HUMAN ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY

MS. DANICA P. PARDALIS, RRT.

PTLC Lecturer

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 ▪Anatomy deals with the
structure (morphology) of the
body and its parts, in other
words, “what are things
called?”

▪Physiology studies the

functions of these parts or
asks the question, “how do
they work?”

▪The two disciplines are

closely interrelated because
the functional role of a part
depends on how it is
constructed.

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 ▪Gross Anatomy
▪Microscopic Anatomy
▪Developmental Anatomy
▪Pathological Anatomy

▪Macroscopic Anatomy
▪It is the study of structures
observed with the naked eye,
without using any instrument or
gadget to aid in our observation.

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▪It is the study of structures
observed with the aid of a
microscope or other similar
devices and/or equipment that aid
to magnify very small things, which
the naked eye may not see.

▪Cytology – is the study of cells

and the different cellular organelles
inside a single cell.

▪Histology – is the study of tissues

that make up the different organs of
the human body.

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▪It is the study of the structural
changes from conception in the
mother’s womb to birth.

▪Embryology – study of
developmental changes of the
body before birth

▪It is the study of structural

changes caused by diseases
and other illness states.

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 ▪Cellular Physiology
▪Developmental Physiology
▪Pathological Physiology

▪It is the study of interactions or

relationships of cell parts and
components and the specific
functions of the cellular organelles
and the cell in general.

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 ▪It is the study of the changes in
function that occur as an
organism develops.

▪Example: Ability to walk, run,

etc.

▪It is the study of the changes in

function that happen as organs
grow old or become sick or ill.

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▪ Used to assess aspects of body structure
and function
▪ Inspection of the body to observe any
changes
▪ Palpation
▪ Gently touching body surfaces with hands

▪ Auscultation or
▪ listening to body sounds (stethoscope)

▪ Percussion
▪ Tapping on the body surface with fingertips and listening to
echoes

▪Basic Life Processes

▪ Distinguish living from non-living
things
▪ Six important life process
▪ Metabolism
▪ Responsiveness
▪ Movement
▪ Growth
▪ Differentiation
▪ Reproduction

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▪ Metabolism
▪ Sum of all the chemical process that occur in the body
▪ Catabolism or the breakdown of complex chemical substances
into simpler components
▪ Anabolism or the building up of complex chemical substances
from smaller, simpler components

▪ Responsiveness
▪ Body’s ability to detect and respond to changes
▪ Decrease in body temperature
▪ Responding to sound
▪ Nerve (electrical signals) and muscle cells (contracting)

▪ Movement
▪ Motion of the whole body
▪ Organs, cells, and tiny subcellular structures
▪ Leg muscles move the body from one place to another

▪ Growth
▪ Increase in body size
▪ Due to an increase in existing cells, number of cells, or
both
▪ In bone growth materials between cells increase

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▪ Differentiation
▪ Development of a cell from an unspecialized to
specialized state
▪ Cells have specialized structures and functions that differ from
precursor cells
▪ Stem cells give rise to cells that undergo differentiation

▪ Reproduction
▪ Formation of new cells (growth, repair, or replacement)
▪ Production of a new individual

▪ A condition of equilibrium (balance) in the

body’s internal environment
▪ Dynamic condition
▪ Narrow range is compatible with maintaining life

▪ Example
▪ Blood glucose levels range between 70 and 110 mg
of glucose/dL of blood
▪ Whole body contributes to maintain the internal
environment within normal limits

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▪ Maintaining the volume and composition of body
fluids are important
▪ Body fluids are defined as dilute, watery solutions
containing dissolved chemicals inside or outside of the
cell

▪ Intracellular Fluid (ICF)

▪ Fluid within cells
▪ Extracellular Fluid (ECF)
▪ Fluid outside cells
▪ Interstitial fluid is ECF between cells and tissues

▪ Blood Plasma
▪ ECF within blood vessels

▪ Lymph
▪ ECF within lymphatic vessels

▪ Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

▪ ECF in the brain and spinal cord

▪ Synovial fluid
▪ ECF in joints

▪ Aqueous humor and vitreous body

▪ ECF in eyes

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▪ Cellular function depends on the regulation of
composition of interstitial fluid
▪ Body’s internal environment
▪ Composition of interstitial fluid changes as it
moves
▪ Movement back and forth across capillary walls
provide nutrients (glucose, oxygen, ions) to tissue cells
and removes waste (carbon dioxide)

▪ Homeostasis is constantly being disrupted

▪ Physical insults
▪ Intense heat or lack of oxygen
▪ Changes in the internal environment
▪ Drop in blood glucose due to lack of food
▪ Physiological stress
▪ Demands of work or school
▪ Disruptions
▪ Mild and temporary (balance is quickly restored)
▪ Intense and Prolonged (poisoning or severe infections)

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 ▪ Cycle of events
▪ Body is monitored and re-monitored
▪ Each monitored variable is termed a
controlled condition

▪ Three Basic components

▪ Receptor
▪ Control center
▪ Effector

▪Receptor

▪ Body structure that monitors changes in a

controlled condition
▪ Sends input to the control center
▪ Nerve ending of the skin in response to
temperature change

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▪Control Center

▪ Brain
▪ Sets the range of values to be maintained
▪ Evaluates input received from receptors and
generates output command
▪ Nerve impulses, hormones
▪ Brains acts as a control center receiving nerve
impulses from skin temperature receptors

▪Effector

▪ Receives output from the control center

▪ Produces a response or effect that changes the
controlled condition
▪ Found in nearly every organ or tissue
▪ Body temperature drops the brain sends and impulse
to the skeletal muscles to contract
▪ Shivering to generate heat

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▪Each individual uses homeostatic
mechanisms to keep body levels
within a normal range; normal
ranges can vary from one
individual to the next.

Hierarchy of Structural
Organization

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 Hierarchy of Structural
Organization

▪The human body is the sum of

its parts and these parts can
be studied at a variety of levels
of organization.

Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
▪ Chemical level – atoms form molecules
▪ Cellular level – cells and their functional subunits
▪ Tissue level – a group of cells performing a common
function
▪ Organ level – a discrete structure made up of more
than one tissue
▪ Organ system – organs working together for a
common purpose
▪ Organismal level – the result of all simpler levels
working in unison

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 Organization of the
Human Body

Major features of the human

body include its cavities,
membranes, and organ systems.

Body Cavities

▪ The body can be divided into

an appendicular portion
(upper and lower limbs) and
an axial portion (head, neck,
and trunk), which includes a
dorsal and a ventral cavity.
Organs within these cavities
are called viscera.

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 Body Cavities

▪Dorsal Cavity
▪Ventral Cavity

Body Cavities

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Body Cavities

Body Cavities

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 Body Cavities

▪The dorsal cavity can be subdivided

into the cranial cavity and the
vertebral cavity.

▪Cranial cavity houses the brain.

▪Vertebral cavity runs through the
vertebral column and encloses the
spinal cord

Body Cavities
▪The ventral cavity is made up of a
thoracic cavity and an abdomino-
pelvic cavity, separated by the
diaphragm.

▪ The mediastinum divides the thorax into

right and left halves.
▪ The abdominopelvic cavity can be
divided into the abdominal cavity and
the pelvic cavity.

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 Body Cavities

▪Smaller cavities within the head

include the oral cavity, nasal
cavity, orbital cavities, and
middle ear cavities.

Body Membranes

▪The thoracic cavity is lined with

pleura

▪The parietal pleura lines the cavities

▪The visceral pleura covers the lungs.
▪ A thin layer of serous fluid separates
the two layers.

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 Body Membranes

▪The heart is surrounded by

pericardium.

▪ The visceral pericardium covers the

heart
▪ The parietal pericardium makes up an
outer sac.
▪ Serous fluid separates the two layers.

Body Membranes

▪Peritoneum lines the abdomino-

pelvic cavity

▪ The parietal peritoneum lines the wall

▪ The visceral peritoneum covers the
organs.

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▪The integumentary system
▪ Including skin, hair, nails, and various
glands
▪ It covers the body
▪ Senses changes outside the body
▪ Helps regulate body temperature.

▪The skeletal system

▪ Made up of bones and ligaments.
▪ It supports, protects, provides
frameworks
▪ Stores inorganic salts
▪ Houses blood-forming tissues.

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▪The muscular system
▪Consists of all the muscles in the
body
▪Provide body movement,
posture, and body heat.

▪The nervous system

▪ Consists of the brain, spinal cord,
nerves, and sense organs.
▪ It integrates information incoming
information from receptors and
sends impulses to muscles and
glands.

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▪The endocrine system
▪ Including all of the glands
that secrete hormones
▪Helps to integrate metabolic
functions

▪The cardiovascular system

▪Made up of the heart and blood
vessels
▪Distributes oxygen and nutrients
throughout the body while removing
wastes from the cells.

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▪The lymphatic system
▪Consisting of lymphatic vessels,
lymph nodes, thymus, and
spleen, drains excess tissue fluid
▪Includes cells of immunity.

▪The digestive system

▪Made up of the mouth, esophagus,
stomach, intestines and accessory
organs.
▪It receives, breaks down, and
absorbs nutrients.

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▪The respiratory system
▪Exchanges gases between the
blood and air
▪Made up of the lungs and
passageways.

▪The urinary system

▪Consisting of the kidneys, ureters,
bladder, and urethra
▪Removes wastes from the blood
▪Helps to maintain water and
electrolyte balance.

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▪The reproductive system
produces new organisms.
▪Male Reproductive System
▪Female Reproductive System

▪The male reproductive

system consists of the testes,
accessory organs, and vessels
that conduct sperm to the
penis.

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▪The female reproductive system
consists of ovaries, uterine tubes,
uterus, vagina, and external genitalia.

▪The female reproductive system also

houses the developing offspring.

Anatomical position –
a common visual
reference point

• Person stands erect

with feet together and
eyes forward
• Palms face anteriorly
with the thumbs
pointed away from the
body

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Regional terms – names of specific body
areas
• Axial region – the main axis of the body
• Appendicular region – the limbs

Directional terminology
• Refers to the body in anatomical
position
• Standardized terms of directions are
paired terms

▪ Relative Positions:
1. Terms of relative position are used to
describe the location of a part relative to
another part.

2. Terms of relative position include:

superior, inferior, anterior, posterior,
medial, lateral, proximal, distal, superficial
(peripheral), and deep.

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1. A sagittal section divides the body
into right and left portions.

2. A transverse section divides the

body into superior and inferior portions. It
is often called a “cross section”.

3. A coronal section divides the body

into anterior and posterior sections.

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 ▪ Used to describe the location of abdominal and
pelvic organs

▪ Tic-Tac-Toe grid
▪ Two horizontal and two vertical lines partition
the cavity
▪ Subcostal line (top horizontal) inferior to rib
cage
▪ Trans-tubercular line (bottom horizontal)
inferior to top of the hip bone
▪ Midclavicular lines (two vertical lines)
midpoints to clavicles and medial to the nipples

▪ Vertical and horizontal lines

pass through the umbilicus
▪ Right upper quadrant (RUQ)
▪ Left upper quadrant (LUQ)
▪ Right lower quadrant (RLQ)
▪ Left lower quadrants (LLQ)

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 CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE

Introduction:

▪ Chemistry deals with the

composition of substances and
how they change.
▪ A knowledge of chemistry is
necessary for the understanding
of physiology...

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 Structure of Matter:

Elements and Atoms

▪ Matter is anything that takes up

space.
▪ All matter is composed of
elements, 92 of which occur
naturally.

Structure of Matter:

▪ Living organisms require about 20

elements, of which oxygen, carbon,
hydrogen, and nitrogen are most
abundant.
▪ Elements are composed of atoms;
atoms of different elements vary in
size and in how they interact.

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 Structure of Matter:
Atomic Structure

▪ An atom consists of a nucleus containing

protons and neutrons, with electrons in
orbit around the nucleus in shells.
▪ Protons, with a positive charge, are about
equal in size to neutrons, which have no
charge.

Structure of Matter:

Bonding of Atoms

▪ Atoms form bonds by gaining, losing, or

sharing electrons.
▪ Electrons are found in shells around the
nucleus.
▪ The first energy shell holds two electrons;
the other energy shells each hold eight
electrons when on the outside.

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 Structure of Matter:

Structure of Matter:

▪ Atoms with incompletely filled outer

shells tend to be reactive to form stable
outer shells of 8.
▪ When atoms gain or lose electrons, they
become ions with a charge. Whether they
gain or lose will depend on how many
they have in the outer shell to start with.
▪ Oppositely-charged ions attract each
other and form an ionic bond.

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 Structure of Matter:

▪ Covalent bonds are formed when

atoms share electrons to become
stable with filled outer shells.
▪Two pairs of electrons shared
between atoms form a double
covalent bond.

Structure of Matter:
Acids and Bases

▪ Substances that release ions in water

are called electrolytes.
▪ Electrolytes that release hydrogen
ions in water are called acids.
▪ Electrolytes that release ions that
combine with hydrogen ions in water
are called bases.

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 Structure of Matter:

Acids and Bases

▪ The concentrations of H+ & OH- in

the body is very important to
physiology.
▪ pH represents the concentration of
hydrogen ions [H+] in solution.

Chemical Constituents of
Cells:

▪ Compounds that contain both

hydrogen and carbon are called
organic, the others are inorganic.

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 Chemical Constituents of
Cells:
Inorganic Substances

1. Water
▪ Water is the most abundant
compound in living things and makes
up two-thirds of the weight of adults.
▪ Water is an important solvent so most
metabolic reactions occur in water.

Chemical Constituents of
Cells:
Inorganic Substances

2. Oxygen
▪ Oxygen is needed to release energy
from nutrients and is used to drive the
cell's metabolism.

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 Chemical Constituents of
Cells:
Inorganic Substances

3. Carbon dioxide
▪ Carbon dioxide is released as a waste
product during energy-releasing
metabolic reactions.

Chemical Constituents of
Cells:
Inorganic Substances

4. Inorganic salts
▪ Inorganic salts are the sources of ions
of:
▪ Sodium chloride, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium,
Phosphate, Carbonate, Bicarbonate, Sulfate

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 Chemical Constituents of
Cells:
Organic Substances

1. Carbohydrates
▪ Carbohydrates provide energy for
cellular activities and are composed of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Chemical Constituents of
Cells:
Organic Substances
1. Carbohydrates
▪ These are made from:
▪ Monosaccharides (simple sugars)
▪ Disaccharides are two monosaccharides
joined together
▪ Polysaccharides such as starch, are
built of many sugars.

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 Chemical Constituents of
Cells:
Organic Substances

Chemical Constituents of
Cells:
Organic Substances

2. Lipids
▪ Lipids are insoluble in water and include
fats, phospholipids, and steroids.
▪ Fats supply energy, are composed of
oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen, and are built
from glycerol and three fatty acids.

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 Chemical Constituents of
Cells:
Organic Substances

2. Lipids
▪ Phospholipids contain glycerol, two fatty
acids, and a phosphate group, and are
important in cell structures.
▪ Steroids are complex ring structures, and
include cholesterol, which is used to
synthesize the sex hormones.

Chemical Constituents of
Cells:
Organic Substances

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 Chemical Constituents of
Cells:
Organic Substances

3. Proteins
▪ Proteins have a great variety of functions in the
body as:
▪ Structural materials
▪ Energy sources
▪ Certain hormones
▪ Receptors on cell membranes
▪ Antibodies
▪ Enzymes to catalyze metabolic reactions

Chemical Constituents of
Cells:
Organic Substances

3. Proteins
▪ Proteins contain C, O, H, and nitrogen
atoms; some also contain sulfur.
▪ Building blocks of proteins are the amino
acids, each of which has a carboxyl group,
an amino group and a side chain called the
R group.

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 Chemical Constituents of
Cells:
Organic Substances

3. Proteins
▪ Proteins have complex shapes held
together by hydrogen bonds.
▪ Protein shapes, which determine how
proteins function, can be altered
(denatured) by pH, temperature, radiation,
or chemicals.

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 Chemical Constituents of
Cells:
Organic Substances

4. Nucleic acids
▪ Nucleic acids form genes and take part
protein synthesis.
▪ They contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and phosphorus, which are bound
into building blocks called nucleotides.

Chemical Constituents of
Cells:
Organic Substances

4. Nucleic acids
▪ Nucleic acids are of two major types: DNA
(with deoxyribose) and RNA (with ribose).

▪ RNA (ribonucleic acid) functions in protein

synthesis
▪ DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) stores the
molecular code in genes.

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THANKYOU!~

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