead of neon, you get a whitish light, while using argon yields a blue-purple
light. A light filled with nitrogen gas glows purple, as does a helium lamp. Other gases—and mixtures
of gases—emit other colors of light. Ironically, despite its importance in the development of modern
electronic theory, hydrogen lamps emit little visible light and are rarely used for illumination purposes.
The different colors of these “neon” lights are caused by gases other than neon in the discharge tubes. Source:
“Neon Internet Cafe open 24 hours” by JustinC is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution- Share Alike
2.0 Generic license.
Bohr incorporated Planck’s and Einstein’s quantization ideas into a model

of the hydrogen atom that resolved the paradox of atom stability and
discrete spectra. The Bohr model of the hydrogen atom explains the
connection between the quantization of photons and the quantized

emission from atoms. Bohr described the hydrogen atom in terms of
an electron moving in a circular orbit about a nucleus. He postulated
that the electron was restricted to certain orbits characterized by discrete
energies. Transitions between these allowed orbits result in the absorption
or emission of photons. When an electron moves from a higher-energy
orbit to a more stable one, energy is emitted in the form of a photon.
To move an electron from a stable orbit to a more excited one, a photon
of energy must be absorbed. Using the Bohr model, we can calculate
the energy of an electron and the radius of its orbit in any one-electron
system.
Exercises
1. What does it mean to say that the energy of the electrons in an atom is quantized?
2. How are the Bohr model and the Rutherford model of the atom similar? How are they different?
3. Differentiate between a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum.
Answers
1. Quantized energy means that the electrons can possess only certain discrete energy values; values
between those quantized values are not permitted.
2. Both involve a relatively heavy nucleus with electrons moving around it, although strictly
speaking, the Bohr model works only for one-electron atoms or ions. According to classical mechanics,
the Rutherford model predicts a miniature “solar system” with electrons moving about the nucleus in
circular or elliptical orbits that are confined to planes. If the requirements of classical electromagnetic
theory that electrons in such orbits would emit electromagnetic radiation are ignored, such atoms
would be stable, having constant energy and angular momentum, but would not emit any visible light
(contrary to observation). If classical electromagnetic theory is applied, then the Rutherford atom
would emit electromagnetic radiation of continually increasing frequency (contrary to the observed
discrete spectra), thereby losing energy until the atom collapsed in an absurdly short time (contrary to
the observed long-term stability of atoms). The Bohr model retains the classical mechanics view of
circular orbits confined to planes having constant energy and angular momentum, but restricts these
to quantized values dependent on a single quantum number, n. The orbiting electron in Bohr’s model
is assumed not to emit any electromagnetic radiation while moving about the nucleus in its stationary
orbits, but the atom can emit or absorb electromagnetic radiation when the electron changes from one
orbit to another. Because of the quantized orbits, such “quantum jumps” will produce discrete spectra,
in agreement with observations.
3. A continuous spectrum is a range of light frequencies or wavelengths; a line spectrum shows only
certain frequencies or wavelengths.
Glossary
Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom: structural model in which an

electron moves around the nucleus only in circular orbits, each with a
specific allowed radius; the orbiting electron does not normally emit
electromagnetic radiation, but does so when changing from one orbit to
another.
excited state: state having an energy greater than the ground-state energy
ground state: state in which the electrons in an atom, ion, or molecule

have the lowest energy possible


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8.3 Development of Quantum Theory
Learning Objectives
• Extend the concept of wave–particle duality that was observed in electromagnetic

radiation to matter as well
• Understand the general idea of the quantum mechanical description of electrons in an
atom, and that it uses the notion of three-dimensional wave functions, or orbitals, that
define the distribution of probability to find an electron in a particular part of space
The electron shell model gives us a satisfactory picture of the electrons in

atom because it accounts for the quantization of the electron energy and
it does not constrain the electrons to a fixed orbit. It also allows us to
begin to explain why elements behave the way they do. However many
fundamental aspects of the atom are not addressed by this simple model.
How exactly do the electrons move? What controls the maximum number
of electrons in the shell? And, there are also a number of chemical
and physical properties of the elements that remain unexplained by the
electron shell model. A more advanced model is required to approach
these issues.
633
8.3 DEVELOPMENT OF QUANTUM THEORY • 634
The Wave Mechanics Model of the Atom
Bohr’s ideas were useful but were applied only to the hydrogen atom.
However, later researchers generalized Bohr’s ideas into a new theory
called quantum mechanics, which explains the behaviour of electrons
as if they were acting as a wave, not as particles. Quantum mechanics
predicts two major things: quantized energies for electrons of all atoms
(not just hydrogen) and an organization of electrons within atoms.
Electrons are no longer thought of as being randomly distributed around
a nucleus (from Electron Shell Model) or restricted to certain orbits (from
Bohr’s Model). Instead, electrons are collected into groups and subgroups
that explain much about the chemical behaviour of the atom.
Wave/Particle Duality and the Uncertainty Principle
We’ve seen that electromagnetic radiation (a form of energy) can be

viewed as a wave, or as a particle (a photon, or “packet”). That is, light
has a dual nature. If energy can behave like a particle and a wave, can
matter also exhibit this duality? It turns out that it does! In the 1920’s
Louis Victor de Broglie showed that all moving particles can be described
as wave-like. We call this general phenomenon wave/particle duality.
While it may seem odd to think of a physical object, such as a baseball,

behaving like a wave, that is just what the theory suggests. However,
for any object that is large, the particle nature is dominant and the wave
nature is insignificant. But for tiny objects, such as electrons, the wave-
like nature is physically meaningful and can be observed.
Around the same time, Werner Heisenberg proposed that the more
accurately you know the position of a particle, the less you know about
its momentum, and vice versa. This is now called the Heisenberg
Uncertainty Principle. This means we can no longer talk about precise
trajectories or locations of electrons. Instead, there is always some
uncertainty and we can only talk about the PROBABILITY of finding an
electron in a certain time and place.
The Schrödinger Wave Equation and the Wave Mechanics Model
Together, the quantization of energy, wave / particle duality and the

Uncertainty Principle all led to Wave Mechanics, developed by Erwin
Schrödinger in the 1920’s.
Schrödinger presented his Wave Mechanics in the form of a very

complicated mathematical equation which, when solved gives us a series
of WAVE FUNCTIONS, each having a specific energy.
A wave function is a mathematical function (like f(x) = x2), and we

can plot a graph of the function (Figure 1) to get a picture of
the ORBITAL—the space in which the electron is most likely to be found.
Depending on the shape of the space, the orbitals have been assigned a
name such as: s, p, d, and f. Note that an orbital is much different than
an orbit! An orbit is a set path on which an electron travels. We can’t
talk about a set path because of the uncertaintly principle. An orbital is
more like a probability map: the region in space where the electron is
most likely to be over time. The differing intensity of the shaded areas is
an indication of electron density, which is a measure of the probability of

locating an electron in a particular region of space (Figure 1 and 2).
Figure 1. This illustrates graphs showing the probability (y axis) of finding an

electron for the 1s, 2s, 3s orbitals as a function of distance from the nucleus and
how it relates to the space around the nucleus.
Figure 2. Electron probability maps of lower and higher energy

orbitals for the electron in a H atom.
Looking at the probability maps of the electron in hydrogen (Figure 2),

we can perhaps best picture an electron as a “cloud”. To simplify the
picture of an orbital, however, we generally limit or define the orbital
to be the zone within which the electron has 90% probability of being
contained, and we represent this space with a solid. Figure 3 shows the
many different complex shapes that the electron movement traces out.
The s subshell electron density distribution is spherical and the p subshell
has a dumbbell shape. The d and f orbitals are more complex. These
shapes represent the three-dimensional regions within which the electron
is likely to be found. Keep in mind the “cloud” image when viewing
these representations however.
Figure 3. Shapes of s, p, d, and f orbitals.

Describing atoms using the Wave Mechanics Model
Properties of electrons in orbitals
Orbitals are labeled with a number (known as the “shell”) followed by a

letter (s, p, d, or f, known as the “subshell”), for example 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s.
The subshells occur with a certain multiplicity; there are always seven
f orbitals, five d orbitals, three p orbitals, and one s orbital (these could
be called the “sub-subshells”). Any atom has all of these orbitals though
they may or may not be occupied by electrons; those orbitals that are
not occupied are available for possible excited states. Each orbital has a
relative energy as shown in Figure 4, where the orbitals are represented
as lines.
Figure 4. The chart shows the energies of electron orbitals in a multi-electron

atom (up to 4p).
Electrons and other subatomic particles behave as if they are spinning (we
cannot tell if they really are, but they behave as if they are). Electrons
themselves have two possible spin states, spin up (graphically represented
as an upward pointing arrow, ? ), and spin down (graphically represented

as a downward pointing arrow, ? ). An orbital can hold a maximum of two
electrons; when an orbital has two electrons in it, one electron will be spin
up, and one will be spin down. This last aspect is an outcome of the Pauli
Exclusion Principle, which states that no two electrons in the same atom
can behave identically.
Figure 5. Electrons with spin values ±1/2 in an

external magnetic field.
The quantum mechanical model of atoms describes the three-dimensional

position of the electron in a probabilistic manner. Therefore, atomic
orbitals describe the areas in an atom where electrons are most likely to
be found.
Exercises
1. How are the Bohr model and the quantum mechanical model of the hydrogen atom similar? How
are they different?
2. Draw out the 1s, 2s and 3s orbitals and describe the differences and similarities between them.
3. Draw out the 2px, 2py and 2pz orbitals and describe the differences and similarities between them.
4. Draw out the 3p and 3s orbitals and describe the differences and similarities between them.
5. The following represents examples of what type of orbital?
Answers
1. Both models have a central positively charged nucleus with electrons moving about the nucleus
in accordance with the Coulomb electrostatic potential. The Bohr model assumes that the electrons
move in circular orbits that have quantized energies, angular momentum, and radii that are specified
by a single quantum number, n = 1, 2, 3, …, but this quantization is an ad hoc assumption made
by Bohr to incorporate quantization into an essentially classical mechanics description of the atom.
Bohr also assumed that electrons orbiting the nucleus normally do not emit or absorb electromagnetic
radiation, but do so when the electron switches to a different orbit. In the quantum mechanical model,
the electrons do not move in precise orbits (such orbits violate the Heisenberg uncertainty principle)
and, instead, a probabilistic interpretation of the electron’s position at any given instant is used, with
a mathematical function ψ called a wavefunction that can be used to determine the electron’s spatial
probability distribution. These wavefunctions, or orbitals, are three-dimensional stationary waves that
can be specified by three quantum numbers that arise naturally from their underlying mathematics (no
ad hoc assumptions required): the principal quantum number, n (the same one used by Bohr), which
specifies shells such that orbitals having the same n all have the same energy and approximately the
same spatial extent; the angular momentum quantum number l, which is a measure of the orbital’s
angular momentum and corresponds to the orbitals’ general shapes, as well as specifying subshells such
that orbitals having the same l (and n) all have the same energy; and the orientation quantum number m,
which is a measure of the z component of the angular momentum and corresponds to the orientations
of the orbitals. The Bohr model gives the same expression for the energy as the quantum mechanical
expression and, hence, both properly account for hydrogen’s discrete spectrum (an example of getting
the right answers for the wrong reasons, something that many chemistry students can sympathize with),
but gives the wrong expression for the angular momentum (Bohr orbits necessarily all have non-zero
angular momentum, but some quantum orbitals [s orbitals] can have zero angular momentum).
2. Differences: n values are different therefore the energies of the orbitals are different (1s is lower in
energy, 2s higher in energy and 3s is highest in energy) and size of the orbitals are different (1s smaller,
2s bigger, 3s biggest).
Similarities: they are all s-orbitals, therefore their shape are the same (spherical), they can only
contain two electrons with opposite spins
3. Differences: the orientation of the orbitals is different

Similarities: n values are the same therefore their energies of the orbitals and size of the orbitals are
the same; they are all p-orbitals, therefore their shape are the same (dumbbell); they can only contain
two electrons with opposite spins
4. Differences: one is a p-orbital and the other is an s-orbital, therefore their shapes are different
(dumbbell and spherical), p-orbitals can have different orientations, but s-orbitals don’t
Similarities: n values are the same therefore their energies of the orbitals and size of the orbitals are
the same; they can only contain two electrons with opposite spins
5. These are two examples of d-orbitals.
Glossary
atomic orbital: mathematical function that describes the behavior of an

electron in an atom (also called the wavefunction), it can be used to find
the probability of locating an electron in a specific region around the

nucleus, as well as other dynamical variables
d orbital: region of space with high electron density that is either four
lobed or contains a dumbbell and torus shape. An electron in this orbital
is called a d electron
electron density: a measure of the probability of locating an electron in a

particular region of space, it is equal to the squared absolute value of the
wave function ψ
f orbital: multi-lobed region of space with high electron density. An

electron in this orbital is called an f electron
Heisenberg uncertainty principle: rule stating that it is impossible to

exactly determine both certain conjugate dynamical properties such as
the momentum and the position of a particle at the same time. The
uncertainty principle is a consequence of quantum particles exhibiting
wave–particle duality
p orbital: dumbbell-shaped region of space with high electron density.

An electron in this orbital is called a p electron
Pauli exclusion principle: specifies that no two electrons in an atom can

have the same value for all four quantum numbers
quantum mechanics: field of study that includes quantization of energy,

wave-particle duality, and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle to

describe matter
s orbital: spherical region of space with high electron density. An

electron in this orbital is called an s electron
wavefunction (ψ): mathematical description of an atomic orbital that

describes the shape of the orbital; it can be used to calculate the
probability of finding the electron at any given location in the orbital,
as well as dynamical variables such as the energy and the angular
momentum


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8.4 Electronic Structure of Atoms
Learning Objectives
• Derive the predicted ground-state electron configurations of atoms

• Identify and explain exceptions to predicted electron configurations for atoms and ions
• Relate electron configurations to element classifications in the periodic table
Having introduced the basics of atomic structure and quantum mechanics,

we can use our understanding of quantum numbers to determine how
atomic orbitals relate to one another. This allows us to determine which
orbitals are occupied by electrons in each atom. The specific arrangement
of electrons in orbitals of an atom determines many of the chemical
properties of that atom.
Electronic Structure of Atoms
The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom is called the

electron configuration of the atom. We describe an electron
645
8.4 ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOMS • 646
configuration with a symbol that contains three pieces of information

(Figure 1):
1. The number of the principal quantum shell, n,
2. The letter that designates the orbital type also called the
subshell, and
3. A superscript number that designates the number of electrons

in that particular subshell.
For example, the notation 2p4 (read “two–p–four”) indicates four

electrons in a p subshell with a principal quantum number (n) of 2. The
notation 3d8 (read “three–d–eight”) indicates eight electrons in the d
subshell of the principal shell for which n = 3.
Figure 1. Electron configuration of hydrogen is 1s1, which indicates there is one

electron in the s subshell of the principal shell n=1.
The Aufbau Principle
To determine the electron configuration for any particular atom, we can

“build” the structures in the order of atomic numbers. Beginning with
hydrogen, and continuing across the periods of the periodic table, we add
one proton at a time to the nucleus and one electron to the proper subshell
until we have described the electron configurations of all the elements.
This procedure is called the Aufbau principle, from the German word
Aufbau (“to build up”). Each added electron occupies the subshell of
lowest energy available (in the order shown in Figure 4 in section 7.3),
subject to the limitations imposed by the Pauli exclusion principle.
Electrons enter higher-energy subshells only after lower-energy subshells
have been filled to capacity. Figure 2 illustrates the traditional way to
remember the filling order for atomic orbitals. Since the arrangement
of the periodic table is based on the electron configurations, Figure 3
and Figure 4 provides an alternative method for determining the electron
configuration. The filling order simply begins at hydrogen and includes
each subshell as you proceed in increasing Z order. For example, after
filling the 3p block up to Ar, we see the orbital will be 4s (K, Ca),
followed by the 3d orbitals.
Figure 2. The arrow leads through each subshell in the appropriate filling
order for electron configurations. This chart is straightforward to construct.
Simply make a column for all the s orbitals with each n shell on a separate
row. Repeat for p, d, and f. Be sure to only include orbitals allowed by the
quantum numbers (no 1p or 2d, and so forth). Finally, draw diagonal lines
from top to bottom as shown.
Figure 3. The arrangement of the periodic table is based on electron

configurations, therefore the four sections here are coloured to stress
the final subshell of each atom.
Figure 4. This periodic table shows the electron configuration for each subshell.
By “building up” from hydrogen, this table can be used to determine the electron
configuration for any atom on the periodic table.
We will now construct the ground-state electron configuration and orbital

diagram for a selection of atoms in the first and second periods of the
periodic table. Orbital diagrams are pictorial representations of the
electron configuration, showing the individual orbitals and the pairing
arrangement of electrons. We start with a single hydrogen atom (atomic
number 1), which consists of one proton and one electron. Referring to
Figure 2 or Figure 3, we would expect to find the electron in the 1s
orbital. By convention, spin up = + \frac{1}{2}$ value is usually filled

first. The electron configuration and the orbital box diagram are:
Following hydrogen is the noble gas helium, which has an atomic number
of 2. The helium atom contains two protons and two electrons. The
two electrons will occupy the same orbital but they will have different
spin states, one will be spin-up (?) and the other spin-down (?). This
is in accord with the Pauli exclusion principle. For orbital diagrams,
this means two half-arrows go in each box (representing two electrons
in each orbital) and the half-arrows must point in opposite directions
(representing paired spins). The electron configuration and orbital box
diagram of helium are:
The n = 1 shell is completely filled in a helium atom.
The next atom is the alkali metal lithium with an atomic number of 3. The
first two electrons in lithium fill the 1s orbital. The remaining electron
must occupy the orbital of next lowest energy, the 2s orbital (Figure 2
or Figure 3). Thus, the electron configuration and orbital box diagram of
lithium are:
An atom of the alkaline earth metal beryllium, with an atomic number of

4, contains four protons in the nucleus and four electrons surrounding the
nucleus. The fourth electron fills the remaining space in the 2s orbital.
An atom of boron (atomic number 5) contains five electrons. The n =

1 shell is filled with two electrons and three electrons will occupy the
n = 2 shell. Because any s subshell can contain only two electrons, the
fifth electron must occupy the next energy level, which will be a 2p
orbital. There are three degenerate 2p orbitals, meaning they are equal
in energy, and the electron can occupy any one of these p orbitals. When
drawing orbital diagrams, we include empty boxes to depict any empty
orbitals in the same subshell that we are filling.
In the orbital box diagrams, notice the space between the box for the 1s
and 2s orbitals – space between boxes are used to indicate a difference in
energy. Therefore, a ” lack of space” between boxes, indicate the orbitals
are degenerate, meaning equal in energy.
Carbon (atomic number 6) has six electrons. Four of them fill the 1s and
2s orbitals. The remaining two electrons occupy the 2p subshell. We now
have a choice of filling one of the 2p orbitals and pairing the electrons
or of leaving the electrons unpaired in two different, but degenerate, p
orbitals. The orbitals are filled as described by Hund’s rule: the lowest-
energy configuration for an atom with electrons within a set of degenerate
orbitals is that having the maximum number of unpaired electrons. Thus,
the two electrons in the carbon 2p orbitals occupy different p-orbitals –
this minimizes electron-electron repulsion within the atom. The electron
configuration and orbital box diagram for carbon are:
Nitrogen (atomic number 7) fills the 1s and 2s subshells and has one
electron in each of the three 2p orbitals, in accordance with Hund’s rule.
These three electrons have unpaired spins. Oxygen (atomic number 8)
has a pair of electrons in any one of the 2p orbitals (the electrons have
opposite spins) and a single electron in each of the other two. Fluorine
(atomic number 9) has only one 2p orbital containing an unpaired
electron. All of the electrons in the noble gas neon (atomic number 10)
are paired, and all of the orbitals in the n = 1 and the n = 2 shells are
filled. The electron configurations and orbital box diagrams of these four
elements are:
The alkali metal sodium (atomic number 11) has one more electron than
the neon atom. This electron must go into the lowest-energy subshell
available, the 3s orbital, giving a 1s22s22p63s1 configuration. The
electrons occupying the outermost shell orbital(s) (highest value of n)
are called outer electrons, and those occupying the inner shell orbitals
are called core electrons or inner electrons (Figure 4). Valence
electrons are outer electrons plus any electrons found in partially filled d
or f orbitals. Often valence electron are the same as the outer electrons.
But there are examples where there is a difference. Since the core
electron shells correspond to noble gas electron configurations, we can
abbreviate electron configurations by writing the noble gas that matches
the core electron configuration, along with the valence electrons in a
condensed format. For our sodium example, the symbol [Ne] represents
core electrons, (1s22s22p6) and our abbreviated or condensed electron
configuration is [Ne]3s1.
Figure 4. A condensed electron configuration (right) replaces the core

electrons with the noble gas symbol whose configuration matches the core
electron configuration of the other element.
Similarly, the condensed electron configuration of lithium can be

represented as [He]2s1, where [He] represents the configuration of the
helium atom, which is identical to that of the filled inner shell of lithium.
Writing the configurations in this way emphasizes the similarity of the
configurations of lithium and sodium. Both atoms, which are in the alkali
metal family, have only one electron in a valence s subshell outside a
filled set of inner shells.
The alkaline earth metal magnesium (atomic number 12), with its 12
electrons in a [Ne]3s2 configuration, is analogous to its family member
beryllium, [He]2s2. Both atoms have a filled s subshell outside their filled
inner shells. Aluminum (atomic number 13), with 13 electrons and the
condensed electron configuration [Ne]3s23p1, is analogous to its family
member boron, [He]2s22p1.
The electron configurations of silicon (14 electrons), phosphorus (15

electrons), sulfur (16 electrons), chlorine (17 electrons), and argon (18
electrons) are analogous in the electron configurations of their outer
shells to their corresponding family members carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,
fluorine, and neon, respectively, except that the principal quantum
number of the outer shell of the heavier elements has increased by one
to n = 3. Figure 5 shows the lowest energy, or ground-state, electron
configuration for these elements as well as that for atoms of each of the
known elements.
Figure 5. This version of the periodic table shows the outer-shell electron
configuration of each element. Note that down each group, the configuration is
often similar.
When we come to the next element in the periodic table, the alkali metal
potassium (atomic number 19), we might expect that we would begin
to add electrons to the 3d subshell. However, all available chemical and
physical evidence indicates that potassium is like lithium and sodium, and
that the next electron is not added to the 3d level but is, instead, added to
the 4s level (Figure 5). Thus, potassium has an electron configuration of
[Ar]4s1. Hence, potassium corresponds to Li and Na in its valence shell
configuration. The next electron is added to complete the 4s subshell and

calcium has an electron configuration of [Ar]4s2. This gives calcium an
outer-shell electron configuration corresponding to that of beryllium and
magnesium.
Beginning with the transition metal scandium (atomic number 21),

additional electrons are added successively to the 3d subshell. This
subshell is filled to its capacity with 10 electrons. The 4p subshell fills
next. Note that for three series of elements, scandium (Sc) through copper
(Cu), yttrium (Y) through silver (Ag), and lutetium (Lu) through gold
(Au), a total of 10 d electrons are successively added to the (n – 1) shell
next to the n shell to bring that (n – 1) shell from 8 to 18 electrons. For two
series, lanthanum (La) through lutetium (Lu) and actinium (Ac) through
lawrencium (Lr), 14 f electrons are successively added to the (n – 2) shell
to bring that shell from 18 electrons to a total of 32 electrons.
Example 1
What is the electron configuration and orbital box diagram for a phosphorus atom?
Solution
The atomic number of phosphorus is 15. Thus, a phosphorus atom contains 15 electrons. The order of
filling of the energy levels is 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, . . . The 15 electrons of the phosphorus atom will fill
up to the 3p orbital, which will contain three electrons:
The last electron added is a 3p electron.

Test Yourself
Identify the atoms from the condensed electron configurations given:
a) [Ar]4s23d5
b) [Kr]5s24d105p6
Answers
a) Mn b) Xe
Example 2
a) What is the electron configuration for Na, which has 11 electrons?

b) What is the predicted electron configuration for Sn, which has 50 electrons?
Solution
a) The first two electrons occupy the 1s subshell. The next two occupy the 2s subshell, while the next
six electrons occupy the 2p subshell. This gives us 10 electrons so far, with 1 electron left. This last
electron goes into the n = 3 shell, s subshell. Thus, the electron configuration of Na is 1s22s22p63s1.
b) We will follow the chart in Figure 2 until we can accommodate 50 electrons in the subshells in the
proper order:
Sn: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p2
Verify by adding the superscripts, which indicate the number of electrons: 2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 10
+ 6 + 2 + 10 + 2 = 50, so we have placed all 50 electrons in subshells in the proper order.
Test Yourself
a) What is the electron configuration for Mg, which has 12 electrons?
b) What is the electron configuration for Ba, which has 56 electrons?
Answer
a) 1s22s22p63s2 b) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s2
Example 3
What is the abbreviated electron configuration for P, which has 15 electrons?
Solution
With 15 electrons, the electron configuration of P is
P: 1s22s22p63s23p3
The first immediate noble gas is Ne, which has an electron configuration of 1s22s22p6. Using the
electron configuration of Ne to represent the first 10 electrons, the abbreviated electron configuration
of P is
P: [Ne]3s23p3
Test Yourself
What is the abbreviated electron configuration for Rb, which has 37 electrons?
Answer
[Kr]5s1
The periodic table can be a powerful tool in predicting the electron

configuration of an element. However, we do find exceptions to the order
of filling of orbitals that are shown in Figure 2 or Figure 3. For instance,
the electron configurations (shown in Figure 5) of the transition metals
chromium (Cr; atomic number 24) and copper (Cu; atomic number 29),
among others, are not those we would expect. In general, such exceptions
involve subshells with very similar energy, and small effects can lead to
changes in the order of filling.
In the case of Cr and Cu, we find that half-filled and completely filled
subshells apparently represent conditions of preferred stability. This
stability is such that an electron shifts from the 4s into the 3d orbital
to gain the extra stability of a half-filled 3d subshell (in Cr) or a filled

3d subshell (in Cu). Other exceptions also occur. For example, niobium
(Nb, atomic number 41) is predicted to have the electron configuration
[Kr]5s24d3. Experimentally, we observe that its ground-state electron
configuration is actually [Kr]5s14d4. We can rationalize this observation
by saying that the electron–electron repulsions experienced by pairing the
electrons in the 5s orbital are larger than the gap in energy between the 5s
and 4d orbitals. There is no simple method to predict the exceptions for
atoms where the magnitude of the repulsions between electrons is greater
than the small differences in energy between subshells.
Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
As described earlier, the periodic table arranges atoms based on

increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical
properties recur periodically. When their electron configurations are
added to the table (Figure 5), we also see a periodic recurrence of similar
electron configurations in the outer shells of these elements. Because
they are in the outer shells of an atom, valence electrons play the most
important role in chemical reactions. The outer electrons have the highest
energy of the electrons in an atom and are more easily lost or shared than
the core electrons. Valence electrons are also the determining factor in
some physical properties of the elements.
Elements in any one group (or column) have the same number of valence
electrons; the alkali metals lithium and sodium each have only one
valence electron, the alkaline earth metals beryllium and magnesium

each have two, and the halogens fluorine and chlorine each have seven
valence electrons. The similarity in chemical properties among elements
of the same group occurs because they have the same number of valence
electrons. It is the loss, gain, or sharing of valence electrons that defines
how elements react.
It is important to remember that the periodic table was developed on the

basis of the chemical behavior of the elements, well before any idea of
their atomic structure was available. Now we can understand why the
periodic table has the arrangement it has—the arrangement puts elements
whose atoms have the same number of valence electrons in the same
group. This arrangement is emphasized in Figure 5, which shows in
periodic-table form the electron configuration of the last subshell to be
filled by the Aufbau principle. The colored sections of Figure 5 show the
three categories of elements classified by the orbitals being filled: main
group, transition, and inner transition elements. These classifications
determine which orbitals are counted in the valence shell, or highest
energy level orbitals of an atom.
1. Main group elements (sometimes called representative elements)

are those in which the last electron added enters an s or a p orbital in the
outermost shell, shown in blue and red in Figure 5. This category includes
all the nonmetallic elements, as well as many metals and the intermediate
semimetallic elements. The valence electrons for main group elements
are those with the highest n level. For example, gallium (Ga, atomic
number 31) has the electron configuration [Ar]4s23d104p1, which

contains three valence electrons (in bold). The completely filled d orbitals
count as core, not valence, electrons.
2. Transition elements or transition metals. These are metallic

elements in which the last electron added enters a d orbital. The valence
electrons are the electrons in the outermost shell and also include any
electrons in partially filled d or f orbitals, as these electrons are also
very reactive and have a higher energy despite their lower shell value.
The official IUPAC definition of transition elements specifies those with
partially filled d orbitals. Thus, the elements with completely filled
orbitals (Zn, Cd, Hg, as well as Cu, Ag, and Au in Figure 5) are not
technically transition elements. However, the term is frequently used to
refer to the entire d block (colored yellow in Figure 5), and we will adopt
this usage in this textbook.
3. Inner transition elements are metallic elements in which the last

electron added occupies an f orbital. They are shown in green in Figure 5.
The valence shells of the inner transition elements consist of the (n – 2)f,
the (n – 1)d, and the ns subshells. There are two inner transition series:
a) The lanthanide series: lanthanide (La) through lutetium (Lu)
b) The actinide series: actinide (Ac) through lawrencium (Lr)
Lanthanum and actinium, because of their similarities to the other

members of the series, are included and used to name the series, even
though they are transition metals with no f electrons.
Electron Configurations of Ions
We have seen that ions are formed when atoms gain or lose electrons.
A cation (positively charged ion) forms when one or more electrons are
removed from a parent atom. For main group elements, the electrons that
were added last are the first electrons removed. For transition metals and
inner transition metals, however, electrons in the s orbital are easier to
remove than the d or f electrons, and so the highest ns electrons are
lost, and then the (n – 1)d or (n – 2)f electrons are removed. An anion
(negatively charged ion) forms when one or more electrons are added to a
parent atom. The added electrons fill in the order predicted by the Aufbau
principle.
Example 4
What is the electron configuration and orbital diagram of:

a) Na+ b) P3– c) Al2+ d) Fe2+ e) Sm3+
Solution
First, write out the electron configuration for each parent atom. We have chosen to show the full,
unabbreviated configurations to provide more practice for students who want it, but listing the core-
abbreviated electron configurations is also acceptable.
Next, determine whether an electron is gained or lost. Remember electrons are negatively charged,
so ions with a positive charge have lost an electron. For main group elements, the last orbital gains or
loses the electron. For transition metals, the last s orbital loses an electron before the d orbitals.
a) Na: 1s22s22p63s1.
Sodium cation loses one electron, so Na+: 1s22s22p63s1 = Na+: 1s22s22p6.
b) P: 1s22s22p63s23p3.
Phosphorus trianion gains three electrons, so P3−: 1s22s22p63s23p6.
c) Al: 1s22s22p63s23p1.
Aluminum dication loses two electrons Al2+: 1s22s22p63s23p1 =
Al2+: 1s22s22p63s1.
d) Fe: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6.
Iron(II) loses two electrons and, since it is a transition metal, they are removed from the 4s orbital
Fe2+: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6 = 1s22s22p63s23p63d6.
e). Sm: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f6.
Samarium trication loses three electrons. The first two will be lost from the 6s orbital, and the
final one is removed from the 4f orbital. Sm3+: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f6 =
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p64f5.
Test Yourself
Which ion with a +2 charge has the electron configuration 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d5? Which ion
with a +3 charge has this configuration?
Answers
Tc2+, Ru3+
Food and Drink App: Artificial Colors
The color of objects comes from a different mechanism than the colors of neon and other discharge
lights. Although colored lights produce their colors, objects are colored because they preferentially
reflect a certain color from the white light that shines on them. A red tomato, for example, is bright red
because it reflects red light while absorbing all the other colors of the rainbow.
Many foods, such as tomatoes, are highly colored; in fact, the common statement “you eat with your
eyes first” is an implicit recognition that the visual appeal of food is just as important as its taste. But
what about processed foods?
Many processed foods have food coloring added to them. There are two types of food coloring:
natural and artificial. Natural food coloring include caramelized sugar for brown; annatto, turmeric, and
saffron for various shades of orange or yellow; betanin from beets for purple; and even carmine, a deep
red dye that is extracted from the cochineal, a small insect that is a parasite on cacti in Central and
South America. (That’s right: you may be eating bug juice!)
Some coloring agents are artificial. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration currently
approves only seven compounds as artificial coloring in food, beverages, and cosmetics:
1. FD&C Blue #1: Brilliant Blue FCF

2. FD&C Blue #2: Indigotine

3. FD&C Green #3: Fast Green FCF
4. RD&C Red #3: Erythrosine
5. FD&C Red #40: Allura Red AC
6. FD&C Yellow #5: Tartrazine
7. FD&C Yellow #6: Sunset Yellow FCF
Lower-numbered colors are no longer on the market or have been removed for various reasons.
Typically, these artificial coloring agents are large molecules that absorb certain colors of light very
strongly, making them useful even at very low concentrations in foods and cosmetics. Even at such low
amounts, some critics claim that a small portion of the population (especially children) is sensitive to
artificial coloring and urge that their use be curtailed or halted. However, formal studies of artificial
coloring and their effects on behaviour have been inconclusive or contradictory. Despite this, most
people continue to enjoy processed foods with artificial coloring like those shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Artificial food coloring are found in a variety of food products, such as processed foods,
candies, and egg dyes. Even pet foods have artificial food coloring in them, although it’s likely that the
animal doesn’t care! Source: Photo courtesy of Matthew Bland, http://www.flickr.com/photos/
matthewbland/3111904731.

The relative energy of the subshells determine the order in which atomic
orbitals are filled (1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, and so on). Electron
configurations and orbital diagrams can be determined by applying the
Pauli exclusion principle (no two electrons can have the same set of four
quantum numbers) and Hund’s rule (whenever possible, electrons retain
unpaired spins in degenerate orbitals).
Electrons in the outermost orbitals, called valence electrons, are

responsible for most of the chemical behavior of elements. In the periodic
table, elements with analogous valence electron configurations usually
occur within the same group. There are some exceptions to the predicted
filling order, particularly when half-filled or completely filled orbitals can
be formed. The periodic table can be divided into three categories based
on the orbital in which the last electron to be added is placed: main group
elements (s and p orbitals), transition elements (d orbitals), and inner
transition elements (f orbitals).
Exercises
1. Read the labels of several commercial products and identify monatomic ions of at least six main
group elements contained in the products. Write the complete electron configurations of these cations
and anions.
2. Using complete subshell notation (1s22s22p6, and so forth), predict the electron configuration of
each of the following atoms:
a) N b) Si c) Fe d) Te e) Tb
3. What additional information do we need to answer the question “Which ion has the electron
configuration 1s22s22p63s23p6”?
4. Use an orbital diagram to describe the electron configuration of the valence shell of each of the
following atoms:
a) N b) Si c) Fe d) Te e) Mo
5. Which atom has the electron configuration 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d2?

6. Which ion with a +1 charge has the electron configuration 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6? Which
ion with a –2 charge has this configuration?
7. Which of the following has two unpaired electrons?
a) Mg b) Si c) S d) Both Mg and S e) Both Si and S.
8. Which atom would be expected to have a half-filled 4s subshell?
9. Thallium was used as a poison in the Agatha Christie mystery story “The Pale Horse.” Thallium
has two possible cationic forms, +1 and +3. The +1 compounds are the more stable. Write the electron
structure of the +1 cation of thallium.
10. Cobalt–60 and iodine–131 are radioactive isotopes commonly used in nuclear medicine. How
many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in atoms of these isotopes? Write the complete electron
configuration for each isotope.
11. How many subshells are completely filled with electrons for Na? How many subshells are
unfilled?
12. What is the maximum number of electrons in the entire n = 2 shell?
13. Write the complete electron configuration for each atom.
a) Si, 14 electrons b) Sc, 21 electrons
14. Write the complete electron configuration for each atom.
a) Cd, 48 electrons b) Mg, 12 electrons

15. Write the abbreviated electron configuration for each atom in Exercise 13.
16. Write the abbreviated electron configuration for each atom in Exercise
17. Where on the periodic table are s subshells being occupied by electrons?
18. In what block is Ra found?
19. What are the valence shell electron configurations of the elements in the second column of the
periodic table?
20. What are the valence shell electron configurations of the elements in the first column of the p
block?
21. From the element’s position on the periodic table, predict the electron configuration of each atom.
a) Sr b) S
a) V b) Ar
a) Ge b) C
Answers
1. For example, Na+: 1s22s22p6; Ca2+: 1s22s22p6;
Sn2+: 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s2; F–: 1s22s22p6;
O2–: 1s22s22p6; Cl–: 1s22s22p63s23p6.
2. a) 1s22s22p3 b) 1s22s22p63s23p2 c) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6
d) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p4
e) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f9
3. The charge on the ion.
4. a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
5. Zr
6. Rb+, Se2−
7. Although both b) and c) are correct, e) encompasses both and is the best answer.
8. K
9. 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s25p66s24f145d10
10. Co has 27 protons, 27 electrons, and 33 neutrons: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d7.
I has 53 protons, 53 electrons, and 78 neutrons: 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s25p5.
11. Three subshells (1s, 2s, 2p) are completely filled, and one shell (3s) is partially filled.
12. 8 electrons
13. a) 1s22s22p63s23p2 b) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d1
14. a) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d10 b) 1s22s22p63s2
15. a) [Ne]3s23p2 b) [Ar]4s23d1
16. a) [Kr]5s24d10 b) [Ne]3s2
17. the first two columns
18. the s block
19. ns2
20. ns2np1
21. a) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s2 b) 1s22s22p63s23p4
22. a) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d3 b) 1s22s22p63s23p6
23. a) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p2 b) 1s22s22p2
Glossary
Aufbau principle: procedure in which the electron configuration of the

elements is determined by “building” them in order of atomic numbers,
adding one proton to the nucleus and one electron to the proper subshell
at a time
core electron: electron in an atom that occupies the orbitals of the inner
shells
electron configuration: electronic structure of an atom in its ground state

given as a listing of the orbitals occupied by the electrons
Hund’s rule: every orbital in a subshell is singly occupied with one

electron before any one orbital is doubly occupied, and all electrons in
singly occupied orbitals have the same spin
orbital diagram: pictorial representation of the electron configuration

showing each orbital as a box and each electron as a half-arrow
valence electrons: are the electrons in the outermost shell and also
include any electrons in partially filled d or f orbitals, as these electrons
are also very reactive and have a higher energy despite their lower shell
value of a ground-state atom; they determine how an element reacts
valence shell: outermost shell of electrons in a ground-state atom; for

main group elements, the orbitals with the highest n level (s and p
subshells) are in the valence shell, while for transition metals, the highest
energy s and d subshells make up the valence shell and for inner transition
elements, the highest s, d, and f subshells are included



8.5 Periodic Trends
Learning Objectives
• Be able to state how certain properties of atoms vary based on their relative position on the
periodic table.
One of the reasons the periodic table is so useful is because its structure
allows us to qualitatively determine how some properties of the elements
vary versus their position on the periodic table. The variation of
properties versus position on the periodic table is called periodic trends.
There is no other tool in science that allows us to judge relative properties
of a class of objects like this, which makes the periodic table a very useful
tool. Many periodic trends are general. There may be a few points where
an opposite trend is seen, but there is an overall trend when considered
across a whole row or down a whole column of the periodic table.
Atomic Radii
The atomic radius is an indication of the size of an atom. Although the

672
concept of a definite radius of an atom is a bit fuzzy, atoms behave as

if they have a certain radius. Such radii can be estimated from various
experimental techniques, such as the x-ray crystallography of crystals.
The size of atoms vary and there are two periodic trends. Atoms get
smaller as you go from left to right across a period, and get larger as
you go down a group. Figure 1 “Atomic Radii Trends on the Periodic
Table” shows spheres representing the atoms of the s and p blocks from
the periodic table to scale, showing the two trends for the atomic radius.
8.5 PERIODIC TRENDS • 674
Figure 1. Atomic Radii Trends on the Periodic Table. Although there

are some reversals in the trend (e.g., see Po in the bottom row), atoms
generally get smaller as you go across the periodic table and larger as
you go down any one column. Numbers are the radii in pm.
The atomic size is easily explained when we examine how the electron
configurations change as we move on the periodic table:
• As you go down a group, the valence electron configuration

stays the same, but the number of shells is increasing. Each

shell represents distance from the nucleus (as well as energy),
thus we expect that ATOMIC SIZE INCREASES as you go
down a row on the periodic table.
• As you go from left to right on the periodic table, you are

adding electrons to the same shell, but, you are also adding
protons (nuclear charge). These protons serve to pull the
electrons closer to the nucleus. Thus, we expect that as you go
from left to right along each period, ATOMIC SIZE
DECREASES.
Example 1
Referring only to a periodic table and not to Figure 1 “Atomic Radii Trends on the Periodic Table”,
which atom is larger in each pair?
a) Si or S b) S or Te
Solution
a) Si is to the left of S on the periodic table, so it is larger because as you go across the row, the atoms
get smaller.
b) S is above Te on the periodic table, so Te is larger because as you go down the column, the atoms
get larger.
Test Yourself
Referring only to a periodic table and not to Figure 1 “Atomic Radii Trends on the Periodic Table”,
which atom is smaller, Ca or Br?
Answer
Br
Example 2
For the following elements, write them in order of smallest to largest, using only the periodic table:
K, As, F, N
Solution
We use the periodic table and our knowledge of the trends in atomic size; further up and to the right
are the smaller atoms. The order thus becomes:
Smallest F, N, As, K Largest
Test Yourself
For the following elements, write them in order of smallest to largest, using only the periodic table:
Rb, Si, Cl
Answer
Cl, Si, Rb
Ionization Energy
Ionization energy (IE) is the amount of energy required to remove an

electron from an atom in the gas phase:
A(g) A+(g) + e− ΔH ≡ IE
IE is usually expressed in kJ/mol of atoms. It is always positive because

the removal of an electron always requires that energy be put in (i.e.,
it is endothermic). IE also shows periodic trends. As you go down the
periodic table, it becomes easier to remove an electron from an atom
(i.e., IE decreases) because the valence electron is farther away from the
nucleus. However, as you go across the periodic table and the electrons
get drawn closer in, it takes more energy to remove an electron; as a

result, IE increases.
Figure 2 “Ionization Energy on the Periodic Table” shows values of IE

versus position on the periodic table. Again, the trend isn’t absolute, but
the general trends going across and down the periodic table should be
obvious.
Figure 2. Ionization Energy on the Periodic Table. Values are in kJ/

mol.
IE also shows an interesting trend within a given atom. This is because

more than one IE can be defined by removing successive electrons (if
the atom has them to begin with):
A(g) A+(g) + e− IE1

A+(g) A2+(g) + e− IE2

A2+(g) A3+(g) + e− IE3
and so forth.
Each successive IE is larger than the previous because an electron is

being removed from an atom with a progressively larger positive charge.
However, IE takes a large jump when a successive ionization goes down
into a new shell. For example, the following are the first three IEs for Mg,
whose electron configuration is 1s22s22p63s2:
Mg(g) Mg+(g) + e− IE1 = 738 kJ/mol

Mg+(g) Mg2+(g) + e− IE2 = 1,450 kJ/mol
Mg2+(g) Mg3+(g) + e− IE3 = 7,734 kJ/mol
The second IE is twice the first, which is not a surprise: the first IE
involves removing an electron from a neutral atom, while the second
one involves removing an electron from a positive ion. The third IE,
however, is over five times the previous one. It suggests that there is
more involved than simply overcoming a larger ionic charge. Why is it
so much larger? Because the first two electrons are removed from the 3s
subshell, but the third electron has to be removed from the n = 2 shell,
specifically, the 2p subshell, which is lower in energy than the n = 3 shell.
It is evidence like this that demonstrate that electrons are organized in
atoms in groups (shells and subshells).
Example 3
Which atom in each pair has the larger IE?

a) Ca or Sr b) K or K+
Solution
a) Because Sr is below Ca on the periodic table, it is easier to remove an electron from it; thus, Ca
has the higher IE.
b) Because K+ has a positive charge, it will be harder to remove another electron from it, so its IE
is larger than that of K. Indeed, it will be significantly larger because the next electron in K+ to be
removed comes from another shell.
Test Yourself
Which atom has the lower ionization energy, C or F?
Answer
C
Electron Affinity
The opposite of IE is described by electron affinity (EA), which is the

energy change when a gas-phase atom accepts an electron:
A(g) + e− A−(g) ΔH ≡ EA
Electron affinity is also usually expressed in kJ/mol.
Electron affinity also demonstrates some periodic trends, although they

are less obvious than the other periodic trends discussed
previously. Figure 3 “Electron Affinity on the Periodic Table” shows
EA values versus position on the periodic table for the s– and p-block
elements. The trend isn’t absolute, especially considering the large

positive EA values for the second column.
• Electron affinity generally increases in magnitude as we move

to the right across a period (row) in the periodic table (across a
period).
• There is not a definitive trend as you go down a group

(column) on the periodic table; sometimes electron affinity
increases, sometimes it decreases.
Figure 3. Electron Affinity on the Periodic Table. Values are in kJ/

mol.
Example 4
Predict which atom in each pair will have the highest magnitude of EA.
a) C or F b) Na or S
Solution
a) C and F are in the same row on the periodic table, but F is farther to the right. Therefore, F should
have the larger magnitude of EA.
b) Na and S are in the same row on the periodic table, but S is farther to the right. Therefore, S should
have the larger magnitude of EA.
Test Yourself
Predict which atom will have the highest magnitude of EA, As or Br.
Answer
Br
Certain properties—notably effective atomic radius, IE, and EA—can be

qualitatively understood by the positions of the elements on the periodic
table.
Exercises
1. Write a chemical equation with an IE energy change.

2. State the trends in atomic radii as you go across and down the periodic table.
3. Which atom of each pair is larger?
a) Na or Cs b) N or Bi
4. Which atom of each pair is larger?
a) K or Cl b) Ba or Bi
5. Which atom has the higher IE?
a) Na or S b) Ge or Br
6. Which atom has the higher IE?
a) Li or Cs b) Se or O
7. A third-row element has the following successive IEs: 738; 1,450; 7,734; and 10,550 kJ/mol.
Identify the element.
8. For which successive IE is there a large jump in IE for Ca?
9. Which atom has the greater magnitude of EA?
a) C or F b) Al or Cl
Answers
1. Na(g) Na+(g) + e− ΔH = IE (answers will vary)
2. As you go across, atomic radii decrease; as you go down, atomic radii increase.
3. a) Cs b) Bi
4. a) K b) Ba
5. a) S b) Br
6. a) Li b) O
7. Mg
8. The third IE shows a large jump in Ca.
9. a) F b) Cl


1. Calculate the frequency and wavelength of light that is emitted contains

3.45 x 10-18J of energy. What type of light is this?
2. Convert the following light wavelengths into frequencies (Hz). (The

speed of light c=2.998 x 108m/s)
a) 4.33 nm b) 2.35 x 10-10m c) 735 nm d) 4.57 mm
3. Convert the following light frequencies into wavelengths (expressing

the result in the indicated units), assuming the light is moving at the speed
of light (c=2.998 x 108m/s)
a) 4.77 GHz (m) b) 2.89 kHz (cm)
c) 50. Hz (mm) d) 2.88 MHz (mm)
4. How does the energy possessed by an emitted photon compare to the

difference in energy levels that gave rise to the emission of the photon?
5. Explain the difference between continuous and discrete spectra.
685
6. Describe one aspect of Bohr’s model of the atom that “worked”.

Describe one aspect of Bohr’s model of the atom that did not “work”.
7. Draw an electron shell model of the following
a) chloride ion, Cl1- b) calcium ion, Ca2+
8. In what way are outer electron shells of oxygen and selenium similar?
In what way are they different?
9. Why is the view of an electron being a particlein a fixed

orbitunacceptable?
10. Explain the difference between an orbit and an orbital. Briefly

describe the model that each refers to.
11. Which law(s) (e.g.: Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle or

Hund’s rule) is (are) violated in each of these ground state electron
configurations. Write the correct configuration as well.
a) B = 1s12s12px12py12pz1
b) Sc = [Ne] 3s23p63d3
c) Na = 1s21p72s23s1
d) C = 1s22s22px2
12. Write the electron configurations and show the orbital box diagram
for each of the following. Show only the valence electrons with the box
notation.
a) Se b) Cu c) Fe d) Si
13. Write the electron configuration, using core notation (condensed

electron configuration), for the following.
a) Pt b) Zr c) W
14. How many orbitals in an atom can have the designation: 5p, 4d, n=5,
n=4?
15. The elements Si, Ga, As, Ge, Al, Cd, S and Se are all used in
the manufacturing of various semiconductor devices. Write the expected
electron configuration for each of these atoms
16. Write the expected ground-state electron configuration for the

following:
a) The element(s) with one unpaired 5p electron.
b) The, as yet undiscovered alkaline earth metal after (i.e. below in the
periodic table) radium.
c) The noble gas with electrons occupying 4f orbitals.
d) The first-row transition metal with the most UNPAIRED electrons (i.e.
electrons singly in orbitals).
17. Which of the following electron configurations correspond to an

excited state (i.e., is not a ground-state/lowest energy electron

configuration)? Identify the atoms and write the ground-state electron
configurations where appropriate.
a) 1s22s23p1 b) 1s22s22p6
c) 1s22s22p43s1 d) [Ar]4s23d54p1
18. Arrange the following in order of increasing atomic size: N, O, S
19. Arrange the following in order of increasing ionization energy: S, P,

F
20. How many valence electrons do the following atoms have?
a) Li b) Al c) P
21. Arrange the following groups of atoms in order of increasing size:
a) Be, Mg, Ca b) Te, I, Xe c) Ga, Ge, In
22. Arrange the atoms in the previous exercise in order of increasing first
ionization energy.
23. In each of the following sets, which atom or ion has the smallest
radius?
a) Li, Na, K b) P, As c) O+, O, O– d) S, Cl, Kr e) Pd,

Ni, Cu
24. The first ionization energies of As and Se are 0.947 and 0.941 MJ/mol
respectively. Rationalize these values in terms of electron configurations.
25. For each of the pairs of elements (O and F) and (Ar and Br), pick the
atom with:
a) higher (more negative) electron affinity

b) higher ionization energy
c) larger size
26. What is the frequency of light if its wavelength is 1.00 m?
27. What is the energy of a photon if its wavelength is 1.00 meter?
28. a) Predict the electron configurations of Sc through Zn.
b) From a source of actual electron configurations, determine how many

exceptions there are from your predictions in part a.
29. Recently, Russian chemists reported experimental evidence of

element 117. Use the periodic table to predict its valence shell electron
configuration.
30. Which atom has a higher ionization energy (IE), O or P?
31. Which atom has a smaller radius, As or Cl?
32. How many IEs does an H atom have? Write the chemical reactions
for the successive ionizations.
33. Based on what you know of electrical charges, do you expect Na+ to
be larger or smaller than Na?
Answers
1. 5.21 x 1015s-1; 5.76 x 10-8m; UV
2. a) 6.92 x 1016Hz b) 1.28 x 1018Hz c) 4.08 x 1014Hz d) 6.56

x 1013Hz
3. a) 0.0629 m b) 1.04 x 107cm c) 6.0 x 109mm d) 1.04 x 108um
4. equal
5. continuous spectra contain all frequencies while discrete spectra only

contain limited number of frequencies.
6. The concept that the energy of the electron is quantized is true. The
concept that the electron travels on a fixed path or “orbit” is not the case.
7. a) b)
8. They are similar in that they both need 2 more electrons to have a
full outer shell. They are different in that they have a different number of
electrons in the outer shell. O has 6 but Se has16.
9. Viewing the electron as a particle does not recognize that it has wave-
like properties. Having a fixed orbit violates the Uncertainty Principle.
10. orbit: 2-D circular path in which an electron can be found. Orbital:
3-D region of space in which there’s a high probability of finding the
electron.
11. a) Aufbau. 1s22s22p1 b) Aufbau. [Ar]4s23d1

c) Aufbau & Pauli exclusion. 1s22s22p63s1 d) Hund’s rule. 1s22s22p2
12. Note: only the valence box diagram is shown in the following answers
a) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p4
2 2 6 2 6
b) 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s13d10
c) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6
d) 1s22s22p63s23p2
13. a) [Xe]6s14f145d9
b) [Kr]5s24d2
c) [Xe]6s24f145d4
14. 3; 5; 25; 16
15. Si: 1s22s22p63s23p2

Ga: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p1
As: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p3
Ge: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p2
Al: 1s22s22p63s23p1
Cd: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d10
S: 1s22s22p63s23p4
Se: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p4
16. a) In: [Kr]5s24d105p1or I: [Kr]5s24d105p5

b) Z = 120: [Rn]7s25f146d107p68s2
c) Rn: [Xe]6s24f145d106p6
d) Cr: [Ar]4s13d5
17. a) excited state of B; 1s22s22p1

b) ground state of Ne
c) excited state of F: 1s22s22p5
d) excited state of Fe: [Ar]4s23d6
18. O < N < S
19. P < S < F
20. a) 1; b) 3; c) 5
21. a) Be < Mg < Ca

b) Xe < I < Te
c) Ge < Ga < In
22. a) Ca < Mg < Be

b) Te < I < Xe
c) In < Ga < Ge
23. a) Li; b) P; c) O+; d) Cl; e) Cu
24. As: [Ar]4s23d104p3and Se: [Ar]4s23d104p4. As has a half-filled 4p

orbital which is more stable; Se has 2e in one of its 4p orbitals which
gives rise to a larger electron-electron repulsion, making it easier for Se
to lose an electron to reach a more stable half-filled 4p configuration,
therefore Se has a smaller IE1.
25. a) F, Br; b) F, Ar; c) O, Br
26. 3.00 × 108 s−1
27. 1.99 × 10−22 J

28. a) The electron configurations are predicted to end in 3d1, 3d2, 3d3,
3d4, 3d5, 3d6, 3d7, 3d8, 3d9, and 3d10.
b) Cr and Cu are exceptions.
29. Element 117’s valence shell electron configuration should be 7s27p5.
30. O
31. Cl
32. H has only one IE: H → H+ + e−
33. smaller


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Chapter 9. Chemical Bonding
and Lewis Structures
Chapter Topics
• Ionic Bonding
• Covalent Bonding
• Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams
• Electron Transfer: Ionic Bonds
• Covalent Bonds and Lewis Structures
• Formal Charges and Resonance
695
Introduction
It has long been known that pure carbon occurs in different forms
(allotropes) including graphite and diamonds.
Graphite is brittle, whereas diamond is the hardest natural material known

on Earth. Yet both are just pure carbon. What is special about this element
that makes these two forms of carbon so different?
Bonds. Chemical bonds!
In graphite, each carbon is bonded to three other carbons to form a flat

sheets of carbon lattices which are form layers. These layers, called
graphene, are attracted to each other through Van der Waals forces, a type
of intermolecular force. Graphite is brittle because these intermolecular
forces are relatively weak.
In a perfect diamond crystal, each C atom makes four

connections—bonds—to four other C atoms in a three-dimensional
matrix. Four is the greatest number of bonds that is commonly made by
atoms, so C atoms maximize their interactions with other atoms. This
three-dimensional array of connections extends throughout the diamond
696
crystal, making it essentially one large molecule. Breaking a diamond

means breaking every bond at once.
Figure 1. Diamond and graphite samples with their

respective structures. The bottom right formation of
carbon is what is known as “graphene,” characterized
by infinite, single atom sheets of carbon. By
User:Itub (Self-made derivative work (see below))
[GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or
CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-sa/3.0/)], via Wikimedia Commons
It was not until 1985 that a new form of carbon was recognized:
buckminsterfullerene, commonly known as a “buckyball.” This molecule
was named after the architect and inventor R. Buckminster Fuller
(1895–1983), whose signature architectural design was the geodesic
dome, characterized by a lattice shell structure supporting a spherical

surface. Experimental evidence revealed the formula, C60, and then
scientists determined how 60 carbon atoms could form one symmetric,
stable molecule. They were guided by bonding theory—the topic of this
chapter—which explains how individual atoms connect to form more
complex structures.
Figure 2. Eight allotropes of carbon: a) diamond, b)

graphite, c) Ionsdaleite, d) C60 buckminsterfullerene, e)
C540, Fullerite, f) C70, g) amorphous carbon, and h)
single-walled carbon nanotube.By Created by Michael
Ströck (mstroeck) (Created by Michael Ströck (mstroeck))
[GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html),
CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/
3.0/) or CC BY-SA 2.5 (https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/2.5)], via Wikimedia Commons
How do atoms make compounds?
Bonds. Chemical bonds!

Typically they join together in such a way that they lose their identities as
elements and adopt a new identity as a compound. These joins are called
chemical bonds. But how do atoms join together? Ultimately, it all comes
down to electrons. Before we discuss how electrons interact, we need to
introduce a tool to simply illustrate electrons in an atom.



9.1 Ionic Bonding
Learning Objectives
• Explain the formation of cations, anions, and ionic compounds

• Predict the charge of common metallic and nonmetallic elements, and write their electron
configurations
As you have learned, ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical

charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or
more electrons from its valence shell, and an anion (a negative ion) forms
when a neutral atom gains one or more electrons in its valence shell.
Compounds composed of ions are called ionic compounds (or salts),

and their constituent ions are held together by ionic bonds: electrostatic
forces of attraction between oppositely charged cations and anions. The
properties of ionic compounds shed some light on the nature of ionic
bonds. Ionic solids exhibit a crystalline structure and tend to be rigid
and brittle; they also tend to have high melting and boiling points, which
suggests that ionic bonds are very strong. Ionic solids are also poor
conductors of electricity for the same reason—the strength of ionic bonds
701
9.1 IONIC BONDING • 702
prevents ions from moving freely in the solid state. Most ionic solids,
however, dissolve readily in water. Once dissolved or melted, ionic
compounds are excellent conductors of electricity and heat because the
ions can move about freely.
Neutral atoms and their associated ions have very different physical and
chemical properties. Sodium atoms form sodium metal, a soft, silvery-
white metal that burns vigorously in air and reacts explosively with
water. Chlorine atoms form chlorine gas, Cl2, a yellow-green gas that is
extremely corrosive to most metals and very poisonous to animals and
plants. The vigorous reaction between the elements sodium and chlorine
forms the white, crystalline compound sodium chloride, common table
salt, which contains sodium cations and chloride anions (Figure 1). The
compound composed of these ions exhibits properties entirely different
from the properties of the elements sodium and chlorine. Chlorine is
poisonous, but sodium chloride is essential to life; sodium atoms react
vigorously with water, but sodium chloride simply dissolves in water.
Figure 1. (a) Sodium is a soft metal that must be stored in mineral oil to prevent
reaction with air or water. (b) Chlorine is a pale yellow-green gas. (c) When
combined, they form white crystals of sodium chloride (table salt). (credit a:
modification of work by “Jurii”/Wikimedia Commons)
The Formation of Ionic Compounds
Binary ionic compounds are composed of just two elements: a metal

(which forms the cations) and a nonmetal (which forms the anions).
For example, NaCl is a binary ionic compound. We can think about
the formation of such compounds in terms of the periodic properties
of the elements. Many metallic elements have relatively low ionization
potentials and lose electrons easily. These elements lie to the left in a
period or near the bottom of a group on the periodic table. Nonmetal
atoms have relatively high electron affinities and thus readily gain
electrons lost by metal atoms, thereby filling their valence shells.
Nonmetallic elements are found in the upper-right corner of the periodic
table.
As all substances must be electrically neutral, the total number of positive

charges on the cations of an ionic compound must equal the total number
of negative charges on its anions. The formula of an ionic compound
represents the simplest ratio of the numbers of ions necessary to give
identical numbers of positive and negative charges. For example, the
formula for aluminum oxide, Al2O3, indicates that this ionic compound
contains two aluminum cations, Al3+, for every three oxide anions, O2−
[thus, (2 × +3) + (3 × –2) = 0].
It is important to note, however, that the formula for an ionic compound

does not represent the physical arrangement of its ions. It is incorrect to
refer to a sodium chloride (NaCl) “molecule” because there is not a single
ionic bond, per se, between any specific pair of sodium and chloride
ions. The attractive forces between ions are isotropic—the same in all
directions—meaning that any particular ion is equally attracted to all of
the nearby ions of opposite charge. This results in the ions arranging
themselves into a tightly bound, three-dimensional lattice structure.
Sodium chloride, for example, consists of a regular arrangement of equal
numbers of Na+ cations and Cl– anions (Figure 2).
Figure 2. The atoms in sodium chloride (common table salt)

are arranged to (a) maximize opposite charges interacting.
The smaller spheres represent sodium ions, the larger ones
represent chloride ions. In the expanded view (b), the
geometry can be seen more clearly. Note that each ion is
“bonded” to all of the surrounding ions—six in this case.
The strong electrostatic attraction between Na+ and Cl– ions holds them
tightly together in solid NaCl. It requires 769 kJ of energy to dissociate
one mole of solid NaCl into separate gaseous Na+ and Cl– ions:
Electronic Structures of Cations
When forming a cation, an atom of a main group element tends to lose

all of its valence electrons, thus assuming the electronic structure of
the noble gas that precedes it in the periodic table. For groups 1 (the
alkali metals) and 2 (the alkaline earth metals), the group numbers are
equal to the numbers of valence shell electrons and, consequently, to the
charges of the cations formed from atoms of these elements when all
valence shell electrons are removed. For example, calcium is a group
2 element whose neutral atoms have 20 electrons and a ground state
electron configuration of 1s22s22p63s23p64s2. When a Ca atom loses both
of its valence electrons, the result is a cation with 18 electrons, a 2+
charge, and an electron configuration of 1s22s22p63s23p6. The Ca2+ ion
is therefore isoelectronic with the noble gas Ar.
For groups 12–17, the group numbers exceed the number of valence
electrons by 10 (accounting for the possibility of full d subshells in atoms
of elements in the fourth and greater periods). Thus, the charge of a cation
formed by the loss of all valence electrons is equal to the group number
minus 10. For example, aluminum (in group 13) forms 3+ ions (Al3+).
Exceptions to the expected behavior involve elements toward the bottom

of the groups. In addition to the expected ions Tl3+, Sn4+, Pb4+, and Bi5+,
a partial loss of these atoms’ valence shell electrons can also lead to the
formation of Tl+, Sn2+, Pb2+, and Bi3+ ions. The formation of these 1+,
2+, and 3+ cations is ascribed to the inert pair effect, which reflects the
relatively low energy of the valence s-electron pair for atoms of the heavy
elements of groups 13, 14, and 15. Mercury (group 12) also exhibits an
unexpected behavior: it forms a diatomic ion, (an ion formed from
two mercury atoms, with an Hg-Hg bond), in addition to the expected
monatomic ion Hg2+ (formed from only one mercury atom).
Transition and inner transition metal elements behave differently than

main group elements. Most transition metal cations have 2+ or 3+ charges
that result from the loss of their outermost s electron(s) first, sometimes
followed by the loss of one or two d electrons from the next-to-outermost
shell. For example, iron (1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2) forms the ion Fe2+
(1s22s22p63s23p63d6) by the loss of the 4s electron and the ion Fe3+
(1s22s22p63s23p63d5) by the loss of the 4s electron and one of the 3d
electrons. Although the d orbitals of the transition elements
are—according to the Aufbau principle—the last to fill when building
up electron configurations, the outermost s electrons are the first to be
lost when these atoms ionize. When the inner transition metals form ions,
they usually have a 3+ charge, resulting from the loss of their outermost s
electrons and a d or f electron.
Example 1
There are at least 14 elements categorized as “essential trace elements” for the human body. They
are called “essential” because they are required for healthy bodily functions, “trace” because they are
required only in small amounts, and “elements” in spite of the fact that they are really ions. Two of
these essential trace elements, chromium and zinc, are required as Cr3+ and Zn2+. Write the electron
configurations of these cations.
Solution
First, write the electron configuration for the neutral atoms:
Zn: [Ar]3d104s2
Cr: [Ar]3d54s1
Next, remove electrons from the highest energy orbital. For the transition metals, electrons are
removed from the s orbital first and then from the d orbital. For the p-block elements, electrons are
removed from the p orbitals and then from the s orbital. Zinc is a member of group 12, so it should
have a charge of 2+, and thus loses only the two electrons in its s orbital. Chromium is a transition
element and should lose its s electrons and then its d electrons when forming a cation. Thus, we find
the following electron configurations of the ions:
Zn2+: [Ar]3d10
Cr3+: [Ar]3d3
Test Yourself
Potassium and magnesium are required in our diet. Write the electron configurations of the ions
expected from these elements.
Answers
K+: [Ar], Mg2+: [Ne]
Electronic Structures of Anions
Most monatomic anions form when a neutral nonmetal atom gains

enough electrons to completely fill its outer s and p orbitals, thereby
reaching the electron configuration of the next noble gas. Thus, it is
simple to determine the charge on such a negative ion: The charge is equal
to the number of electrons that must be gained to fill the s and p orbitals
of the parent atom. Oxygen, for example, has the electron configuration
1s22s22p4, whereas the oxygen anion has the electron configuration of the
noble gas neon (Ne), 1s22s22p6. The two additional electrons required to
fill the valence orbitals give the oxide ion the charge of 2– (O2–).
Example 2
Selenium and iodine are two essential trace elements that form anions. Write the electron
configurations of the anions.
Solution
Se2–: [Ar]3d104s24p6
I–: [Kr]4d105s25p6
Test Yourself
Write the electron configurations of a phosphorus atom and its negative ion. Give the charge on the
anion.
Answers
P: [Ne]3s23p3; P3–: [Ne]3s23p6
Atoms gain or lose electrons to form ions with particularly stable electron
configurations. The charges of cations formed by the representative
metals may be determined readily because, with few exceptions, the
electronic structures of these ions have either a noble gas configuration
or a completely filled electron shell. The charges of anions formed by the
nonmetals may also be readily determined because these ions form when
nonmetal atoms gain enough electrons to fill their valence shells.
Exercises
1. Does a cation gain protons to form a positive charge or does it lose electrons?
2. Which of the following atoms would be expected to form negative ions in binary ionic compounds
and which would be expected to form positive ions: P, I, Mg, Cl, In, Cs, O, Pb, Co?
3. Predict the charge on the monatomic ions formed from the following atoms in binary ionic
compounds:
a) P b) Mg c) Al d) O e) Cl f) Cs
4. Write the electron configuration for each of the following ions:
a) As3– b) I– c) Be2+ d) Cd2+ e) O2– f) Ga3+
g) Li+ h) N3– i) Sn2+ j) Co2+ k) Fe2+ l) As3+
5. Write out the full electron configuration for each of the following atoms and for the monatomic
ion found in binary ionic compounds containing the element:
a) Al b) Br c) Sr d) Li e) As f) S
Answers
1. The protons in the nucleus do not change during normal chemical reactions. Only the outer
electrons move. Positive charges form when electrons are lost.
2. P, I, Cl, and O would form anions because they are nonmetals. Mg, In, Cs, Pb, and Co would form
cations because they are metals.
3. a) P3– b) Mg2+ c) Al3+ d) O2– e) Cl– f) Cs+
4. a) [Ar]4s23d104p6 b) [Kr]4d105s25p6 c) 1s2 d) [Kr]4d10 e) [He]2s22p6 f) [Ar]3d10
g) 1s2 h) [He]2s22p6 i) [Kr]4d105s2 j) [Ar]3d7 k) [Ar]3d6 l) [Ar]3d104s2
5. a) 1s22s22p63s23p1; Al3+: 1s22s22p6
b) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p5; 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6
c) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p65s2; Sr2+: 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6
d) 1s22s1; Li+: 1s2
e) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p3; 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6
f) 1s22s22p63s23p4; 1s22s22p63s23p6
Glossary
inert pair effect: tendency of heavy atoms to form ions in which their
valence s electrons are not lost
ionic bond: strong electrostatic force of attraction between cations and

anions in an ionic compound


9.2 Covalent Bonding
Learning Objectives
• Describe the formation of covalent bonds

• Define electronegativity and assess the polarity of covalent bonds
In ionic compounds, electrons are transferred between atoms of different

elements to form ions. But this is not the only way that compounds can
be formed. Atoms can also make chemical bonds by sharing electrons
equally between each other. Such bonds are called covalent bonds.
Covalent bonds are formed between two atoms when both have similar
tendencies to attract electrons to themselves (i.e., when both atoms have
identical or fairly similar ionization energies and electron affinities). For
example, two hydrogen atoms bond covalently to form an H2 molecule;
each hydrogen atom in the H2 molecule has two electrons stabilizing it,
giving each atom the same number of valence electrons as the noble gas
He.
Compounds that contain covalent bonds exhibit different physical

712
properties than ionic compounds. Because the attraction between

molecules, which are electrically neutral, is weaker than that between
electrically charged ions, covalent compounds generally have much
lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds. In fact, many
covalent compounds are liquids or gases at room temperature, and, in
their solid states, they are typically much softer than ionic solids.
Furthermore, whereas ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity
when dissolved in water, most covalent compounds are insoluble in
water; since they are electrically neutral, they are poor conductors of
electricity in any state.
Formation of Covalent Bonds
Nonmetal atoms frequently form covalent bonds with other nonmetal

atoms. For example, the hydrogen molecule, H2, contains a covalent bond
between its two hydrogen atoms. Figure 1 illustrates why this bond is
formed. Starting on the far right, we have two separate hydrogen atoms
with a particular potential energy, indicated by the red line. Along the
x-axis is the distance between the two atoms. As the two atoms approach
each other (moving left along the x-axis), their valence orbitals (1s) begin
to overlap. The single electrons on each hydrogen atom then interact with
both atomic nuclei, occupying the space around both atoms. The strong
attraction of each shared electron to both nuclei stabilizes the system, and
the potential energy decreases as the bond distance decreases. If the atoms
continue to approach each other, the positive charges in the two nuclei
begin to repel each other, and the potential energy increases. The bond
9.2 COVALENT BONDING • 714
length is determined by the distance at which the lowest potential energy

is achieved.
Figure 1. The potential energy of two separate hydrogen atoms (right) decreases
as they approach each other, and the single electrons on each atom are shared to
form a covalent bond. The bond length is the internuclear distance at which the
lowest potential energy is achieved.
It is essential to remember that energy must be added to break chemical

bonds (an endothermic process), whereas forming chemical bonds
releases energy (an exothermic process). In the case of H2, the covalent
bond is very strong; a large amount of energy, 436 kJ, must be added to
break the bonds in one mole of hydrogen molecules and cause the atoms
to separate:
Conversely, the same amount of energy is released when one mole of H2

molecules forms from two moles of H atoms:
Pure vs. Polar Covalent Bonds
If the atoms that form a covalent bond are identical, as in H2, Cl2, and
other diatomic molecules, then the electrons in the bond must be shared
equally. We refer to this as a pure covalent bond. Electrons shared in
pure covalent bonds have an equal probability of being near each nucleus.
In the case of Cl2, each atom starts off with seven valence electrons, and
each Cl shares one electron with the other, forming one covalent bond:
The total number of electrons around each individual atom consists of six
nonbonding electrons and two shared (i.e., bonding) electrons for eight
total electrons, matching the number of valence electrons in the noble

gas argon. Since the bonding atoms are identical, Cl2 also features a pure
covalent bond.
When the atoms linked by a covalent bond are different, the bonding
electrons are shared, but no longer equally. Instead, the bonding electrons
are more attracted to one atom than the other, giving rise to a shift of
electron density toward that atom. This unequal distribution of electrons
is known as a polar covalent bond, characterized by a partial positive
charge on one atom and a partial negative charge on the other. The atom
that attracts the electrons more strongly acquires the partial negative
charge and vice versa. For example, the electrons in the H–Cl bond of
a hydrogen chloride molecule spend more time near the chlorine atom
than near the hydrogen atom. Thus, in an HCl molecule, the chlorine
atom carries a partial negative charge and the hydrogen atom has a partial
positive charge. Figure 2 shows the distribution of electrons in the H–Cl
bond. Note that the shaded area around Cl is much larger than it is
around H. Compare this to Figure 1, which shows the even distribution of
electrons in the H2 nonpolar bond.
We sometimes designate the positive and negative atoms in a polar

covalent bond using a lowercase Greek letter “delta,” δ, with a plus sign
or minus sign to indicate whether the atom has a partial positive charge
(δ+) or a partial negative charge (δ–). This symbolism is shown for the
H–Cl molecule in Figure 2.
Figure 2. (a) The distribution of

electron density in the HCl molecule
is uneven. The electron density is
greater around the chlorine nucleus.
The small, black dots indicate the
location of the hydrogen and chlorine
nuclei in the molecule. (b) Symbols
δ+ and δ– indicate the polarity of the
H–Cl bond.
Electronegativity
Whether a bond is nonpolar or polar covalent is determined by a property

of the bonding atoms called electronegativity. Electronegativity is a
measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons (or electron
density) towards itself. It determines how the shared electrons are
distributed between the two atoms in a bond. The more strongly an
atom attracts the electrons in its bonds, the larger its electronegativity.
Electrons in a polar covalent bond are shifted toward the more
electronegative atom; thus, the more electronegative atom is the one with
the partial negative charge. The greater the difference in electronegativity,
the more polarized the electron distribution and the larger the partial
charges of the atoms.
Figure 3 shows the electronegativity values of the elements as proposed

by one of the most famous chemists of the twentieth century: Linus
Pauling (Figure 4). In general, electronegativity increases from left to
right across a period in the periodic table and decreases down a group.
Thus, the nonmetals, which lie in the upper right, tend to have the highest
electronegativities, with fluorine the most electronegative element of all
(EN = 4.0). Metals tend to be less electronegative elements, and the
group 1 metals have the lowest electronegativities. Note that noble gases
are excluded from this figure because these atoms usually do not share
electrons with others atoms since they have a full valence shell. (While
noble gas compounds such as XeO2 do exist, they can only be formed
under extreme conditions, and thus they do not fit neatly into the general
model of electronegativity.)
Figure 3. The electronegativity values derived by Pauling follow predictable

periodic trends with the higher electronegativities toward the upper right of the
periodic table.
Electronegativity versus Electron Affinity
We must be careful not to confuse electronegativity and electron affinity.

The electron affinity of an element is a measurable physical quantity,
namely, the energy released or absorbed when an isolated gas-phase atom
acquires an electron, measured in kJ/mol. Electronegativity, on the other
hand, describes how tightly an atom attracts electrons in a bond. It is a
dimensionless quantity that is calculated, not measured. Pauling derived
the first electronegativity values by comparing the amounts of energy
required to break different types of bonds. He chose an arbitrary relative
scale ranging from 0 to 4.
Linus Pauling
Linus Pauling, shown in Figure 4, is the only person to have received two unshared (individual)
Nobel Prizes: one for chemistry in 1954 for his work on the nature of chemical bonds and one for peace
in 1962 for his opposition to weapons of mass destruction. He developed many of the theories and
concepts that are foundational to our current understanding of chemistry, including electronegativity
and resonance structures.
Figure 4. Linus Pauling (1901–1994) made many

important contributions to the field of chemistry. He was
also a prominent activist, publicizing issues related to
health and nuclear weapons.
Pauling also contributed to many other fields besides chemistry. His research on sickle cell anemia
revealed the cause of the disease—the presence of a genetically inherited abnormal protein in the
blood—and paved the way for the field of molecular genetics. His work was also pivotal in curbing the
testing of nuclear weapons; he proved that radioactive fallout from nuclear testing posed a public health
risk.
Electronegativity and Bond Type
The absolute value of the difference in electronegativity (ΔEN) of two

bonded atoms provides a rough measure of the polarity to be expected in

the bond and, thus, the bond type. When the difference is very small or
zero, the bond is covalent and nonpolar. When it is large, the bond is polar
covalent or ionic. The absolute values of the electronegativity differences
between the atoms in the bonds H–H, H–Cl, and Na–Cl are 0 (nonpolar),
0.9 (polar covalent), and 2.1 (ionic), respectively. The degree to which
electrons are shared between atoms varies from completely equal (pure
covalent bonding) to not at all (ionic bonding). Figure 5 shows the
relationship between electronegativity difference and bond type.
Figure 5. As the electronegativity difference increases between two atoms, the

bond becomes more ionic.
A rough approximation of the electronegativity differences associated

with covalent, polar covalent, and ionic bonds is shown in Figure 5.
This table is just a general guide, however, with many exceptions. For
example, the H and F atoms in HF have an electronegativity difference of
1.9, and the N and H atoms in NH3 a difference of 0.9, yet both of these
compounds form bonds that are considered polar covalent. Likewise, the
Na and Cl atoms in NaCl have an electronegativity difference of 2.1, and
the Mn and I atoms in MnI2 have a difference of 1.0, yet both of these
substances form ionic compounds.
The best guide to the covalent or ionic character of a bond is to consider

the types of atoms involved and their relative positions in the periodic
table. Bonds between two nonmetals are generally covalent; bonding
between a metal and a nonmetal is often ionic.
Some compounds contain both covalent and ionic bonds. The atoms
in polyatomic ions, such as OH–, NO3−, and NH4+, are held together
by polar covalent bonds. However, these polyatomic ions form ionic
compounds by combining with ions of opposite charge. For example,
potassium nitrate, KNO3, contains the K+ cation and the polyatomic
NO3− anion. Thus, bonding in potassium nitrate is ionic, resulting from
the electrostatic attraction between the ions K+ and NO3−, as well as
covalent between the nitrogen and oxygen atoms in NO3−.
Example 1
Bond polarities play an important role in determining the structure of proteins. Using the
electronegativity values in Figure 3, arrange the following covalent bonds—all commonly found in
amino acids—in order of increasing polarity. Then designate the positive and negative atoms using the
symbols δ+ and δ–:
C–H, C–N, C–O, N–H, O–H, S–H
Solution
The polarity of these bonds increases as the absolute value of the electronegativity difference increases.
The atom with the δ– designation is the more electronegative of the two. Table 1 shows these bonds in
order of increasing polarity.
Bond ΔEN Polarity
C–H 0.4
S–H 0.4
C–N 0.5
N–H 0.9
C–O 1.0
O–H 1.4
Table 1. Bond Polarity and Electronegativity Difference
Test Yourself
Silicones are polymeric compounds containing, among others, the following types of covalent bonds:
Si–O, Si–C, C–H, and C–C. Using the electronegativity values in Figure 3, arrange the bonds in order
of increasing polarity and designate the positive and negative atoms using the symbols δ+ and δ–.
Answer
Bond Electronegativity Difference Polarity
C–C 0.0 nonpolar
C–H 0.4
Si–C 0.7
Si–O 1.7
Table 2.
Covalent bonds form when electrons are shared between atoms and are
attracted by the nuclei of both atoms. In pure covalent bonds, the
electrons are shared equally. In polar covalent bonds, the electrons are
shared unequally, as one atom exerts a stronger force of attraction on
the electrons than the other. The ability of an atom to attract a pair of
electrons in a chemical bond is called its electronegativity. The difference
in electronegativity between two atoms determines how polar a bond will
be. In a diatomic molecule with two identical atoms, there is no difference
in electronegativity, so the bond is nonpolar or pure covalent. When the
electronegativity difference is very large, as is the case between metals
and nonmetals, the bonding is characterized as ionic.
Exercises
1. Why is it incorrect to speak of a molecule of solid NaCl?

2. Predict which of the following compounds are ionic and which are covalent, based on the location
of their constituent atoms in the periodic table:
a) Cl2CO b) MnO c) NCl3 d) CoBr2 e) K2S f) CO
g) CaF2 h) HI i) CaO j) IBr k) CO2
3. From its position in the periodic table, determine which atom in each pair is more electronegative:
a) Br or Cl b) N or O c) S or O d) P or S
e) Si or N f) Ba or P g) N or K
4. From their positions in the periodic table, arrange the atoms in each of the following series in order
of increasing electronegativity:
a) C, F, H, N, O b) Br, Cl, F, H, I c) F, H, O, P, S
d) Al, H, Na, O, P e) Ba, H, N, O, As
5. Which atoms can bond to sulfur so as to produce a positive partial charge on the sulfur atom?
6. Which is the most polar bond?
a) C–C b) C–H c) N–H d) O–H e) Se–H
7. Identify the more polar bond in each of the following pairs of bonds:
a) HF or HCl b) NO or CO c) SH or OH d) PCl or SCl
e) CH or NH f) SO or PO g) CN or NN
Answers
1. NaCl consists of discrete ions arranged in a crystal lattice, not covalently bonded molecules.
2. ionic: b), d), e), g), and i); covalent: a), c), f), h), j), and k)
3. a) Cl b) O c) O d) S e) N f) P g) N
4. a) H, C, N, O, F b) H, I, Br, Cl, F c) H, P, S, O, F d) Na, Al, H, P, O e) Ba, H, As,
N, O
5. N, O, F, and Cl
6. O-H
7. a) HF b) CO c) OH d) PCl e) NH f) PO g) CN
Glossary
bond length: distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms at which
the lowest potential energy is achieved
covalent bond: bond formed when electrons are shared between atoms
electronegativity: tendency of an atom to attract electrons in a bond to

itself
polar covalent bond: covalent bond between atoms of different

electronegativities; a covalent bond with a positive end and a negative
end
pure covalent bond: (also, nonpolar covalent bond) covalent bond

between atoms of identical electronegativities



9.3 Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams
Learning Objective
• Draw a Lewis electron dot diagram for an atom or a monatomic ion.
In almost all cases, chemical bonds are formed by interactions of valence

electrons in atoms. To facilitate our understanding of how valence
electrons interact, a simple way of representing those valence electrons
would be useful.
A Lewis electron dot diagram (or electron dot diagram or a Lewis

diagram or a Lewis structure) is a representation of the valence electrons
of an atom that uses dots around the symbol of the element. The number
of dots equals the number of valence electrons in the atom. These dots are
arranged to the right and left and above and below the symbol, with no
more than two dots on a side. (It does not matter what order the positions
are used.) For example, the Lewis electron dot diagram for hydrogen
727
9.3 LEWIS ELECTRON DOT DIAGRAMS • 728
is simply Because the side is not

important, the Lewis electron dot diagram could also be drawn as follows:
The electron dot diagram for

helium, with two valence electrons, is as follows:
By putting the two electrons

together on the same side, we emphasize the fact that these two electrons
are both in the 1s subshell; this is the common convention we will adopt,
although there will be exceptions later. The next atom, lithium, has an
electron configuration of 1s22s1, so it has only one electron in its valence
shell. Its electron dot diagram resembles that of hydrogen, except the
symbol for lithium is used:
Beryllium has two valence

electrons in its 2s shell, so its electron dot diagram is like that of helium:
The next atom is boron. Its

valence electron shell is 2s22p1, so it has three valence electrons. The
third electron will go on another side of the symbol:
Again, it does not matter on

which sides of the symbol the electron dots are positioned.
For carbon, there are four valence electrons, two in the 2s subshell and
two in the 2p subshell. As usual, we will draw two dots together on
one side, to represent the 2s electrons. However, conventionally, we
draw the dots for the two p electrons on different sides. As such, the
electron dot diagram for carbon is as follows:
With nitrogen, which has three

p electrons, we put a single dot on each of the three remaining sides:
For oxygen, which has four p

electrons, we now have to start doubling up on the dots on one other side
of the symbol. When doubling up electrons, make sure that a side has no
more than two electrons.
Fluorine and neon have seven

and eight dots, respectively:
With the next element, sodium,

the process starts over with a single electron because sodium has a single
electron in its highest-numbered shell, the n = 3 shell. By going through
the periodic table, we see that the Lewis electron dot diagrams of atoms
will never have more than eight dots around the atomic symbol.
Example 1
What is the Lewis electron dot diagram for each element? a) aluminum b) selenium
Solution
a) The valence electron configuration for aluminum is 3s23p1. So it would have three dots around
the symbol for aluminum, two of them paired to represent the 3s electrons:
b) The valence electron configuration

for selenium is 4s24p4. In the highest-numbered shell, the n = 4 shell, there are six electrons. Its electron
dot diagram is as follows:

Test Yourself
What is the Lewis electron dot diagram for each element? a) phosphorus b) argon
Answer
For atoms with partially filled d or f subshells, these electrons are

typically omitted from Lewis electron dot diagrams. For example, the
electron dot diagram for iron (valence shell configuration 4s23d6) is as
follows: Elements in the same

column of the periodic table have similar Lewis electron dot diagrams
because they have the same valence shell electron configuration. Thus the
electron dot diagrams for the first column of elements are as follows:
Monatomic ions are atoms that

have either lost (for cations) or gained (for anions) electrons. Electron dot
diagrams for ions are the same as for atoms, except that some electrons
have been removed for cations, while some electrons have been added for
anions. Thus in comparing the electron configurations and electron dot
diagrams for the Na atom and the Na+ ion, we note that the Na atom has
a single valence electron in its Lewis diagram, while the Na+ ion has lost
that one valence electron:
Technically, the valence shell

of the Na+ ion is now the n = 2 shell, which has eight electrons in it. So
why do we not put eight dots around Na+? Conventionally, when we show
electron dot diagrams for ions, we show the original valence shell of the
atom, which in this case is the n = 3 shell and empty in the Na+ ion.
In making cations, electrons are first lost from the highest numbered shell,
not necessarily the last subshell filled. For example, in going from the
neutral Fe atom to the Fe2+ ion, the Fe atom loses its two 4s electrons
first, not its 3d electrons, despite the fact that the 3d subshell is the
last subshell being filled. Thus we have
Anions have extra electrons

when compared to the original atom. Here is a comparison of the Cl atom
with the Cl− ion:
Example 2
What is the Lewis electron dot diagram for each ion? a) Ca2+ b) O2−
Solution
a) Having lost its two original valence electrons, the Lewis electron dot diagram is just Ca 2+.
Ca2+
b) The O2− ion has gained two electrons in its valence shell, so its Lewis electron dot diagram is as
follows:
Test Yourself
The valence electron configuration of thallium, whose symbol is Tl, is 6s25d106p1. What is the Lewis
electron dot diagram for the Tl+ ion?
Answer
Lewis electron dot diagrams use dots to represent valence electrons

around an atomic symbol. Lewis electron dot diagrams for ions have
fewer (for cations) or more (for anions) dots than the corresponding atom.
Exercises
1. Explain why the first two dots in a Lewis electron dot diagram are drawn on the same side of the
atomic symbol.
2. What column of the periodic table has Lewis electron dot diagrams with two electrons?
3. Draw the Lewis electron dot diagram for each element. a) strontium b) silicon
4. Draw the Lewis electron dot diagram for each element. a) titanium b) phosphorus
5. Draw the Lewis electron dot diagram for each ion. a) Mg2+ b) S2−
6. Draw the Lewis electron dot diagram for each ion. a) Fe2+ b) N3−
Answers
1. The first two electrons in a valence shell are s electrons, which are paired.
2. the second column of the periodic table
3. a)
b)
4. a)
b)
5. a) Mg2+
b)
6. a) Fe2+
b)


9.4 Electron Transfer: Ionic Bonds
Learning Objectives
• State the octet rule.

• Define ionic bond.
• Demonstrate electron transfer between atoms to form ionic bonds.
In Section 8.3 “Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams,” we saw how ions are
formed by losing electrons to make cations or by gaining electrons to
form anions. The astute reader may have noticed something: Many of
the ions that form have eight electrons in their valence shell. Either
atoms gain enough electrons to have eight electrons in the valence shell
and become the appropriately charged anion, or they lose the electrons
in their original valence shell. The lower shell, now the valence shell,
has eight electrons in it, so the atom becomes positively charged. For
whatever reason, having eight electrons in a valence shell is a particularly
energetically stable arrangement of electrons. The trend that atoms like to
have eight electrons in their valence shell is called the octet rule. When
atoms form compounds, the octet rule is not always satisfied for all atoms
735
9.4 ELECTRON TRANSFER: IONIC BONDS • 736
at all times, but it is a very good rule of thumb for understanding the kinds
of bonding arrangements that atoms can make.
It is not impossible to violate the octet rule. Consider sodium: in its

elemental form, it has one valence electron and is stable. It is rather
reactive, however, and does not require a lot of energy to remove that
electron to make the Na+ ion. We could remove another electron by
adding even more energy to the ion, to make the Na2+ ion. However,
that requires much more energy than is normally available in chemical
reactions, so sodium stops at a 1+ charge after losing a single electron. It
turns out that the Na+ ion has a complete octet in its new valence shell,
the n = 2 shell, which satisfies the octet rule. The octet rule is a result of
trends in energies and is useful in explaining why atoms form the ions
that they do.
Now consider an Na atom in the presence of a Cl atom. The two atoms

have these Lewis electron dot diagrams and electron configurations:
For the Na atom to obtain an

octet, it must lose an electron; for the Cl atom to gain an octet, it must
gain an electron. An electron transfers from the Na atom to the Cl atom:
resulting in two ions—the Na+

ion and the Cl− ion:
Both species now have

complete octets, and the electron shells are energetically stable. From
basic physics, we know that opposite charges attract. This is what
happens to the Na+ and Cl− ions:
where we have written the final

formula (the formula for sodium chloride) as per the convention for ionic
compounds, without listing the charges explicitly. The attraction between
oppositely charged ions is called an ionic bond, and it is one of the main
types of chemical bonds in chemistry. Ionic bonds are caused by electrons
transferring from one atom to another.
In electron transfer, the number of electrons lost must equal the number of
electrons gained. We saw this in the formation of NaCl. A similar process
occurs between Mg atoms and O atoms, except in this case two electrons
are transferred: The two ions

each have octets as their valence shell, and the two oppositely charged
particles attract, making an ionic bond:
Remember, in the final formula

for the ionic compound, we do not write the charges on the ions.
What about when an Na atom interacts with an O atom? The O atom

needs two electrons to complete its valence octet, but the Na atom
supplies only one electron: The

O atom still does not have an octet of electrons. What we need is a second
Na atom to donate a second electron to the O atom:
These three ions attract each

other to give an overall neutral-charged ionic compound, which we write
as Na2O. The need for the number of electrons lost being equal to the
number of electrons gained explains why ionic compounds have the
ratio of cations to anions that they do. This is required by the law of
conservation of matter as well.
Example 1
With arrows, illustrate the transfer of electrons to form calcium chloride from Ca atoms and Cl atoms.
Solution
A Ca atom has two valence electrons, while a Cl atom has seven electrons. A Cl atom needs
only one more to complete its octet, while Ca atoms have two electrons to lose. Thus we need
two Cl atoms to accept the two electrons from one Ca atom. The transfer process looks like this:
The oppositely charged ions attract each

other to make CaCl2.
Test Yourself
With arrows, illustrate the transfer of electrons to form potassium sulfide from K atoms and S atoms.
Answer
The strength of ionic bonding depends on two major characteristics:

the magnitude of the charges and the size of the ion. The greater the
magnitude of the charge, the stronger the ionic bond. The smaller the ion,
the stronger the ionic bond (because a smaller ion size allows the ions
to get closer together). The measured strength of ionic bonding is called
the lattice energy. Some lattice energies are given in Table 1 “Lattice
Energies of Some Ionic Compounds.”
Compound Lattice Energy (kJ/mol)
LiF 1,036
LiCl 853
NaCl 786
NaBr 747
MgF2 2,957
Na2O 2,481
MgO 3,791
Table 1. Lattice Energies of Some Ionic Compounds

Chemistry Is Everywhere: Salt
The element sodium (part [a] in the accompanying figure) is a very reactive metal; given the
opportunity, it will react with the sweat on your hands and form sodium hydroxide, which is a very
corrosive substance. The element chlorine (part [b] in the accompanying figure) is a pale yellow,
corrosive gas that should not be inhaled due to its poisonous nature. Bring these two hazardous
substances together, however, and they react to make the ionic compound sodium chloride (part [c] in
the accompanying figure), known simply as salt.
Figure 1. Sodium + Chlorine = Sodium Chloride (a) Sodium is a very

reactive metal. (b) Chlorine is a pale yellow, noxious gas. (c) Together,
sodium and chlorine make sodium chloride—salt—which is necessary
for our survival.
Salt is necessary for life. Na+ ions are one of the main ions in the human body and are necessary to
regulate the fluid balance in the body. Cl− ions are necessary for proper nerve function and respiration.
Both of these ions are supplied by salt. The taste of salt is one of the fundamental tastes; salt is probably
the most ancient flavouring known, and one of the few rocks we eat.
The health effects of too much salt are still under debate, although a 2010 report by the US
Department of Agriculture concluded that “excessive sodium intake…raises blood pressure, a well-
accepted and extraordinarily common risk factor for stroke, coronary heart disease, and kidney
1
disease.” It is clear that most people ingest more salt than their bodies need, and most nutritionists
recommend curbing salt intake. Curiously, people who suffer from low salt (called hyponatria) do so
not because they ingest too little salt but because they drink too much water. Endurance athletes and
others involved in extended strenuous exercise need to watch their water intake so their body’s salt
content is not diluted to dangerous levels.
The tendency to form species that have eight electrons in the valence
2
1.
2. US Department of Agriculture Committee for Nutrition Policy and Promotion, “Report of the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee on the Dietary Guidelines for
Americans,” accessed January 5, 2010, http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/DGAs2010-DGACReport.htm
shell is called the octet rule. The attraction of oppositely charged ions
caused by electron transfer is called an ionic bond. The strength of ionic
bonding depends on the magnitude of the charges and the sizes of the
ions.
Exercises
1. Comment on the possible formation of the K2+ ion. Why is its formation unlikely?
2. How many electrons does a Ba atom have to lose to have a complete octet in its valence shell?
3. How many electrons does an Se atom have to gain to have a complete octet in its valence shell?
4. With arrows, illustrate the transfer of electrons to form potassium chloride from K atoms and Cl
atoms.
5. With arrows, illustrate the transfer of electrons to form scandium fluoride from Sc atoms and F
atoms.
6. Which ionic compound has the higher lattice energy—KI or MgO? Why?
7. Which ionic compound has the higher lattice energy—BaS or MgO? Why?
Answers
1. The K2+ ion is unlikely to form because the K+ ion already satisfies the octet rule and is rather
stable.
2. two
3. two
4. 5.
6. MgO because the ions have a higher

magnitude charge
7. MgO because the ions are smaller


9.5 Covalent Bonds and Lewis
Structures
Learning Objectives
• Define covalent bond.

• Illustrate covalent bond formation with Lewis electron dot diagrams.
• Draw Lewis structures depicting the bonding in simple molecules
Ionic bonding typically occurs when it is easy for one atom to lose
one or more electrons and another atom to gain one or more electrons.
However, some atoms won’t give up or gain electrons easily. Yet they still
participate in compound formation. How?
There is another mechanism for obtaining a complete valence shell:

sharing electrons. When electrons are shared between two atoms, they
make a bond called a covalent bond.
Let us illustrate a covalent bond by using H atoms, with the understanding

that H atoms need only two electrons to fill the 1s subshell. Each H
743
9.5 COVALENT BONDS AND LEWIS STRUCTURES • 744
atom starts with a single electron in its valence shell:
The two H atoms can share

their electrons:
We can use circles to show that

each H atom has two electrons around the nucleus, completely filling
each atom’s valence shell:
Because each H atom has a

filled valence shell, this bond is stable, and we have made a diatomic
hydrogen molecule. (This explains why hydrogen is one of the diatomic
elements.) For simplicity’s sake, it is not unusual to represent the covalent
bond with a dash, instead of with two dots:
H–H
Because two atoms are sharing one pair of electrons, this covalent bond
is called a single bond.
As another example, consider fluorine. F atoms have seven electrons
in their valence shell: These two

atoms can do the same thing that the H atoms did; they share their
unpaired electrons to make a covalent bond.
Note that each F atom has a

complete octet around it now:
We can also write this using a

dash to represent the shared electron pair:
There are two different types of

electrons in the fluorine diatomic molecule. The bonding electron
pair makes the covalent bond. Each F atom has three other pairs of
electrons that do not participate in the bonding; they are called lone
electron pairs. Each F atom has one bonding pair and three lone pairs of
electrons.
Covalent bonds can be made between different elements as well. One

example is HF. Each atom starts out with an odd number of electrons in
its valence shell: The two atoms

can share their unpaired electrons to make a covalent bond:
We note that the H atom has a

full valence shell with two electrons, while the F atom has a complete
octet of electrons.
Example 1
Use Lewis electron dot diagrams to illustrate the covalent bond formation in HBr.
Solution
HBr is very similar to HF, except that it has Br instead of F. The atoms are as follows:
The two atoms can share their unpaired

electron:
Test Yourself
Use Lewis electron dot diagrams to illustrate the covalent bond formation in Cl 2.
Answer
More than two atoms can participate in covalent bonding, although any
given covalent bond will be between two atoms only. Consider H and O
atoms: The H and O atoms can

share an electron to form a covalent bond:
The H atom has a complete

valence shell. However, the O atom has only seven electrons around it,
which is not a complete octet. We fix this by including a second H atom,
whose single electron will make a second covalent bond with the O atom:
(It does not matter on what side

the second H atom is positioned.) Now the O atom has a complete octet
around it, and each H atom has two electrons, filling its valence shell.
This is how a water molecule, H2O, is made.
Example 2
Use a Lewis electron dot diagram to show the covalent bonding in NH3.
Solution
The N atom has the following Lewis electron dot diagram:
It has three unpaired electrons, each of

which can make a covalent bond by sharing electrons with an H atom. The electron dot diagram of NH3
is as follows:
Test Yourself
Use a Lewis electron dot diagram to show the covalent bonding in PCl3.
Answer
Lewis Structures
We also use Lewis symbols to indicate the formation of covalent bonds,

which are shown in Lewis structures, drawings that describe the bonding
in molecules and polyatomic ions. For example, when two chlorine atoms
form a chlorine molecule, they share one pair of electrons:
The Lewis structure indicates that each Cl atom has three pairs of
electrons that are not used in bonding (called lone pairs) and one shared
pair of electrons (written between the atoms). A dash (or line) is
sometimes used to indicate a shared pair of electrons:
A single shared pair of electrons is called a single bond. Each Cl atom

interacts with eight valence electrons: the six in the lone pairs and the two
in the single bond.
The Octet Rule
The other halogen molecules (F2, Br2, I2, and At2) form bonds like those
in the chlorine molecule: one single bond between atoms and three lone
pairs of electrons per atom. This allows each halogen atom to have a
noble gas electron configuration. The tendency of main group atoms to
form enough bonds to obtain eight valence electrons is known as the octet
rule.
The number of bonds that an atom can form can often be predicted
from the number of electrons needed to reach an octet (eight valence
electrons); this is especially true of the nonmetals of the second period of

the periodic table (C, N, O, and F). For example, each atom of a group
14 element has four electrons in its outermost shell and therefore requires
four more electrons to reach an octet. These four electrons can be gained
by forming four covalent bonds, as illustrated here for carbon in CCl4
(carbon tetrachloride) and silicon in SiH4 (silane). Because hydrogen
only needs two electrons to fill its valence shell, it is an exception to the
octet rule. The transition elements and inner transition elements also do
not follow the octet rule:
Group 15 elements such as nitrogen have five valence electrons in the

atomic Lewis symbol: one lone pair and three unpaired electrons. To
obtain an octet, these atoms form three covalent bonds, as in NH3
(ammonia). Oxygen and other atoms in group 16 obtain an octet by
forming two covalent bonds:
Double and Triple Bonds
As previously mentioned, when a pair of atoms shares one pair of

electrons, we call this a single bond. However, a pair of atoms may
need to share more than one pair of electrons in order to achieve the
requisite octet. A double bond forms when two pairs of electrons are
shared between a pair of atoms, as between the carbon and oxygen atoms
in CH2O (formaldehyde) and between the two carbon atoms in C2H4
(ethylene):
A triple bond forms when three electron pairs are shared by a pair of
atoms, as in carbon monoxide (CO) and the cyanide ion (CN–):
Writing Lewis Structures with the Octet Rule
For very simple molecules and molecular ions, we can write the Lewis
structures by merely pairing up the unpaired electrons on the constituent
atoms. See these examples:
For more complicated molecules and molecular ions, it is helpful to

follow the step-by-step procedure outlined here:
1. Determine the total number of valence (outer shell) electrons.

For cations, subtract one electron for each positive charge. For
anions, add one electron for each negative charge.
2. Draw a skeleton structure of the molecule or ion, arranging the

atoms around a central atom. (Generally, the least
electronegative element should be placed in the center.)
Connect each atom to the central atom with a single bond (one
electron pair).
3. Distribute the remaining electrons as lone pairs on the terminal

atoms (except hydrogen), completing an octet around each
atom.
4. Place all remaining electrons on the central atom.
5. Rearrange the electrons of the outer atoms to make multiple

bonds with the central atom in order to obtain octets wherever
possible.
Let us determine the Lewis structures of SiH4, CHO2−, NO+, and OF2 as
examples in following this procedure:
1. Determine the total number of valence (outer shell) electrons

in the molecule or ion.
◦ For a molecule, we add the number of valence

electrons on each atom in the molecule:
◦ For a negative ion, such as CHO2−, we add the

number of valence electrons on the atoms to the
number of negative charges on the ion (one electron
is gained for each single negative charge):
◦ For a positive ion, such as NO+, we add the number

of valence electrons on the atoms in the ion and then
subtract the number of positive charges on the ion
(one electron is lost for each single positive charge)
from the total number of valence electrons:
◦ Since OF2 is a neutral molecule, we simply add the

number of valence electrons:
2. Draw a skeleton structure of the molecule or ion, arranging the

atoms around a central atom and connecting each atom to the
central atom with a single (one electron pair) bond. (Note that
we denote ions with brackets around the structure, indicating
the charge outside the brackets:)
When several arrangements of atoms are possible, as for

CHO2−, we must use experimental evidence to choose the
correct one. In general, the less electronegative elements are
more likely to be central atoms. In CHO2−, the less
electronegative carbon atom occupies the central position with
the oxygen and hydrogen atoms surrounding it. Other
examples include P in POCl3, S in SO2, and Cl in ClO4−. An
exception is that hydrogen is almost never a central atom. As
the most electronegative element, fluorine also cannot be a
central atom.
3. Distribute the remaining electrons as lone pairs on the terminal

atoms (except hydrogen) to complete their valence shells with
an octet of electrons.
◦ There are no remaining electrons on SiH4, so it is

unchanged:
4. Place all remaining electrons on the central atom.
◦ For SiH4, CHO2−, and NO+, there are no remaining

electrons; we already placed all of the electrons
determined in Step 1.
◦ For OF2, we had 16 electrons remaining in Step 3,

and we placed 12, leaving 4 to be placed on the
central atom:
5. Rearrange the electrons of the outer atoms to make multiple

bonds with the central atom in order to obtain octets wherever
possible.
◦ SiH4: Si already has an octet, so nothing needs to be

done.
◦ CHO2−: We have distributed the valence electrons as

lone pairs on the oxygen atoms, but the carbon atom
lacks an octet:
◦ NO+: For this ion, we added eight valence electrons,

but neither atom has an octet. We cannot add any
more electrons since we have already used the total
that we found in Step 1, so we must move electrons
to form a multiple bond:
This still does not produce an octet, so we must

move another pair, forming a triple bond:
◦ In OF2, each atom has an octet as drawn, so nothing

changes.
Polyatomic ions are bonded together with covalent bonds, as seen in the
example of CHO2−. Because they are ions, however, they participate in
ionic bonding with other ions. So both major types of bonding can occur
at the same time.
Example 3
NASA’s Cassini-Huygens mission detected a large cloud of toxic hydrogen cyanide (HCN) on Titan,
one of Saturn’s moons. Titan also contains ethane (H3CCH3), acetylene (HCCH), and ammonia (NH3).
What are the Lewis structures of these molecules?
Solution
1. Calculate the number of valence electrons.HCN: (1 × 1) + (4 × 1) + (5 × 1) = 10H3CCH3:

(1 × 3) + (2 × 4) + (1 × 3) = 14HCCH: (1 × 1) + (2 × 4) + (1 × 1) = 10NH3: (5 × 1) + (3 ×
1) = 8
2. Draw a skeleton and connect the atoms with single bonds. Remember that H is never a
central atom:
3. Where needed, distribute electrons to the terminal atoms:
HCN: six electrons placed on NH3CCH3: no electrons remainHCCH: no terminal atoms

capable of accepting electronsNH3: no terminal atoms capable of accepting electrons
4. Where needed, place remaining electrons on the central atom:
HCN: no electrons remainH3CCH3: no electrons remainHCCH: four electrons placed on

carbonNH3: two electrons placed on nitrogen
5. Where needed, rearrange electrons to form multiple bonds in order to obtain an octet on
each atom:HCN: form two more C–N bondsH3CCH3: all atoms have the correct number
of electronsHCCH: form a triple bond between the two carbon atomsNH3: all atoms have
the correct number of electrons
Test yourself
Both carbon monoxide, CO, and carbon dioxide, CO2, are products of the combustion of fossil fuels.
Both of these gases also cause problems: CO is toxic and CO2 has been implicated in global climate
change. What are the Lewis structures of these two molecules?
Answers
Example 4
What is the proper Lewis electron dot diagram for CO2?
Solution
The central atom is a C atom, with O atoms as surrounding atoms. We have a total of 4 + 6 + 6
= 16 valence electrons. Following the rules for Lewis electron dot diagrams for compounds gives
us The O atoms have complete octets

around them, but the C atom has only four electrons around it. The way to solve this dilemma is to
make a double bond between carbon and each O atom:
Each O atom still has eight electrons

around it, but now the C atom also has a complete octet. This is an acceptable Lewis electron dot
diagram for CO2.
Test Yourself
What is the proper Lewis electron dot diagram for carbonyl sulfide (COS)?
Answer
Fullerene Chemistry
Carbon soot has been known to man since prehistoric times, but it was not until fairly recently that
the molecular structure of the main component of soot was discovered. In 1996, the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry was awarded to Richard Smalley (Figure 1), Robert Curl, and Harold Kroto for their work
in discovering a new form of carbon, the C60 buckminsterfullerene molecule (Figure 1 in Chapter
8 Introduction). An entire class of compounds, including spheres and tubes of various shapes, were
discovered based on C60. This type of molecule, called a fullerene, shows promise in a variety of
applications. Because of their size and shape, fullerenes can encapsulate other molecules, so they have
shown potential in various applications from hydrogen storage to targeted drug delivery systems. They
also possess unique electronic and optical properties that have been put to good use in solar powered
devices and chemical sensors.
Figure 1. Richard Smalley (1943–2005), a professor of physics, chemistry, and astronomy at Rice University, was
one of the leading advocates for fullerene chemistry. Upon his death in 2005, the US Senate honored him as the
“Father of Nanotechnology.” (credit: United States Department of Energy)
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
Many covalent molecules have central atoms that do not have eight
electrons in their Lewis structures. These molecules fall into three
categories:
• Odd-electron molecules have an odd number of valence

electrons, and therefore have an unpaired electron.
• Electron-deficient molecules have a central atom that has

fewer electrons than needed for a noble gas configuration.
• Hypervalent molecules have a central atom that has more

electrons than needed for a noble gas configuration.
Examples of these will be covered later chemistry courses.
Food and Drink App: Vitamins and Minerals
Vitamins are nutrients that our bodies need in small amounts but cannot synthesize; therefore, they
must be obtained from the diet. The word vitamin comes from “vital amine” because it was once
thought that all these compounds had an amine group (NH2) in it. This is not actually true, but the name
stuck anyway.
All vitamins are covalently bonded molecules. Most of them are commonly named with a letter,
although all of them also have formal chemical names. Thus vitamin A is also called retinol, vitamin C
is called ascorbic acid, and vitamin E is called tocopherol. There is no single vitamin B; there is a group
of substances called the B complex vitamins that are all water soluble and participate in cell metabolism.
If a diet is lacking in a vitamin, diseases such as scurvy or rickets develop. Luckily, all vitamins are
available as supplements, so any dietary deficiency in a vitamin can be easily corrected.
A mineral is any chemical element other than carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen that is needed
by the body. Minerals that the body needs in quantity include sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium,
phosphorus, sulfur, and chlorine. Essential minerals that the body needs in tiny quantities (so-called
trace elements) include manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, molybdenum, selenium, and
iodine. Minerals are also obtained from the diet. Interestingly, most minerals are consumed in ionic
form, rather than as elements or from covalent molecules. Like vitamins, most minerals are available in
pill form, so any deficiency can be compensated for by taking supplements.
Figure 2. Vitamin and Mineral Supplements
Every entry down through pantothenic acid is a vitamin, and everything from calcium and below is a
mineral.
Valence electronic structures can be visualized by drawing Lewis

symbols (for atoms and monatomic ions) and Lewis structures (for
molecules and polyatomic ions). Lone pairs, unpaired electrons, and
single, double, or triple bonds are used to indicate where the valence
electrons are located around each atom in a Lewis structure. Most
structures—especially those containing second row elements—obey the
octet rule, in which every atom (except H) is surrounded by eight
electrons. Exceptions to the octet rule occur for odd-electron molecules
(free radicals), electron-deficient molecules, and hypervalent molecules.
Exercises
1. Write the Lewis symbols for each of the following ions:

a) As3– b) I– c) Be2+ d) O2– e) Ga3+ f) Li+ g) N3–
2. Write the Lewis symbols of the ions in each of the following ionic compounds and the Lewis
symbols of the atom from which they are formed:
a) MgS b) Al2O3 c) GaCl3 d) K2O e) Li3N f) KF
3. Write the Lewis structure for the diatomic molecule P2, an unstable form of phosphorus found in
high-temperature phosphorus vapor.
4. Write Lewis structures for the following:
a) O2 b) H2CO c) AsF3 d) ClNO e) SiCl4
f) H3O+ g) NH4+ h) BF4− i) HCCH j) ClCN k) C22+
5. Write Lewis structures for the following:
a) SeCl3+ b) Cl2BBCl2 (contains a B–B bond)
6. Correct the following statement: “The bonds in solid PbCl2 are ionic; the bond in a HCl molecule
is covalent. Thus, all of the valence electrons in PbCl2 are located on the Cl– ions, and all of the valence
electrons in a HCl molecule are shared between the H and Cl atoms.”
7. Methanol, H3COH, is used as the fuel in some race cars. Ethanol, C2H5OH, is used extensively
as motor fuel in Brazil. Both methanol and ethanol produce CO2 and H2O when they burn. Write the
chemical equations for these combustion reactions using Lewis structures instead of chemical formulas.
8. Carbon tetrachloride was formerly used in fire extinguishers for electrical fires. It is no longer used
for this purpose because of the formation of the toxic gas phosgene, Cl2CO. Write the Lewis structures
for carbon tetrachloride and phosgene.
9. The arrangement of atoms in several biologically important molecules is given here. Complete
the Lewis structures of these molecules by adding multiple bonds and lone pairs. Do not add any more
atoms.
a) the amino acid serine:
b) urea:
c) pyruvic acid:
d) uracil:
e) carbonic acid:
10. A compound with a molar mass of about 42 g/mol contains 85.7% carbon and 14.3% hydrogen
by mass. Write the Lewis structure for a molecule of the compound.
11. How are single, double, and triple bonds similar? How do they differ?
12. How many electrons will be in the valence shell of H atoms when it makes a covalent bond?
13. What is the Lewis electron dot diagram of I2? Circle the electrons around each atom to verify that
each valence shell is filled.
14. What is the Lewis electron dot diagram of NCl3? Circle the electrons around each atom to verify
that each valence shell is filled.
15. Draw the Lewis electron dot diagram for each substance. a) SF2 b) BH4−
16. Draw the Lewis electron dot diagram for each substance. a) GeH4 b) ClF
17. Draw the Lewis electron dot diagram for each substance. Double or triple bonds may be needed.
a) SiO2 b) C2H4 (assume two central atoms)

18. Draw the Lewis electron dot diagram for each substance. Double or triple bonds may be needed.
a) CS2 b) NH2CONH2 (assume that the N and C atoms are the central atoms)
Answers
1. a) eight electrons:
b) eight electrons:
c) no electrons: Be2+
d) eight electrons:
e) no electrons: Ga3+
f) no electrons: Li+
g) eight electrons:
2. a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
3.
4. a)
In this case, the Lewis structure is inadequate to depict the fact that experimental studies have shown
two unpaired electrons in each oxygen molecule.
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
5. a) SeCl3+:
b) Cl2BBCl2:
6. Two valence electrons per Pb atom are transferred to Cl atoms; the resulting Pb2+ ion has a 6s2
valence shell configuration. Two of the valence electrons in the HCl molecule are shared, and the other
six are located on the Cl atom as lone pairs of electrons.
7.
8.
9. a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
10.
11. Each bond includes a sharing of electrons between atoms. Two electrons are shared in a single
bond; four electrons are shared in a double bond; and six electrons are shared in a triple bond.
12. two
13.
14.
15.
a)
b)
16.
a)
b)
17.
a)
b)
18.
a)
b)
Glossary
double bond: covalent bond in which two pairs of electrons are shared
between two atoms
free radical: molecule that contains an odd number of electrons
hypervalent molecule: molecule containing at least one main group

element that has more than eight electrons in its valence shell
Lewis structure: diagram showing lone pairs and bonding pairs of

electrons in a molecule or an ion
Lewis symbol: symbol for an element or monatomic ion that uses a dot
to represent each valence electron in the element or ion
lone pair: two (a pair of) valence electrons that are not used to form a
covalent bond
octet rule: guideline that states main group atoms will form structures
in which eight valence electrons interact with each nucleus, counting
bonding electrons as interacting with both atoms connected by the bond
single bond: bond in which a single pair of electrons is shared between

two atoms
triple bond: bond in which three pairs of electrons are shared between
two atoms



9.6 Formal Charges and Resonance
Learning Objectives
• Compute formal charges for atoms in any Lewis structure

• Use formal charges to identify the most reasonable Lewis structure for a given molecule
• Explain the concept of resonance and draw Lewis structures representing resonance forms
for a given molecule
In the previous section, we discussed how to write Lewis structures for

molecules and polyatomic ions. As we have seen, however, in some
cases, there is seemingly more than one valid structure for a molecule.
We can use the concept of formal charges to help us predict the most
appropriate Lewis structure when more than one is reasonable.
Calculating Formal Charge
The formal charge of an atom in a molecule is the hypothetical charge

the atom would have if we could redistribute the electrons in the bonds
evenly between the atoms. Another way of saying this is that formal
773
9.6 FORMAL CHARGES AND RESONANCE • 774
charge results when we take the number of valence electrons of a neutral

atom, subtract the nonbonding electrons, and then subtract the number of
bonds connected to that atom in the Lewis structure.
Thus, we calculate formal charge as follows:
We can double-check formal charge calculations by determining the sum

of the formal charges for the whole structure. The sum of the formal
charges of all atoms in a molecule must be zero; the sum of the formal
charges in an ion should equal the charge of the ion.
We must remember that the formal charge calculated for an atom is not
the actual charge of the atom in the molecule. Formal charge is only a
useful bookkeeping procedure; it does not indicate the presence of actual
charges.
Example 1
Assign formal charges to each atom in the interhalogen ion ICl4−.
Solution
1. We divide the bonding electron pairs equally for all I–Cl bonds:
2. We assign lone pairs of electrons to their atoms. Each Cl atom now has seven electrons
assigned to it, and the I atom has eight.
3. Subtract this number from the number of valence electrons for the neutral atom:I: 7 – 8 =
–1Cl: 7 – 7 = 0The sum of the formal charges of all the atoms equals –1, which is identical
to the charge of the ion (–1).
Test Yourself
Calculate the formal charge for each atom in the carbon monoxide molecule:
Answer
C −1, O +1
Example 2
Assign formal charges to each atom in the interhalogen molecule BrCl3.
Solution
1. Assign one of the electrons in each Br–Cl bond to the Br atom and one to the Cl atom in
that bond:
2. Assign the lone pairs to their atom. Now each Cl atom has seven electrons and the Br
atom has seven electrons.
3. Subtract this number from the number of valence electrons for the neutral atom. This gives
the formal charge:Br: 7 – 7 = 0Cl: 7 – 7 = 0All atoms in BrCl3 have a formal charge of
zero, and the sum of the formal charges totals zero, as it must in a neutral molecule.
Test yourself
Determine the formal charge for each atom in NCl3.
Answer
N: 0; all three Cl atoms: 0
Using Formal Charge to Predict Molecular Structure
The arrangement of atoms in a molecule or ion is called its molecular

structure. In many cases, following the steps for writing Lewis structures
may lead to more than one possible molecular structure—different
multiple bond and lone-pair electron placements or different
arrangements of atoms, for instance. A few guidelines involving formal
charge can be helpful in deciding which of the possible structures is most
likely for a particular molecule or ion:
1. A molecular structure in which all formal charges are zero is

preferable to one in which some formal charges are not zero.
2. If the Lewis structure must have nonzero formal charges, the

arrangement with the smallest nonzero formal charges is
preferable.
3. Lewis structures are preferable when adjacent formal charges

are zero or of the opposite sign.
4. When we must choose among several Lewis structures with

similar distributions of formal charges, the structure with the
negative formal charges on the more electronegative atoms is

preferable.
To see how these guidelines apply, let us consider some possible

structures for carbon dioxide, CO2. We know from our previous
discussion that the less electronegative atom typically occupies the
central position, but formal charges allow us to understand why this
occurs. We can draw three possibilities for the structure: carbon in the
center and double bonds, carbon in the center with a single and triple
bond, and oxygen in the center with double bonds:
Comparing the three formal charges, we can definitively identify the

structure on the left as preferable because it has only formal charges of
zero (Guideline 1).
As another example, the thiocyanate ion, an ion formed from a carbon

atom, a nitrogen atom, and a sulfur atom, could have three different
molecular structures: CNS–, NCS–, or CSN–. The formal charges present
in each of these molecular structures can help us pick the most likely
arrangement of atoms. Possible Lewis structures and the formal charges
for each of the three possible structures for the thiocyanate ion are shown
here:
Note that the sum of the formal charges in each case is equal to the charge
of the ion (–1). However, the first arrangement of atoms is preferred
because it has the lowest number of atoms with nonzero formal charges
(Guideline 2). Also, it places the least electronegative atom in the center,
and the negative charge on the more electronegative element (Guideline
4).
Example 3
Nitrous oxide, N2O, commonly known as laughing gas, is used as an anesthetic in minor surgeries,
such as the routine extraction of wisdom teeth. Which is the likely structure for nitrous oxide?
Solution
Determining formal charge yields the following:
The structure with a terminal oxygen atom best satisfies the criteria for the most stable distribution
of formal charge:
The number of atoms with formal charges are minimized (Guideline 2), and there is no formal
charge larger than one (Guideline 2). This is again consistent with the preference for having the less
electronegative atom in the central position.
Test Yourself
Which is the most likely molecular structure for the nitrite (NO2−) ion?
Answer
ONO–
Resonance
You may have noticed that the nitrite anion in Example 3 can have two
possible structures with the atoms in the same positions. The electrons
involved in the N–O double bond, however, are in different positions:
If nitrite ions do indeed contain a single and a double bond, we would

expect for the two bond lengths to be different. A double bond between
two atoms is shorter (and stronger) than a single bond between the same
two atoms. Experiments show, however, that both N–O bonds in NO2−
have the same strength and length, and are identical in all other properties.
It is not possible to write a single Lewis structure for NO2− in which

nitrogen has an octet and both bonds are equivalent. Instead, we use the
concept of resonance: if two or more Lewis structures with the same
arrangement of atoms can be written for a molecule or ion, the actual
distribution of electrons is an average of that shown by the various Lewis
structures. The actual distribution of electrons in each of the nitrogen-

oxygen bonds in NO2− is the average of a double bond and a single
bond. We call the individual Lewis structures resonance forms. The
actual electronic structure of the molecule (the average of the resonance
forms) is called a resonance hybrid of the individual resonance forms.
A double-headed arrow between Lewis structures indicates that they are
resonance forms. Thus, the electronic structure of the NO2− ion is shown
as:
We should remember that a molecule described as a resonance hybrid

never possesses an electronic structure described by either resonance
form. It does not fluctuate between resonance forms; rather, the actual
electronic structure is always the average of that shown by all resonance
forms. George Wheland, one of the pioneers of resonance theory, used a
historical analogy to describe the relationship between resonance forms
and resonance hybrids. A medieval traveler, having never before seen a
rhinoceros, described it as a hybrid of a dragon and a unicorn because it
had many properties in common with both. Just as a rhinoceros is neither
a dragon sometimes nor a unicorn at other times, a resonance hybrid is
neither of its resonance forms at any given time. Like a rhinoceros, it is
a real entity that experimental evidence has shown to exist. It has some
characteristics in common with its resonance forms, but the resonance
forms themselves are convenient, imaginary images (like the unicorn and
the dragon).
The carbonate anion, CO32−, provides a second example of resonance:
One oxygen atom must have a double bond to carbon to complete the
octet on the central atom. All oxygen atoms, however, are equivalent, and
the double bond could form from any one of the three atoms. This gives
rise to three resonance forms of the carbonate ion. Because we can write
three identical resonance structures, we know that the actual arrangement
of electrons in the carbonate ion is the average of the three structures.
Again, experiments show that all three C–O bonds are exactly the same.
The online Lewis Structure Make includes many examples to practice drawing resonance structures.
In a Lewis structure, formal charges can be assigned to each atom by

treating each bond as if one-half of the electrons are assigned to each
atom. These hypothetical formal charges are a guide to determining
the most appropriate Lewis structure. A structure in which the formal
charges are as close to zero as possible is preferred. Resonance occurs
in cases where two or more Lewis structures with identical arrangements
of atoms but different distributions of electrons can be written. The
actual distribution of electrons (the resonance hybrid) is an average of the
distribution indicated by the individual Lewis structures (the resonance
forms).
Key Equations
Exercises
1. Write resonance forms that describe the distribution of electrons in each of these molecules or
ions.
a) sulfur dioxide, SO2
b) carbonate ion, CO32−
c) hydrogen carbonate ion, HCO3− (C is bonded to an OH group and two O atoms)
d) pyridine:
e) the allyl ion:
2. Sodium nitrite, which has been used to preserve bacon and other meats, is an ionic compound.
Write the resonance forms of the nitrite ion, NO2–.
3. Write the Lewis structures for the following, and include resonance structures where appropriate.
Indicate which has the strongest carbon-oxygen bond.
a) CO2 b) CO
4. Determine the formal charge of each element in the following:
a) HCl b) CF4 c) PCl3 d) PF5
5. Calculate the formal charge of chlorine in the molecules Cl2, BeCl2, and ClF5.
6. Draw all possible resonance structures for each of these compounds. Determine the formal charge
on each atom in each of the resonance structures:
a) O3 b) SO2 c) NO2− d) NO3−
7. Based on formal charge considerations, which of the following would likely be the correct
arrangement of atoms in hypochlorous acid: HOCl or OClH?
8. Draw the structure of hydroxylamine, H3NO, and assign formal charges; look up the structure. Is
the actual structure consistent with the formal charges?
9. Write the Lewis structure and chemical formula of the compound with a molar mass of about 70 g/
mol that contains 19.7% nitrogen and 80.3% fluorine by mass, and determine the formal charge of the
atoms in this compound.
10. Sulfuric acid is the industrial chemical produced in greatest quantity worldwide. About 90 billion
pounds are produced each year in the United States alone. Write the Lewis structure for sulfuric acid,
H2SO4, which has two oxygen atoms and two OH groups bonded to the sulfur.
Answers
1. a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
2.
3. a)
b)
CO has the strongest carbon-oxygen bond because there is a triple bond joining C and O. CO2 has
double bonds.
4. a) H: 0, Cl: 0 b) C: 0, F: 0 c) P: 0, Cl 0 d) P: 0, F: 0
5. Cl in Cl2: 0; Cl in BeCl2: 0; Cl in ClF5: 0
6. a)
b)
c)
d)
7. HOCl
8. The structure that gives zero formal charges is consistent with the actual structure:
9. NF3
10.
Glossary
formal charge: charge that would result on an atom by taking the number
of valence electrons on the neutral atom and subtracting the nonbonding
electrons and the number of bonds (one-half of the bonding electrons)
molecular structure: arrangement of atoms in a molecule or ion
resonance: situation in which one Lewis structure is insufficient to

describe the bonding in a molecule and the average of multiple structures
is observed
resonance forms: two or more Lewis structures that have the same
arrangement of atoms but different arrangements of electrons
resonance hybrid: average of the resonance forms shown by the

individual Lewis structures


1. List 5 ions that are isoelectronic with Kr.
2. Determine the electron configuration for the following ions: a) Pd2+

b) Rh3+ c) Ca2+ d) S2-
3. If carbon formed a stable ion, what charge would you expect it to

have? Explain.
4. Explain the differences and similarities between covalent bonds, ionic

bonds and polar covalent bonds.
5. Given that ions in LiF and MgO are of similar size, which compound
has stronger ionic bonding? Use Couloumb’s law to explain your answer.
6. How can ionic compounds be neutral if they contain positive and

negative ions?
7. Are ions present in a sample of NH3? Explain.
8. Are molecules present in a sample of KBr? Explain.
788
9. The radii of sodium and potassium ions are 102 pm and 138 pm
respectively. Which compound has stronger ionic attractions, sodium
chloride or potassium chloride?
10. An ionic compound forms when lithium (Z = 3) reacts with oxygen (Z

= 8). If a sample of the compound contains 5.3 x 1020lithium ions, how
many oxide ions does it contain?
11. Explain the difference between electronegativity and ionization

energy. What is the general periodic table trend for each? How do we use
that trend to predict bond characteristics?
12. For each of the following bonds, draw a dipole moment (if it is
present) and show the partial charges. Hint: Just focus on the periodic
table trend.
a) C-F b) N-O c) Si-F d) Si-N
13. Without using actual electronegativity values, predict which bond in

#12 above will have the most ionic character. Do the electronegativity
values support your statement? Explain.
14. Write the Lewis dot diagram for the following:
a) SiF4 b) NBr3 c) PO43- d) CO e) NO3–
15. Give Lewis electron dot symbols for:
a) Mg b) Mg2+ c) I– d) Te e) Ga
16. Draw electron dot diagrams for the following compounds. If the
compound is ionic, give the dot symbols for the ions separately, so as not
to imply that the ions are sharing electrons. (In a group of atoms, the
central atom is underlined.)
a) OCl2 b) MgCl2 c) CF4 d) HCN

e)SO2 f) BaO g) H2S
17. Give electron dot diagrams for:
a) PO43- b) NH4+ c) ClO2– d) SO32-
18. Give electron dot diagrams for the following. If more than one
possible structure satisfies the rules, write ALL possible structures:
a) N2 b) HCN c) NCO–
Answers
1. Se2-, Br–, Rb+, Sr2+, Y3+
2. a) [Kr]4d8; b) [Kr]4d6; c) [Ar]; d) [Ar]
3. C4+or C4-. To reach the next noble gas configuration, which is very
stable.
4. All bonds are a force that holds atoms together that results from the
attraction of ions to the nuclei of atoms. In ionic bonds, electrons are

donated from the metal to the nonmetal. In a covalent bond, electrons
are shared between two identical non metals. In a polar covalent bond,
electrons are unequally shared between two different non metals.
5. If the sizes are the same, the bond strength will depend only on the
charges (strength is proportional to q1x q2). Mg and O both have charges
with the magnitude of 2 (+2 and -2), whereas Li and F have charges of 1
(+1, -1). Therefore the strength of the MgO bond will be stronger than the
LiF bond.
6. Ionic compounds are neutral overall. The total negative charge of the
anions is balanced by the total positive charge of the cations.
7. No. NH3is a covalent compound made of N and H (both non-metal).

Even though it would have polar covalent bonds (and thus partial positive
and negative charges) this does not make them ions.
8. No. KBr is an ionic compound and exists as an ionic solid, not

as individual molecules. KBr is better described as a formula unit that
represents the overall composition of the ionic solid.
9. According to Couloumb’s Law, the strength of a bond is inversely

proportional to the distance between atoms. If sodium is smaller, the
distance between the centre of sodium and the centre of chloride will be
smaller, therefore the bond strength will be greater as compared to KCl.
10. Li+and O2-therefore compound formed would be Li2O. Thus there

are half as many oxide ions compared to Li ions, therefore 2.7 x 1020ions.
11. Ionization energy is the ability of an atom’s nucleus to attract one of

the atoms own electrons, whereas electronegativity (EN) is the relativity
ability of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared electrons in a
chemical bond.
The general trend for both IE and EN are the same: they increase bottom
to top and right to left.
The difference in EN values determines the polarity of a bond, therefore
the further apart the two atoms are on the periodic table, the more polar
the bond will be.
12.
ima ima imag imag
ge ge e e
13. Si—F is the most polar bond.

ΔEN (C—F) = 4.0 – 2.5 = 1.5
ΔEN (N—O) = 3.5 – 3.0 = 0.5
ΔEN (Si—F) = 4.0 – 1.8 = 2.2
ΔEN (Si—N) = 3.0 – 1.8 = 1.2
The larger the the difference in EN values, the more polar the bond.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.


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Chapter 10. Organic
Chemistry
Chapter Topics
• Condensed Structure and Line Structure

• Functional Groups
• Nomenclature of Hydrocarbons and Alkyl Halides
• Nomenclature of Alcohols and Ethers
• Nomenclature of Amines
• Nomenclature of Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids, Esters and Amides
• Summary of Nomenclature Rules
795
Introduction
Figure 1. All organic compounds contain carbon and most are formed by living
things, although they are also formed by geological and artificial processes. (credit
left: modification of work by Jon Sullivan; credit left middle: modification of
work by Deb Tremper; credit right middle: modification of work by
“annszyp”/Wikimedia Commons; credit right: modification of work by George
Shuklin)
All living things on earth are formed mostly of carbon compounds.

The prevalence of carbon compounds in living things has led to the
epithet “carbon-based” life. The truth is we know of no other kind of
life. Early chemists regarded substances isolated from organisms (plants
and animals) as a different type of matter that could not be synthesized
artificially, and these substances were thus known as organic compounds.
The widespread belief called vitalism held that organic compounds were
796
formed by a vital force present only in living organisms. The German

chemist Friedrich Wohler was one of the early chemists to refute this
aspect of vitalism, when, in 1828, he reported the synthesis of urea, a
component of many body fluids, from nonliving materials. Since then, it
has been recognized that organic molecules obey the same natural laws
as inorganic substances, and the category of organic compounds has
evolved to include both natural and synthetic compounds that contain
carbon. Some carbon-containing compounds are not classified as organic,
for example, carbonates and cyanides, and simple oxides, such as CO
and CO2. Although a single, precise definition has yet to be identified
by the chemistry community, most agree that a defining trait of organic
molecules is the presence of carbon as the principal element, bonded to
hydrogen and other carbon atoms.
Today, organic compounds are key components of plastics, soaps,

perfumes, sweeteners, fabrics, pharmaceuticals, and many other
substances that we use every day. The value to us of organic compounds
ensures that organic chemistry is an important discipline within the
general field of chemistry. In this chapter, we will begin with
the recognition of each functional group, as depicted by Lewis and line
structures, and the nomenclature of simple organic compounds.

10.1 Condensed Structure and Line
Structure
Learning Objectives
• Interpret condense and line structures.

• Draw the condensed structure of a given Lewis Structure or line structure.
• Draw the line structure of a given Lewis Structure or condense structure.
If you look ahead in this chapter and in other resources at the way
organic compounds are drawn, you will see that the figures are somewhat
different from the Lewis structures you are used to seeing in your general
chemistry book. In some sources, you will see condensed structures for
smaller molecules instead of full Lewis structures:
798
Figure 1. Comparison between Lewis structures and

condensed structures.
Example 1
Determine the Lewis Structure of the following condensed structure of oleic acid, a fatty acid that is
found naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils.
CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH
Solution
Start by drawing the CH3. The (CH2)7 represents a repeating unit, meaning you must draw seven
CH2‘s one after another, which are bonded to a CH which is bonded to a CH, and then another seven
CH2‘s. The COOH represent a carboxylic acid, which means you have a C=O connected to an O-H.
Always double check your structure to ensure every carbon is making four bonds. When you do this,
you will see the two CH must be double bonded.
Test Yourself
10.1 CONDENSED STRUCTURE AND LINE STRUCTURE • 800
Common organic compounds that you likely have at home are: acetone (CH3COCH3) found in nail
polish remover, acetic acid (CH3COOH) found in vinegar, and isopropanol ((CH3)2CHOH) found in
rubbing alcohol. Determine the Lewis Structure for each of these household chemicals.
Answer
More commonly, organic and biological chemists use an abbreviated

drawing convention called line structures, also known as skeletal
structures or line bond structures. The convention is quite simple and
makes it easier to draw molecules, but line structures do take a little
bit of getting used to. Carbon atoms are depicted not by a capital C,
but by a ‘corner’ between two bonds, or a free end of a bond. Open-
chain molecules are usually drawn out in a ‘zig-zig’ shape. Hydrogens
attached to carbons are generally not shown: rather, like lone pairs, they
are simply implied (unless a positive formal charge is shown, all carbons
are assumed to have a full octet of valence electrons). Hydrogens bonded
to nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, or anything other than carbon are shown, but
are usually drawn without showing the bond. The following examples
illustrate the convention.
Figure 2. Comparison between Lewis structure and line

structure.
As you can see, the ‘pared down’ line structure makes it much easier
to see the basic structure of the molecule and the locations where there
is something other than C-C and C-H single bonds. For larger, more
complex biological molecules, it becomes impractical to use full Lewis
structures. Conversely, very small molecules such as ethane should be
drawn with their full Lewis or condensed structures.
Sometimes, one or more carbon atoms in a line structure will be depicted

with a capital C, if doing so makes an explanation easier to follow. If you
label a carbon with a C, you also must draw in the hydrogens for that
carbon.
Example 2
Draw the line structures for these two molecules:

Solution
Each carbon atom is converted into the end of a line or the place where lines intersect. All hydrogen
atoms attached to the carbon atoms are left out of the structure (although we still need to recognize they
are there):
Test Yourself
Draw the line structures for these two molecules:
Answers
Example 3
Identify the chemical formula of the molecule represented here:
Solution
There are eight places where lines intersect or end, meaning that there are eight carbon atoms in the
molecule. Since we know that carbon atoms tend to make four bonds, each carbon atom will have
the number of hydrogen atoms that are required for four bonds. This compound contains 16 hydrogen
atoms for a molecular formula of C8H16.
Location of the hydrogen atoms:
Test Yourself
Identify the chemical formula of the molecule represented here:
Answer
C9H20
Example 4
Determine the Lewis Structure of the following line structure of L-ascorbic acid (vitamin C):
Solution
At each corner or intersection of lines or end of a line, add a C:
Each C makes fours bonds. If some are not visible, then add a bond to H for each bonds missing.
Also show the bond between the O’s and H’s.
Test Yourself
Determine the Lewis Structure of the following line structure of acetaminophen, the pain and fever
medicine found in Tylenol.
Answer
Condensed structures and line structures are a way organic structures can
be represented in a very concise manner.
Exercises
1. Draw the line bond structure for the following compounds:

a) (HO)3C(CH2)2N(CH2CHO)CH(CH2CH3)2
b) CH3(CH2)3CH(CH3)(CH2)2OCH2CH3
c) HOOCCH2O(CH2)2N(CH2CH3)2
d) HOCCH2CH(CH3)CH2CH(CH3)(CH2)2COOCH3
e) H2NCH2[CH(CH3)]2(CH)4CO(CH2)2CH3
f) ClCH2CH(CH3)COCH2OCH2CO(CH2)2CH3
2. For the following compounds,give the chemical formula and the condensed structure:
Answers
1.
2. a) C13H26O; CH3(CH2)3C(CH3)2C(CH3)2CH2COCH3
b) C8H14O2; CHOCH2CO(CH2)4CH3
c) C5H7O4N; COOH(CH2)2(CO)2NH2
d) C12H25O2N; CH3OCO(CH2)2C(CH3)2C(CH3)2CH(CH3)NH2
e) C12H25ON; CH3(CH2)4CON(CH2CH2CH3)2
f) C8H16O3; CH3CH2CH(OCH3)(CH2)3COOH


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10.2 Functional Groups
Learning Objectives
• Define functional group.

• Identify and name the functional groups mentioned here.
• Draw the functional groups mentioned here.
• Know the difference between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Functional groups are structural units within organic compounds that are
defined by specific bonding arrangements between specific atoms. The
structure of capsaicin, the compound which is the source of the heat in hot
chili peppers, incorporates several functional groups, labeled in the figure
below and explained throughout this section.
808
Figure 1. Functional groups in capsaicin.
As one progresses their study of organic chemistry, it becomes extremely

important to be able to quickly recognize the most common functional
groups, because they are the key structural elements that define how
organic molecules react. For now, we will only worry about drawing
and recognizing each functional group, as depicted by Lewis and line
structures, and the nomenclature of simple organic compounds. Much
of the remainder of your study of organic chemistry will be taken up
with learning about how the different functional groups behave in organic
reactions.
The ‘default’ in organic chemistry, essentially, the lack of any functional

groups, is given the term alkane, characterized by single bonds between
carbon and carbon, or between carbon and hydrogen. Methane, CH4,
is the natural gas you may burn in your furnace. Octane, C8H18, is a
component of gasoline.
10.2 FUNCTIONAL GROUPS • 810
Alkanes are relatively stable molecules, but heat or light will activate
reactions that involve the breaking of C–H or C–C single bonds.
Combustion is one such reaction:
Alkanes burn in the presence of oxygen, a highly exothermic oxidation-

reduction reaction that produces carbon dioxide and water. As a
consequence, alkanes are excellent fuels. For example, methane, CH4, is
the principal component of natural gas. Butane, C4H10, used in camping
stoves and lighters is an alkane. Gasoline is a liquid mixture of
continuous- and branched-chain alkanes, each containing from five to
nine carbon atoms, plus various additives to improve its performance
as a fuel. Kerosene, diesel oil, and fuel oil are primarily mixtures of
alkanes with higher molecular masses. The main source of these liquid
alkane fuels is crude oil, a complex mixture that is separated by fractional
distillation. Fractional distillation takes advantage of differences in the
boiling points of the components of the mixture (see Figure 2).
Figure 2. In a column for the fractional distillation of crude oil, oil heated to about
425 °C in the furnace vaporizes when it enters the base of the tower. The vapors
rise through bubble caps in a series of trays in the tower. As the vapors gradually
cool, fractions of higher, then of lower, boiling points condense to liquids and are
drawn off. (credit left: modification of work by Luigi Chiesa)
Alkenes, sometimes called olefins, have carbon-carbon double bonds,

and alkynes have carbon-carbon triple bonds. Ethene, the simplest
alkene example, is a gas that serves as a cellular signal in fruits to
stimulate ripening. If you want bananas to ripen quickly, put them in
a paper bag along with an apple – the apple emits ethene gas, setting
off the ripening process in the bananas. Alkynes burn readily. Ethyne,
commonly called acetylene, is used as a fuel in welding blow torches.
Alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes are all classified as hydrocarbons,

because they are composed solely of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Alkanes are said to be saturated hydrocarbons, because the carbons are
bonded to the maximum possible number of hydrogens – in other words,
they are saturated with hydrogen atoms. The double and triple-bonded
carbons in alkenes and alkynes have fewer hydrogen atoms bonded to
them – they are thus referred to as unsaturated hydrocarbons.
An arene, or an aromatic hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbon with alternative

double and single bonds between carbon atoms forming ring.
This functional group is exemplified by benzene, which used to be a
commonly used solvent on the organic lab, but which was shown to be
carcinogenic, and naphthalene, a compound with a distinctive ‘mothball’
smell. Arenes are planar ring structures, and are widespread in nature.
When the carbon of an alkane is bonded to one or more halogens, the

group is referred to as a alkyl halide or a haloalkane. Chloroform is
a useful solvent in the laboratory, and was one of the earlier anesthetic
drugs used in surgery. Chlorodifluoromethane was used as a refrigerant
and in aerosol sprays until the late twentieth century, but its use was
discontinued after it was found to have harmful effects on the ozone layer.
Bromoethane is a simple alkyl halide often used in organic synthesis.
Alkyl halides groups are quite rare in biomolecules.
In the alcohol functional group, a carbon is single-bonded to an OH

group. The OH group, by itself, is referred to as a hydroxyl. Ethanol,
CH3CH2OH, also called ethyl alcohol, is a particularly important alcohol
for human use. Ethanol is the alcohol produced by some species of yeast
that is found in wine, beer, and distilled drinks. It has long been prepared
by humans harnessing the metabolic efforts of yeasts in fermenting
various sugars:
Except for methanol, all alcohols can be classified as primary, secondary,

or tertiary. In a primary alcohol, the carbon bonded to the OH group
is also bonded to only one other carbon. In a secondary alcohol and
tertiary alcohol, the carbon is bonded to two or three other carbons,
respectively. When the hydroxyl group is directly attached to an aromatic

ring, the resulting group is called a phenol. The sulfur analog of an
alcohol is called a thiol, from the Greek thio, for sulfur.
Note that the definition of a phenol states that the hydroxyl oxygen
must be directly attached to one of the carbons of the aromatic ring. The
compound below, therefore, is not a phenol – it is a primary alcohol. The
distinction is important, because there is a significant difference in the
reactivity of alcohols and phenols.
In an ether functional group, a central oxygen is bonded to two carbons.

Below is the structure of diethyl ether, a common laboratory solvent
and also one of the first compounds to be used as an anesthetic during

operations. Diethyl ether, the most widely used compound of this class,
is a colorless, volatile liquid that is highly flammable. It was first used
in 1846 as an anesthetic, but better anesthetics have now largely taken
its place. Diethyl ether and other ethers are presently used primarily as
solvents for gums, fats, waxes, and resins. The sulfur analog of an ether
is called a thioether or sulfide.
Amines are characterized by nitrogen atoms with single bonds to

hydrogen and carbon. Just as there are primary, secondary, and tertiary
alcohols, there are primary, secondary, and tertiary amines. Ammonia
is a special case with no carbon atoms. One of the most important
properties of amines is that they are basic, and are readily protonated to
form ammonium cations when reacted with an acid. In the case where
a nitrogen has four bonds to carbon, which is somewhat unusual in
biomolecules, it is called a quaternary ammonium ion.
Note: Do not be confused by how the terms ‘primary’, ‘secondary’,

and ‘tertiary’ are applied to alcohols and amines – the definitions are
different. In alcohols, what matters is how many other carbons the
alcohol carbon is bonded to, while in amines, what matters is how many
carbons the nitrogen is bonded to.
In some amines, the nitrogen atom replaces a carbon atom in an aromatic

hydrocarbon. Pyridine is one such heterocyclic amine. A heterocyclic
compound contains atoms of two or more different elements in its ring
structure.
Pyridine
DNA in Forensics and Paternity
The genetic material for all living things is a polymer of four different molecules, which are
themselves a combination of three subunits. The genetic information, the code for developing an
organism, is contained in the specific sequence of the four molecules, similar to the way the letters
of the alphabet can be sequenced to form words that convey information. The information in a DNA
sequence is used to form two other types of polymers, one of which are proteins. The proteins interact
to form a specific type of organism with individual characteristics.
A genetic molecule is called DNA, which stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. The four molecules that
make up DNA are called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a single- or double-ringed molecule
containing nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen called a nitrogenous base. Each base is bonded to a
five-carbon sugar called deoxyribose. The sugar is in turn bonded to a phosphate group When
new DNA is made, a polymerization reaction occurs that binds the phosphate group of one nucleotide
to the sugar group of a second nucleotide. The nitrogenous bases of each nucleotide stick out from this
sugar-phosphate backbone. DNA is actually formed from two such polymers coiled around each other
and held together by hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases. Thus, the two backbones are on
the outside of the coiled pair of strands, and the bases are on the inside. The shape of the two strands
wound around each other is called a double helix (see Figure 3).
It probably makes sense that the sequence of nucleotides in the DNA of a cat differs from those
of a dog. But it is also true that the sequences of the DNA in the cells of two individual pugs differ.
Likewise, the sequences of DNA in you and a sibling differ (unless your sibling is an identical twin),
as do those between you and an unrelated individual. However, the DNA sequences of two related
individuals are more similar than the sequences of two unrelated individuals, and these similarities in
sequence can be observed in various ways. This is the principle behind DNA fingerprinting, which is
a method used to determine whether two DNA samples came from related (or the same) individuals or
unrelated individuals.
Using similarities in sequences, technicians can determine whether a man is the father of a child (the
identity of the mother is rarely in doubt, except in the case of an adopted child and a potential birth
mother). Likewise, forensic geneticists can determine whether a crime scene sample of human tissue,
such as blood or skin cells, contains DNA that matches exactly the DNA of a suspect.
Watch this video animation of how DNA is packaged for a visual lesson in its structure.
The basicity of an amine’s nitrogen atom plays an important role in

much of the compound’s chemistry. Amine functional groups are found
in a wide variety of compounds, including natural and synthetic dyes,
polymers, vitamins, and medications such as penicillin and codeine. They
are also found in many molecules essential to life, such as amino acids,
hormones, neurotransmitters, and DNA.
Addictive Alkaloids
Since ancient times, plants have been used for medicinal purposes. One class of substances, called
alkaloids, found in many of these plants has been isolated and found to contain cyclic molecules with
an amine functional group. These amines are bases. They can react with H3O+ in a dilute acid to form
an ammonium salt, and this property is used to extract them from the plant:
The name alkaloid means “like an alkali.” Thus, an alkaloid reacts with acid. The free compound can
be recovered after extraction by reaction with a base:
The structures of many naturally occurring alkaloids have profound physiological and psychotropic
effects in humans. Examples of these drugs include nicotine, morphine, codeine, and heroin. The
plant produces these substances, collectively called secondary plant compounds, as chemical defenses
against the numerous pests that attempt to feed on the plant:
In these diagrams, as is common in representing structures of large organic compounds, carbon atoms
in the rings and the hydrogen atoms bonded to them have been omitted for clarity. The solid wedges
indicate bonds that extend out of the page. The dashed wedges indicate bonds that extend into the
page. Notice that small changes to a part of the molecule change the properties of morphine, codeine,
and heroin. Morphine, a strong narcotic used to relieve pain, contains two hydroxyl functional groups,
located at the bottom of the molecule in this structural formula. Changing one of these hydroxyl groups
to a methyl ether group forms codeine, a less potent drug used as a local anesthetic. If both hydroxyl
groups are converted to esters of acetic acid, the powerfully addictive drug heroin results (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Poppies can be used in the production of opium, a

plant latex that contains morphine from which other opiates,
such as heroin, can be synthesized. (credit: Karen Roe)
There are a number of functional groups that contain a carbon-oxygen

double bond, which is commonly referred to as a carbonyl.
Ketones and aldehydes are two closely related carbonyl-based
functional groups that react in very similar ways. In a ketone, the carbon
atom of a carbonyl is bonded to two other carbons. In an aldehyde, the
carbonyl carbon is bonded on one side to a hydrogen, and on the other
side to a carbon. The exception to this definition is formaldehyde, in
which the carbonyl carbon has bonds to two hydrogens.
Formaldehyde, an aldehyde with the formula HCHO, is a colorless gas

with a pungent and irritating odor. It is sold in an aqueous solution
called formalin, which contains about 37% formaldehyde by weight.

Formaldehyde causes coagulation of proteins, so it kills bacteria (and any
other living organism) and stops many of the biological processes that
cause tissue to decay. Thus, formaldehyde is used for preserving tissue
specimens and embalming bodies. It is also used to sterilize soil or other
materials. Formaldehyde is used in the manufacture of Bakelite, a hard
plastic having high chemical and electrical resistance.
Dimethyl ketone, CH3COCH3, commonly called acetone, is the simplest

ketone. It is made commercially by fermenting corn or molasses, or by
oxidation of 2-propanol. Acetone is a colorless liquid. Among its many
uses are as a solvent for lacquer (including fingernail polish), cellulose
acetate, cellulose nitrate, acetylene, plastics, and varnishes; as a paint and
varnish remover; and as a solvent in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals
and chemicals.
When a carbonyl carbon is bonded on one side to a carbon (or hydrogen)

and on the other side to an oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur, the functional
group is considered to be one of the ‘carboxylic acid derivatives’,
a designation that describes a set of related functional groups. The
eponymous member of this family is the carboxylic acid functional
group, in which the carbonyl is bonded to a hydroxyl group. The
conjugate base of a carboxylic acid is a carboxylate. Carboxylic esters,
usually just called ‘esters’ and amides are some of the other carboxylic
acid derivatives.
The simplest carboxylic acid is formic acid, HCO2H, known since 1670.
Its name comes from the Latin word formicus, which means “ant”; it was
first isolated by the distillation of red ants. It is partially responsible for
the pain and irritation of ant and wasp stings, and is responsible for a
characteristic odor of ants that can be sometimes detected in their nests.
Acetic acid, CH3CO2H, constitutes 3–6% vinegar. Cider vinegar is

produced by allowing apple juice to ferment without oxygen present.
Yeast cells present in the juice carry out the fermentation reactions. The
fermentation reactions change the sugar present in the juice to ethanol,
then to acetic acid. Pure acetic acid has a penetrating odor and produces
painful burns. It is an excellent solvent for many organic and some
inorganic compounds, and it is essential in the production of cellulose
acetate, a component of many synthetic fibers such as rayon.
The distinctive and attractive odors and flavors of many flowers,

perfumes, and ripe fruits are due to the presence of one or more esters
(Figure 5). Among the most important of the natural esters are fats
(such as lard, tallow, and butter) and oils (such as linseed, cottonseed,
and olive oils), which are esters of the trihydroxyl alcohol glycerine,
, with large carboxylic acids, such as palmitic acid, ,
stearic acid, , and oleic acid, . Oleic acid is an
unsaturated acid; it contains a double bond. Palmitic and stearic acids
are saturated acids that contain no double or triple bonds.
Figure 5. Over 350 different volatile molecules

(many members of the ester family) have been
identified in strawberries. (credit: Rebecca Siegel)
Esters and amides are very common in biological molecules and/or

metabolic pathways. Amides can be produced when carboxylic acids
react with amines or ammonia in a process called amidation. A water
molecule is eliminated from the reaction, and the amide is formed from
the remaining pieces of the carboxylic acid and the amine:
The reaction between amines and carboxylic acids to form amides is

biologically important. It is through this reaction that amino acids
(molecules containing both amine and carboxylic acid substituents) link
together in a polymer to form proteins.
Proteins and Enzymes
Proteins are large biological molecules made up of long chains of smaller molecules called amino
acids. Organisms rely on proteins for a variety of functions—proteins transport molecules across cell
membranes, replicate DNA, and catalyze metabolic reactions, to name only a few of their functions.
The properties of proteins are functions of the combination of amino acids that compose them and can
vary greatly. Interactions between amino acid sequences in the chains of proteins result in the folding
of the chain into specific, three-dimensional structures that determine the protein’s activity.
Amino acids are organic molecules that contain an amine functional group (–NH2), a carboxylic acid
functional group (–COOH), and a side chain (that is specific to each individual amino acid). Most living
things build proteins from the same 20 different amino acids. Amino acids connect by the formation of
a peptide bond, which is a covalent bond formed between two amino acids when the carboxylic acid
group of one amino acid reacts with the amine group of the other amino acid. The formation of the
bond results in the production of a molecule of water (in general, reactions that result in the production
of water when two other molecules combine are referred to as condensation reactions). The resulting
bond—between the carbonyl group carbon atom and the amine nitrogen atom is called a peptide link
or peptide bond. Since each of the original amino acids has an unreacted group (one has an unreacted
amine and the other an unreacted carboxylic acid), more peptide bonds can form to other amino acids,
extending the structure. (Figure 6) A chain of connected amino acids is called a polypeptide. Proteins
contain at least one long polypeptide chain.
Figure 6. This condensation reaction forms a dipeptide from two amino acids
and leads to the formation of water.
Enzymes are large biological molecules, mostly composed of proteins, which are responsible for the
thousands of metabolic processes that occur in living organisms. Enzymes are highly specific catalysts;
they speed up the rates of certain reactions. Enzymes function by lowering the activation energy of the
reaction they are catalyzing, which can dramatically increase the rate of the reaction. Most reactions
catalyzed by enzymes have rates that are millions of times faster than the noncatalyzed version. Like
all catalysts, enzymes are not consumed during the reactions that they catalyze. Enzymes do differ
from other catalysts in how specific they are for their substrates (the molecules that an enzyme will
convert into a different product). Each enzyme is only capable of speeding up one or a few very
specific reactions or types of reactions. Since the function of enzymes is so specific, the lack or
malfunctioning of an enzyme can lead to serious health consequences. One disease that is the result of
an enzyme malfunction is phenylketonuria. In this disease, the enzyme that catalyzes the first step in
the degradation of the amino acid phenylalanine is not functional (Figure 7). Untreated, this can lead to
an accumulation of phenylalanine, which can lead to intellectual disabilities.
Figure 7. A computer rendering shows the three-dimensional structure

of the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. In the disease
phenylketonuria, a defect in the shape of phenylalanine hydroxylase
causes it to lose its function in breaking down phenylalanine.
Finally, a nitrile group is characterized by a carbon triple-bonded to a

nitrogen.
A single compound often contains several functional groups, particularly

in biological organic chemistry. The six-carbon sugar molecules glucose
and fructose, for example, contain aldehyde and ketone groups,
respectively, and both contain five alcohol groups, a compound with

several alcohol groups is often referred to as a ‘polyol’.
The hormone testosterone, the amino acid phenylalanine, and the

glycolysis metabolite dihydroxyacetone phosphate all contain multiple
functional groups, as labeled below.
Figure 7. Natural products are compounds produced by a living

organism. Here are three examples of natural products, which
contain a variety of functional groups.
While not in any way a complete list, this section has covered many of
the important functional groups that are encountered in organic chemistry.
Table 1 provides a summary of all of the functional groups listed in this
section, plus a few more that may be encountered in a second year organic
chemistry course.
Table 1. Examples of some common functional groups in organic chemistry.
Functional groups are structural units within organic compounds that

are defined by specific bonding arrangements between specific atoms.
Organic chemist learn to correlate functional groups to the chemistry that
they do. For example, any molecule that contains a carboxylic acid, will
be able to do an acid-base reaction when mixed with a base. This allows
the organic chemist to have a sense of the various chemistry a compound
can or cannot do based on the functional groups that are present in the
structure.
Activity
Make yourself a stack of small sized Qcards. On one side have the name of the functional group (e.g.
alcohol) and on the other side have its structure (see Table 1). Make a complete set of all the functional
groups you should know (see Table 1). You can even include some compounds like those below in
exercise 1 – on one side of the card have the compound, on the other the names of the functional groups.
Then use these Qcards to quiz yourself. This will help you recognize the functional groups in larger
compounds.
Exercises
1. Answer the following questions for each of these compounds.

a) Name the circled functional groups: A = ?, B =?, C = ?
b) What is the chemical formula of the compound?
c) How many lone pairs are there in the compound?
Phenylpropanolamine is a psychoactive drug which is used as a stimulant and decongestant in

prescription and over-the-counter cough and cold medicines.
Triiodothyronine is a thyroid hormone which affects many physiological processes in the body, such
as growth, metabolism and heart rate.
Aldosterone is a hormone which is involved in the function of the kidneys.

Ephedrine is a drug commonly used as a stimulant, decongestant and also as a concentration aid.
Clomifene is mainly used for ovarian stimulation in female infertility which is due to anomulation.
2. Among the five compounds listed in question 1, which would do an acid-base reaction when mixed
with sodium hydroxide (which is a base).
Answers
Phenylpropanolamine:
a) A = Primary Amine, B = Secondary Alcohol, C = Arene
b) C9H13NO
c) 3 lone pairs – one on the nitrogen and two on the oxygen
Triiodothyronine:
a) A = Carboxylic Acid, B = Ether, C = Primary Amine
b) C15H12I3NO4
c) 18 lone pairs – one on each nitrogen, two on each oxygen, and three on each iodine
Aldosterone:
a) A = Secondary Alcohol, B = Aldehyde, C = Ketone
b) C21H28O5
c) 10 lone pairs – two on each oxygen
Ephedrine:
a) A = Secondary Amine, B = Secondary Alcohol, C = Arene
b) C10H15NO
c) 3 lone pairs – one on the nitrogen and two on the oxygen
Clomifene:
a) A = Arene, B = Ether, C = Tertiary Amine
b) C26H28ClNO
c) 6 lone pairs – one on the nitrogen, two on the oxygen, and three on the chlorine
2. Any molecule that contains a carboxylic acid, will be able to do an acid-base reaction when mixed
with a base. Therefore among the five compounds in question 1, the only one that has a carboxylic acid
is Triiodothyronine.


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10.3 Nomenclature of Hydrocarbons
and Alkyl Halides
Learning Objectives
• Name saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons and alkyl halides following the IUPAC
rules
• From the name a saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon or alkyl halides, draw its structure
1
The largest database of organic compounds lists about 10 million
substances, which include compounds originating from living organisms
and those synthesized by chemists. The number of potential organic
2
compounds has been estimated at 1060—an astronomically high number.
The existence of so many organic molecules is a consequence of the
ability of carbon atoms to form up to four strong bonds to other carbon
atoms, resulting in chains and rings of many different sizes, shapes, and
complexities.
1. This is the Beilstein database, now available through the Reaxys site (www.elsevier.com/
online-tools/reaxys).
2. Peplow, Mark. “Organic Synthesis: The Robo-Chemist,” Nature 512 (2014): 20–2.
837
10.3 NOMENCLATURE OF HYDROCARBONS AND ALKYL HALIDES • 838
The simplest organic compounds contain only the elements carbon and
hydrogen, and are called hydrocarbons. Even though they are composed
of only two types of atoms, there is a wide variety of hydrocarbons
because they may consist of varying lengths of chains, branched chains,
and rings of carbon atoms, or combinations of these structures. In
addition, hydrocarbons may differ in the types of carbon-carbon bonds
present in their molecules. Many hydrocarbons are found in plants,
animals, and their fossils; other hydrocarbons have been prepared in the
laboratory. We use hydrocarbons every day, mainly as fuels, such as
natural gas, acetylene, propane, butane, and the principal components of
gasoline, diesel fuel, and heating oil. The familiar plastics polyethylene,
polypropylene, and polystyrene are also hydrocarbons. We can
distinguish several types of hydrocarbons by differences in the bonding
between carbon atoms.
The Basics of Organic Nomenclature:
Organic chemistry nomenclature is very specific following the general

format shown in Figure 1. The International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) has devised a system of nomenclature that begins
with the names of the alkanes and can be adjusted from there to account
for more complicated structures.
Figure 1. IUPAC Nomenclature Guide
Naming Alkanes and Alkyl Halides
The IUPAC nomenclature for alkanes and alkyl halides is based on two
rules:
Rule 1. Identify the longest chain of carbon atoms (PREFIX+ANE).

The longest chain of carbons in the structure is referred to as the parent
chain. A two-carbon parent chain is called ethane; a three-carbon parent
chain, propane; and a four-carbon parent chain, butane. Longer parent
chains are named as follows: pentane (five-carbon chain), hexane (6),
heptane (7), octane (8), nonane (9), and decane (10). These prefixes can
be seen in the names of the alkanes described in Table 1.
Molecular Condensed Structural

Alkane Formula Formula
methane CH4 CH4
ethane C 2H 6 CH3CH3
propane C 3H 8 CH3CH2CH3
butane C4H10 CH3CH2CH2CH3
pentane C5H12 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
hexane C6H14 CH3(CH2)4CH3
heptane C7H16 CH3(CH2)5CH3
octane C8H18 CH3(CH2)6CH3
nonane C9H20 CH3(CH2)7CH3
decane C10H22 CH3(CH2)8CH3
tetradecane C14H30 CH3(CH2)12CH3
octadecane C18H38 CH3(CH2)16CH3
Table 1. Some n-alkanes, meaning normal alkanes,

indicating that they are straight chains of carbon units,
no branching. The prefixes indicating the number of
carbons in the longest chain is underlined.
Rule 2. Names and position of the substituents: Substituents are

branches or functional groups that replace hydrogen atoms on a chain.
If there are substituents on the parent chain, their names and position
on the chain must be included at the front of the name. The position of
a substituent or branch is identified by the number of the carbon atom
it is bonded to in the chain. We number the carbon atoms in the chain

by counting from the end of the chain nearest the substituents. Multiple
substituents are named individually and placed in alphabetical order at the
front of the name.
When more than one substituent is present, either on the same carbon
atom or on different carbon atoms, the substituents are listed
alphabetically. Because the carbon atom numbering begins at the end
closest to a substituent, the longest chain of carbon atoms is numbered
in such a way as to produce the lowest number for the substituents. The
ending -o replaces -ine at the end of the name of a halide substituent.
For example, an iodine substituent would be called iodo. The number
of substituents of the same type is indicated by the prefixes di- (two),
tri- (three), tetra- (four), penta- (five) and so on (for example, difluoro-
indicates two fluoride substituents).
Example 1
Name the molecule whose structure is shown here:

Solution
The four-carbon chain is numbered from the end with the chlorine atom. This puts the substituents
on positions 1 and 2 (numbering from the other end would put the substituents on positions 3 and 4).
Four carbon atoms means that the base name of this compound will be butane. The bromine at position
2 will be described by adding 2-bromo-; this will come at the beginning of the name, since bromo-
comes before chloro- alphabetically. The chlorine at position 1 will be described by adding 1-chloro-,
resulting in the name of the molecule being 2-bromo-1-chlorobutane.
Test Yourself
Name the following molecule:
Answer
3,3-dibromo-2-iodopentane
We call a substituent that contains one less hydrogen than the

corresponding alkane an alkyl group. The name of an alkyl group is
obtained by dropping the suffix -ane of the alkane name and adding -yl:
The open bonds in the methyl and ethyl groups indicate that these alkyl
groups are bonded to another atom.
Branched hydrocarbons may have more than one substituent. If the

substituents are different, give each substituent a number (using the
smallest possible numbers) and list the substituents in alphabetical order,
with the numbers separated by hyphens and no spaces in the name. So the
molecule shown here is 3-ethyl-2-methylpentane.
If the substituents are the same, use the name of the substituent only
once, but use more than one number, separated by a comma and put a
numerical prefix before the substituent name that indicates the number of
substituents of that type. Consider this molecule:
The longest chain has four C atoms, so it is a butane. There are two
substituents, each of which consists of a single C atom; they are methyl
groups. The methyl groups are on the second and third C atoms in the
chain (no matter which end the numbering starts from), so we would
name this molecule 2,3-dimethylbutane. Note the comma between the
numbers, the hyphen between the numbers and the substituent name, and
the presence of the prefix di– before the methyl. Other molecules—even
with larger numbers of substituents—can be named similarly.
Example 2
Name the molecule whose structure is shown here:
Solution
The longest carbon chain runs horizontally across the page and contains six carbon atoms (this makes
the base of the name hexane, but we will also need to incorporate the name of the branch). In this case,
we want to number from right to left (as shown by the blue numbers) so the branch is connected to
carbon 3 (imagine the numbers from left to right—this would put the branch on carbon 4, violating our
rules). The branch attached to position 3 of our chain contains two carbon atoms (numbered in red)—so
we take our name for two carbons eth- and attach -yl at the end to signify we are describing a branch.
Putting all the pieces together, this molecule is 3-ethylhexane.
Test Yourself
Answer
4-propyloctane
Example 3
Name this molecule.
Solution
The longest continuous carbon chain has seven C atoms, so this molecule is named as a heptane.
There is a two-carbon substituent on the main chain, which is an ethyl group. To give the substituent
the lowest numbering, we number the chain from the right side and see that the substituent is on the
third C atom. So this hydrocarbon is 3-ethylheptane.
Test Yourself
Name this molecule.
Answer
2-methylpentane
Example 4
Name this molecule.

Solution
The longest chain has seven C atoms, so we name this molecule as a heptane. We find two one-
carbon substituents on the second C atom and a two-carbon substituent on the third C atom. So this
molecule is named 3-ethyl-2,2-dimethylheptane.
Test Yourself
Name this molecule.
Answer
4,4,5-tripropyloctane
Want more practice naming alkanes? Watch this brief video tutorial to review the nomenclature
process.
Naming Alkenes
Ethene, C2H4, is the simplest alkene and is commonly called ethylene.

The second member of the series is propene (propylene). The name of
an alkene is derived from the name of the alkane with the same number of
carbon atoms. The presence of the double bond is signified by replacing
the suffix -ane with the suffix -ene. The location of the double bond is
identified by naming the smaller of the numbers of the carbon atoms
participating in the double bond:
Note: The IUPAC adopted new nomenclature guidelines in 2013 that

require this number to be placed as an “infix” rather than a prefix. For
example, the new name for 1-butene and 2-butene would be but-1-ene
and but-2-ene. Widespread adoption of this new nomenclature will take
some time, and students are encouraged to be familiar with both the old
and new naming protocols.[/footnote]
Therefore when naming alkenes following IUPAC, you follow the same
two rules for alkanes with modification to “rule 1” mentioned above.
Rule 1. Identify the longest chain of carbons which contains the

double bond and its position (PREFIX-#-ENE). And when numbering
the main chain, the double gets the lowest possible number.
Rule 2. Names and position of the substituents.
For example, this molecule is 2,4-dimethylhept-3-ene. Note the number

and the hyphens that indicate the position of the double bond.
Recycling Plastics
Ethylene (the common industrial name for ethene) is a basic raw material in the production of
polyethylene and other important compounds. Over 135 million tons of ethylene were produced
worldwide in 2010 for use in the polymer, petrochemical, and plastic industries.
Polymers (from Greek words poly meaning “many” and mer meaning “parts”) are large molecules
made up of repeating units, referred to as monomers. Polymers can be natural (starch is a polymer
of sugar residues and proteins are polymers of amino acids) or synthetic [like polyethylene, polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), and polystyrene]. The variety of structures of polymers translates into a broad range of
properties and uses that make them integral parts of our everyday lives. Adding functional groups to the
structure of a polymer can result in significantly different properties (see the discussion about Kevlar
later in this chapter).
An example of a polymerization reaction is shown in Figure 2. The monomer ethylene (C2H4) is
a gas at room temperature, but when polymerized, using a transition metal catalyst, it is transformed
into a solid material made up of long chains of –CH2– units called polyethylene. Polyethylene is a
commodity plastic used primarily for packaging (bags and films).
Figure 2. The reaction for the polymerization of ethylene to polyethylene is shown.

Polyethylene is a member of one subset of synthetic polymers classified as plastics. Plastics are
synthetic organic solids that can be molded; they are typically organic polymers with high molecular
masses. Most of the monomers that go into common plastics (ethylene, propylene, vinyl chloride,
styrene, and ethylene terephthalate) are derived from petrochemicals and are not very biodegradable,
making them candidate materials for recycling. Recycling plastics helps minimize the need for using
more of the petrochemical supplies and also minimizes the environmental damage caused by throwing
away these nonbiodegradable materials.
Plastic recycling is the process of recovering waste, scrap, or used plastics, and reprocessing the
material into useful products. For example, polyethylene terephthalate (soft drink bottles) can be
melted down and used for plastic furniture, in carpets, or for other applications. Other plastics, like
polyethylene (bags) and polypropylene (cups, plastic food containers), can be recycled or reprocessed
to be used again. Many areas of the country have recycling programs that focus on one or more of
the commodity plastics that have been assigned a recycling code (see Figure 3). These operations have
been in effect since the 1970s and have made the production of some plastics among the most efficient
industrial operations today.
Figure 3. Each type of recyclable plastic is imprinted with a code for easy identification.
Once you master naming hydrocarbons from their given structures, it is

rather easy to draw a structure from a given name. Just draw the parent
chain with the correct number of C atoms (putting the double or triple
bond in the right position, as necessary) and add the substituents in the
proper positions. If you start by drawing the C atom backbone, you can go
back and complete the structure by adding H atoms to give each C atom
four covalent bonds.
From the name 2,3-dimethyl-4-propylhept-2-ene, we start by drawing the

seven-carbon parent chain with a double bond starting at the third carbon:
We add to this structure two one-carbon substituents on the second and

third C atoms:
We finish the carbon backbone by adding a three-carbon propyl group to

the fourth C atom in the parent chain:
If we so choose, we can add H atoms to each C atom to give each carbon

four covalent bonds, being careful to note that the C atoms in the double
bond already have an additional covalent bond. Question: How many H
3
atoms do you think are required?
Example 5
Draw the carbon backbone for 2,3,4-trimethylpentane.
Solution
First, we draw the five-carbon backbone that represents the pentane chain:
According to the name, there are three one-carbon methyl groups attached to the second, third, and
fourth C atoms in the chain. We finish the carbon backbone by putting the three methyl groups on the
pentane main chain:
Test Yourself
Draw the carbon backbone for 3-ethyl-6,7-dimethyloct-2-ene.
3. There will need to be 24 H atoms to complete the molecule.

Answer
Naming Alkynes
The simplest member of the alkyne series is ethyne, C2H2, commonly

called acetylene.
The IUPAC nomenclature for alkynes is similar to that for alkenes except
that the suffix -yne is used to indicate a triple bond in the chain. For
example, is called but-1-yne.
Therefore when naming alkynes following IUPAC, you follow the same
two rules for alkanes with modification to “rule 1” mentioned above.
Rule 1. Identify the longest chain of carbons which contains the triple
bond and its position (PREFIX-#-YNE). And when numbering the
main chain, the triple bond gets the lowest possible number.
Rule 2. Names and position of the substituents

Example 6
Solution
but-2-yne
Test Yourself
Answer
pent-3-en-1-yne
Example 7
Name this molecule.
Solution
The longest chain that contains the C–C triple bond has six C atoms, so this is a hexyne molecule.
The triple bond starts at the third C atom, so this is a hex-3-yne. Finally, there are two methyl groups
on the chain; to give them the lowest possible number, we number the chain from the left side, giving
the methyl groups the second position. So the name of this molecule is 2,2-dimethylhex-3-yne.
Test Yourself
Name this molecule.
Answer
2,3,4-trimethylpent-2-ene
Naming Arenes
The most commonly known arene is benzene.
There are many derivatives of benzene. The hydrogen atoms can be

replaced by many different substituents. The following are typical
examples of substituted benzene derivatives:
Toluene and xylene are important solvents and raw materials in the
chemical industry. Styrene is used to produce the polymer polystyrene.

Toluene, xylene and styrene are common names for these compounds.
The systematic way of naming these benzene derivatives is by following
the the two rules:
Rule 1. Identify the arene ring (BENZENE).
Rule 2. Names and position (if more than one) of the substituents: If
there are two or more substituents on a benzene molecule, the relative
positions must be numbered. The substituent that is first alphabetically is
assigned position 1, and the ring is numbered in a circle to give the other
substituents the lowest possible number(s).
Therefore the systematic name for toluene is methylbenzene and for

xylene is 1,2-dimethylbenzene.

Hydrocarbons are organic compounds composed of only carbon and

hydrogen. The alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons—that is, hydrocarbons
that contain only single bonds. Alkenes and alkynes are unsaturated
hydrocarbons. Alkenes contain one or more carbon-carbon double
bonds. Alkynes contain one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds. Arenes,
also known as aromatic hydrocarbons, contain ring structures with
alternating single and double bonds.
The systematic methods of naming the various hydrocarbons follow a

similar procedure and the names have three main parts:
1) specifying the information about the substituents,
2) specifying the information about the parent chain (or ring), and
3) the ending which specifies what functional group is present in the

structure being named.
Alkanes: #-substituents–PREFIX+ANE
Alkenes: #-substituents–PREFIX-#-ENE
Alkynes: #-substituents–PREFIX-#-YNE
Arenes (specifically benzene derivatives): #-substituents–BENZENE

Exercises
1. Write the chemical formula and Lewis structure of the following, each of which contains five
carbon atoms:
a) an alkane b) an alkene c) an alkyne
2. Name the following compounds:
3. Write the Lewis structure

and molecular formula for each of the following hydrocarbons:
a) hexane b) 3-methylpentane c) hex-3-ene
d) 4-methylpent-1-ene e) hex-3-yne f) 4-methylpent-2-yne
4. Give the complete IUPAC name for each of the following compounds:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
5. Butane is used as a fuel in disposable lighters. Write the Lewis structure for each isomer of butane.
6. Define hydrocarbon. What are the two general types of hydrocarbons?
7. Indicate whether each molecule is an aliphatic (open chain) or an arene. If it is aliphatic, identify
the molecule as an alkane, an alkene, or an alkyne.
a)
b)
c)
8. Indicate whether each molecule is an aliphatic or an arene. If it is aliphatic, identify the molecule as
an alkane, an alkene, or an alkyne.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
9. Name and draw the structural formulas for the four smallest alkanes.
10. Explain why you may see prop-1-ene written just as propene.
11. Name and draw the structural formula of each isomer of pentene.
12. Draw the structure of the product of the reaction of bromine with propene.
13. Draw the structure of the product of the reaction of hydrogen with but-1-ene.
14. How does a branched hydrocarbon differ from a normal hydrocarbon?
15. Name this molecule.


25. Draw the carbon backbone for each molecule.

a) 3,4-diethyloctane
b) 2,2-dimethyl-4-propylnonane
26. Draw the carbon backbone for each molecule.
a) 4-ethyl-4-propyloct-2-yne
b) 5-butyl-2,2-dimethyldecane
27. The name 2-ethylhexane is incorrect. Draw the carbon backbone and write the correct name for
this molecule.
Answers
1. There are several sets of answers; one is:
(a)
;
(b)
;
(c)
2. 2-hexene and 2-methylpentane

3. (a)
;
(b)
;
(c)
;
(d)
;
(e)
;
(f)
4. (a) 2,2-dibromobutane; (b) 2-chloro-2-methylpropane; (c) 2-methylbutane; (d) but-1-yne; (e)

4-fluoro-4-methyloct-1-yne; (f) 1-chloropropene; (g) 5-methylpent-1-ene
5.
6. an organic compound composed of only carbon and hydrogen; aliphatic hydrocarbons and
aromatic hydrocarbons
7. a) aliphatic; alkane b) arene c) aliphatic; alkene
8. a) aliphatic; alkane b) aliphatic; alkene c) arene d) aliphatic; alkyne e) arene
f) aliphatic; alkene g) aliphatic; alkene h) arene i) aliphatic; alkyne
9.
10. The 1 is not necessary since the double bond is on the first carbon.
11.
12.
13.
14. A branched hydrocarbon does not

have all of its C atoms in a single row.
15. 3-methyl-hex-2-ene
16. 2,2,3-trimethylpentane
17. 4,4-dimethylpent-1-ene
18. 4,4-dimethylheptane
19. 2,4-dimethylpent-2-ene
20. hex-3-yne
21. 3,4-diethyloctane
22. 4,5-dimethylhept-3-ene
23. 1-bromo-4-chlorobenzene
24. 1-ethyl-2,3-dimethylbenzene
25.a)
b)
26.a)
b)
27.
Glossary
alkane: molecule consisting of only carbon and hydrogen atoms

connected by single (σ) bonds
alkene: molecule consisting of carbon and hydrogen containing at least

one carbon-carbon double bond
alkyl group: substituent, consisting of an alkane missing one hydrogen

atom, attached to a larger structure
alkyne: molecule consisting of carbon and hydrogen containing at least

one carbon-carbon triple bond
aromatic hydrocarbon: cyclic molecule consisting of carbon and

hydrogen with delocalized alternating carbon-carbon single and double
bonds, resulting in enhanced stability
functional group: part of an organic molecule that imparts a specific

chemical reactivity to the molecule
organic compound: natural or synthetic compound that contains carbon
saturated hydrocarbon: molecule containing carbon and hydrogen that

has only single bonds between carbon atoms
skeletal structure or line structure: shorthand method of drawing

organic molecules in which carbon atoms are represented by the ends of
lines and bends in between lines, and hydrogen atoms attached to the
carbon atoms are not shown (but are understood to be present by the
context of the structure)
substituent: branch or functional group that replaces hydrogen atoms in

a larger hydrocarbon chain




10.4 Nomenclature of Alcohols and
Ethers
Learning Objectives
• Describe the structure and properties of alcohols

• Describe the structure and properties of ethers
• Name and draw structures for alcohols and ethers
Naming Alcohols
The name of an alcohol comes from the hydrocarbon from which it was
derived. The final -e in the name of the hydrocarbon is replaced by -ol,
and the carbon atom to which the hydroxyl group (OH group) is bonded
1
is indicated by a number placed before the name.
Therefore when naming alcohols following IUPAC, you follow the

1. The IUPAC adopted new nomenclature guidelines in 2013 that require this number to be
placed as an “infix” rather than a prefix. For example, the new name for 2-propanol would
be propan-2-ol. Widespread adoption of this new nomenclature will take some time, and
students are encouraged to be familiar with both the old and new naming protocols.
870
similar two rules for alkanes with modification to “rule 1” mentioned

above.
Rule 1. Identify the longest chain of carbons which contains the OH

group and its position (PREFIX-#-ANE+OL). And when numbering
the parent chain, the hydroxyl group gets the lowest possible number.
Alcohols containing two or more hydroxyl groups can be made.

Examples include 1,2-ethanediol (ethylene glycol, used in antifreeze)
and 1,2,3-propanetriol (glycerine, used as a solvent for cosmetics and
medicines):
10.4 NOMENCLATURE OF ALCOHOLS AND ETHERS • 872
Example 1
Consider the following example. How should it be named?
Solution
The carbon chain contains five carbon atoms. If the hydroxyl group was not present, we would have
named this molecule pentane. To address the fact that the hydroxyl group is present, we change the
ending of the name to -ol. In this case, since the –OH is attached to carbon 2 in the chain, we would
name this molecule 2-pentanol.
Test Yourself
Answer
2-methylpentan-2-ol
Naming Ethers
Ethers are compounds that contain the functional group –O–. Ethers do
not have a designated suffix like the other types of molecules we have
named so far. In the IUPAC system, the oxygen atom and the smaller
carbon branch are named as an alkoxy substituent and the remainder of
the molecule as the base chain, as in alkanes. As shown in the following
compound, the red symbols represent the smaller alkyl group and the
oxygen atom, which would be named “methoxy.” The larger carbon

branch would be ethane, making the molecule methoxyethane. Many
ethers are referred to with common names instead of the IUPAC system
names. For common names, the two branches connected to the oxygen
atom are named separately and followed by “ether.” But if the two alkyl
groups are the same, then the di prefix is used. The common name for
methoxyethane shown below is ethylmethyl ether:
Therefore when naming ethers, the two rules are modified. And
furthermore, there are two ways that are commonly used: IUPAC method
and the common method.
IUPAC method of naming ethers:
Rule 1. Identify the longest carbon branch (PREFIX-ANE).
Rule 2. Names of the substituent, the other carbon branch

(PREFIX+OXY)
Common method of naming ethers:
ALKYLALKYL ether or diALKYL ether

For example, the following ether would be commonly named ethylpropyl

ether. its name following the IUPAC rules would be ethoxypropane.
Example 2
Provide the IUPAC and common name for the ether shown here:
Solution
IUPAC: The molecule is made up of an ethoxy group attached to an ethane chain, so the IUPAC name
would be ethoxyethane.
Common: The groups attached to the oxygen atom are both ethyl groups, so the common name would
be diethyl ether.
Test Yourself
Provide the IUPAC and common name for the ether shown:
Answers
IUPAC: 2-methoxypropane; common: isopropylmethyl ether
Want more practice naming ethers? This brief video review summarizes the nomenclature for ethers.
Carbohydrates and Diabetes
Carbohydrates are large biomolecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The dietary forms
of carbohydrates are foods rich in these types of molecules, like pastas, bread, and candy. The name
“carbohydrate” comes from the formula of the molecules, which can be described by the general
formula Cm(H2O)n, which shows that they are in a sense “carbon and water” or “hydrates of carbon.”
In many cases, m and n have the same value, but they can be different. The smaller carbohydrates are
generally referred to as “sugars,” the biochemical term for this group of molecules is “saccharide” from
the Greek word for sugar (Figure 1). Depending on the number of sugar units joined together, they may
be classified as monosaccharides (one sugar unit), disaccharides (two sugar units), oligosaccharides
(a few sugars), or polysaccharides (the polymeric version of sugars—polymers were described in
the feature box earlier in this chapter on recycling plastics). The scientific names of sugars can be
recognized by the suffix -ose at the end of the name (for instance, fruit sugar is a monosaccharide called
“fructose” and milk sugar is a disaccharide called lactose composed of two monosaccharides, glucose
and galactose, connected together). Sugars contain some of the functional groups we have discussed:
Note the alcohol groups present in the structures and how monosaccharide units are linked to form a
disaccharide by formation of an ether.
Figure 1. The illustrations show the molecular structures of fructose, a five-carbon monosaccharide, and of lactose,
a disaccharide composed of two isomeric, six-carbon sugars.
Organisms use carbohydrates for a variety of functions. Carbohydrates can store energy, such as the
polysaccharides glycogen in animals or starch in plants. They also provide structural support, such as
the polysaccharide cellulose in plants and the modified polysaccharide chitin in fungi and animals. The
sugars ribose and deoxyribose are components of the backbones of RNA and DNA, respectively. Other
sugars play key roles in the function of the immune system, in cell-cell recognition, and in many other
biological roles.
Diabetes is a group of metabolic diseases in which a person has a high sugar concentration in their
blood (Figure 2). Diabetes may be caused by insufficient insulin production by the pancreas or by the
body’s cells not responding properly to the insulin that is produced. In a healthy person, insulin is
produced when it is needed and functions to transport glucose from the blood into the cells where it can
be used for energy. The long-term complications of diabetes can include loss of eyesight, heart disease,
and kidney failure.
In 2013, it was estimated that approximately 3.3% of the world’s population (~380 million people)
suffered from diabetes, resulting in over a million deaths annually. Prevention involves eating a healthy
diet, getting plenty of exercise, and maintaining a normal body weight. Treatment involves all of these
lifestyle practices and may require injections of insulin.
Figure 2. Diabetes is a disease characterized by high concentrations of glucose in the blood. Treating diabetes
involves making lifestyle changes, monitoring blood-sugar levels, and sometimes insulin injections. (credit:
“Blausen Medical Communications”/Wikimedia Commons)
Many organic compounds that are not hydrocarbons can be thought of as

derivatives of hydrocarbons. A hydrocarbon derivative can be formed by
replacing one or more hydrogen atoms of a hydrocarbon by a functional
group, which contains at least one atom of an element other than carbon
or hydrogen. The properties of hydrocarbon derivatives are determined
largely by the functional group. The –OH group is the functional group of
an alcohol. The –R–O–R– group is the functional group of an ether.
The systematic methods of naming alcohols follow a similar procedure

and the names have three main parts:
2) specifying the information about the parent chain, and

Alcohols: #-substituents–PREFIX–#-ANE+OL
Ethers: PREFIX+OXY–PREFIX–ANE
Remember: there are two ways that are commonly used to name ethers.
The common method is also important to know.

Exercises
1. Write condensed formulas and provide IUPAC names for the following compounds:
a) ethyl alcohol (in beverages)
b) methyl alcohol (used as a solvent, for example, in shellac)
c) ethylene glycol (antifreeze)
d) isopropyl alcohol (used in rubbing alcohol)
e) glycerine
2. Give the complete IUPAC name for each of the following compounds:
a)
b)
c)
3. Give the complete IUPAC name and the common name for each of the following compounds:
a)
b)
c)
Answers
1. a) ethyl alcohol, ethanol: CH3CH2OH; b) methyl alcohol, methanol: CH3OH; c) ethylene glycol,
ethanediol: HOCH2CH2OH; d) isopropyl alcohol, 2-propanol: CH3CH(OH)CH3; e) glycerine,
l,2,3-trihydroxypropane: HOCH2CH(OH)CH2OH
2. a) butan-2-ol; b) 2-iodo-3,3-dimethylpentan-2-ol; c) 3-chloro-3-ethylhexan-2-ol
3. a) 1-ethoxybutane, butyl ethyl ether; b) 1-ethoxypropane, ethyl propyl ether; c)
1-methoxypropane, methyl propyl ether
4. 3-chloropentan-3-ol
5. octan-4-ol
6. 4-ethyl-2,5-dimethylhexan-3-ol
Glossary
alcohol: organic compound with a hydroxyl group (–OH) bonded to a

carbon atom
ether: organic compound with an oxygen atom that is bonded to two

carbon atoms




10.5 Nomenclature of Amines
Learning Objectives
• Describe the structure and properties of an amine.

• Distinguish between a primary, secondary and tertiary amine.
• Name and draw structures for primary, secondary and tertiary amines.
An amine is an organic derivative of ammonia (NH3). In amines, one or

more of the H atoms in NH3 is substituted with an organic group.
A tertiary amine has all

A primary amine has A secondary amine has
three H atoms
one H atom substituted two H atoms substituted
substituted with R
with an R group: with an R group:
groups:
881
10.5 NOMENCLATURE OF AMINES • 882
Like ammonia, amines are weak bases due to the lone pair of electrons
on their nitrogen atoms:
The basicity of an amine’s nitrogen atom plays an important role in much

of the compound’s chemistry.
Naming Amines
The alkyl groups connected to the nitrogen atom are named separately
and followed by “amine.” If some alkyl groups are the same, then a
prefix is used (di or tri), as illustrated here for a few simple examples:
Example 1
Name the following organic compounds:

a) (CH3)2NCH2CH3 b) CH3CH2CH2NHCH3 c) CH3(CH3CH2)NCH2CH2CH3
Solution
a) ethyldimethylamine b) methylpropylamine c) ethylmethylpropylamine
Test Yourself
Give the condensed structure of the following amines:
a) butylamine b) trihexylamine c) methylpentylamine
Answer
a) CH3CH2CH2CH2NH2 b) (CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2)3N c) CH3(CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2)NH
Compounds containing a nitrogen atom bonded in a hydrocarbon

framework are classified as amines. Amines are a basic functional group.
An acid-base reaction occurs when an amine is mixed with and an acid.
The systematic methods of naming amines follow a simple procedure:

primary amines: ALKYLamine
secondary amines: ALKYLALKYLamine or diALKYLamine
tertiary amines: ALKYLALKYLALKYLamine or
triALKYLamine
Exercises
1. What are the structure and name of the smallest amine?

2. Identify each compound as a primary, secondary, or tertiary amine.
a)
b)
c)
3. Identify each compound as a primary, secondary, or tertiary amine.
a)
b)
4. Write the chemical reaction between each amine in Exercise 2 and HCl.
5. Name each amine.
a) b)
c) d)
Answers
1. CH3NH2; methylamine
2. a) primary b) tertiary c) secondary
3. a) primary b) secondary
4. a) C3H3CO2HSHNH2 + HCl C3H3CO2HSHNH3Cl
b) (C6H11)(C2H5)(CH3)N + HCl (C6H11)(C2H5)(CH3)NHCl
c) (C2H5)(CH3)NH + HCl (C2H5)(CH3)NH2Cl
5. a) ethylmethylamine b) ethyldipropylamine c) diethylmethylamine
Glossary
amine: organic molecule in which a nitrogen atom is bonded to one or

more alkyl group




10.6 Nomenclature of Aldehydes,
Ketones, Carboxylic Acids, Esters,
and Amides
Learning Objectives
• Describe the structure and properties of aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters and
amides
• Name and draw structures for aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters and amides
Another class of organic molecules contains a carbon atom connected to

an oxygen atom by a double bond, commonly called a carbonyl group.
The carbonyl group can attach to two other substituents leading to several
subfamilies, some of which are: aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids,
esters and amides.
887
10.6 NOMENCLATURE OF ALDEHYDES, KETONES, CARBOXYLIC ACIDS, ESTERS, AND AMIDES • 888
Naming of Aldehydes and Ketones
Both aldehydes and ketones contain a carbonyl group. In an aldehyde,

the carbonyl group is bonded to at least one hydrogen atom. In a ketone,
the carbonyl group is bonded to two carbon atoms. The names for
aldehyde and ketone compounds are derived using similar nomenclature
rules as for alkanes and alcohols, and include the class-identifying
suffixes -al and -one, respectively:
Therefore when naming aldehydes following IUPAC, you follow these

rules:

carbonyl group (PREFIX-ANE+AL). And when numbering the parent
chain, the carbonyl group gets the lowest possible number, therefore it is
always 1 and therefore is not included in the name.
Methanal has a common name with which you may be familiar:

formaldehyde.
When naming ketones following IUPAC, you follow these rules:


carbonyl group (PREFIX-#-ANE+ONE). And when numbering the
parent chain, the carbonyl group gets the lowest possible number. In the
smaller ketones (propanone and butanone), the locant number is not used
because there is no alternative placement in these smaller ketones.
The common name for propanone is acetone. There is a non-IUPAC way

to name ketones that is commonly used as well: name the alkyl groups
that are attached to the carbonyl group and add the word ketone to
the name. So propanone can also be called dimethyl ketone, while
butan-2-one is called methyl ethyl ketone.
In condensed structure, an aldehyde group is represented as –CHO; a

ketone is represented as –C(O)– or –CO–.
Example 1
Draw the structures of: a) pentan-2-one; b) hexan-2-one; c) butane
Solution
a) This molecule has five C atoms in a chain, with the carbonyl group on the second C atom. Its
structure is:
b) This molecule has six C atoms in a chain, with the carbonyl group on the second C atom. Its structure
is:
c) This molecule has four C atoms in a chain, with the carbonyl group on the first C atom since it is
an aldehyde (ends with -al). Its structure is:
Test Yourself
Give the condensed structure of the following amines:
a) propanone b) propanal c) heptan-3-one d) octanal
Answer
a) CH3COCH3 b) CH3CH2CHO
c) CH3CH2CH2CH2COCH2CH3 or CH3(CH2)3COCH2CH3
d) CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CHO or CH3(CH2)6CHO
Naming Carboxylic Acids and Esters
Both carboxylic acids and esters contain a carbonyl group with a second
oxygen atom bonded to the carbon atom in the carbonyl group by a
single bond. In a carboxylic acid, the second oxygen atom also bonds to
a hydrogen atom. In an ester, the second oxygen atom bonds to another
carbon atom. The names for carboxylic acids and esters include prefixes
that denote the lengths of the carbon chains in the molecules.
The names for carboxylic acid and ester compounds are derived using
similar nomenclature rules as seen previously with aldehydes, and
include the class-identifying suffixes -oic acid and -oate, respectively:
Therefore when naming carboxylic acids following IUPAC, you follow

these rules:

carbonyl group (PREFIX-ANE+OIC ACID). And when numbering
the parent chain, the carbonyl group gets the lowest possible number,
therefore it is always 1 and therefore is not included in the name.
When naming esters following IUPAC, you follow these rules:

carbonyl group (PREFIX-ANE+OATE). And when numbering the
parent chain, the carbonyl group gets the lowest possible number,
therefore it is always 1 and therefore is not included in the name. AND
then name the other carbon chain (PREFIX+YL).

The functional groups for an acid and for an ester are shown in red in
these formulas. In brackets you have the common names for ethanoic
acid and methyl ethanoate.
The hydrogen atom in the functional group of a carboxylic acid will react
with a base to form an ionic salt:
Carboxylic acids are weak acids (see the chapter on acids and bases),
meaning they are not 100% ionized in water. Generally only about 1% of
the molecules of a carboxylic acid dissolved in water are ionized at any
given time. The remaining molecules are undissociated in solution.
In condensed structure, the carboxylic acid group is represented as

–COOH; an ester is represented as –COO– .
Example 2
Draw the structures of: a) 3-methylpentanoic acid; b) ethyl ethanoate; c) propyl

2-chlorobutanoate
Solution
a) Its structure is:
b)Its structure is:
c) Its structure is:
Test Yourself
Name the following compounds:
a) CH3CH2COOH b) CH3CH2CH2CH2COOCH2CH3 c) BrCH2(CH2)2COCH3
d) (CH3)2CH(CH2)6COOH
Answer
a) propanoic acid b) ethyl pentanoate c) methyl 4-bromobutanoate d) 9-methylnonanoic acid
Example 3
Complete the chemical reaction.
Solution
The OH– ion removes the H atom that is part of the carboxyl group:
The carboxylate ion, which has the condensed structural formula CH3CO2−, is the ethanoate ion, but
it is commonly called the acetate ion.
Test Yourself
Complete the chemical reaction.
Answer
The ion is the methanoate ion, which is commonly called the formate ion.
Naming Simple Amides
Amides are molecules that contain nitrogen atoms connected to the

carbon atom of a carbonyl group. The names for amide compounds

are derived using similar nomenclature rules as seen previously with
aldehydes and carboxylic acids, and include the class-identifying suffixes
-amide:
Therefore when naming amides following IUPAC, you follow these rules:

carbonyl group (PREFIX-ANE+AMIDE). And when numbering the
parent chain, the carbonyl group gets the lowest possible number,
therefore it is always 1 and therefore is not included in the name.
In condensed structure, the amide group is represented as –CONH2 or

–CONHR or –CONR2.
Example 4
Give the condensed structures of: a) decanamide; b) hexanamide; c) 2-chloroethanamide
Solution
a) Its condensed structure is: CH3(CH2)8CONH2
b) Its condensed structure is: CH3(CH2)4CONH2

c) Its condensed structure is: ClCH2CONH2
Test Yourself
Name the following compounds:
a) CH3(CH2)2CONH2 b) BrCH2(CH2)3CONH2 d) (CH3CH2)2CH(CH2)5CONH2
Answer
a) butanamide b) 5-bromopentanamide c) 7-ethylnonanamide
Functional groups related to the carbonyl group include the –CHO group
of an aldehyde, the –CO– group of a ketone, the –CO2H group of a
carboxylic acid, the –CO2R group of an ester and the –CONH2 group of
an amide.
The systematic methods of naming these carbonyl containing functional

groups follow a similar procedure and the names have three main parts:
2) specifying the information about the parent chain, and

Aldehydes: #-substituents–PREFIX–ANE+AL
Ketones: #-substituents–PREFIX–ANE+ONE
Carboxylic Acids: #-substituents–PREFIX–ANE+OIC ACID
Esters: ALKYL #-substituents–PREFIX–ANE+OATE
Amides: #-substituents–PREFIX–ANE+AMIDE
Exercises
1. Write a condensed structural formula of the following compounds.

a) 2-propanol
b) acetone
c) dimethyl ether
d) acetic acid
e) 3-methyl-1-hexene
2. A peptide is a short chain of amino acids connected by amide bonds. How many amide bonds are
present in this peptide?
3. How many amide bonds are present in this peptide? (See Exercise 2 for the definition of a peptide.)
4. Name a similarity between the functional groups found in aldehydes and ketones. Can you name a
difference between them?
5. Name each molecule.
a) b)
a) b)
a) b)
a) b)
10. The drug known as aspirin is shown here. Identify the functional group(s) in this molecule.
11. The drug known as naproxen sodium is the sodium salt of the molecule shown here. Identify the
functional group(s) in this molecule.
Answers
1. a) CH3CH(OH)CH3
b) :
c) CH3OCH3
d) CH3COOH
e) CH3CH2CH2CH(CH3)CHCH2
2. two amide bonds
3. one amide bond
4. They both have a carbonyl group, but an aldehyde has the carbonyl group at the end of a carbon
chain, and a ketone’s carbonyl carbon is surrounded by two other carbons.
5. a) proposal b) butanone
6. a) 3-chloro-3-methylbutanal b) heptan-4-one
7. a) 3-methylbutanoic acid b) ethyl propionate
8. a) 2,2,2-trichlroethanoic acid b) butyl ethanoate
9. ethyl propyl ether
10. carboxylic acid, arene and ester
11. carboxylic acid, arene and ether
Glossary
aldehyde: organic compound containing a carbonyl group bonded to two

hydrogen atoms or a hydrogen atom and a carbon substituent
carbonyl group: carbon atom double bonded to an oxygen atom
carboxylic acid: organic compound containing a carbonyl group with an

attached hydroxyl group
ester: organic compound containing a carbonyl group with an attached

oxygen atom that is bonded to a carbon substituent
ketone: organic compound containing a carbonyl group with two carbon

substituents attached to it




10.7 Summary of Nomenclature
Rules
It is important to note that to be able to name an organic compounds,

you must be able to easily identify the functional groups: alkane, alkene,
alkyne, arene, alcohol, ether, amine, aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid,
ester, amide.
The IUPAC systematic methods of naming most of the functional groups

seen follow a similar procedure described in the nomenclature guide.
Figure 1. IUPAC Nomenclature Guide
The names are made of three main parts: 1) specifying the information
about the substituents; 2) specifying the information about the parent
901
10.7 SUMMARY OF NOMENCLATURE RULES • 902
chain (or ring); and 3) the ending which specifies what functional group
is present in the structure being named.
Two Rules
Rule 1. Identify the longest chain

of carbon atoms.
Alkanes:
Rule 2. Names and position of the
#-substituents–PREFIX+ANE
substituents. ***

of carbons which contains the
double bond and its position.
And when numbering the main
Alkenes: chain, the double gets the lowest
possible number.Rule 2. Names
#-substituents–PREFIX–#-ENE
and position of the substituents.

Alkynes: triple bond and its position.
And when numbering the main
#-substituents–PREFIX–#-YNE chain, the triple gets the lowest
possible number.Rule 2. Names
and position of the substituents.
Rule 1. Identify the arene ring

(BENZENE).
Rule 2. Names and position (if

more than one) of the
Arenes (specifically substituents: If there are two or
benzene derivatives): more substituents on a benzene
molecule, the relative positions must
#-substituents–BENZENE be numbered. The substituent that is
first alphabetically is assigned
position 1, and the ring is numbered
in a circle to give the other
substituents the lowest possible
number(s).

of carbons which contains the OH
group and its position. And when
Alcohols: numbering the parent chain, the
hydroxyl group gets the lowest
#-substituents–PREFIX–#-ANE+OL possible number.

substituents.***
Rule 1. Identify the longest carbon

branch
Ethers:
Rule 2. Names of the substituent,
PREFIX+OXY–PREFIX–ANE
the other carbon branch
(PREFIX+OXY)

carbonyl group
(PREFIX-ANE+AL). And when
numbering the parent chain, the
Aldehydes:
carbonyl group gets the lowest
possible number, therefore it is
#-substituents–PREFIX–ANE+AL
always 1 and therefore is not
included in the name.

substituents.***

carbonyl group. And when
Ketones: possible number. In the smaller
ketones (propanone and butanone),
#-substituents–PREFIX–ANE+ONE the locant number is not used
because there is no alternative
placement in these smaller ketones.

substituents.***

Carboxylic Acids:
#-substituents–PREFIX–ANE+OIC
ACID

substituents.***

Esters:
ALKYL #-
included in the name. AND then
substituents–PREFIX–ANE+OATE
name the other carbon chain
(PREFIX+YL).

substituents.***

carbonyl group
(PREFIX-ANE+AMIDE).
Amides: And when numbering the parent
chain, the carbonyl group gets the
#- lowest possible number, therefore it
substituents–PREFIX–ANE+AMIDE is always 1 and therefore is not

substituents.***
***If there are substituents on the parent chain, their names and position
on the chain must be included at the front of the name. The position of a
substituent or branch is identified by the number of the carbon atom it is
bonded to in the chain. Multiple substituents are named individually and
placed in alphabetical order at the front of the name.
It is helpful to recognize the similarities between the rules of alkenes and

alkynes, and between the rules of alcohols and the carbonyl functional
groups. Ethers and amines have their own unique naming procedures.
The systematic methods of naming amines follows a different format:

primary amines:
ALKYLamine
______________
secondary amines:
ALKYLALKYLamine or diALKYLamine
______________
tertiary amines:
ALKYLALKYLALKYLamine or triALKYLamine
______________
Remember: there are two ways that are commonly used to name ethers.
The common method is also important to know.

1. Draw the line bond structure for the following compounds:
a) Br[CH(CH3)]4COCH(CH3)CH2CH3
b) CH3(CH)8CH2COOH
c) CH3CH2CH(CHO)(CH2)2CH(CH3)CH2Br
d) (HO)2CH(CH2)2O(CH2)3COOH
2. For the following compounds, give the chemical formula and the
condensed structure:
909
3. Answer the following questions for each of these compounds.
a) Name the circled functional groups: A = ?, B = ?, C = ?
b) What is the chemical formula of the compound?
c) How many lone pairs are there in the compound?
Phenylalanine is an α-amino acid.

Aspirin, also known as acetylsalicylic acid, is often used to relieve

minor aches and pains, and to reduce fever.
Tetracycline is an antibiotic used against many bacterial infections.
Ampicillin is an antibiotic used against many bacterial infections since

1961.
Forskolin is a natural product produced by the Indian Coleus

plant (Coleus forskohlii).
4. Cycloalkanes are named based on the number of C atoms in them, just

like regular alkanes, but with the prefix cyclo– on the name. What are the
names of the three smallest cycloalkanes?
5. Draw the bond-line structure of all noncyclic alkanes with only four C
atoms.
6. Cyclic alkanes can also have substituent groups on the ring. Draw the
bond-line structure of all cyclic alkanes with only four C atoms.
7. What is the maximum number of methyl groups that can be on a

propane backbone before the molecule cannot be named as a propane
compound?
8. In the gasoline industry, what is called isooctane is actually

2,2,4-trimethylpentane. Draw the structure of isooctane.
9. The actual name for the explosive TNT is 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene. If the

structure of TNT is as shown below, propose the structure of the parent

compound toluene.
10. Draw the smallest molecule that can have a separate aldehyde and
carboxylic acid group.
11. Name the functional group(s) in the following structure:
12. Ethyl acetate is a common ingredient in nail-polish remover because

it is a good solvent. Its IUPAC name is ethyl ethanoate. Draw the
structure of ethyl acetate.
13. Draw the structure of diethyl ether, once used as an anesthetic.
14. Write the chemical reaction of HCl with trimethylamine.
15.Give the IUPAC name the following organic compounds.
Answers
1.
2. a) C8H12O4 HOOCCH2COCH2CO(CH2)2CH3
b) C8H10O3 HOC(CH)4(CH2)2COOH
c) C14H28 CH3(CH)2CH(CH[CH3]CH2CH3)(CH2)5CH3
d) C9H17Cl Cl(CH2)2C(CHCH2CH3)(CH2)2CH3
3. Phenylalanine a) A = Arene, B = Carboxylic Acid, C = Primary

Amine
b) C9H11NO2
c) 5 lone pairs – one on the nitrogen and two on each oxygen,

Aspirin a) A = Ester, B = Arene, C = Carboxylic Acid
b) C9H8O4
c) 8 lone pairs – two on each oxygen,
Tetracycline a) A = Tertiary Alcohol, B = Tertiary Amine, C = Ketone
b) C22H24N2O8
c) 18 lone pairs – one on each nitrogen and two on each oxygen
Ampicillin a) A = Tertiary Amide, B = Carboxylic Acid, C = Arene
b) C16H19N3O4S
c) 13 lone pairs – one on each nitrogen, two on each oxygen and two on
the sulfur
Forskolin a) A = Secondary Alcohol, B = Ether, C = Ketone
b) C22H34O7
c) 14 lone pairs –two on each oxygen,
4. cyclopropane, cyclobutane, and cyclopentane
5.
6.
7. two
8.
9.
10.
11. alcohol (or more specifically phenol), arene, ketone, primary amine
12.
13.
14. Triethylamine is a base and HCl is an acid, therefore you get an acid-
base reaction.
(CH3)3N + HCl (CH3)3NHCl
15. a) 4-ethyloctane b) 3-ethyl-2,4-dimethylhexane
c) 2,4-dibromo-1-chloro-3-methylpentane d)
5,5-dimethyl-3-propyl-1-heptene
e) 4-methyl-4-octene f) 2-ethyl-1,6-heptadiene g)
3-ethyl-1,4-hexadiene
h) 4-ethyl-2,5-octadiene i) 3,3-dimethyl-4-octyne j)
4-methyl-2-hexyne


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Appendix A: The Periodic Table

920
Appendix B: Essential Mathematics
Exponential Arithmetic
Exponential notation is used to express very large and very small numbers
as a product of two numbers. The first number of the product, the digit
term, is usually a number not less than 1 and not greater than 10. The
second number of the product, the exponential term, is written as 10 with
an exponent. Some examples of exponential notation are:
The power (exponent) of 10 is equal to the number of places the decimal

is shifted to give the digit number. The exponential method is particularly
useful notation for every large and very small numbers. For example,
1,230,000,000 = 1.23 × 109, and 0.00000000036 = 3.6 × 10−10.
922
Addition of Exponentials
Convert all numbers to the same power of 10, add the digit terms of
the numbers, and if appropriate, convert the digit term back to a number
between 1 and 10 by adjusting the exponential term.
Example 1
Adding Exponentials
Add 5.00 × 10−5 and 3.00 × 10−3.
Solution
Subtraction of Exponentials
Convert all numbers to the same power of 10, take the difference of the
digit terms, and if appropriate, convert the digit term back to a number
between 1 and 10 by adjusting the exponential term.
Example 2
Subtracting Exponentials
Subtract 4.0 × 10−7 from 5.0 × 10−6.
Solution
APPENDIX B: ESSENTIAL MATHEMATICS • 924
Multiplication of Exponentials
Multiply the digit terms in the usual way and add the exponents of the
exponential terms.
Example 3
Multiplying Exponentials
Multiply 4.2 × 10−8 by 2.0 × 103.
Solution
Division of Exponentials
Divide the digit term of the numerator by the digit term of the
denominator and subtract the exponents of the exponential terms.
Example 4
Dividing Exponentials
Divide 3.6 × 105 by 6.0 × 10−4.
Solution
Squaring of Exponentials
Square the digit term in the usual way and multiply the exponent of the
exponential term by 2.
Example 5
Squaring Exponentials
Square the number 4.0 × 10−6.
Solution
Cubing of Exponentials
Cube the digit term in the usual way and multiply the exponent of the
exponential term by 3.
Example 6
Cubing Exponentials
Cube the number 2 × 104.
Solution
Taking Square Roots of Exponentials
If necessary, decrease or increase the exponential term so that the power

of 10 is evenly divisible by 2. Extract the square root of the digit term and
divide the exponential term by 2.
Example 7
Finding the Square Root of Exponentials

Find the square root of 1.6 × 10−7.
Solution
Significant Figures
A beekeeper reports that he has 525,341 bees. The last three figures of
the number are obviously inaccurate, for during the time the keeper was
counting the bees, some of them died and others hatched; this makes it
quite difficult to determine the exact number of bees. It would have been
more accurate if the beekeeper had reported the number 525,000. In other
words, the last three figures are not significant, except to set the position
of the decimal point. Their exact values have no meaning useful in this
situation. In reporting any information as numbers, use only as many
significant figures as the accuracy of the measurement warrants.
The importance of significant figures lies in their application to

fundamental computation. In addition and subtraction, the sum or
difference should contain as many digits to the right of the decimal as that
in the least certain of the numbers used in the computation (indicated by

underscoring in the following example).
Example 8
Addition and Subtraction with Significant Figures

Add 4.383 g and 0.0023 g.
Solution
In multiplication and division, the product or quotient should contain

no more digits than that in the factor containing the least number of
significant figures.
Example 9
Multiplication and Division with Significant Figures

Multiply 0.6238 by 6.6.
Solution
When rounding numbers, increase the retained digit by 1 if it is followed

by a number larger than 5 (“round up”). Do not change the retained digit
if the digits that follow are less than 5 (“round down”). If the retained
digit is followed by 5, round up if the retained digit is odd, or round down
if it is even (after rounding, the retained digit will thus always be even).

Appendix C: Units and Conversion
Factors
Units of Length
= 10–8 cm (exact,
= 39.37 inches (in.) definition)
angstrom
meter (m)
= 1.094 yards (yd) (Å) = 10–10 m (exact,
definition)
centimeter = 0.01 m (exact,

yard (yd) = 0.9144 m
(cm) definition)
millimeter = 0.001 m (exact, = 2.54 cm (exact,

inch (in.)
(mm) definition) definition)
kilometer = 1000 m (exact,

mile (US) = 1.60934 km
(km) definition)
929
APPENDIX C: UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS • 930
Units of Volume
= 0.001 m3 (exact, = 32 (US) liquid ounces

definition) (exact, definition)
= 1000 cm3 (exact, liquid = 0.25 (US) gallon (exact,

liter (L)
definition) quart (US) definition)
= 1.057 (US) quarts = 0.9463 L
= 0.001 L (exact,
definition)
milliliter
dry quart = 1.1012 L
(mL) = 1 cm3 (exact,
definition)
= 10–6 L (exact,
definition)
microliter cubic foot
= 28.316 L
(μL)(μL) = 10–3 cm3(exact, (US)
definition)
Units of Mass
= 0.001 kg (exact, ounce (oz)

gram (g) = 28.35 g
definition) (avoirdupois)
milligram = 0.001 g (exact, pound (lb)

= 0.4535924 kg
(mg) definition) (avoirdupois)
= 1000 g (exact, =2000 lb (exact,

definition) definition)
kilogram
ton (short)
(kg)
= 2.205 lb = 907.185 kg
=1000 kg (exact, = 2240 lb (exact,

definition) definition)
ton
ton (long)
(metric)
= 2204.62 lb = 1.016 metric ton
Units of Energy
4.184 joule (J) = 1 thermochemical calorie (cal)
1 thermochemical calorie (cal) = 4.184 × 107 erg
erg = 10–7 J (exact, definition)
electron-volt (eV) = 1.60218 × 10−19 J = 23.061 kcal mol−1
liter∙atmosphere = 24.217 cal = 101.325 J (exact, definition)
nutritional calorie (Cal) = 1000 cal (exact, definition) = 4184 J

1
British thermal unit (BTU) = 1054.804 J
1. BTU is the amount of energy needed to heat one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit.
Therefore, the exact relationship of BTU to joules and other energy units depends on the temperature
at which BTU is measured. 59 °F (15 °C) is the most widely used reference temperature for BTU
definition in the United States. At this temperature, the conversion factor is the one provided in this
APPENDIX C: UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS • 932
Units of Pressure
torr = 1 mm Hg (exact, definition)
= N m–2 (exact, definition)

pascal (Pa)
= kg m–1 s–2 (exact, definition)
= 760 mm Hg (exact, definition)
= 760 torr (exact, definition)

atmosphere (atm)
= 101,325 N m–2 (exact, definition)
= 101,325 Pa (exact, definition)
= 105 Pa (exact, definition)

bar
= 105 kg m–1 s–2 (exact, definition)

table.
Appendix D: Fundamental Physical
Constants
Fundamental Physical Constants
Name and Symbol Value
atomic mass unit (amu) 1.6605402 × 10−27 kg
Avogadro’s number 6.0221367 × 1023 mol−1
electron charge (e) 1.60217733 × 10−19 C
electron rest mass (me) 9.1093897 × 10−31 kg
neutron rest mass (mn) 1.6749274 × 10−27 kg
Planck’s constant (h) 6.6260755 × 10−34 J s
proton rest mass (mp) 1.6726231 × 10−27 kg
1.0973731534 × 107 m−1 = 2.1798736 × 10−18

Rydberg constant (R)
J
speed of light (in vacuum)

2.99792458 × 108 m s−1
(c)
933
APPENDIX D: FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL CONSTANTS • 934


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CHEM 1114 - Introduction to Chemistry

CHEM 1114 - Introduction to

Shirley Wacowich-Sgarbi and Langara

Contributors:, Paul Flowers, Klaus

© Jun 25, 2018 is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial

CHEM 1114 – Introduction to Chemistry was adapted by Shirley Wacowich-Sgarbi by

Chapter 1. Chemistry: An Experimental Science

Chapter 2. Making Measurements

Chapter 3. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Chapter 4. Chemical Nomenclature

Chapter 5. Chemical Composition

Chapter 6. Chemical Reactions and Equations

Chapter 7. Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions

Chapter 8. Electronic Structure of Atoms

Chapter 9. Chemical Bonding and Lewis Structures

Chapter 10. Organic Chemistry

Appendix A: The Periodic Table 920

About Chem 1114 – Introduction to Chemistry

CHEM 1114 – Introduction to Chemistry is designed for a one-semester

Coverage and Scope

has been developed and arranged to provide a logical progression of the

• Chapter 1: Chemistry: An Experimental Science

• Chapter 2: Making Measurements

• Chapter 3: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

• Chapter 4: Chemical Nomenclature

• Chapter 5: Chemical Composition

• Chapter 6: Chemical Reactions and Equations

• Chapter 7: Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions

• Chapter 8: Electronic Structure of Atoms

• Chapter 9: Chemical Bonding and Lewis Structures

• Chapter 10: Organic Chemistry

topics a step further. Students and educators alike will appreciate

• Chemistry in Everyday Life ties chemistry concepts to

• How Sciences Interconnect feature boxes discuss chemistry

• Portrait of a Chemist features present a short bio and an

Comprehensive Art Program

Interactives That Engage

Assessments That Reinforce Key Concepts

emerging research, and other feedback to enhance and strengthen the

CC licensed content, Shared previously

• Authored by: Shirley Wacowich-Sgarbi. License: CC BY-NC-

• Authored by: Paul Flowers, Klaus Theopold and Richard

CHEM 1114 – Introduction to Chemistry was adapted by Shirley

Shirley Wacowich-Sgarbi, June 2018

Senior Contributing Author

From David W. Ball’s textbook Introductory Chemistry:

CC licensed content, Shared previously

• Authored by: Shirley Wacowich-Sgarbi. License: CC BY-NC-

• Authored by: Jessie A. Key and David W. Ball. License: CC

• Authored by: Paul Flowers, Klaus Theopold and Richard

Shirley Wacowich-Sgarbi, PhD, Langara College – Vancouver, BC

Dr. Shirley Wacowich-Sgarbi is a chemistry instructor at Langara College

Paul Flowers, PhD, University of North Carolina – Pembroke

Dr. Paul Flowers earned a BS in Chemistry from St. Andrews

appointment at Los Alamos National Laboratory, he joined the University

Klaus Theopold, PhD, University of Delaware

Dr. Klaus Theopold (born in Berlin, Germany) received his Vordiplom

Richard Langley, PhD, Stephen F. Austin State University

Dr. Richard Langley earned BS degrees in Chemistry and Mineralogy

Moving to Stephen F. Austin State University in 1982, Dr. Langley today

Jessie Key, PhD, Vancouver Island University – Nanaimo, BC

Dr. Jessie Key is a professor of chemistry at Vancouver Island University

David Ball, PhD, Cleveland State University