1

AP EXAM Study Guide / Notes

I. Kinematics (One-dimensional motion)- Completed

A. Key Equations and Definitions
B. Notes
II. Dynamics (Two-dimensional motion)- Completed
A. Key Equations and Definitions
B. Notes
III. Circular Motion and Gravitation- Completed
A. Key Equations and Definitions
B. Notes
IV. Energy- Completed
A. Key Equations and Definitions
B. Notes
V. Momentum- Completed
A. Key Equations and Definitions
B. Notes
VI. Simple Harmonic Motion- Completed
A. Key Equations and Definitions
B. Notes
VII. Torque and Rotational Motion- Completed
A. Key Equations and Definitions
B. Notes

Official 2020 Practice FRQ by College Board: here

Even more practice: here

Please comment if you notice any mistakes or want me to add anything! I’ll respond
within 24hrs. Please limit edits/comments to only completed sections. I plan on
maintaining this document long term as long as the coursework doesn’t change.
Please edit in unit 8, 9 and 10 if you’re knowledgeable, I’ll approve it :)

Remember, you can get partial credit for reasoning and equations if you are unsure
of what to do so don’t leave anything blank.
 I. Kinematics
Definitions

Term Definition
Coordinate system System we define to describe position. The origin
is the point we label as zero. Coordinate systems
also define directions for positive and negative
numbers.

Position Location of an object relative to the origin. We

often use the symbol x to refer to position.

Displacement Change in position of an object. We use the symbol

for displacement, where Δ
means "change." A vector quantity with units of
distance.

Distance Total amount the object has moved. This depends

on the whole path traveled, not just the starting
and ending points. Distance traveled is always a
non-negative number. A scalar quantity with
units of distance.

Reference frame A point of view from which measurements can be

made. All frames of reference are equally valid.

Instantaneous velocity Velocity at a given moment in time. Has SI units of

m/s.

Instantaneous speed Speed at a given moment in time. Equal to the

magnitude of the instantaneous velocity. Has SI
units of m/s.

Average acceleration Rate at which velocity changes over a specified

time interval. A vector quantity with SI units of
m/s2.

Instantaneous acceleration Rate at which velocity changes at a specific instant

in time. A vector quantity with SI units of m/s 2.

Kinematic variable Variable that describes the motion of an object over time.
Includes displacement Δx, time interval t, initial velocity
vo, final velocity vf, and acceleration a.

Kinematic formula Formula that describes the relationships between

kinematic variables when acceleration is constant.

Acceleration due to gravity In the absence of air resistance, all objects fall
with constant acceleration g toward the surface of
the Earth. On the surface of Earth, defined as
g=9.8 m/s2 (use 10 on AP test)
 Kinematic Shorthand Equations

Equation Symbol breakdown Meaning in words

Δx=x-x0 Δx is the displacement, x is the final Displacement is the difference

position, and x0 is the initial between the final and initial
position. positions

Δx v is average velocity, Δx is Average velocity is displacement

v= divided by time interval of the
Δt displacement, and Δt is change in
displacement.
time.

d v avgis average speed, d is distance, and Average speed is distance

v avg= divided by time interval for the
Δt Δt is the change in time.
distance traveled.

v−v 0 Δ v a is average acceleration, Δv is change Average acceleration is the

a= = in velocity, and Δt is change in time. change in velocity divided by
t Δt change in time.

Kinematic Equation Guide

(What’s missing?)

I’m missing.... These equations can be made to encompass angular or rotational kinematics, with ω instead of v, α
(and not trying instead of a, and θ instead of d, Ceteris paribus.
to find!)

a 1
x−x 0= (v 0 + v f )× t
2

Δx v f =v 0 +at

t 2 2
v❑ f =v ❑0+ 2 a( x−x 0)

v 1 2
x−x 0=v 0 t + at ❑
2

vo 1 2
x−x 0=v f t− at ❑
2

Symbol breakdown
x 0=initial position
x=final position
x−x 0= Δ x
t=time interval
v 0=initial velocity
v=final velocity
a=acceleration
 I. Kinematics Notes
I. 1D Kinematics
Kinematics
● The study of motion without regard to force.
● Distance: The length of the path traveled.
● Speed: Distance over time (scalar)
Vector Quantities
● Have magnitude and direction.
○ Displacement: The change in position of an object in motion.
○ Velocity: The rate at which position changes (change in position over time).
○ Acceleration: The rate at which velocity changes (change in velocity over time).
II. Free Fall
● All objects, regardless of mass, accelerate downwards at a rate of g= 9.81 m/s 2 in the air.
● Special formulas (can be derived, don’t bother memorizing):
○ Time for an object dropped from rest to reach ground:
■ t = √❑
○ Max height of an object thrown upward with velocity:
2
■ h= v ❑
2g
○ Final Velocity of object dropped from height h:
■ v=√ ❑ - can be derived from either Energy or Kinematics
III. 2D Kinematics
● When using kinematics in two-dimensions, consider the horizontal and vertical components
separately.
○ Otherwise solve the same way as 1D Kinematics
● Horizontal velocity stays constant, while vertical changes (experiences acceleration)
● If projectiles are shot with the same initial speed, but different angles, the range increases the
closer the launch angle gets to 45 degree, and the range of complementary angles will be the
same.
IV. Kinematic Graphs
Displacement vs. time graphs
● Slope of graph = velocity
● When the slope of the graph changes sign, the object changes direction.
Velocity vs. time graphs
● Area under graph = displacement
Δv
● Slope of graph = acceleration=
Δt
● When the object crosses the x-axis, the object switches direction.
● Speeding up when going away from x-axis. Slowing down when approaching it.
● When the graph hits y=0, the object is momentarily at rest.
Acceleration vs. time graphs
● Area under graph = change in velocity
 II. Dynamics
Definitions
Force A push or pull on an object, usually has symbol F . Has SI units of Newtons N or
kg m
s2
Contact force A force that requires contact between objects. Examples are tension, normal force,
and friction.

Long range force A force that does not need contact between objects to exist. One example is the
gravitational force (weight).

Free body diagram A diagram showing the forces acting on the object. The object is represented by a
dot with forces drawn as arrows pointing away from the dot. Sometimes called
force diagrams.

Mass The amount of matter in an object, independent of its size or any forces acting on
the object. Both a property of a physical object and how resistant an object is to
acceleration. SI units of kg

Inertia The tendency of an object to remain at rest or remain in motion. This is measured
by its mass.

External force A force acting on an object from the outside, as opposed to forces acting within the
object.

F net The net force, which is the vector sum of all external forces.

Σ The Greek capital letter sigma. It means “sum of”.

ΣF The sum of the forces. Also written as F net

System The object(s) of interest. Useful for considering forces on a group of objects,
instead of a single object.

Equilibrium The forces are balanced, so F net=0 and the system is not accelerating. Velocity can
be non-zero.

Newton ( N ) m
The amount of force that would give a 1kg mass an acceleration of 1 2 .
s
Action-reaction pair The force exerted on an object is the action, and the force experienced by the object
as a consequence of Newton’s third law is the reaction.

Inclined plane A tilted surface, also called a ramp or incline.

Friction ( F f or f ) A contact force that resists sliding between surfaces.

Kinetic friction ( F f , k or F k ) Friction when an object slides along a surface. Direction is opposite the object’s
sliding direction and is parallel to the contact surface. Always less than or equal to
Static Friction.

Static Friction ( F f , sor F s) Friction that prevents an object from sliding along a surface. Direction stops the
object from sliding against another surface and is parallel to the contact surface.
Always greater than or equal to Kinetic friction. Once it’s threshold is surpassed, it
becomes kinetic friction.

Coefficient of friction ( μ ) A number typically between 0 and 1 that describes the roughness between two
surfaces, where 0 is slippery and 1 is very rough. The static friction coefficient μs is
for surfaces that are not sliding, while kinetic μs is for sliding surfaces.
 Types of Forces

Force (symbol) Force Type Description

Weight ( F g or W ) Long range Force from gravity acting on an object with mass. Sometimes
called force of gravity. Pulls towards the Earth (down) always.

Tension ( F T or T ) Contact Force of something pulling on an object. Can be caused by a

string, rope, chain, cord, cable, or wire.Pulls along the
direction of the rope on the object.

Normal force ( F N or N) Contact Force between two objects when they touch. Pushes
perpendicularly to the object’s surface.

Friction ( F N or f ) Contact Force resisting sliding between surfaces. Pushes parallel to the
contact surface and in the opposite direction of sliding.

Newton's Laws: what even are they?

If force
Newton’s first law of motion
An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion
makes Opp
stays in motion with the same speed and in the same angle with osite
direction unless acted upon by a net external force. x-axis Fto
sinθ =
theta
Fy
Newton’s second law of motion
Newton’s second law says that the acceleration and Adjac
net external force are directly proportional, and there ent to Fcosθ= Fx
theta
is an inversely proportional relationship between
acceleration and mass. For example, a large force on a tiny object gives it a huge acceleration,
but a small force on a huge object gives it very little acceleration. Also, force and acceleration
are in the same direction.

Newton’s third law of motion

Newton’s third law of motion says whenever one body exerts a force on a second body, the
second body exerts a force that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on the first
body.
 Dynamics Equations

Equation Symbol Breakdown Meaning in words

F g=W =mg F gis force due to gravity, W is weight, mis
mass, and g is the gravitational field
strength (a ).
The weight of an object is a long
range force due to gravity. It is
directly proportional to its mass
and gravitational acceleration g .

Σ F F net a is acceleration, Σ F is the net external Acceleration is the net force

a= = force, and m is the mass of the system. divided by the mass of the system.
m m

|F f , k|=μ k|F N|❑ F f , k is kinetic friction, μk is coefficient of Kinetic friction magnitude is

directly proportional to the
kinetic friction, F N is normal force normal force magnitude and the
roughness between the sliding
surfaces.

|F f , s|≤ μ s|F N| F f , sis static friction, μs is coefficient of Static friction magnitude is

directly proportional to the
static friction, F N is the normal force. normal force magnitude and the
roughness between the sliding
surfaces.

|F f| F f is friction, μis coefficient of friction, F N The coefficient of friction is the

μ= is the normal force. ratio of the magnitude of
|F N|❑ frictional force divided by the
normal force magnitude.
 II. Dynamics Notes
I. Dynamics
● Study of motion with regard to force
○ Unlike Kinematics, which does not contain forces
II. Free-Body Diagrams
● When solving a problem involving forces, the first step should always be to draw a picture
and label the forces
● A free body diagram consists of the objects in motion with arrows drawn to represent the
direction of each force (the direction of the total force, resolving the vectors, or separating
each force into components is a pseudo-free body diagram). Ideally, the relative length of
each arrow should represent the relative magnitudes of the forces.
○ On the AP exam DO NOT DRAW COMPONENTS ON FBD, unless it asks
you, draw them off to the side if you really have to.
● When solving problems using forces, split up the x and y forces, just like you’d split up a 2D
kinematics equation.
III. Friction
● Friction is caused by microscopic irregularities and opposes motion when objects slide
against each other.
● The force of friction is F f =μ F N
○ where Mu (μ) is the coefficient of friction (property of the materials in contact) and
FN is the normal force (the force presses the objects against each other).
○ Note that µ varies depending on if the object is in motion or not
IV. Incline Planes
● An object on an inclined plane does not press directly
on the plane with its weight. Instead, a component of m=
its weight acts down the incline (parallel to the incline) 10kg- +
and another component acts down the incline +
(perpendicular to the incline). To find the normal force, - FN=Fgx=
use F g cos θ=F N , where theta is the angle between the Fx F100Ngcosθ= *
inline and the ground. F g sin θ=F❑ gives the force of cosθ
∥
gravity acting down the incline. Subtract the frictional
gc
F

force from the Force of gravity

θ
os

● Steeper angles of inclination will cause more of the Fg=1

Fg
force to act down the incline. si
00N
V. Static Equilibrium nθ
● Either the object has no forces acting upon it, or the
forces are perfectly balanced and in equilibrium
● Objects in static equilibrium are in both translational equilibrium and rotational equilibrium.
○ Equilibrium can be at rest or moving/rotating with constant velocity.
 III. Circular Motion and Gravitation
Uniform circular motion
Radian
Centripetal acceleration (a c)
Period (T )
Frequency ( f )
Centripetal force ( F c)
Gravitational force ( F g)
Gravitational field
Gravitational field strength ( g )
Inertial mass (m )
Gravitational mass (m )
Definitions
Motion in a circle at a constant speed
Ratio of an arc’s length to its radius. There are 2 π radians in a
∘
360 circle or one revolution. Unitless.
Acceleration pointed towards the center of a curved path and
perpendicular to the object’s velocity. Causes an object to
change its direction and not its speed along a circular pathway.
m
Also called radial acceleration. SI units are 2 .
s
Time needed for one revolution. Inversely proportional to
frequency. SI units of s.
Number of revolutions per second for a rotating object. SI units
1
of
s
Net force acting in the direction towards the center of a circular
path, causing centripetal acceleration. Direction is
perpendicular to the object’s linear velocity. Also sometimes
called radial force.
Attractive force between two objects with mass.
A model explaining the influence an object extends to produce a
force on other objects.
The numerical value of the gravitational field at a point in
m N
space. SI units of 2 or
s kg
Two objects have the same inertial mass if they experience the
same acceleration given the same force. This is the same mass
used in Newton’s second law. Experimentally equivalent to
gravitational mass. Has SI units of kg .
The property of matter that causes it to experience a force in a
gravitational field. Two objects that balance each other on a
scale have the same gravitational mass. Experimentally
equivalent to inertial mass. Has SI units of kg .
 Circular Motion and Gravitation Equations

Equation Symbol Breakdown Meaning in words

Δs Δ θ is the rotation angle, Δ sis the The change in angle (in radians) is the
Δ θ= ratio of distance traveled around the
r distance traveled around a circle,
and r is radius circle to the circle’s radius.

Δθ ω is the average angular velocity, Average angular velocity is

ω¿ proportional to angular displacement
Δt Δ θ is the rotation angle, and Δ t is
and inversely proportional to time.
change in time

v=r ω v is linear speed, r is radius, ωis Linear speed is proportional to

angular speed. angular speed times radius r . Angular
speed is the magnitude of the angular
velocity.

2π 1 T is period, ωis angular speed, Period is inversely proportional to

T= = angular speed times a factor of 2 π ,
ω f and f is frequency
and inversely proportional to
frequency.

v2 a cis radial acceleration, vis linear Radial acceleration is directly

ac= speed, and r is the radius of the
proportional to the square of the
r linear speed and inversely
circle.
proportional to the radius of the
curved pathway.

2
a c =ω r a cis radial acceleration, ωis Radial acceleration is directly
proportional to the product of the
angular speed, and r is the radius
square of the angular speed and the
of the circle.
radius of the curved pathway.

Σ F R=m ac a cis centripetal acceleration, mis Net radial force is directly

mass, and Σ F Ris net force in
radial direction (or centripetal
force)
proportional to the product of the
object's mass and centripetal
acceleration.

G m1 m2 F gis gravitational force, G is the The gravitational force between

F g= point-like masses m 1and m 2is directly
r
2 gravitational constant, m 1and m 2
proportional to their masses and
are the point-like masses, and r
inversely proportional to the square of
is the distance between the
the distance between them.
masses

F g G m1 gis the gravitational field The gravitational field strength is

g= = 2 strength. directly proportional to mass creating
m2 r the field and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance.

v=√❑ v is orbital velocity, r is radius, G Velocity is the root of the proportion

is the gravitational constant, and between the product of G and m & the
M is the mass that’s being radius.
orbited.
 3
−11 m
G is the gravitational constant, equivalent to 6.67 ×10 2
kg ∙ s

III. Circular Motion and Gravitation Notes

Circular Motion
I. Uniform Circular Motion
● Uniform Circular Motion – An object moving around a circle at constant speed.
● Centripetal Force – The force that keeps an object in a circle.
● Centripetal acceleration
○ Does not actually change speed, but rather keeps changing direction to keep the
object in a circle.
● Centripetal Force
○ Objects tend to go in a straight line due to inertia.
○ The centripetal force keeps an object in a circle.
● The tangential velocity is the velocity of the object at a given point and it is perpendicular to
the circular path.
II. Period & Frequency
● Period – Time to complete one cycle (in this case a full circle).
● Frequency – Cycles per second. Units = 1/s = Hz.
III. Vertical Circles
● Speed is not constant throughout the circle due to gravity.
● Critical Velocity – Minimum speed at top an object must have to keep it in a circle.
IV. Applications
2
● The formula for objects in a circle is Centripetal force ( F ❑c = m v ) appears nowhere on a
r
free body diagram as it’s not an actual force that occurs by itself. Something has to provide
the force (to keep the object in the circle).
● Friction – For an object in a flat circle, such as a car, friction must be enough to keep the
object in a circle. Max velocity: square root of gr with g being the acceleration of gravity
and the radius of the circle
● Orbital Motion – For a planet, the force of gravity must be sufficient to keep in a circular
(elliptical) orbit. V ❑Orbital =√❑

Gravity
● All objects in the universe exert an attractive force of gravity on each other.
● Gravity is a non-contact force.
○ The force of gravity at any given point is the vector sum of all forces of gravity (due
to every object in the universe) at that point.
● Gravitational constant given in formula sheet
● Gravitational Potential Energy:
−GMm
○ U=
r
 ○ The work done against gravity to bring a mass to a given point in space
○ This potential is zero an infinite distance away. That is to say lim U =0
r→∞

IV. Work and Energy

Definitions

Energy ( E ) Measurement of the ability to do work. SI unit is joule ( J )

Work (W ) Change in energy by the transfer of energy from one system to another. Scalar
quantity with units of joules ( J )

Joules ( J ) SI unit for energy. Applying a net force of 1 N to an object over a displacement
of 1 m requires 1 J of energy
2
m
1 J =1 N ∙ 1 m=1 kg ⋅ 2
s
Kinetic Energy Energy from translational or rotational motion. SI units of joules ( J )

Translational Motion m
Linear motion of a rigid body. SI units of . Think of it like speed or velocity.
s
Translational Kinetic Energy ( K ) Energy due to linear motion of a rigid body. SI units of joules ( J )

Net work (W net ) Work done by the net force on an object. SI units of Joules ( J ) or N ∙m

Work-energy theorem Net work done on an object equals the object’s change in kinetic energy. Also
called the work-energy principle.

Gravitational Potential Energy (U g) Energy due to the position of an object in a gravitational field. SI unit is joule ( J )

Conservative force A force for which the work done by the force only depends on the initial and
final positions and is independent of path taken. The net work is zero when the
starting and ending positions are the same. An example is the force of gravity.

Nonconservative force A force for which the work done depends on the path taken. An example is the
friction force.

Potential Energy (U ) Energy stored due to the position of an object.

Spring Objects that can extend or contract and return to the original shape.

Spring Constant (k ) Measure of a spring’s stiffness, where a more stiff spring has a large k . SI units
N
of
m

Spring Force ( F s) Force applied by a spring given by Hooke’s law. SI units of ( N ).

Elastic Potential Energy (U s ¿ Potential energy stored as a result of applying a force to deform a spring-like
object. SI units of ( J )

Law of conservation of energy The total energy of an isolated system is constant. Energy is neither created nor
destroyed, it can only be transformed from one form to another or transferred
from one system to another.

Mechanical Energy ( E m ¿ Sum of the kinetic and potential energy. SI unit of joule ( J )
Conservation of mechanical energy If only conservative forces do work, the mechanical energy of a system is
principal constant in any process.

Thermal energy Internal energy present in a system due to its temperature.

Nonconservative work (W NC ) Work done by nonconservative forces. Example is work done by friction, which
produces thermal energy. SI unit of joule ( J )

Power ( P ) Rate at which work is done (or energy is transferred). SI units of Watts (W )

Watt (W ) Power equivalent to transferring 1 Joule of energy per second. SI units of

2
kg ∙ m
3
s

Figure 1: The work done by a

force on an ideal spring. The
vertical and horizontal
arrows represent the rise
and run, respectively. The
spring constant k
F
is the slope of the line,
x

Figure 2: Even though the ball is

moving during the fall, the ball has no
kinetic energy at the initial and final
point.
 Work and Energy Equations
Equation Symbol breakdown
W =Fdcosθ W is work done on an object, F is the
magnitude of force on the object, d is the
magnitude of the object’s displacement,
and θ is the angle between the vectors of
force F and displacement, d.
W =Δ E W is work and Δ E is the change in
energy.
1 2 K is translational kinetic energy, mis
K= mv
2 mass, and v is the magnitude of the
velocity (or speed).
1 Δ K is change in kinetic energy, and v and
Δ K = m¿ )
2 v 0are the magnitudes of the final and
initial velocity.
W net =K −K 0= Δ K W net is net work, K is final kinetic energy,
K 0 is initial kinetic energy, and Δ K is
change in kinetic energy
Δ U g=mg Δ y Δ U gis change in gravitational potential
energy, m is mass, g is the gravitational
field strength, and Δ y is a change in
height.
F s=−kx(Hooke’s Law) F sis the spring force, x is the length of
the extension or compression relative to
the unstretched length, (think Δ ) and k is
the spring constant.
1 2 U sis the elastic potential energy.
U s= k x
2 in length and the spring constant.
Em =K +U Em is mechanical energy, K is kinetic
energy,U is potential energy.
Meaning in words
Work is the product of an object’s
displacement and the component of force
exerted parallel to the direction of the
object’s motion.
Work is the change of energy for a system.
Translational kinetic energy is directly
proportional to mass and the square of
the magnitude of velocity.
Change in kinetic energy is the difference
between the final and initial kinetic
energy.
The net work on an object is equal to the
object’s final kinetic energy minus the
initial kinetic energy.
The change in gravitational potential
energy is directly proportional to mass,
gravitational field strength, and change in
height.
The magnitude of the force required to
change the length of a spring-like object
is directly proportional to the spring
constant and the displacement of the
spring.
Elastic potential energy is directly
proportional to the square of the change
The total mechanical energy of a system is
the sum of the total kinetic energy and
 total potential energy.

K 0 +U 0 =K +U K 0 is initial kinetic energy,U 0 is initial The initial mechanical energy of a system

¿ Δ K + Δ U=0 potential energy, K is final kinetic
energy, U is final potential energy, Δ K is
change in kinetic energy, and Δ U is the
change in potential energy.
equals the final mechanical energy for a
system where no work is done by non-
conservative forces (conservation of
mechanical energy principle).

K 0 +U 0 +W NC =¿ K +U W NC is work (nonconservative). The change in mechanical energy of a

system is equal to the total work done on
¿ W NC = Δ K + ΔU the system by all nonconservative forces.

ΔE Pis power, Δ E is change in energy, and Power is the change in energy over the
P= change in time.
Δt Δt is a change in time.

W W is work. Power is the work done over the change in

P= time.
Δt

IV. Work and Energy Notes

Work & Energy
I. Definition of Work
● Work is the average force on an object multiplied by the distance in the direction of the
force.
● Work is also the area under a force vs. position graph
II. The Work-Energy Theorem
● Energy is the capacity of an object to do work.
● Work Energy Theorem - (Work is equal to the change in kinetic energy)
● When non-conservative forces act: Work = Total change in energy
III. Energy
● Kinetic energy – energy of an object in motion.
● Potential energy – “stored” energy due to an object’s position.
○ Note, it's proportional to the square of the compression, so graphs of KE and PE
will be curved.
IV. Conservation of Energy
● Energy in a system is always conserved. Mechanical energy, however, may not be.
● Conservative forces are forces where work done is independent of path. When only
conservative forces act, total mechanical energy is conserved.
● Conservation of energy: if no external work is done on the system, the total energy of that
system is conserved.
V. Definition of Power
● Power is the rate at which work is done: P = (area under a force vs. time graph)
● Since work causes a change in energy, power is always equal to rate of change of energy
VI. Springs
● F = -kx,
○ Negative indicates that force and displacement are in opposite directions.
● k (N/m) — The Spring Constant
○ Springs with larger spring constants take more force to stretch.
 VII. Pendulums
● Conservation of energy can be applied to find the maximum speed of a pendulum:
● E total = PE at top + KE at top = PE at bottom + KE at bottom; maximum speed occurs
at the bottom, KE at top is 0 and PE at top is maximum.

V. Momentum
Definitions

Linear momentum ( p)
Impulse ( F Δ t )
Closed system
Product of an object's mass and velocity. Also called “momentum” for short. Momentum is
kg ∙ m
conserved when no external forces act on a system. Vector quantity with SI units of .
s
Product of the average force exerted on an object and the time interval during which the
force is exerted. Impulse is equal to the change in momentum ( Δ p ) and is sometimes
kg ∙ m
represented with the symbol J . Vector quantity with SI units of N ∙ sor .
s
System that is not acted on by a net external force. Also called an isolated system.

Conservation of momentum In a closed (isolated) system, momentum is constant.

Elastic collision Collision where both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved. There is no change in
kinetic energy in the system as a result of the collision.

Inelastic collision Collision which conserves momentum but not kinetic energy.

Totally inelastic collision Collision where the objects stick together and have the same final velocity. Also called a
perfectly inelastic collision.

Explosion Reverse inelastic collision where momentum is conserved and kinetic energy increases.

Center of mass Average position of all parts of the system, weighted by mass. The velocity of a system’s
center of mass does not change if the system is closed.

Momentum Equations

Equation Symbols Meaning in words

p=mv p is momentum, m is mass, and v is velocity. Momentum is mass times velocity.

Δ p=Fnet Δt F net is the net external force, Δ p is change in
momentum, and Δ t is the time over which a net
force acts.
Change in momentum is proportional to
the net external force and the time over
which a net force acts.
Pi=P f (closed system) Piand Pf are the total initial and final The total initial momentum equals the
total final momentum for a closed system.
momentum.
Commonly called the conservation of
momentum.

m1 x 1 + m2 x 2+.... x CM is the center of mass, m1and m2are masses, Center of mass is the sum of each mass
x CM = times its position, divided by total mass
m 1+ m 2 and x 1and x 2are the positions of the masses.
or Velocity of the center of mass is the sum
m v + m 2 v 2 +.... V CM is the velocity of the center of mass, v1and of each mass times its velocity, divided by
V CM = 1 1 v 2are the velocities of the masses in the system. total mass.
m1 +m 2

V. Momentum Notes

Momentum
I. Definition of Momentum
● Momentum is a vector quantity that measures the “amount” of motion. It can be thought of
as how difficult it is to stop an object in motion.
II. The Impulse-Momentum Theorem
● An impulse is a change in momentum.
● Impulse the area under a force vs. time graph.
III. Collisions
● An isolated system is one in which no outside forces act and thus no impulse occurs.
● Momentum is always conserved in an isolated system.
● Kinetic energy is conserved in an elastic collision, but not in an inelastic collision.
● Conservation of momentum equations
○ Elastic (two objects with separate velocities collide and don’t stick together/ have
different velocities) m1 o v 1 o +m 2 o v 2 o=m1 f v 1 f + m2 f v 2 f
○ Inelastic (two objects with separate velocities collide and stick together)
m1 o v 1 o +m 2 o v 2 o=(m1 +m 2 )v f of both objects
○ Explosion
System Momentum is conserved Pi=P f (split into
vertical/horizontal if 2D)
Error in the above table: top of middle column should read “inelastic”.

VI. Simple Harmonic Motion

Definitions
Much of the content in this unit draws from other units. Study other units first. (mainly energy)

Oscillatory motion Repeated back and forth movement over the same
path about an equilibrium position, such as a
mass on a spring or pendulum.

Restoring force A force acting opposite to displacement to bring

the system back to equilibrium, which is its rest
position. The force magnitude depends only on
displacement, such as in Hooke’s law.

Simple harmonic motion (SHM) Oscillatory motion where the net force on the
system is a restoring force.

Simple pendulum A mass suspended from a light string that can

oscillate when displaced from its rest position.

Simple Harmonic Motion Equations

 Equation Symbol Breakdown Meaning in words

x (t)= Acos (2 π ft ) x is displacement as a function of Displacement as a function of time is

time, A is amplitude, f is frequency, proportional to amplitude and the cosine
and t is time. of 2 π times frequency and time.

T s=2 π √ ❑ T sis the period of the spring, m is the
mass, and k is the spring constant.
The period of a spring-mass system is
proportional to the square root of the
mass and inversely proportional to the
square root of the spring constant.

T P =2 π √ ❑ T P is period of the pendulum, l is the The pendulum’s period is proportional

to the square root of the pendulum’s
length, and g is gravitational field
length and inversely proportional to the
strength.
square root of g .

Δ U g=mg Δ y Δ U gis change in gravitational The change in gravitational potential

potential energy, m is mass, g is
gravitational field strength, and Δ
vertical displacement.
energy is directly proportional to mass,
gravitational field strength, and change
y is in height.

1 U sis the elastic potential energy,k is The elastic potential energy is directly
U s= k x 2 proportional to the square of the change
2 spring constant, and x is length of
in length and the spring constant.
extension or compression relative to
the un-stretched length.

1 2 K is translational kinetic energy, m is Translational kinetic energy is directly

K= mv proportional to mass and the square of
2 mass, and v is the speed.
the speed.

|F s|=k |x| |F s|is the spring force, |x|is the The magnitude of the force required to
change the length of a spring-like object
length of the extension or
is directly proportional to the spring
compression relative to the
constant and the displacement of the
unstretched length, (think Δ ) and k is
spring.
the spring constant.

VI. Simple Harmonic Motion Notes

Simple Harmonic Motion
● Simple harmonic motion, in physics, is repetitive movement back and forth through an
equilibrium, or central, position, so that the maximum displacement on one side of this
position is equal to the maximum displacement on the other side.
● For an object in simple harmonic motion, there must be a restoring force directed towards
equilibrium that is directly proportional to the distance from equilibrium.
● Ideal Mass-Spring systems are an example of simple harmonic motion. Pendulums
approximate simple harmonic motion.
○ At equilibrium objects have max speed and max kinetic energy.
○ At max amplitude, objects have no kinetic energy and max potential energy.
○ When approaching equilibrium, speed increases and force decreases.
○ When moving away from equilibrium, force increases and speed decreases.
Springs
● F = -kx,
○ Negative indicates that force and displacement are in opposite directions.
● k (N/m) — The Spring Constant
 ○ Springs with larger spring constants take more force to stretch.

Pendulums
● Conservation of energy can be applied to find the maximum speed of a pendulum:
● E total = PE at top + KE at top = PE at bottom + KE at bottom; maximum speed occurs
at the bottom, KE at top is 0 and PE at top is maximum.

VII. Torque and Rotational Motion

Definitions

Axis of rotation The imaginary or actual axis around which an

object may rotate.

Average Angular Acceleration (α ) Measure of how angular velocity changes over

time. The rotational analogue of linear
acceleration. A vector quantity with
counterclockwise defined as the positive direction.
Radians
SI units
s2

Tangential Acceleration (a t ) Linear acceleration of a rotating object that is

perpendicular to its radial acceleration. SI units of
m
2
s
Torque Measure of the twisting action caused by a force
that can cause an object to rotate about an axis.
Vector quantity with SI units of N ∙ m

Net Torque Sum of all the torques on a system

Balanced System When the net torque on a system is zero

Lever arm Perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to

where the force is applied. Vector quantity with SI
units of m

Pivot Point Point that an object rotates around. Sometimes

called the fulcrum or rotational axis.

Rotational inertia ( I ) Resistance to change in rotational velocity around

an axis of rotation. Proportional to the mass and
affected by the distribution of mass. Also called
the moment of inertia. Scalar quantity with SI
units of kg ∙ m2

Rotational kinetic energy ( K ) Kinetic energy due to rotational motion. Scalar

quantity with SI units of Joules ( J )

Angular Momentum ( L) Measure of how much rotational motion and

rotational inertia an object has. Vector quantity

with SI units of
kg ∙ m2
s
Angular Impulse ( Δ L ) Change in angular momentum. Vector quantity

with SI units of
kg ∙ m2
s
Conservation of angular momentum Angular momentum is constant for a system with
no net external torque.

Torque and Rotational Motion Equations

Term Symbols Meaning in words

v=ω r v is linear speed, ωis angular speed, The linear speed is proportional to the
and r is radius. angular speed and the radius.

Δω α is average angular acceleration, The average angular acceleration is the

α= change in angular velocity divided by
Δt Δ ωis change in angular velocity,
time.
and Δ t is a change in time.

a t=α r a t is tangential acceleration The tangential acceleration is

proportional to the angular
acceleration and the radius.

τ =rFsinθ=r ⊥ F τ is torque, F is applied force, r is the Torque is proportional to both the lever
radius from the axis of rotation to arm and the force component
perpendicular to the lever arm.
 the location where the force is
exerted, and θ is the angle between F
and r when these vectors are placed
tail to tail.

τ net α is angular acceleration, τ netis the Angular acceleration is proportional to

α= net torque, and I is the rotational
net torque and inversely proportional
I to rotational inertia.
inertia

1 K is rotational kinetic energy, I is Rotational kinetic energy is directly

K= I ω2 proportional to the rotational inertia
2 rotational inertia, and ω is angular
and the square of the magnitude of the
velocity.
angular velocity.

L=I ω L is angular momentum, I is Angular momentum of a spinning

rotational inertia, and ω is angular object without linear momentum is
proportional to rotational inertia and
velocity.
angular velocity.

L=mv r ⊥ L is angular momentum, m is mass, Angular momentum of an object with

linear momentum is proportional to
v is linear velocity, and r ⊥ is the
mass, linear velocity, and
perpendicular radius from a chosen
perpendicular radius from an axis to
axis to the mass’s line on motion.
the line of the object's motion.

Δ L=τ Δt Δ L is change of angular Change in angular momentum is

momentum, τ is net torque, and Δt proportional to average net torque and
is the time interval. the time interval the torque is applied.

Li=Lf Li and Lfare the total initial and
final angular momentum.
Total initial angular momentum equals
the total final angular momentum for a
system with no net external torque.
Commonly called the conservation of
angular momentum.

−Gm1 m2 U G is gravitational potential energy, Gravitational potential energy at large

U G=
r2 G is the gravitational constant, m1
and m 2are the masses, and r is the
distance the center of mass of the
two objects.
distances is directly proportional to the
masses and inversely proportional to
the distance between them. The
gravitational potential energy increases
as r increases.

Angular Kinematics Guide

I’m missing.... Same goes as before, the variables can be swapped out to be used for linear
(and not trying kinematics (or just scroll up to page 3).
to find!)

α 1
Δ θ= (ω0 +ω f )× t
2

Δθ ω f =ω0 + α t
 t ω 2❑ f❑ =ω 2 ❑0 +2 α (θ−θ0)

ωf 1
Δ θ=ω 0 t + α t ❑2
2

ω0 1 2
Δ θ=ω f t− α t ❑
2

VII. Torque and Rotational Motion Notes

If you have something to add in this section please add it / edit and I’ll approve it, I feel it’s lacking and a bit out
of order!

Angular Velocity/Acceleration
● Angular velocity is ω, angular acceleration is α.
rad rad
○ Angular velocity is in , angular acceleration is in
sec sec ❑2

Rotational Inertia
● Rotational inertia is represented with I
 ● Depends on the mass distribution of the object, but general equation is: I =M R 2.

Angular Momentum
● Conservation of angular momentum:
○ When no external torques are acting on a system. Make sure you define the system
first.
○ Occurs independently from linear momentum.
○ Example: planet-star system in an elliptical orbit.
○ Example 2: A man is rotating on a platform. He begins to jump up and down. Is
angular momentum conserved for the man-platform system? If not, then what would
cause it to change?
● For a point mass: L=mvr where r is the distance from the axis of rotation.
● Angular Impulse-Momentum Theorem: ϵ τ Δt = Δ L
○ Impulse is the change in momentum

Moment of Inertia & Torque

● Rotation is the spinning of an object above an axis.
● Moment of inertia is an object’s ability to resist rotational acceleration. It is based on an
object’s shape and mass. An object will have a greater moment of inertia if more mass is
located further away from the axis of rotation.
● Torque is a force applied at a distance from the axis of rotation.
○ Only a force applied perpendicular to the axis of rotation causes torque.
● Angular kinematics and dynamics deal with how an object is rotating through an angle, (in
radians), rather than translating over a distance.
● All quantities in linear motion have equivalent quantities in rotational motion.

Rolling
● When an object rolls without slipping, friction acts to convert rotational motion into linear
motion.
● When an object rolls and slips, the rolling of the object does no work to propel the object
forward.
● A rolling object has both linear kinetic energy and rotational kinetic energy.
● When a rolling object is on an incline, friction always acts up the incline regardless of the
object’s direction.
○ An object rolling without slipping will travel higher up an incline than a non-rolling
object.
○ An object rolling without slipping will go down an incline slower than a non-rolling
object.
Planetary Motion
● Planets orbit in ellipses with the star at one of the foci. Circular motion can be used to
approximate their motion.
● Conservation of angular momentum in a planet-star system
○ L=mvr
○ As the planet gets closer to the star, r decreases. Since no external torques are acting
on the system, angular momentum will be conserved, thus the velocity of the planet
will increase.