Merged Solar Pdf-Compressed

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Introduction
Course Contents in nutshell: Syllabus for EE 613/EE6245
Welcome !
 Why solar PV? – Energy needs and technology improvement
 Understanding Light and material
 Part I : Physics of Solar Cell

 Understanding Silicon – crystal structure and production
 Review of Physics of semiconductors
 P-N Junction and solar cells
 Solar cell design and efficiency limitations
 Wafer based Solar cell technologies
 Part-II : Solar photovoltaic systems and applications

 Solar PV modules
 Balance of System (BoS)
 Photovoltaic Systems Design and Applications
Bamra 1 MW Power plant
Introduction
Text books: Reference books:
Introduction Introduction
Reference books: Manual
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Adani Green Energy Share movement since launch
Si Solar Cell Technology: EE 6245

Introduction
Prof. Paresh Kale

Dept. of Electrical Engineering,
NIT Rourkela.
Contents Solar Energy Conversion
Why Solar? Solar Thermal

1 Increase in KE and
heat generation
1st Gen solar cell
How it is 2 3
Increase in PE and
done? charge separation
2nd Gen solar cell SUN Photovoltaic
4 5
problems and
3rd Gen solar cell
solutions
6 Increase in PE and
Chemical reaction
Photochemical
Credit for Solar PV goes to…..
Edmond Becquerel
A French physicist credited with discovery of photovoltaic effect in 1839

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From material to end-use Harnessing Solar Power
Direct
Power production conversion of
Assembly / • Power plants / Grid
Panel Integrated electricity
Cell • Standalone systems
production • Building Integrated
Semiconductor manufacturing
(Si) Production
• Mono Si
• Poly Si
• Amorphous
4 Battery Charge
3 Inverter System Controller
2
1
AC Power DC Power
Advantages of Solar PV
Solar Thermal Power plant
Direct
conversion
Renewable Mature
Solar
Power
Modular
Zero
Fuel
Cost
Introduction
Agro Solar integrated plant

Typical grid integrated solar plant
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Roof top Solar PV

Floating Solar PV
Building integrated PV (BIPV) Building integrated PV (BIPV)
Solar powered parking lot
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Introduction
Torrid Zone
Some statistics
Global cumulative PV capacity in GW (2018) Status of India
6% 3%
8% China
Japan
37%
19% USA
UK
27%
Solar Resource Map Installed Solar Power Capacity

State wise status Grid connected plant capacity in India
 State wise install capacity in MW p of commissioned Solar Power plants

as on 31-03- 2019
Other RJ
13% 11%
GJ
9%
MH
KTKA 6%
22%
MP
TN 6%
TEL 9%
13% AP
11%
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Status of India Largest Solar PV parks
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014 ~36100 MW
2013 As on 30/06
2012
2011
2010
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000
Installed PV Capacity (in MW)

Bhadla Solar Park Targets and achievement
• World's biggest solar park in

terms of generation
• Second largest in terms of

area as on March 2020
 https://mnre.gov.in/the-ministry/physical-progress
Targets
Introduction
 In the Paris Agreement India has committed to an Intended

Nationally Determined Contributions target of achieving 40%
of its total electricity generation from non-fossil fuel sources
by 2030
 As of 31 March 2020, 35.86% of India's installed electricity

generation capacity is from renewable sources, generating “After the electric light goes into general use,
21.22% of total utility electricity in the country.
none but the extravagant will burn tallow
candles.”
 Our target 275 GW of renewable by 2027
Thomas Edison
Introduction
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Typical Solar Power plant and costs in India
 Breakup for Capital Cost projections for PV projects in Rajasthan and

Karnataka with respect to CERC
Capital Cost Norm Capital Cost Norm as

Capital Cost Norm for
Particulars for Karnataka per CERC
Rajasthan (lakh/MW)
(lakh/MW) ( lakhs/MW)
c-Si PV modules 332.35 326.76 328.39

Now reduced further below Land cost 25 7.3 25
2.6 Rs/unit Civil and General Works
Mounting structure
50
50
50
50
35
35
Power Conditioning Unit 45 45 35

Cables, Transformers and
55 55 44
New low Evacuation cost
Preliminary and pre-operative
price expenses, IDC, etc.
48.5 47.74 27.63
2.44 Others (connectivity,

evaluative, and transmission)
NA 15 NA
Total 605.85 596.8 530.02

Capital cost breakup (%) US Module Cost structures (2012)
 Distribution of the normalized capital costs for solar

PV projects in 2016-17 as per CERC
5% PV modules
8%
Land cost
7% Civil and General Works
7% Mounting structure
6% 62% Power Conditioning Unit
Cables, Transformers and

5% Evacuation cost
Preliminary and pre-
operative expenses, IDC, etc.
Sensitivity map for 2012 cost structure Swanson’s Law - Price of PV modules
 Drop 20% for every doubling of cumulative shipped volume
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Wafer Thickness [μm] & Silicon Usage [g/Wp] Learning curve: Price history of silicon
C-Si price
increased due to
shortage of poly-Si
Other, 5 Semicondu
ctor, 3
Silanes, 35
Aluminium
Alloys, 45
Solar, 12
Thin-film PV cells : included in Time Magazine 's Best Inventions of 2008

Si purity Vs Cost
SGS - I : 99.9999% (6N) SGS – II : 99.99999 - 99.999999% (7N - 8N)

EGS : 9N and above
Ways to improve efficiency of 1st gen Estimated cost structures (US Module cost projections)
Strategies Technical Pathways Impact
Improved Wire Sawing Use of thinner and stronger wires

Kerfless wafering Adopting better methods such as Si Usage ↓
growth from vapor or growth from melt
Module
High efficiency Cell - Back contact cell
architecture Manufacturing
- HIT Cell
Cost in 2014:
Defect Engineering Impurity management
- Gettering Canadian
- Passivation Efficiency ↑ Solar : 0.53
USD/Wp
Surface and Interface Advanced Surface passivation
Engineering Advanced light management
Manufacturing Enhanced Automation Labor ↓
Process Simplification
Monolithic module assembly Capex ↓
Yield ↑ mc-Si module production in 2012 | line-of-sight (LOS) concept in 2020 | advanced technology concept in 2020
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1st Gen PV : Key points Challenges to PV Technology
 1963: Commercial production of c-Si modules began

(Sharp Corporation of Japan)
 87% Share: c-Si technologies in global PV sales

 High cost per unit watt (high cost of material)
 14 to 19% : The efficiency of c-Si module  Moderate efficiencies
 A mature technology  Availability of material
 less chance for cost cut and increase in efficiency  Long energy pay back period (high processing cost)
 Long money pay back period
Thin Film Technologies Second Generation Solar Cell Technologies

Amorphous II-VITernary Crystalline
Si Compounds Si
uC / nc-
a-Si:H
a-Si tandem
CdTe
Si
+ +
Cells CIGS Poly-Si
+++
Material • direct band gap
• direct band gap
• 1.45eV(CdTe), • Non-toxicity
• tunable band gap, 1.3 to 2.0 eV  Less efficient (10 %)
• deposition techniques: • 1.1eV(CIGS) • Abundant raw
 Require less material (high optical  High capital cost
PECVD,VHF-PECVD, HWCVD • heterojunction with n- material
• Light induced degradation CdS • Experience from absorption coefficient)  Complex technology
• Solar cells are stable microelectronic  Low energy consumption  Initial degradation
Device structure
• Defects introduces mid gap
and technology is industry  Flexible / any shape possible  Explosive and toxic gases
states  short life time relatively cost • Stability
effective  Lightweight structures – useful for
• p-i-n/n-i-p structure
• thin i layers are advantageous • material availability BIPV
 good light trapping is • Toxicity of Cd  Lower overall cost of production
required
Decrease in material cost Some statistics
 average worldwide pv module price level and Their cost structure by  Global market share by PV technology
Technology (2010).
CdTe a-Si
5% 2%CIGS
2%
multi- mono-
Si Si
55% 36%
2014
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Saving further Strategy for next gen PV
High cost due to large volume consumption of high purity material
Si
Concentrators
Thin film C-Si

Nanostructures
of Si
PV Power Costs as Function of Cell Efficiency and Module Cost
Losses in standard solar cell

2nd Gen
Deposition
Methods
Use of 3rd Gen compatible

Complete Solar Cells with large-
spectrum With High scale
efficiency
 Non-absorption of below bandgap photons (Energy < bandgap) (1)
 Lattice thermalization loss (energy > bandgap) (2)
 Junction contact voltage loss (3,4)
 Recombination loss (5)
Using complete spectrum Approaches
• Band-gap matching with Spectrum

I • Tandem Cells
• Intermediate band cells
• Reduced thermalisation losses

II • Hot electron cells
• Reshaping Solar Spectrum

III • Up-Down conversion
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Optimum Spectrum utilization How many junction we can fabricate ?
Efficiency (%) / Un-concentrated concentrated

No of Sub cells Light Light
1 31.0 40.8
2 42.5 55.5
3 48.6 63.2
4 52.5 67.9
∞ 68.2 86.8
Si nanostructure tandem Si QD under TEM
 All-Si solar cell

 Concept of band gap-engineering - controlling size of QDs controls
band-gap
k
E g (eV )  E g (bulk ) 
d2
Where,
d - diameter of QD
k- quantum confinement parameter
Bandgap Exciton Bohr
Eg – band gap of bulk material Semiconductor Classification
Energy(eV) Radius (nm)
E(QD) – PL peak or band gap of QD
Si 1.11 IV 4.3
ZnS 3.68 II-VI 5
CdSe 1.74 II-VI 6
 The value of k depends on the shape and the crystallinity of the QDs
PbS 0.41 IV-VI 10
Complete picture ! 3 major challenges for Indian manufacturing sector :
 Most of the manufacturers lack scale

- Very few have manufacturing capacity of more than
200 MW.
 None of the companies are vertically integrated.

- PV Manufacturing is mostly concentrated at the
downstream of Module assembly.
- Some of the module manufacturers also make cells.
 The amount of development of technology is relatively low.
Ref: http://www.nrel.gov/ncpv/images/efficiency_chart.jpg
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Energy Policy structure for solar energy in India Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM)
Electricity Act-2003
National Electricity
Policy 2005
Energy policy structure
National Tariff Policy

2006 NITI AAYOG
Renewable Power
Policies
National Action plan Jawaharlal Neheru
on climatic change National Solar Mission State Solar Policies
(NAPCC) 2010
Socio-economic impact of PV technology Socio-economic impact
 PV solar electricity is decentralized in nature, useful for overall

development
 PV technology has reached to commercial maturity
 Solar Home Systems (SHS) as the most proven PV application
 Energy from PV can be used for income generating activities
 Possible Solar PV applications
 Education
 Health Care
 Communication
 Lighting
 Water supply
 Agriculture
Some of Incentives in India (as on 2015) Some of Incentives in India (as on 2015)
 Accelerated depreciation: For profit-making enterprises installing rooftop

solar systems, 40 percent of the total investment could be claimed as
 Assured Power Purchase Agreement (PPA): The PPAs offer fair market
depreciation in the first year (decreasing taxes). determined tariff for the solar power which is a secondary power or
negative load and an intermittent energy source on a daily basis.
 To protect the local solar panel manufacturers, 25% safe guard duty is
imposed for two years period from August 2018 on the imports from
 Interstate transmission system (ISTS) charges and losses are not levied
China & Malaysia who are suspected of dumping solar panels in to India. during the period of PPA for the projects commissioned before 31 March
2022.
 Capital subsidies were applicable to rooftop solar-power plants up to a
maximum of 500 kW. The 30-percent subsidy was reduced to 15 percent.
 Union government offers 70% and 30% subsidy for the hill states and
other states respectively for the installation of roof top solar units.
 Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs): Tradeable certificates providing Additional incentives are offered to roof top solar power plants from
financial incentives for every unit of green power generated. various state governments.
 Net metering incentives
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References
Introduction
 http://mnre.gov.in/
 http://www.nrel.gov/pv/
 http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/
 http://publica.fraunhofer.de/
 Tonio Buonassisi et al., Energy and Env. Sci. 5 (2012) p. 5874.
 G. Conibeer et al, Thin Solid Films, 511 (2006) 654
 Gavin Conniber,Third Generation photovoltaics, Materials Today, 10(11),

2007
 Kavita Surana. Towards silicon quantum dot solar cells : comparing
morphological properties and conduction phenomena in Si quantum dot
single layers and multilayers. Autre. Universitede Grenoble, 2011. Francais. Thank You
Introduction
Future target
 Future targets of India regarding the install capacity of

grid-connected solar PV
125
100
Install Capacity (GWp)
100
82.5
75 65
48
50
32
25 17
5
0
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Years
Introduction
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Si Solar Photovoltaic Technology:

Properties of sunlight
Prof. Paresh Kale

Solar Photovoltaics :Properties of Sunlight 1
NIT Rourkela.
Contents
4
3 Solar Photovoltaics :Properties of
Sun – Source of energy Sunlight
1
Blackbody
Radiation
Basics of 2 3
Terrestrial Solar
light
Radiation /
Sun-Earth
4 5 movement
Solar Radiation
6 Measurement Sun and Light

and Data
Solar Photovoltaics :Properties of Sunlight
The Sun Some Vital statistics

5 6
 Vital, & the primary source of  Mean distance from the

energy earth: 1.496x 1011 meter
 Mean diameter of the Sun:

 Solar Energy: Nuclear 1.392x109 meter (=109
fusion reaction at the sun's Earths)
core releases an
 Sun is modeled as black
extraordinarily high amount body radiation
of thermal energy  (Black body at 5250 oC)
 This amount of energy can  The power received by

earth is 1.7x1017 W
be estimated by using
Einstein’s formula:  Takes about 8 minutes for
radiation from the Sun to get
to Earth.
E = mC2 ≈ 3.8 x 1020 MW
Solar Photovoltaics :Properties of Sunlight Solar Photovoltaics :Properties of Sunlight
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Solar Energy Electromagnetic Spectrum

7 8
 Transferred through radiation: from the surface of the sun to all the
other places in the space
 When this radiation reaches earth, part of it gets absorbed by the

planet’s atmosphere.
 All the solar-based devices use solar radiation
Light : wave or particle?
Photon: light may be viewed as consisting of "packets" or

particles of energy
Wave packet Important characteristics of the incident solar energy

9 10
 Collection of waves which may interact in such a way that  Spectral content of the incident light
the wave-packet may either appear spatially localized or
may alternately appear simply as a wave
 Radiant power density from the sun
 Wave-particle duality: Depending on the situation, a photon
may appear as either a wave or as a particle  Angle at which the incident solar radiation strikes a
photovoltaic module
 Radiant energy from the sun throughout a year or

day for a particular surface
Energy of photon Energy of photon

11 12
𝒉𝒄
𝑬=
𝝀  inverse relationship between Energy and wavelength means
that light consisting of
 h = 6.626 × 10 -34 joule·s
 c = 2.998 × 108 m/s  high energy photons (such as "blue" light)  short wavelength
 Low energy photons (such as "red" light)  long wavelength
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Energy of photon Photon flux

13 14
𝑵𝒐.𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔
𝑷𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 𝝓 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒎𝟐
 When dealing with "particles" such as photons or electrons,
a commonly used unit of energy is the electron-volt (eV)
rather than the joule (J)  important in determining the number
of electrons which are generated, and
 An electron volt : Energy required to raise an electron hence the current produced from a
through 1 volt, solar cell.
 A photon with an energy of 1 eV = 1.602 × 10-19 J  For the same light intensity, Blue light
require fewer photons Since the
energy content of each photon is
𝟏. 𝟐𝟒
𝑬 𝒊𝒏 𝒆𝑽 = greater
𝝀 ( 𝒊𝒏 𝒖𝒎)
Power density Spectral Irradiance (F)

15 16
 To determine the power density in units of W/m², the energy  As a function of photon wavelength (or energy), F is the most common
of the photons must be in Joules way of characterizing a light source.
 It gives the power density at a particular wavelength.

𝑊 ℎ𝑐
𝐻 = 𝜙. 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑚2 𝜆  The units of spectral irradiance are in Wm-2µm-1.
 The Wm-2 term is the power density at the wavelength λ(µm).
𝑊 1.24
𝐻 = 𝜙. 𝑞 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑚 1.24 1
𝑚2 𝜆 (𝑢𝑚)
𝐹 𝜆 = 𝜙 . 𝑞 𝜆 𝑢𝑚
. Δ𝜆 (𝑢𝑚)
𝑊
𝐻 = 𝜙 . 𝑞𝐸 𝑒𝑉 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑉  F(λ) = spectral irradiance in Wm-2µm-1;
𝑚2 Φ = photon flux in # photons m-2sec-1;
E and λ = energy and wavelength of the photon in eV and µm resp.;
q = 1.6 · 10-19
Comparison of spectral densities for various lamps Distribution of Sun’s Energy

17 18
Range of
% of energy
Name wavelengths
carried
(micrometers)
Ultraviolet radiation 0.15 to 0.38 7.6

Visible radiation 0.38 to 0.72 48.4
Infrared radiation 0.72 to 4.0 43
Other radiation > 4.0 1
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Radiant Power Density Blackbody Radiation

19 20
The total power density emitted from a light source  Light sources, including the sun and incandescent light
bulbs, are closely modelled as "blackbody" emitters.
can be calculated by integrating
∞  A blackbody absorbs all radiation incident on its surface and

emits radiation based on its temperature.
𝐻 = න 𝐹 𝜆 𝑑𝜆
0  Planck’s radiation law:
2𝜋ℎ𝐶 2
 H = total power density emitted from light source in W/m2;
𝐹 𝜆 = ℎ𝐶
 F(λ) = spectral irradiance in units of Wm-2μm-1; 𝜆5 (𝑒 𝑘𝜆𝑇 − 1)
 dλ = the wavelength.
 λ =wavelength of light;
T = temperature of the blackbody (K);
F = spectral irradiance in Wm-2µm-1; and
h,c and k = constants.
Power from Sun Wien’s Law

21 22
 Wavelength where the spectral irradiance is the

 By integrating prvs function wrt all the wavelengths, the total
power density is obtained
highest
or,
𝐻 = 𝜎𝑇 4
 Wavelength where most of the power is emitted
 Total power radiated by a body at temperature T is given by
Stefan-Boltzmanlaw
P = 𝜀𝜎𝑇 4 𝝀𝝆 𝒖𝒎 =
𝟐𝟗𝟎𝟎
𝑻
 - the Boltzman constant
  - emissivity
Blackbody radiation spectrum at various temperatures Effect of heating on color of light emitted
23 24
1
as the temperature of a
Spectral Intensity (W/m2/um)
0.8 blackbody increases, the

spectral distribution and
power of light emitted change
0.6
0.4
4000
5000
0.2 5500  If the filament is heated to 3000 K, it will glow red because the spectrum
6000 of emitted light shifts to higher energies and into the visible spectrum.
 If the temperature of the filament is further increased to 6000 K, radiation
0
is emitted at wavelengths across the visible spectrum from red to violet
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
wavelength (microns) and the light appears white.
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Radiation terms Types of radiation

25 26
 Diffuse radiation : The scattered radiation

 Irradiance- (power density) – it is flux of solar
energy  Direct radiation or beam radiation :
Radiation which does not go through
either absorption interaction or scattering
interaction, reaches the earth surface
J/m2-s or W/m2 (per unit wavelength) directly
 Albedo radiation: Reflected component.

Once the radiation reaches the Earth’s
surface some of it (diffuse and direct as
well) get reflected by the ground and
 Irradiation or insolation- (Energy density) – is the other objects on the ground
amount of energy received by a surface over a  The amount of albedo radiation generally
depends on the nature of the surface
given period of time. coverage, whether there is water, snow,
tall buildings, etc.
W-Hr/m2 per day or per month Global Radiation = Diffuse + direct + albedo
Goble and diffuse radiation

27
1 (a) Clear Day (b) Cloudy Day

8 8 7.25
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
Electrical energy(KWh)
Global
Electric Energy(KWh)
6.7
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2
5.6
5.6
5.5
5.5
5.65.6
0.8
Radiation (kW/m2)
6
radiation
5.1
5.1
6 5.2 5.2 5.25.25.2
4.7 4.6 4.7
4.6
4.64.6
4.6
4.5
4.2 4.2 4.24.2 4.2 4.2

4.2
4.2
4.1
3.6 3.7
3.7
3.6
3.5
4 3.1 3.1
3.1
3.1
4 2.6 2.6
2.6 2.6
2.6
0.6
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.12.1

2.1 2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
1.61.6
1.61.6
1.6 1.6
1.6 1.7
1.7
1.7
2 1
1.5
1.5
2
1
00 0
0.4 Diffuse radiation 0
5.66
6.65
7.64
8.63
9.62
11.6
5.165
6.155
7.145
8.135
9.125
10.61
12.59
13.58
14.57
10.115
11.105
12.095
13.085
14.075
15
0
10.25
10.75
11.25
11.75
12.25
12.75
13.25
13.75
14.75
4.25
4.4
4.75
5.25
5.4
5.75
6.25
6.4
6.75
7.4
7.75
8.4
8.75
9.1
9.4
9.75
11.1
13.1
14.1
14.4
15.1
0.2 Time(in hr) Time(in hr)
Electric Energy 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Electric Energy) Electric Energy 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Electric Energy)
0
6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Hours  Relative output power from a photovoltaic system on
(a) clear day, & (b) cloudy day
 Data are for a clear sky
 In general diffusion radiation is an-isotropic, varies with direction On cloudy days, diffuse radiation depends on type of clouds, and it
could be very large fraction of the global radiation.
Comparison between distance from the sun & mean solar

Solar Radiation in Space
irradiance of all the planets of solar system
29 30
 The solar radiation intensity, H0 in (W/m2), incident on an object

9116.4
𝑹𝟐
𝑯𝟎 = 𝑯
𝑫𝟐 𝒔𝒖𝒏
 Hsun = the power density at the sun's surface (in W/m2) as determined by Stefan-
Boltzmann's blackbody equation = 5.961 x 107 W/m2 4497
R = the radius of the sun in meters
D = the distance from the sun to object in meters
2611 2868
1366.1 1426
588.6 778
57 108 150 227 50.5 15.04 3.72 1.51
Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune
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Solar Radiation Outside the Earth's Atmosphere Satellite Data

31 32
Calculated solar irradiance at the Earth's atmosphere

~ 1.36 kW/m2  Daily mean of the total solar irradiance (TSI), measured at
vertical incidence above the Earth’s atmosphere by satellites
Solar Constant – AM0 Solar Radiation Outside the Earth's Atmosphere

33 34
1600
Average solar radiation outside the earth atmosphere

radiant power density outside the
Earth's atmosphere (in W/m 2)
1200
 Its value is 1366 +/- 1 W/m2 800
It is also called as air mass zero (AM0) as it refers 400
to the radiation outside the earth’s atmosphere or 0
air mass. 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
The day of the year
• The actual power density varies slightly

360𝑛 • since the Earth-Sun distance changes as the Earth moves in its
St = S (1+0.033cos ) elliptical orbit around the sun,
365
• sun's emitted power is not constant.
• The power variation due to the elliptical orbit is about 3.4%, with the
largest solar irradiance in January and the smallest solar irradiance in
July.
The extra-terrestrial (AM0) solar spectrum Solar Radiation at the Earth's Surface
35 36
 Spectral irradiance of the AM0 spectrum vs photon wavelength  While the solar radiation incident on the Earth's atmosphere
(left) and photon energy (right) is relatively constant, the radiation at the Earth's surface
varies widely due to:
 Shape of the two representations of the solar spectrum is different  Atmospheric effects, including absorption and scattering
because the photons with long wavelength carry a smaller amount
of energy than photons with a short wavelength.  Local variations in the atmosphere, such as water vapour, clouds, and
pollution
 Latitude of the location
 Season of the year and the time of day
 The amount of energy reaching the surface of the Earth

every hour is greater than the amount of energy used by the
Earth's population over an entire year.
6
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Atmospheric Effects Absorption due to H20, O2, CO2 and O3

37 38
 A reduction in the power due to

absorption, scattering and reflection in the
atmosphere
 A change in the spectral content of the

solar radiation due to greater absorption
or scattering of some wavelengths
 Introduction of a diffuse or indirect

component into the solar radiation
 local variations in the atmosphere : ( such

as water vapor, clouds and pollution)
which have additional effects on the
incident power, spectrum and
directionality.
Air mass Calculate the zenith angle for air mass 1.5
39 40
 Path length which light takes through the atmosphere normalized to the shortest
possible path length (that is, when the sun is directly overhead).
𝟏 Sun
AM =
𝒄𝒐𝒔(Ɵ) Atmosphere
AM = 1/ cosθ
where θ is the angle from the vertical (zenith angle). X
Ɵ
Y AM =1.5
When the sun is directly overhead, AM = 1
Θ = 48.1896
AM quantifies the reduction in the power of light as it passes
through the atmosphere and is absorbed by air and dust.
Intensity calculation based on air mass Solar radiation through earth’s atmosphere
41 42
 The intensity of the direct solar radiation per each day is a function of air
mass.
0.678
ID = 1.353 × [ (1 - ah) 0.7 𝐴𝑀 + ah ]
a = 0.14
h = location of height above sea level in Km
 As the diffusive radiation is about 10% of direct one, so the global

radiation can be estimated as:
IG = ID + IDf
or
IG = 1.1ID
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Standardized Solar Spectrum and Solar Irradiation

43 44
 Efficiency of a solar cell is sensitive to variations in both

 the power
Distance traveled by sun rays to reach Solar radiation flux  the spectrum of the incident light
earth’s surface, or AirMass reaching the surface
(W /m2)
AM 0 1376
 The standard spectrum at the Earth's surface is called
(extra terrestrial)  AM1.5G (global and includes both direct and diffuse radiation)
AM 1 1105  AM1.5D (direct radiation only).
(sun at overhead position)
AM 1.5 1000  Standard AM1.5G spectrum has been normalized to give
(sun at about 48o from overhead position) 1kW/m2
 due to the convenience of the round number
AM 2 894
 inherently variations in incident solar radiation
(sun at about 60o from overhead position)
The Sun-Earth movement – Apparent motion of sun

46
47
Solar Photovoltaics :Properties of
Sunlight
 The Earth rotates around the Sun in elliptical orbit
 Diameter of the Sun is about 1.3109 meter, about 100 times than Earth
 Eccentricity of ellipse is 0.02
Elliptical Earth’s orbit
1.521*1011 m
1.473*1011 m
  Earth
Sun
Sun – Earth Movement Focal point
Important definition North Celestial Pole

48 49
 Celestial - Positioned in or relating to the sky, or outer space

 Equinox - When day and night are of equal length
 Solstice - Sun reaches its highest or lowest point in the sky at noon,
marked by the longest and shortest days
Celestial
 Longitude - Imaginary lines that bisect the globe through the North Equator
and South Poles, runs vertically
 Latitude - imaginary line that circles the Earth at Ecliptic
particular latitude and that is parallel to the equator

Rotation Axis tilt or
 Meridian - a circle of constant longitude passing through a given Axis Obliquity
place on the earth's surface and the terrestrial poles
 Ecliptic - Imaginary line on the sky that marks the annual path of Plane of the Sun : Plane parallel to the Earth’s celestial equator and
the sun through the center of the sun
8
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Declination angle (𝜹) Sun Declination angle ( δ )

50 51
Angle created due to the tilt of the earth during its N

rotation around the sun
Tropic of
Angle between the equator and a line drawn from Cancer
the centre of the Earth to the centre of the sun δ

Equator
Angle made between a ray of the Sun, when

extended to the center of the earth and the
equatorial plane
Sun Declination angle is +23.5 on the summer solstice
Sun Declination angle ( δ ) Sun-Earth movement

52 53
Varies
Equator
δ seasonally
Tropic of from 0° to
Cancer
±23.45°
Sun Declination angle is -23.5 on the winter solstice

North Pole
Variation in declination angle over the year Latitude angle (φ)
55
𝟑𝟔𝟎  Angle between a line drawn

𝜹 = 23.45°sin ( (n+284) ) from a point on the earth’s
Latitude 22 N
𝟑𝟔𝟓
 n – day of year (=1 for Jan-1) surface to the center of the 220
earth, and the earth’s
Equator
30 equatorial plane
Declination Angle (Degree)
20
10  latitude angles of interest

0 are the Tropic of Cancer
-10
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 (+23.45 degrees latitude)
-20
and the Tropic of Capricorn
(- 23.45 degrees latitude)
-30
Days Of The Year
22-Mar 21-Jun 21-Sep 21-Dec
 Latitude of Rourkela =
22.2604° N
• Twice in the year the value of declination becomes zero, on two equinoxes
(in March and September)
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North
Hour Angle (HRA) Hour angle in top view
56 57
Equator
The hour angle increases
Observer
by 15 degrees every Equator
hour Hour angle ω
φ Observer
Sun rays
δ
Meridian of + 180 Variation of hour angle
observer
Hour angle ω Hour

12 noon 24 Midnight
angle ω 0 Midnight
Angular distance between the meridian of the observer and the - 180
meridian whose plane contains the sun Solar Time (Hours)
Solar Noon Hour Angle (HRA)

58 59
Time of day at which the Sun’s rays are directed

perpendicular to a given line of longitude  Zero at solar noon (when the sun reaches its
highest point in the sky)
Most direct angle of solar radiation at a given
location occurs at solar noon  At this time the sun is said to be ‘due south’ (or
‘due north’, in the Southern Hemisphere) since
the meridian plane of the observer contains the
sun.
10
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Hour angle in top view Solar Noon

57 58
Time of day at which the Sun’s rays are directed

The hour angle increases perpendicular to a given line of longitude
by 15 degrees every Equator
hour Hour angle ω
Observer Most direct angle of solar radiation at a given
location occurs at solar noon
+ 180 Variation of hour angle
Hour
angle ω 0 Midnight 12 noon 24 Midnight
- 180
Solar Time (Hours)
Hour Angle (HRA) Elevation angle / Altitude angle (α)

59 60
 Angle formed between angular height of the sun & horizontal surface
 Depends on the
 Zero at solar noon (when the sun reaches its  Latitude
 Location
highest point in the sky)
 time of the year
 Value varies throughout the day
 At this time the sun is said to be ‘due south’ (or
‘due north’, in the Southern Hemisphere) since
the meridian plane of the observer contains the Path for the motion
sun. of the sun
Elevation
S Angle
E W
N
Elevation angle / Altitude angle (α) Azimuth Angle (γ)

61 62
 The elevation is 0° at sunrise and 90° when the sun is  Angle measured clockwise on the horizontal plane, from the north-
pointing coordinate axis to the projection of the sun’s central ray
directly overhead
 Local angle between the direction of due North and that of the
 An important parameter in the design of photovoltaic perpendicular projection of the Sun down onto the horizon line measured
systems is the maximum elevation angle, that is, the clockwise
maximum height of the sun in the sky at a particular time of
year  0° = due North, 90° = due East, 180° = due South, and 270° = due West
Path for the motion

𝜶 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜹 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋) of the sun
α S = 1800
Azimuth W = 2700
E = 900
Angle
Solar Photovoltaics :Properties of Sunlight N = 00 Solar Photovoltaics :Properties of Sunlight
1
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Apparent motion of Sun Path of Sun’s motion for the location situated at 25oN
63 64
 Apparent motion of sun for an observer at a location of latitude, ,

always happens in a plane that is tilted to 90- from the horizon
Apparent motion of Sun

65
 Apparent motion of sun for an observer at a location of latitude, , North

always happens in a plane that is tilted to 90- from the horizon
Sun rays
Plane of apparent
B
Equator δ
motion of Sun
α
90-   90    
N  S
O A Axis parallel δ
To sun rays
  is altitude angle of Sun,  -latitude of location

  will be smaller in winter and larger in summer for northern hemisphere
North
North
Latitude of Horizon at
interest φ latitude φ
Equator
Equator Zenith Angle
Zenith Angle
ξ=φ-δ
ξ=φ-δ
δ Elevation Angle α
Axis parallel
δ
φ Sun rays Axis parallel
To sun rays
φ
To sun rays
  90    
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Zenith Angle (θz or ξ) Sunrise and sunset

69 70
 Angle between the sun and

the vertical  To calculate the sunrise and sunset time, the elevation is set to zero and
the elevation equation is rearranged
 ζ= 900 − α Zenith angle cos   sin  sin   cos  cos  cos   cos  z
Elevation or Substituting =0o

 Similar to the elevation angle altitude
angle
but it is measured from the cos s   tan  tan 
vertical rather than from the
horizontal or s  cos 1 ( tan  tan  )
Where ωs is the hour angle
Day length / maximum number of sunshine hours (Smax) Sunrise and sunset
71 72
 Duration from sunrise hour angle to the sunset hour angle

𝟏 𝑻𝑪
𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆 = 𝟏𝟐 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 −𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝋 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜹 −
 Due to symmetry both angles are same for the horizontal 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝟔𝟎
collector day length will be equal to 2s
 The sunrise and sunset hour angles can be converted into 𝟏 𝑻𝑪

𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒕 = 𝟏𝟐 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 −𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝋 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜹 −
hours but using 1 hour =15o. 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝟔𝟎
 In terms of number of hours, the day length is given as  Where TC is the time correction
2
S max  cos 1 ( tan  tan  )
15
Equation of time correction Equation of time correction

73 74
As the earth moves around the sun, solar time The amount of time to be corrected (given in
changes slightly with respect to local standard time minutes) varies from month to month
Earth’s orbit and its rotational speed are not fixed,

and are subjected to some fluctuations
The equation of time correction is based on the

experimental observations
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Formulae list Special Cases

75 76
𝟑𝟔𝟎 Case Condition Outcome Remark

𝜹 = 23.45°sin ( (n+284) ) Day length of the locations at the
𝟑𝟔𝟓
 n – day of year (=1 for Jan-1) =0 equator will be independent of the
I for the equator declination or the time of the year and
s = /2
is always equal to 12 hours
cos  sin  sin   cos cos cos  cos z Day length = 12 hours and independent
 =0
II for the equinoxes of the latitude of the location
s = /2
cos s   tan  tan  2 Sun will neither rise nor set for the day,
S max  cos 1 ( tan  tan  ) III -tan tan >+1 it is corresponding to polar night
or s  cos 1 ( tan  tan  ) 15
Sun will be on horizon for an instant
IV -tan tan > 1 only
𝟏 𝑻𝑪
𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆 = 𝟏𝟐 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 −𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝋 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜹 −
𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝟔𝟎 Sun will neither rise nor set for the day,
V -tan tan <-1 it is corresponding to polar day
𝟏 𝑻𝑪
𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒕 = 𝟏𝟐 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 −𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝋 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜹 −
𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝟔𝟎
Local apparent time (LAT)

77 78
- Time at which the Sun becomes overhead at a given location
- Normally the standard time for a country is based on a noon (overhead

Sun position) at a particular longitude
- The noon time for the location under consideration should be corrected
by considering the difference in the longitude w.r.t. standard longitude of
that country or region
1 1
LAT  Tlocal  ( Long st  Long local )  Eq. of time
15 60
- Where Tlocal is local time, Longst and Longlocal is longitude of standard
time and local time
- All terms in Eq. are in hours

Calculate the declination angle, local apparent time at 10 AM and What will be angle of incidence in Mumbai in the
hour angle for the collector is located in the Mumbai (19.12 N, afternoon (LAT) on 1st Nov on horizontal plane?
79 80
72.51E), and is tilted at an angle of 300 with the horizontal and is
pointing due south on 1st October.  for 1st November, n=305
- For 1st October, n=274  360   360 

  23.34 sin  (284  n)    23.34 sin  (284  305) 
- Declination angle  365   365 
360
- 𝛿 = 23.45°sin ( (n+284) )
365
- 𝜹 = - 4.1255
 Hour angle at noon is ω= 0
- LAT at 10 AM  Incidence angle is given by
1 1
LAT  Tlocal  ( Long st  Long local )  Eq. of time cos  sin  sin   cos cos cos  cos z
15 60
- LAT = 10 + 1/15 (82.5-72.51)+8 *1/60
cos  sin( 19.12) sin( 15.36)  cos(19.12) cos(15.36) cos 0
- LAT = 10.7993 hour
- LAT = 10 hour 47 min  cos z
 ωs= cos-1 { -tan(19.12) tan (-4.1255)} cos z  0.824

 ω s= 88.53  z  34.51
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Estimate the declination angle, sunshine hour angle

81 82
and day length at Nagpur (21.06N, 79.03E) during
month of March.  Sunshine hour angle
cos s   tan  tan 

 On March 16, n=75
s  cos 1 ( tan  tan  )
 360 
  23.34 sin  (284  n) 
 365  s  cos 1 ( tan( 21.15) tan( 2.4177 ))
s  89 .0640
 360 
  23.34 sin  (284  75) 
 365 
 Day length  152 * 89 .0640
 δ = -2.4177
= 11.8752 hour
Solar Radiation on a Tilted Surface Solar Radiation on a Tilted Surface

83 84
The amount of solar radiation incident on the
SHorizontal
surface of the solar array is the function of the Solar array
incident radiation that is perpendicular to the Shorizontal = Sincident sinα

horizontal plane & the sun. Smodule = Sincident sin(α+β)
α
β Where α = 90°-ɸ+𝛿
α+β
Surface slope (β): Angle of the surface w.r.t
Shorizontal sin(α+β)
horizontal plane (0 to 180o) α β Smodule =
sinα
Horizontal plane
Surface azimuth angle (γ): Angle between surface
normal and south direction in horizontal plane,
(+180o to -180o, +ve in the east of south For a module at an arbitrary tilt and orientation the formula becomes
Smodule = Sincident.[cosα sinβ cos(Ψ-Ɵ) + sinα cosβ]
Angle of Sun rays on solar collector

The average daily solar insolation plotted by three curves 86
which are the incident solar insolation, the horizontal solar
insolation and the solar insolation on a titled surface  Solar collectors are aligned perpendicular to the sun rays, from morning
12
to evening, in order to collect maximum solar radiation
10  The angle of incidence (): Angle between the direct or beam sun rays
and normal of the solar collector.
8
 Ib = intensity of beam or direct radiation and if it is making an angle  with
6
a solar collector normal
4  Amount of radiation incident on the collector surface (I) will be given by:
I = Ib cosθ
2
 Ib is either measured or estimated from the empirical equations

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Incident Power Horizontal Power Module Power
5
17-08-2020
Angle of Sun rays on solar collector Optimal angle for fixed collector surface
87 88
 The relationship between the incidence angle and other angles  For a location, solar radiation is maximum and symmetrical at  = 0
 cos 𝜃 = sin 𝜙 (sin𝛿 cos𝛽 + cosδ cosγ cosω sinβ)  In order to find out the appropriate collector surface orientation, the
+cos ϕ(cos𝛿 cosω𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − sinδ cosγ sinβ) surface azimuth angle (γ) and the surface inclination angle (β) should be
+ cosδ sinγ sinω sinβ optimised
Situation 1: When the collector surface is lying flat on the ground  Differentiating following equation wrt γ and β for  = 0
(horizontal) , its angle with horizontal plane will be zero, i.e. β = 0o
cos 𝜃 = sin 𝜙 (sin𝛿 cos𝛽 + cosδ cosγ cosω sinβ)
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝓 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜹 +𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜹 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝎 +cos ϕ(cos𝛿 cosω𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − sinδ cosγ sinβ)
+ cosδ sinγ sinω sinβ
Situation-2: When the collector surface is facing due south, the surface
azimuth angle becomes zero, γ=0o  Optimal surface azimuth angle would be zero. i.e. γ = 0o. It implies
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜹 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝓 − 𝜷) + 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜹 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝓 − 𝜷) that a fixed collector surface, if installed in the Northern hemisphere,
should be facing true South
Optimal angle for fixed collector surface Sun tracking

89 90
 The optimal inclination of the surface:  To maximize the amount of radiation collected by a solar
β=φ–δ collector, the tracker must follow the Sun throughout the day
 The collector surface should be perpendicular to the sun ray at the noon
time (as radiation intensity is maximum at noon
 Tracking system adds cost
 the declination  changes every day
 Tracking can add upto 30% more energy
 βavg = φ – δavg
 The average declination angle over a year is zero  Two types

 Single axis (less costly, less accurate)
βavg = φ
 Two axis ( more costly, more accurate)
 In this case the angle of incidence
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜹 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎

Peak Sun Hours

91
92
Sunlight  The average daily solar insolation in units of kWh/m2 per day is
sometimes referred to as "peak sun hours"
 Peak sun hours: Solar insolation which a particular location would
receive if the sun were shining at its maximum value for a certain
number of hours
 Since peak solar radiation =1 kW/m2, the number of peak sun hours is
numerically identical to the average daily solar insolation
 Eg: a location that receives 8 kWh/m2 per day ~ Receive 8 hours of sun
per day at 1 kW/m2
Estimation and measurement of

radiation
6
17-08-2020
Monthly average daily global radiation on horizontal surface Location a b

93 94
Ahmedabad, India 0.28 0.48
H ga  S  Atlanta, Gerorgia, USA 0.38 0.26
 a  b a  Brownsville, Texas, USA 0.35 0.31
H oa  Smax a  Buuenos Aires, Argentina 0.26 0.50
Charleston, S. C., USA 0.48 0.09
Bangalore, India 0.18 0.64
Hga = Monthly averaged daily global radiation on a horizontal surface
El Paso, Texas, USA 0.54 0.20
Hoa = Monthly averaged extra-terrestrial solar radiation at horizontal Ely, Nevada. USA 0.54 0.18
surface (at top of atmosphere) Hamburg, Germany 0.22 0.57
Honolulu, Hawaii, USA 0.14 0.73
Sa and Smaxa = monthly averaged daily sunshine hours and maximum Malange, Angola 0.34 0.34
possible daily sunshine hours (the day length) at a given location Miami, Florida, USA 0.42 0.22
Nagpur, India 0.27 0.50
New Delhi, India 0.25 0.57
a and b = constant
Nice, France 0.17 0.63
Pune, India 0.31 0.43
Ho = Daily value of extra-terrestrial solar radiation
Rafah, Egypt 0.36 0.35
Stanleyville, Congo 0.28 0.39
Tamanrasset, Algeria 0.30 0.43
Monthly average daily global radiation on horizontal surface Monthly average daily global radiation on horizontal surface
95 96
 value of Hoa which can be estimated from the instantaneous

value of extra-terrestrial solar radiation 
12  360n  s
365  s
Ho  S 1  0.033cos  (sin  sin   cos cos cos )dw
 
H o  St  cos  dt
 360 n 
sunset
 S 1  0.033 cos   (sin  sin   cos  cos  cos  )dt
 365  sunrise
24  360n 
Ho  S 1  0.033cos (s sin  sin   cos cos sin s )
  365 
 Here t is time in hours. It can be converted to time in angles,
(radians), as
If the S is in W/m2 the Ho will be W-Hour/m2
180 value of multiplying term, s in Eq. should be in radians
dt  d
15
Monthly average daily global radiation on horizontal surface Estimate the monthly average daily global radiation on
97
the horizontal surface at Nagpur (21.06N, 79.03E) during 98
month of March if the average sunshine hours per day is
 If Ho is calculated for a particular day of the month, its value will be equal
9.2. Assume values for a=0.27 and b=0.50
to its average value over the month (i.e. Hoa)
 On March 16, n=75

 The dates at which the Ho is equal to Hoa are;
 δ= -2.4177
 January 17
 February 16
 ωs = 89.0640
 March 16  Day length = 11.8752 hours
 April 15
 May 15 24  360n 
Ho  S 1  0.033cos (s sin  sin   cos cos sin s )
 June 11   365 
 July 17
 August 16  S= 1.367 KW/m2, ws=1.5544, φ =21.15, δ= -2.4177 and ws=89.06
 September 15
 October 15
 Conversion factor = 3600 (from W to J)
 November 14
 December 10
 Ho=34140.2 kJ/m2-day
7
17-08-2020
Monthly averaged daily diffuse radiation on horizontal surface

99 100
for s  81 .4and 0.3  KT  0.8

H ga  9.2 
 0.27  0.50  H da
34140.2  11.8752   1.391  3.560 KT  4.189 KT2  2.137 KT3
H ga
for s  81 .4and 0.3  KT  0.8
Hga = 22442.46 kJ/m2-day H da
 1.311  3.022 KT  3.427 KT2  1.821 KT3
H ga
 Sky monthly averaged clearness index (KT) = ratio of monthly averaged

daily global radiation to monthly averaged daily extra-terrestrial solar
radiation
 KT = Hga / Hoa
Monthly averaged hourly global and diffuse radiation on horizontal

Cloud Fraction - July 2016 surface
101 102
 Estimate the global hourly radiation, Ig
I g  rt * H g
 cos   cos s
rt  (a  b * cos  )( )
24 s
sin s  cos s
180
the term  is the hour angle. Therefore the factor rt is defined each
hour of the day.
After multiplying the hourly factor with the daily global radiation, one
obtains the hourly global radiation
a  sin(  s  60 ) * 0.5016  0.409

 http://neo.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/view.php?datasetId=MODAL2_M_CLD_FR b  sin(  s  60 ) * 0.4767  0.660
Monthly averaged hourly global and diffuse radiation on horizontal

surface Solar radiation on tilted surface
103 104
cos sin  sin(    )  cos cos(   ) cos
 Estimate of the hourly diffuse radiation, Id rb  
Direct radiation cos z sin  sin   cos cos cos
I d  rd * H d for the collector surface facing south (γ=0o)
 cos   cos s 1  cos 

rd  ( ) rd 
24 sin   s cos 
Diffuse radiation
2
s s
180 1  cos 
Reflected radiation rr  
2
The term  is the hour angle. Where  is the reflectivity of the surrounding in which collector is located
Therefore the factor rd is defined each hour of the day. Total radiation on titled surface
After multiplying the hourly factor with the daily diffuse radiation, one
obtains the hourly diffuse radiation I T  I b rb  I d rd  ( I b  I d )rr
Ib, Id, and Ir are the instantaneous values of beam, diffuse and direct radiations
8
17-08-2020
Solar radiation for a particular location can be given in several ways

including Measuring solar radiation - Pyranometer
105 107
 Measure global and diffuse radiation

 Typical mean year data for a particular location
 Principle of ‘heating proportional to radiation’ is used together with thermopile
 Average daily, monthly or yearly solar insolation for a given  Radiation are collected from a hemisphere
 For calculation of diffuse radiation, a shading ring is used
location
 Global isoflux contours either for a full year, a quarter year or

a particular month
 Sunshine hours data
 Solar Insolation Based on Satellite Cloud-Cover Data
 Calculations of Solar Radiation
Pyranometer Pyranometer
108 109
 Thermocouple used as light sensor
 One end of the thermocouple is  The pyranometer can also be measure only diffuse radiation.
attached beneath a black plate,
which get heated when light falls on
it.  This is done when the direct radiation falling on the sensor,
 Due to its design, both direct and the black plate, is blocked.
diffuse radiation falls on the black
plate
 The black plate is covered with two  A shading ring is normally provided with the instrument for
hemispherical glass covers which this purpose.
are evacuated so that the
convection and radiation heat loss
can be minimized.  When shading ring is used, the thermocouple voltage and
 The other end of thermocouple is placed in such a way that it does not thus the instrument reading is corresponding to diffuse
receive solar radiation. radiation.
 Due to this temperature different a voltage is generated proportional to the
amount of radiation falling on the black plate.
 voltage is converted to equivalent solar irradiation using a calibrated device
Measuring solar radiation - Pyrheliometer pyrheliometer

110 111
 Used for measuring direct solar radiation  Radiation sensor is placed at

the bottom of a relatively long
 Principle similar to Pyranometer is used tube
 Only direct radiation falls on the detector  The role of the tube is to reject
the diffuse radiation reaching
the sensor
 Only narrow beam of direct
radiation can reach the sensor
 Tube should be accurately
directed towards the Sun
 Tube is mounted on a two axis
tracking mechanism
 The arrangement of light
sensing and converting it to
radiation reading is same as in
Solar Photovoltaics :Properties of Sunlight case of pyranometer Solar Photovoltaics :Properties of Sunlight
9
17-08-2020
Sunshine Hour Recorder Sunshine Hour Recorder

112 113
 Uses solid glass sphere  A standard traced paper is

( approx. 10 cm in fixed at the particular place
on the instrument
diameter) which
produces image of the
 The trace paper is sensitive
Sun on the opposite to the light intensity.
side Depending on the intensity
of the focused light, a burn
mark appears on the paper.
 The sphere, made of
well-annealed
 The burn stops are
colourless optical glass generated during bright
is securely clamped on sunny day and the length of
a semi-circular metal these spots are then
arc translated to the sunshine
hours in a day
References
114 115
Sunlight
[1] Bowden, C. H. (n.d.). Properties of Sunlight. http://pveducation.org/.
[2] Solanki, C. S. (2011). Solar Photovoltaics: Fundamentals Technologies

And Applications. Prentice-Hall of India Pvt.Ltd.
Thank You
Questions are welcome !
10
19-08-2020
Arrangements of atoms in space

2
 Atoms of solids are fixed in three dimensional

space
 The arrangements of atoms in a given direction in

solid can be periodic or it can be random
Si Solar Photovoltaic Technology:  Whether the arrangements of atoms in a given

Crystal structure solid will be periodic or random depends on
parameters like
 method of preparation of solid
Prof. Paresh Kale  intermolecular forces
NIT Rourkela. Solar Photovoltaics : Crystal structure
Arrangements of atoms in space Atomic Bonding

3 4
 Single crystal lattice : only one type of atom

arrangement through entire volume of crystal  Ionic bond - oppositely charged ions experience a coulomb
attraction and form ionic bond (e.g. NaCl)
 Lattice point: represent a particular atomic

array by a dot  Covalent Bond - electrons being shared between atoms, so
that in effect the valence energy shell of each atom is full
(e.g Si, Ge)
 The distance between two atoms depends on:
 Type of bonding
 Bond strength
 Van der Waals – Weak bond e.g. HF
 Size of atom nucleus
Solar Photovoltaics : Crystal structure Solar Photovoltaics : Crystal structure
P  k1m  k2n Unit Cell Unit Cell

5 6
 Periodic arrangements of  Position of each and every atom

atoms can be specified
 There exist small volume  Define two basis vectors m(OA)

and n(OB)
B
 A representative of the entire
n
crystal volume  Position of any atom is given as:
O m A
 On repeating in 3D can P  k1m  k2n
create the single crystal
lattice Where, k1 and k2 are integer constants
1
19-08-2020
Types of units cells Bravais lattices of three-dimensional crystals

7 8
 Different shapes and sizes
 Simplest possible unit cell in 3D

crystal lattice is cubic in shape
 Other shapes that a unit cell can

take are
 Hexagonal
 Tetragonal
 Orthorhombic
Types of cubic cells For a single-crystal material that is a

9 10
body-centered cubic with a lattice
constant a = 5 Angstorms. find the
volume density of atoms in a crystal
Volume Density = No of atoms per unit cell / a

a a a
Simple Cubic (SC) Body Centered Cubic (BCC) Face Centered Cubic (FCC) = 2 / (5*10-8)3
1 atom per unit cell with 2 atom per unit cell 4 atom per unit cell
= 1.6 * 10 22 atoms per cm3
 lattice constant (a): The length of a side of cubic unit cell
 Most of the semiconductors (Si, Ge, GaAs, CdTe) used for solar cell
applications have cubic unit cells
 Lattice constants for Si, Ge, GaAs and CdTe are 5.43, 6.65, 5.65 and
6.48 A resp.
Atomic Packing Fraction (APF) or Packing density Planes and directions in crystal
11 12
 Packing fraction = the ratio of volume of atoms occupying  Direction : where we look into a crystal
the unit cell to the volume of unit cell
 For Simple cubic cell, 𝑎 = 2𝑟

 Planes : Perpendicular to the direction of view
a
4Τ 𝜋𝑟 3  Direction has impact on properties like
 𝐴𝑃𝐹 = 3
= 52 %
8𝑟 3
 Chemical
4𝑟  Optical
 for BCC, 𝑎= APF = 68 %
3  Strength
4𝑟
 for FCC 𝑎= APF = 74 %
2
2
19-08-2020
Planes and directions in crystal Lattice Planes

13 14
z
 x, y, z : space coordinates
z [001]
 The plane C1C2C3C4 cuts the
x-axis at point C4 (equal to
lattice constant) but is parallel
C5 C6 (110)
to y- and z-axis C1 C2
 This plane is referred as 1,0,0

plane and usually written as
[100]
[010]
(111)
C8 C7
(100) y
C4 C3
y
 The direction perpendicular to x
the plane (100) is written as
[100] direction or orientation
x
 C2C6C7C3 = (010) and [010]
Planes and directions in crystal Procedure to obtain Miller Indices

15 16
 A complex scenario – 1. Determine the intercepts of the plane along the

 unit cell is not cubic crystallographic axes in terms of the dimensions of the unit
 Has sides of dimension a, b and c cell (a, b, and c)
z 2. Take the reciprocals of the intercept values (1/n1a, 1/n2b,

1/n3c where n1, n2 and n3 are integers representing
intercepts)
c b
a y 3. Reduce these numbers to a smallest set of integers (h, k,
x l) by multiplying all with same constant
 In such complex situation, plane and directions are given 4. Label the plane as (hkl) and perpendicular direction as
by Miller indices: h, k, and l [hkl]
Find miller indices Calculate surface density for (110) plane z

17 2a 18
 Intercept of the planes are 3,2,1  Assume lattice constant a= 5 A

z
 Surface density = No of atoms /
 Reciprocals of intercepts are (1/3, ½,1/1) surface area a
c y
b
 Multiplying by lowest common a y  = 2 / (a* 2 a)
denominator i.e. 6 = 5.66 * 1014 atoms / cm3 x
x
 The surface density of atoms is a
 The plane shown is (2,3,6)
function of
 the particular crystal plane in the
 Integers are referred as Miller Indices lattice
 generally varies from one crystal
plane to another
3
19-08-2020
Properties of Si Properties of Si
19 20
 Eighth most common element in the universe by mass  Symbol : Si

 Appearance : Crystalline
 Widely distributed as dust and sand (various forms of Silicon  Latin : silex, hard stone or flint
dioxide / Silica)  Atomic Number : 14
 Std. Atomic Weight : 28.085
 Over 90% of the Earth's crust is composed of silicate  Electron Configuration : 2, 8, 4
minerals, making silicon the second most abundant  Phase : Solid
element in the Earth's crust (about 28% by mass)
after oxygen  Density : 2.3290 g/cm3
 MP : 1687 K
 Si is semiconductor with negative temperature coefficient of  BP : 3538 K
resistance  Crystal Structure : Face Centered Diamond cubic
Unit Cell of Si Si unit Cell

21 22
 The unit cell and crystal lattice

of Si is same as that of Ge and
diamond
 It can be derived from two fcc

unit cell.
 Symbolically a Si unit cell can

be written as
Use of Si Crystal Structure

23 24
 Mono-crystalline : solid atoms are arranged in a periodic fashion

 Amorphous : Solids with no periodic structure of atoms at all
 Multi / Poly-crystalline : Solids with small regions of single crystal
material
Crystalline Amorphous Polycrystalline
 Of the 1.8 million tones of metallurgical Si produced in 2010, Most of the world’s solar cells made are with monocrystalline Si.
12 % was for the production of Si solar cells By 2005, multicrystalline Si solar cells started dominating the market
4
19-08-2020
Si for solar cell PV Panels

25 26
 Monocrystalline Si normally used

for electronic and solar cell
application is of <100> or <111>
directions or orientation
 In multicrystalline Si, crystals of

different orientations exist together
 Crystals of different orientation in

multicrystalline Si are visually
distinguishable from each other
 Multicrystalline Si is used only for

solar cell applications
Examples of Crystalline Defects Imperfections in Solid

27 28
 lattice vibrations
 atoms in a crystal thermal energy, which is a
function of temperature
 thermal energy causes the atoms to vibrate in a
random manner about an equilibrium lattice point
 Point defect
 Vacancy - atom may be missing from a particular
lattice site
 Interstitial - an atom may be located between
lattice sites
Line imperfection
Impurities in Solids Impurities in Silicon

29 30
 Foreign atoms Very useful impurities!!

“Shallow” Impurity p-type dopants: B, Al, Ga, In
 Substitutional impurities - Impurity atoms located at normal lattice sites n-type dopants: P, As, Sb
 interstitial impurities - atoms located between normal sites Levels
Benign impurities. Oxygen, Carbon
Potentially dangerous Slowly diffusing & rare metals
impurities!! “Deep”
La, Y, Zr, Hf, Ta, ...
Impurity Levels
 Some impurities, such as oxygen in silicon, tend to be essentially inert;
however, other impurities, such as gold or phosphorus in silicon, can Very dangerous for devices!!
drastically alter the electrical properties of the material Fe, Cu, Ni
“Deep” Impurity
Levels
Cr, Mn, Au,..
https://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/def_en/index.html
5
19-08-2020
31
Solar Photovoltaics :
Crystal structure
Thank You
Questions are welcome !
6
26-08-2020
Steps in production of Si wafers from raw Si (quartzite)

2
• Least pure
MGS • Uses quartzite and coal
• High purity
EGS • Mono or poly
Production of Silicon • Si ingot
Si • Cz Process
• FZ process
Prof. Paresh Kale

wafers • Dicing

NIT Rourkela. Solar Photovoltaics : Production of Silicon
Terminology for various types of crystalline silicon (c-Si) Production of Metallurgical Grade Si (MGS)
3 4
 Obtained from quartzite - relatively pure form of sand

 Thermal reaction of quartzite with the carbon at 1600oC
Descriptor Symbol Grain Size

Common Growth
Techniques
SiC (s)  SiO2 (s)  Si(l )  SiO( g )  CO( g )
Czochralski (CZ) float
Single crystal sc-Si >10cm
zone (FZ) Quartzite & carbon Carbon electrode
Multicrystalline mc-Si 1mm-10cm Cast, sheet, ribbon
Chemical-vapour
Polycrystalline pc-Si 1µm-1mm
deposition
Microcrystalline µc-Si <1µm Plasma deposition
Liquid Si (MGS)
Quartz crucible
Solar Photovoltaics : Production of Silicon Solar Photovoltaics : Production of Silicon
Complete process MGS

5 6
 98% pure
 High energy consumption process
 13 to 15 kWh/kg of MGS produced
 Produced in the countries where the cost of

electricity is low, e.g Norway, Canada, Brazil
1
26-08-2020
Production of Electronics Grade Si (EGS) Production of Electronics Grade Si (EGS)

7 8
 Step 1: Production of SiHCl3  Step 2: Purification of Trichlorosilane (SiHCl3)
 MGS is converted into low boiling temperature gases so that  Route 1:

is can be purified to ppb  During step 1 reaction impurities such as Fe, Al, and B react
to form their halides (e.g. FeCl3, AlCl3, and BCl3)
 MGS is pulverised in fine powder
 The boiling point of SiHCl3 is low, 32oC
Si( s)  3HCl ( g )  SiHCl3 ( g )  H 2 ( g )  heat
 Separated by fractional distillation
 Reaction is carried in a fluidized-bed reactor at about 300oC
in presence of catalyst  The resulting SiHCl3 now has electrically active
impurities(such as Al, P, B, Fe, Cu or Au) of less than 1 ppb

9 10
Step 2: Purification of Trichlorosilane (SiHCl3)  Step 3: Obtaining solid poly-Si
 Route 2:  Route 1: Using conversion of Quartz bell

Jar
 SiHCl3 is decomposed in Silane (SiH4) SiHCl3 in solid Si
Poly-Si
deposition
 Chlorosilane (Siemens) process
4SiHCl3  SiH 4  SiCl4  H 2
 Uses Siemens type reactor
 The high purity gases, SiHCl3 and SiH4, are then Waste Power
gases
used to convert in solid EGS supply
 Si rod is heated at more than
1100oC SiHCl3 + H2
2SiHCl3 ( g )  2 H 2 ( g )  2Si( s)  6 HCl ( g )

Schematic representation of the reaction pathways for the

Production of Electronics Grade Si (EGS) formation of EGS using the chlorosilane process
11 12
 Step 3: Obtaining solid poly-Si
 Si in the solid form gets deposited Quartz bell

on Si rod Jar
Poly-Si
 Rods of high purity Si deposition
 30 cm in diameter
 2 m in length
 Si deposited is a poly-crystalline
Si Waste Power
gases
supply
 Resulting rods of semiconductor SiHCl3 + H2
grade Si are broken up to form the
feedstock for the crystallization
process
2
26-08-2020

13 14
 Disadvantages of Siemens reactor  Step 3: Obtaining solid poly-Si

 Route 2: conversion of silane in solid Si
 Produces by-products containing Product
gases
chlorine  Silane Process using fluidized-bed reactor
Granular Si
 Impurity contents of initial Si rods  Si seed particles are held in suspension
gets into deposited Si by a gases flowing in the upward direction
Mesh
 At 600°C gas phase decomposition of
 Deposition process is relatively slow Silane takes place
 Process is used by Wacker, SiH 4 ( g )  Si(s)  2H 2 ( g ) SiH4

Hemlock, Mitsubishi, Tokuyama,
Sumitomo SiTiX, MEMC Italia  When the weight of the Si particles is high
enough, they fall on the bottom of the
reactor
Production of Electronics Grade Si (EGS) Problems using Si so formed

15 17
 Advantages of FBR  The atomic arrangement of Si atom in EGS is not good which contains
large number of crystalline defects.
 Reactor could continuously be used (unlike Siemens type reactor, which
needs to be stopped when the rod is thick)  NOT suitable for device fabrication.
 Si does not come in contact with any other surface, the high purity of Si
is maintained  EGS is not obtained in proper size (circular or square)
 Only H2 as by-product
 After getting EGS, the next step (STEP 4) is to get good atomic
 Higher production rates arrangement in Si and give it a defined shape.
 Due to low decomposition temperature of Silane, the energy requirement  Si ingot making
of the process is low  wafer dicing
 More efficient : FBR require 1/5 to 1/10 the energy
 Half the capital cost of the traditional process  Ingot making processes
 Czochralski process (CZ process)
 Used by SGS ML, ASiMI Butte, MEMC TX  Float zone process (FZ process)
Czochralski process (CZ process) Czochralski Process

18 20
 Loaded Si is melted by induction

heating in an inert gas atmosphere
Rotation and Pulling
 Depending on the requirement Seed
dopant, mainly B or P, is added to
Si ingot
the melt Holder
Heater
Seed
 The orientation of the ingot is crystal
determined by the seed crystal
Melt
 The seed crystal is brought in
Crucible
contact with the melt before crystal
pulling Susceptor
 The Si atoms get deposited on the

seed crystal and follow the Crucible Rotation
arrangement of atoms in seed
crystal
3
26-08-2020
Some statistics of Cz process Czochralski ingot

21 22
 The speed of rotation and pull out rate  The bottom cylindrical section has
determine the defect level in the ingot been cut off to make wafers
 Melts attains a temperature of 1400oC  Such "tops and tails" left over from
growing the semiconductor industry
 Ingot diameter ~ 300 mm are a large source of silicon supply
for the PV industry
 Length of the ingot ~ 1 to 2 m

 Most commonly used process for
ingot pulling
 Pull rate ~ 2 to 5 mm/min
 About 90% ingots are pulled using
 Weight of Si melted ~ 50 to 100 kg of Si this process
Disadvantages of quartz crucible in Cz process

23 24
1. Due to high temperature of Si melt, it is the only suitable crucible for

the application
2. Some corrosion of the quartz crucible occurs during the ingot pulling.
This reaction results in release of Si and oxygen in the melt. The
oxygen in Si known to form compound with Boron. The boron-oxygen
compound acts as recombination centre and reduces the minority
carrier lifetime.
3. In order to overcome this difficulty,

 Magnetically coupled CZ process is developed
 Or B is replaced Ga as dopant to reduce the effect of Boron-oxygen
compound
4. Impurity contents of the quartz crucible get released in the Si melt,

which affect the purity level of Si
Float-zone (FZ) process Rotation Float-zone (FZ) process

25 26
 Starting point is a polycrystalline rod (1 to

2 m long and of required diameter)
produced by the Siemens reactor Polycrystalline
EGS
 Rod a seed crystal is melted with the
polycrystalline rod using induction heating
Molten zone
 Desired doping is obtained by introducing
the dopant gases in the chamber during
the ingot pulling Si ingot
 High quality Si ingots are produced Shoulder
Seed crystal
 More expensive than the CZ process
Seed holder
4
26-08-2020
Multi-crystalline Si ingots Multi-crystalline Si ingots - block costing method

27 28
 Particularly developed for solar

cell applications
 Overall material is quite

defective Polycrystalline Si Si Melt
 Due to grain boundaries the Si grains

(mm to cm size)
solar cell efficiencies are
typically 1 to 2 % lower
Heat
 Lower capital cost of production exchanger
Heat
Multi-crystalline Si ingot Directional solidification
Wafer dicing Inner diameter (ID) sawing

29 30
 Si ingots need to be diced in order to obtain Si  Uses a metal blade whose cutting edge is located at the
wafers interior of the blade
 The cutting speed ~ 0.05 cm/s

 Two types of techniques are most common
 Kerf loss ~ 30 to 40%
 Inner diameter (ID) sawing
 Wire sawing
Wire sawing technique Slicing of multicrystalline silicon

31 32
 A tensioned wire is used to

guide abrasive slurry through
the ingot
 Advantages:
 throughput is high as several
wafers can be cut together
 wire can be thinner and allows
thin wafer to cut
 kerf loss ~ 20 to 30%
 lower surface damage of wafer
 Commonly used in PV
industry
5
26-08-2020
Standard wafer specifications Orientation and Doping

33 34
Standard Specifications
Silicon Wafer 2 3 4 6 8 12
Diameter (inches)  In solar cells the preferred orientation is <100> as this can
Diameter (mm) 50.8 75.2 100 150 200 300 be easily textured to produce pyramids that reduce the
Thickness 275 375 525 675 725 775 surface reflectivity
Conductivity P-type N - type Intrinsic
Dopant B P Antimony Arsenic
 Single crystal wafers often have flats to denote
Orientation <100> <111> <110>
 Orientation of the wafer
Resistivity 0.0001 to 10000 Ω-cm
 Doping
Surface Finish SSP DSP
SEMI standard Cleaving of wafer

36 37
 The most common standard
 Minor flat is 180° from the major flat : n-type <100>

 Minor flat is 90° to the left or right : p-type <100>
 Minor flat is 45° up on the left or right : n-type <111>
 No minor flats : p-type <111>
1. Press firmly down on the flat edge (indicates orientation

along (110)) of the Si wafer
2. using a diamond scribe
3. while lightly holding a wafer tweezer on the opposite side
4. The wafer should break nicely in a straight line in half

Wafer cutting Si Sheets

38 39
 Further potential to bring down the cost of

material if wafer sawing can be avoided
 To produce the thin sheets of Si, instead of ingot
Various successful methods

 Edge defined film-fed growth (EFG) and string ribbon (SR)
 Ribbon growth on substrate (RGS)
 Silicon sheets from powder (SSP)
6
26-08-2020
Large crystal cylinders grown using edge defined film fed growth
Edge Defined Film Fed Growth (EFG) (EFG) process
40 41
 Uses a die to define

thickness of a sheet of Si
 Careful adjustment of
the temperature profile of
the graphite die causes
the sheets of Si to
crystallize with large
grains
 Produces a large cylinder

of material
Challenges in producing Si Sheets Si Feedstock for solar cell industry

42 43
 Feedstock to solar PV has mainly been coming from the IC industry

 Required purity level could not be achieved
 Roughly, up to 40% of the produced EGS is lost during the production of
 Too many impurities were introduced by the wafer
apparatus
 many defects are created in the crystal during the

crystallization process
 The defect density is usually proportional to the

crystallization speed. High crystallization speed is
required to maintain high production rates.
Steps in wafer making Feedstock from Poly-Si step

44 45
 Small chips and dust generated during the

crushing process
Production Solid Ingot Wafer Si for
capacity Poly-Si pulling dicing ICs  Si deposited near the graphite electrodes
 Roughly 5% of all poly-Si produced is off-

Off-spec Si Feedstock from Feedstock from
spec
Feedstock
for PV & crystallization wafer dicing
industry Non-prime Si
 In the FBR undersized beads and Si dust
are generated
7
26-08-2020
Feedstock from the crystallization step Feedstock from the wafer dicing step
46 47
 The wafer dicing is carried out with a yield of

 Conical top and bottom portions of the ingot 90-95%,
 Wafers are broken or damaged
 Out of dimensional tolerances for instance total
 Ingot parts that do not meet the specification in thickness variation (TTV)
terms of carbon, oxygen and crystal defects  Bow or warp
 Silicon remaining in the quartz crucible (pot  Monitor wafer used for testing the process
scrap) faults and some non-spec processed wafers
 Saw dust due to dicing
Solar grade Silicon (SGS) – Refining process Typical impurity contents in ppm in various forms of Si
48 49
1 ppm = 51022 impurity atoms / cm3 for Si
MGS Impurity MGS EGS SoG

Al 1570 <0.001 0.7
B 40 <0.002 0.05
Acid Acid Al, Fe, Cr, Mn, Cu - 0.4 2000
Pulverize Au 0.00007
Leaching treatment Ni, Ti and V
Fe 2070 4 180
P 28 <0.002 11.4
Oxidation B and C Cr 137 1 72
Co 90
Mn 70 0.7 70
Vapor Sb - 0.001
Vacuum Al, P, O, Impurity Segregation coefficient
pressure Ni 4 6
Refining Mg P 3.510-1
diff
B 8.010-1 As - 0.01
C 5.010-2 Ti 163 - 2.6
Solidification Segregation La - 0.001
refining coefficient Al 2.810-3
Cu 8.010-4 V 100 - 2.2
Fe 6.410-6 Mo 19
Ti 2.010-6 C 80 0.6
SGS
W - 0.02 176
Na - 0.2
Solar grade Silicon (SGS) - Importance Summary of the various routes of purification and usage of Si
50 51
 EGS available for solar cell is not available in Raw Si (SiO2)

required quantity. Due to this there is worldwide
shortage of Si wafers for solar cells MGS
Highly pure
 To meet the future demand additional source of Chlorosilane gas
Purification
Si at low cost is required Thin film

EGS SGS
Deposition
 The growth in the PV market is related to the Ingot Block Sheet Block
pulling Casting Pulling Casting
cost
Wire Wire Laser Wafer
Sawing Sawing cutting Dicing
c-Si poly-Si Si sheets 2nd

and 3rd SGS
Gen
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26-08-2020
Problem of vertical integration – 2013 statistics

52 53
Solar Photovoltaics : Production of
Silicon
Largest poly-Si producers
GCL Poly
Energy Top 5 Si wafer manufacturer (MW)
22% Wacker Chemie
28% 12000
OCL
7% 17%
Hemlock
12% 8000
14% REC
c-Si Cell market share

4000
6%
7% 5% Yingli
Trina
5% Sharp
4%
JA Solar
0
GCL poly LDK Yingli Renesola GET
Thank You
Jinko Solar Solar Green
73% Energy Questions are welcome !
Others
Solar Photovoltaics : Production of Silicon
9
31-08-2020
2
Solar Photovoltaics : Semiconductor
Fundamentals

Semiconductor Fundamentals
Carriers and Energy
Prof. Paresh Kale
NIT Rourkela.
Electrons in atom Bohr model of hydrogen atom

3 4
 Atom is made up of a +ve charged

nucleus and –ve charged electrons
 Electron while orbiting a nucleus can have only discrete
Electron
-q
angular momentum
 Electrons orbit around the nucleus
 Posses negative charge =1.6 X 10-19 C

r
𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 𝑛ℏ
+q
Where,
 Number of e- in an atom is given by its Proton m = mass of an electron
atomic number v = velocity
r = the radius of the orbit
ℏ = Reduced Planck’s constant = h/2π
 Current: Motion of a charge within a n = integer constant = 1,2,3….
conductor results in a charge transport
from one point to other
Solar Photovoltaics : Semiconductor Fundamentals Solar Photovoltaics : Semiconductor Fundamentals
Bohr model of hydrogen atom Bohr model of hydrogen atom

5 6
 If an electron in hydrogen atom is orbiting a proton in an orbit of  As the radius of an orbit increases, the energy requirement of an
stable radius electron to exist in that orbit increases
 Force of electronic attraction (between electron and proton) and  In any orbit, the energy of an electron
centrifugal force must balance each other = PE (due to electrostatic attraction with proton)
+ KE (due to its motion)
 Radii of the orbits quantised
4 0 n 2  2  Total energy of the electron in nth orbit

rn 
mq 2 mq 4 13 .6
En     2 eV n  1,2,3....
ε0 = permittivity of free space 2(40n) 2 n
q = charge of an electron
Higher energy orbits will have larger radii
1
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Discretization of energy levels Quantum mechanics

7 8
 The solution of wave equation for a hydrogen atoms results in four quantum
numbers, which precisely describe all possible energy levels in hydrogen atom
Quantum
Value Description
number
Principal, 1, 2, 3,… • Describes the energy level within an atom called as shells
n
• for instance energy level with n=1 will be referred as shell-1. Each
shell can have a total of 2n2 electrons.
Momentum, 0, 1, 2,…n-1 • Within each shell there are different subshell
l
• describe the shape of sub shells referred as s,p,d,f.
• For each shell (energy level) there are n subshells.
• For instance the shell 2 (n=2) will have two subshells (l=0, 1).
Magnetic, -l to +l or • Different m number for a given l describes the orientation of an
Representation of hydrogen atom Energy levels in hydrogen m -l, -
showing nucleus and various atom showing absorption l+1,..0,1…+l orbital
possible electron orbits with and emission of photons Spin, +½ , -½ • Describes the spin of electron in an orbital. In a given orbital no two
associated energy s
electrons should have the same spin
Electronic arrangement of Si atom Single atom

9 10
 Atomic number = 14  Energy of e- in an atom is quantized

 14 electrons are distributed in 3 energy levels or shells (n=1 to n=3)  Quantized levels are orbits
 Each shell can have 2n2 energy levels (electronic states) which can occupy 2n 2 e-
 Emission: e- can go from higher energy orbit to lower energy orbit by

loosing energy
 Absorption: e- can go from lower energy orbit to higher energy orbit by
gaining energy
0 eV
 Energy of an e- depends
Energy (eV)
its orbital location
On angular momentum
Orientation
Spin
Many atom Pauli’s Exclusion Principle and energy bands

11 12
 When atoms are brought together to form a solid various • Splitting of energy levels occurs due the Pauli’s Exclusion Principle (no two
interaction occurs between the atom electrons can have the same quantum numbers)
• As the distance between the atom approaches equilibrium inter-atomic
distance for a given material, energy bands forms
Electron energy
One atom Two atoms Many atoms

in a crystal
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31-08-2020
Elemental Semiconductors Compound semiconductors

13 14
Elemental semiconductors: Si, Ge

II III IV V VI Compound semiconductors: GaAs, InP
B C (6) Ternary semiconductors: AlGaAs, HgCdTe
Quaternary semiconductors: InGaAsP, InGaAlP
Al Si (14) P S
Zn Ga Ge (32) As Se Elemental IV Compounds Binary III-V Binary II-VI
Cd In Sb Te Si SiGe AlP CdTe
Ge SiC GaAs CdS
As InP ZnS
GaP CdSe
Semiconductor structure - Si Conduction in semiconductors

15 16
 Each atom is surrounded by 8 e-  Bonded electrons cannot move or change energy, i.e. not "free" at
absolute zero temperature
 The e- surrounding each atom in a
semiconductor are part of a covalent
bond  Cannot participate in current flow, absorption, or other physical
processes of interest in solar cells
 Each atom forms 4 covalent bonds
with the 4 surrounding atoms
A covalent bond : sharing an e-
 At elevated temperatures, e- gain energy to escape from their
 Therefore, between each atom and its bonds. e- are free to move about the crystal lattice and participate
4 surrounding atoms, 8 electrons are in conduction
being shared
Conduction in semiconductors Important parameters of a semiconductor material for solar cell operation
17 18
 At room temperature, a semiconductor has enough free electrons

to allow it to conduct current.
 Band gap
 At or close to absolute zero a semiconductor behaves like an
insulator.  Number of free carriers (electrons or holes)
available for conduction
 The space left behind by the e- allows a covalent bond to move
from one e- to another, thus appearing to be a positive charge
moving through the crystal lattice.  "generation" and recombination of free carriers
(electrons or holes) in response to light shining on
 Hole: empty space is called a "hole", has a positive charge the material
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31-08-2020
Band gap Energy band model

Energy
19 20
 Conduction Band: When gains enough energy
e-  both e- and hole can participate in conduction Vacuum
to participate in conduction (is "free")
 Carriers : electron and hole
 Valence Band: When the e- is bound, and cannot
participate in conduction High energy state Ec  For an operation of a semiconductor, only
valence electrons play role as they can be
 The electron cannot attain energy values perturbed easily by small electrical or optical
signal. High energy state Ec
intermediate to these two levels Eg
 For this reason, while drawing an energy

 Band gap: Minimum energy required for Eg
band diagram of a semiconductor only
transition from valence band to conduction band Low energy state Ev valence band and conduction bands are
shown Low energy state Ev
 The number and energy of these free e-
participating in conduction, is basic to the  y-axis of is energy while the x-axis is distance Distance
operation of electronic devices
Metal – Nonmetal - Semiconductor Principle of Solar Thermal Vs Solar PV

22 23
 Material band gap determines its conducting properties

 Metals are very good conductor of electricity  Light to heat conversion  Light to photo-voltage conversion
 e.g. for an insulator is quite high e.g. 5 eV for diamond  Separation of opposite charges
 Due to very large band gap the number of thermally excited electron will be results in potential difference
negligible in insulators and therefore insulator materials do not conduct current
 Si has a band gap of 1.12 eV
 At 300K, an electron can have 0.0259 eV energy
 Though the band gap of semiconductors is still very high as compared to the
electron’s room temperature energy, there is still large number of electrons that
get excited to occupy conduction band
Continuous band gap

Separated band gap
Metal Semiconductor Insulator
Direct and Indirect band gap semiconductors Direct and Indirect band gap semiconductors
25 26
• Direct bandgap :  Since k axis represents electron momentum, excitation of an electron from
excitation of carrier valence band to conduction band not only requires
requires change in energy  absorption of photon
• Eg: GaAs, CdTe  absorption of phonon
 A phonon is particle of low energy and high momentum and is related to lattice
• Indirect bandgap : vibration
excitation of carrier
requires change in energy
as well as momentum
 Phonon absorption is required from the point of view of conservation of
momentum
• Eg: Si, Ge
High absorption Low absorption  In indirect semiconductors, instead of one particle (photon), two particles
probability probability (photon and phonon) are involved in generation and recombination of electrons
 Due to this both generation and recombination is less probable in indirect band
In the indirect band gap semiconductor, the conduction band minima does not gap semiconductor
exist exactly below the valence band maxima in the E-k diagram
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31-08-2020
Impact of band-gap nature on Solar Cell

28
27
Fundamentals
Both direct and indirect band gap semiconductors

are used for solar cell application
 Thicker layer of indirect band gap semiconductor is

required to absorb complete solar spectrum as
compared to direct band gap semiconductor
Typical thickness of commercially available

 Si solar cell = 200 to 300 µm
Carrier Concentration in
 GaAs, CdTe = 1 to 3 µm semiconductors
Solar Photovoltaics : Semiconductor Fundamentals
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration (ni) Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

29 30
 Intrinsic Semiconductor material: with NO impurities added to it in

order to change the carrier concentrations  Alternatively, increasing the temperature makes it more likely that
an electron will be excited into the conduction band, which will
 Intrinsic carriers are the electrons and holes that participate in increase the intrinsic carrier concentration.
conduction
 This translates directly to solar cell efficiency
 No. of carriers depends on
 band gap of the material  The concentration of these carriers affect conductivity
 temperature of the material
 Knowledge of intrinsic carrier concentration is linked to our

 A large band gap will make it more difficult for a carrier to be
understanding of solar cell efficiency, and how to maximize it
thermally excited across the band gap, and therefore the intrinsic
carrier concentration is lower in higher band gap materials
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration of Si as a Function of Temp Doping

31 32
 At 300 K the generally accepted value for the intrinsic

carrier concentration of Si is 1.5 x 1010 cm-3
 A formula for the intrinsic carrier concentration in Si as a

function of temperature is given by Misiakos Technique used to vary the number of
electrons and holes in semiconductors
𝑇 2.54 −6726
𝑛𝑖 𝑇 = 5.29 𝑋 1019 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑇
300
 For solar cells ni is usually measured at 25 °C and is 8.3

x 109 cm-3
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31-08-2020
P-type Si P-type Si
33 34
 P-type materials are created when semiconductor materials from

group IV are doped with group III atoms (trivalent)
Ec
 P-type materials increase conductivity by increasing the number of
holes present.
Eg
Ea Ea
Ev
h+
Acceptor atom in the
covalent bonding model
T = 0K T  50K
Al Si
of a Si crystal
Acceptance of a valence band electrons by an
acceptor level and the resulting creation of holes
Resistivity vs Dopant Density N-type Si

35 36
 Doping creates N-type material when semiconductor materials

from group IV are doped with group V atoms (Penta valent)
 N-type materials increase the conductivity of a semiconductor

by increasing the number of available electrons
Donor atom in the

e- covalent bonding model
P Si
of a Si crystal
N-type Si Doping
37 38
N-type (negative) P-type (positive)

Ec
Group V Group III
Ed Dopant
Ed (e.g. Phosphorous) (e.g. Boron, Al)
Eg
Missing Electrons
Bonds Excess Electrons
(Holes)
Ev
Majority
Electrons Holes
Carriers
T = 0K T  50K
Minority
Holes Electrons
Donation of e- from donor level to conduction band Carriers
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31-08-2020
Equilibrium Carrier Concentration Law of mass action

39 40
 Equilibrium carrier concentration: The number of carriers in the  Law of Mass Action: At equilibrium, the product of the majority and minority
conduction and valence band with no externally applied bias carrier concentration is a constant
𝒏𝒐𝒑𝒐 = 𝒏𝟐𝒊
ni = intrinsic carrier concentration
 The equilibrium carrier concentration can be increased through
n0 and p0 = electron and hole equilibrium carrier concentrations
doping.
 Using the Law of Mass Action above, the majority and minority carrier
 For majority carriers, concentrations are given as:
Equilibrium carrier concentration 𝒏 𝒕𝒚𝒑𝒆: 𝒏𝒐 = 𝑵𝑫 , 𝒑𝒐 = 𝒏𝟐𝒊 /𝑵𝑫

= intrinsic carrier concentration 𝒑 𝒕𝒚𝒑𝒆: 𝒑𝒐 = 𝑵𝑨, 𝒏𝒐 = 𝒏𝟐𝒊 /𝑵𝑨
ND = Concentration of donor atoms
+ number of free carriers added by doping NA = Concentration of acceptor atoms
No. of minority carriers decreases as the doping level increases

A Si sample is doped with 11016 P atoms/cm 3. What will be the minority 42

hole carrier concentration (po) at room temperature? 41 Solar Photovoltaics : Semiconductor
Fundamentals
n0 p0  ni
2
The electron concentration corresponding to 11016 P

atoms/cm3 doping = ND: no= 11016 #/cm3
intrinsic carrier concentration for Si, ni = 1.51010 #/cm3
the minority carrier concentration (po):
ni
2
(1.5  1010 )2 Carrier generation and
p0    2.25  104 # / cm3
n0 1.0  1016 recombination
Absorption of Light Absorption of Light

43 44
Photons incident on the surface of a semiconductor will key factor in determining if a photon is absorbed or transmitted
either be is the energy of the photon
 reflected from the top surface

 absorbed in the material
 transmitted through the material Condition Interaction
Eph < EG • Week
For PV devices, reflection and transmission are typically

considered loss mechanisms as photons which are not Eph = EG
• Enough energy to create electron hole pair
absorbed do not generate power
• Strongly absorbed
Eph > EG • Waste of energy
If the photon is absorbed it has the possibility of exciting • Thermalisation loss
an electron from the valence band to the conduction band
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31-08-2020
Absorption of Light Absorption Coefficient (α)

45 46
 The absorption of photons creates both majority and minority carriers  Determines how far into a material light of a particular wavelength
can penetrate before it is absorbed
 In PV applications,
No. of light-generated carriers << No. of majority carriers already present in the  In a material with a low absorption coefficient, light is only poorly
solar cell due to doping
absorbed, and if the material is thin enough, it will appear
transparent to that wavelength
 Consequently, no. of majority carriers in an illuminated semiconductor does not
alter significantly.
 Depends on the material and the wavelength of light which is being
 However, no. of photo-generated minority carriers >> No. of minority carriers absorbed
existing in the doped solar cell in the dark (because in doping the minority 𝟒𝝅𝒌
carrier concentration is so small) 𝜶=
𝝀
k = extinction coefficient and λ = wavelength
 ∴ no. of minority carriers in an illuminated solar cell is approximated by the no.
of light generated carriers  If λ is in nm, multiply by 107 to get the absorption coefficient in the
units of cm-1
Absorption Coefficient (α) Absorption depth / Length (La)

47 48
 Absorption length = La = α-1
 Absorption length gives distance into the material at which the light drops to
about 36% of its original intensity, or alternately has dropped by a factor of 1/e
 Since high energy light (short wavelength), such as blue light, has a large
absorption coefficient, it is absorbed in a short distance (for Si solar cells within
a few microns) of the surface
 while red light (lower energy, longer wavelength) is absorbed less strongly
 Even after a few hundred microns, not all red light is absorbed in Si
 Semiconductor materials have a sharp edge in their absorption coefficient  Absorption depth affects aspects of solar cell design, such as the thickness of the
semiconductor material
 α is not constant and depends strongly on wavelength
8
07-09-2020
Absorption of Light
42
43
Fundamentals
Photons incident on the surface of a semiconductor will
either be
 reflected from the top surface
 absorbed in the material
 transmitted through the material
For PV devices, reflection and transmission are typically

considered loss mechanisms as photons which are not
absorbed do not generate power
Carrier generation and
recombination If the photon is absorbed it has the possibility of exciting
an electron from the valence band to the conduction band
Absorption of Light Absorption of Light

44 45
 The absorption of photons creates both majority and minority carriers

key factor in determining if a photon is absorbed or transmitted
is the energy of the photon
 In PV applications,
No. of light-generated carriers << No. of majority carriers already present in the
solar cell due to doping
Condition Interaction
 Consequently, no. of majority carriers in an illuminated semiconductor does not
Eph < EG • Week
alter significantly.
Eph = EG
• Enough energy to create electron hole pair  However, no. of photo-generated minority carriers >> No. of minority carriers
existing in the doped solar cell in the dark (because in doping the minority
carrier concentration is so small)
• Strongly absorbed
Eph > EG • Waste of energy
 ∴ no. of minority carriers in an illuminated solar cell is approximated by the no.
• Thermalisation loss of light generated carriers
Absorption Coefficient (α) Absorption Coefficient (α)

46 47
 Determines how far into a material light of a particular wavelength

can penetrate before it is absorbed
 In a material with a low absorption coefficient, light is only poorly

absorbed, and if the material is thin enough, it will appear
transparent to that wavelength
 Depends on the material and the wavelength of light which is being

absorbed
𝟒𝝅𝒌
𝜶=
𝝀
k = extinction coefficient and λ = wavelength
 If λ is in nm, multiply by 107 to get the absorption coefficient in the  Semiconductor materials have a sharp edge in their absorption coefficient
units of cm-1  α is not constant and depends strongly on wavelength
1
07-09-2020
Absorption depth / Length (La) Absorption in direct semiconductors (Basic lattice absorption)
48 49
 Absorption length = La = α-1  For direct semiconductors minimum energy of the conduction band in relation to
momentum p lies directly above the maximum of valence band.
 Absorption length gives distance into the material at which the light drops to
about 36% of its original intensity, or alternately has dropped by a factor of 1/e  Diff in initial and final energy of crystal after photon absorption = 𝐸𝑒 − 𝐸𝑎 = ℎ𝜗
 When a photon is absorbed, energy of electron in conduction band

 Since high energy light (short wavelength), such as blue light, has a large
𝑝2
absorption coefficient, it is absorbed in a short distance (for Si solar cells within 𝐸𝑒 − 𝐸𝑐 = ℎ𝜗 =
2 𝑚𝑛
a few microns) of the surface
 When a photon is absorbed, energy of hole in valence band
𝑝2
 while red light (lower energy, longer wavelength) is absorbed less strongly 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝑎 = ℎ𝜗 =
2 𝑚𝑝
 Even after a few hundred microns, not all red light is absorbed in Si  Combining two equations
𝒑𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝒉𝝑 − 𝑬𝒈 = ( + )
 Absorption depth affects aspects of solar cell design, such as the thickness of the 𝟐 𝒎𝒑 𝒎𝒏
semiconductor material  Crystal momentum increases with the rising energy of the photon
Absorption in direct semiconductors Generation

50 51
Higher the photon energies the probability of absorption No. of electrons generated at each point in the device due to
increases the absorption of photons
Expression for absorption coefficient solar radiation

Ec
photon
𝑐 x=0
1
𝛼𝜆 = 𝐶 (ℎ − 𝐸𝑔) ൗ2 semiconductor
𝜆 x Ev
 C ~ 2*104 for direct semiconductor
Generation rate (G) Generation rate (G)

52 53
 generation G in a thin slice of material is determined by finding the change in

 Neglecting reflection, the amount of light which is absorbed by light intensity across this slice
a material depends on the absorption coefficient (α in cm -1)
and the thickness of the absorbing material. 𝐺 = 𝛼𝐺𝑜 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥
N0 = photon flux at the surface (photons/unit-area/sec)
 The intensity of light at any point in the device can be
calculated by:
 light intensity exponentially decreases throughout the material and further
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 that the generation is highest at the surface of the material
α = absorption coefficient (cm-1)
x = distance into the material at which the light intensity is being calculated
I0 = light intensity at the top surface  For PV applications, the incident light consists of a combination of many
different wavelengths, and therefore the generation rate at each wavelength is
different
 Used to calculate the number of electron-hole pairs being
generated in a solar cell
2
07-09-2020
Generation rate (G) Generation for a collection of different wavelengths

54 55
To calculate the generation for a collection of different wavelengths, the net

generation is the sum of the generation for each wavelength.
Recombination
A beam of photons of 500 nm wavelength is falling on a piece of 56 57
indirect band gap semiconductor. The absorption coefficient of

the 500 nm photons in the semiconductor is 10 4 cm-1. What is the  Any electron which exists in the conduction band is in a meta-
maximum distance the photons would be able to travel in the stable state and will eventually stabilize to a lower energy position
semiconductor before getting absorbed? in the valence band
 Probability of interaction of a photon with a semiconductor depends on its
wavelength or energy and NOT on intensity
 When this occurs, it must move into an empty valence band state
 A single photon of 550 nm or a beam of photon of 500 nm, in either case it
would be able to travel the same distance
 Therefore, when the electron stabilizes back down into the valence
 The absorption length of the photons in semiconductor or maximum possible band, it also effectively removes a hole
distance a photon can travel without absorption is given by
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿𝑎 = 𝛼 −1
 Recombination is associated with the lifetime of the material
La= 10-4 cm-1 = 1 um
G and R at thermal equillibrium Minority Carrier Lifetime (τn or τp)

58 59
At thermal equilibrium  Recombination rate: Rate at which recombination occurs and depends on the
number of excess minority carriers
Rate of generation (G)= Rate of recombination (R)
 e.g. If no excess minority carriers, recombination rate must be zero
G=R=rnp  Minority Carrier Lifetime: Average time which a carrier can spend in an excited
state after electron-hole generation before it recombines
= r ni2
n p
n  p 
Intrinsic carrier density is determined by the ratio of G R R
and recombination probability (r).  A smaller minority carrier lifetime suggest higher recombination rate of excess
 r = constant depends on G and T carriers in the semiconductor
 Longer minority carrier lifetimes, more efficient the solar cells

3
07-09-2020
Why minority? Types of recombination mechanisms

60 61
 The low level of excess carriers implies that in a N-type material E

excess minority carriers should be significantly less than majority
carriers
Ec
 (i.e. p << n0 in N-type)
Photon Et
 similarly in a P-type material n << p0
Ev
 Due to low-level injection assumptions calculations of carrier

Radiative or Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) Auger
lifetime is usually done for minority carriers Band to Band Trap Assisted
 Therefore carrier lifetime is referred as minority carrier lifetime

Auger and Shockley-Read-Hall recombination dominate in Si solar cells
Radiative (Band-to-Band) Recombination Radiative (Band-to-Band) Recombination

62 63
 Dominates in direct band gap Rbb  Bnp

semiconductors
Ec
B = proportionality constant depends on the material
 E.g. Concentrator and space solar n = number of carriers in the conduction band
cells are typically made from Photon
p = number of empty states in the valence band
direct bandgap materials (GaAs
etc.) Ev
For each generated electron there has to be a
 The light produced from a light generated hole and same is true for recombination.
emitting diode (LED) This leads to equal minority carrier lifetime for
electrons and holes, i.e. n = p
Auger Recombination Auger Recombination

64 65
Most important at high carrier  For electron-electron-hole process

concentrations caused by heavy doping Recombination rate 𝑅𝐴 = 𝐵 𝑛2 𝑝
or high level injection under Auger lifetime 𝜏𝐴𝑢𝑔 =
𝑝
=
1
concentrated sunlight 𝑅𝐴 𝐵 𝑛2
Ec
 B for Si = 4 * 10-31 cm6/s
In Si solar cells , Auger recombination
limits the lifetime and ultimate
efficiency  Auger recombination becomes noticeable at dopant concentrations
Ev higher than 1018 cm-3. Thus of lesser significance.
 More heavily doped the material is, the

shorter the Auger recombination lifetime
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07-09-2020
SRH / Trap assisted / Recombination Through Defect Levels Defect or trap levels of some elements in Si
67 68
 Due the presence of impurities and crystal

defects
 Does not occur in perfectly pure, Ec

undefected material
Et
 The rate at which a carrier moves into the
energy level in the forbidden gap depends Ev
on the distance of the introduced energy
level from either of the band edges Et is trap energy level
 For this reason, energy levels near mid-gap

are very effective for recombination e.g.
Au, Fe, Mn
Recombination rate for SRH Recombination rate for SRH

69 70
𝑉𝑡ℎ 𝑁𝑡 (𝒏𝒑 − 𝒏𝟐𝒊 ) 𝑝0 + 𝑝1 + ∆𝑛 𝑛0 + 𝑛1 + ∆𝑛

𝑅=
1 1 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑛0 + 𝜏𝑝0
𝑛 + 𝑛1 + (𝑝 + 𝑝1 ) 𝑛0 + 𝑝0 + ∆𝑛 𝑛0 + 𝑝0 + ∆𝑛
𝜎𝑝 𝜎𝑛
 Vth = thermal velocity ~ 107 cm/s at 300K  1. For high level injection ∆𝑛 ≫ 𝑛0 , 𝑛1 , 𝑝0 , 𝑝1
 n,p=n0,p0 =electron and hole concentration in equilibrium 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑛0 + 𝜏𝑝0
 Nt= no of trap levels
 σn,σp = capture cross section for the electron and holes (~10 -15 cm2)  2. For low level injection
 Et = energy of trap level
for n doping 𝑛0 ≫ ∆𝑛, 𝑛1 , 𝑝0 , 𝑝1 𝜏𝑝 = 𝜏𝑝0
𝐸𝑡 − 𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑡 for n doping p ≫ ∆𝑛, 𝑛1 , 𝑛0 , 𝑝1 𝜏𝑛 = 𝜏𝑛0
𝑛1 = 𝑛𝑖 exp( ) and 𝑝1 = 𝑝𝑖 exp( )
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
Minority carrier lifetimes are inversely proportional to the no. of

1 1 ∆𝑛 impurities
= 𝑁𝑡 𝜎𝑛 𝑣𝑡ℎ and = 𝑁𝑡 𝜎𝑝 𝑣𝑡ℎ and 𝜏 =
𝜏𝑛0 𝜏𝑝0 𝑅
Lifetime Dependency of lifetime on doping

71 72
 The low level injected material (where the number of minority

carriers is less than the doping) the lifetime is related to the
recombination rate by:
𝜟𝒏
𝝉=
𝑹
Δn = Excess minority carriers concentration
R = Recombination rate
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝝉𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝝉𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝝉𝒂𝒖𝒈𝒆𝒓 𝝉𝑺𝑹𝑯
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07-09-2020
Diffusion Length
75 76
The minority carrier concentration in an n-type material is about 103
#/cm-3. Due to light incident on the material the minority carrier
concentration changed to about 1016 #/cm-3, if the excess minority  Average length a carrier moves between generation and
carriers travel a distance of 2 m in 2 s before recombining, recombination
calculate the recombination rate of the minority carriers.
 The excess minority carrier concentration,  Semiconductor materials that are heavily doped have greater
p = p-po recombination rates and consequently, have shorter diffusion
= 1016 - 103 cm-3 lengths
 1016 cm-3
 Higher diffusion lengths are indicative of materials with
 Minority carrier lifetime of the holes, p, is 2 s
longer lifetimes
 Rate of recombination (R) is calculated as
p 1016
R   5  1022 cm3s 1
p 2  10 6
Diffusion Length Diffusion Length

77 78
 In Si, lifetime can be as high as 1 msec

 The minority carrier lifetime and the diffusion length depend  For a single crystalline silicon solar cell, the diffusion length is
strongly on the type and magnitude of recombination typically 100-300 µm
processes in the semiconductor
 These two parameters give an indication of material quality and
 Doping increases both SRH and Auger recombination suitability for solar cell use
 The method used to fabricate the semiconductor wafer and  The diffusion length is related to the carrier lifetime by the
the processing also have a major impact on the diffusion diffusivity
length.
𝑳= 𝑫𝝉
L = diffusion length in meters
D = diffusivity in m²/s
τ = lifetime in seconds
Surface Recombination Surface Recombination

79 80
 Any defects or impurities within or at  High recombination rate in the vicinity of a surface depletes region of minority
carriers
the surface of semiconductor promote
recombination  A localized region of low carrier concentration causes carriers to flow into this
HH HH HH HH region from the surrounding, higher concentration regions.
 high in solar cells, but can be limited  Therefore, the surface recombination rate is limited by the rate at which minority
carriers move towards the surface.
 Surface passivation: Reduction of h+

 Surface recombination velocity (cm/sec) : used to specify the recombination at a
the number of dangling bonds by Al Si
surface
growing a layer on top of the
semiconductor surface which ties up  In a surface with no recombination, the movement of carriers towards the surface is
zero, and hence the surface recombination velocity is zero.
some of these dangling bonds
 In a surface with infinitely fast recombination, the movement of carriers towards this
surface is limited by the maximum velocity they can attain, and for most
semiconductors is on the order of 1 x 107 cm/sec.
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Effect of SRV on Solar cell characteristics

83
81
Fundamentals
Carrier Transport
Carrier motion in semiconductors
Movement of Carriers in Semiconductors Movement of Carriers in Semiconductors

84 85
 Carriers move freely about the semiconductor lattice in a random

direction at a certain velocity determined by
 Temperature
Although carriers in a semiconductor are in
 Mass of the carrier
constant random motion, there is no net motion of
carriers unless there is a concentration gradient or
 Thermal velocity: average carrier velocity. Carriers have a thermal an electric field
velocity that is normally distributed around this average thermal velocity.
Therefore, some carriers having a greater velocity and some lower
 Two types
 Carriers will continue in a direction until they collide with another  Drift : Due to electric field
semiconductor lattice atom  Diffusion : Due to concentration gradient
 Scattering length: Distance travelled by carrier before colliding with a

lattice atom
Diffusion Equation of diffusion for carriers in the bulk of semiconductor

86 87
 When a carrier concentration gradient exists in the  Rate of diffusion for electrons in
semiconductor, through random motion, carriers will have semiconductors =
Electron flux density * number of
a net movement from areas of high carrier concentration to electrons passing xo per unit time per
areas of low concentration unit area
 When light is incident on a solar cell, carriers get  electron flux density from left to
right
generated at that surface, but not in the bulk of the solar
𝑙
cell creating carrier concentration gradient 𝜙𝑛 𝑥𝑜 = (𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )
2𝑡
 Diffusivity (cm2s-1): Rate at which diffusion occurs and  Difference in electron concentration
between the two points (n 1 and n2)
depends on 𝑙
 Velocity at which carriers move 𝑛1 = 𝑛 (𝑥0 − )
2
𝑙
 Distance between scattering events 𝑛2 = 𝑛 (𝑥0 + )
2
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07-09-2020
Equation of diffusion for carriers in the bulk of semiconductor Equation of diffusion for carriers in the bulk of semiconductor
88 89
 Assume 𝑙 is very small, and therefore can use the slope at 𝑥𝑜 in order In order to approximate the electron concentration as 𝑥 changes, assume that 𝑥 is very
to determine the electron concentration (n) at 𝑥𝑜 ± 𝑙/2 small
𝑙2 −Δ𝑛
𝜙𝑛 𝑥𝑜 = lim
Δ𝑛 𝑙 2𝑡 Δ𝑥→0 Δ𝑥
𝑛1 = 𝑛 (𝑥0 ) − ( )
Δ𝑥 2
𝒍𝟐 𝒅𝒏(𝒙)
𝝓𝒏 𝒙 = −
Δ𝑛 𝑙 𝟐𝒕 𝒅𝒙
𝑛2 = 𝑛 𝑥0 + ( )
Δ𝑥 2
𝑙2
Electron diffusion coefficient 𝐷𝑛 = (cm2/s)
2𝑡
𝑙 Δ𝑛 𝑙 Δ𝑛 𝑙
𝜙𝑛 𝑥𝑜 = 𝑛 𝑥0 − − [𝑛 𝑥0 +( )] 𝒅𝒏(𝒙)
2𝑡 Δ𝑥 2 Δ𝑥 2 For electrons 𝝓𝒏 𝒙 = −𝑫𝒏
𝒅𝒙
𝑙 −Δ𝑛𝑙
𝜙𝑛 𝑥𝑜 = ( ) 𝑙2
2𝑡 Δ𝑥 Hole diffusion coefficient 𝐷𝑝 = (cm2/s)
2𝑡
𝑙2 −Δ𝑛 𝒅𝒑(𝒙)
𝜙𝑛 𝑥𝑜 = ( ) For holes 𝝓𝒑 𝒙 = −𝑫𝒑
2𝑡 Δ𝑥 𝒅𝒙
Equation of diffusion for carriers in the bulk of semiconductor Reason for negative sign
90 91
 Vector of the concentration gradient is directed toward the increase of the

Diffusion current density = Carrier flux density * concentration, while the particles diffuse to the area with lower concentration
Carrier charge (denoted by q)
Equation Electrons Holes

Carrier motion
direction
Diffusion Coefficient 𝒍𝟐 𝒍𝟐
(cm 2/s) 𝑫𝒏 = 𝑫𝒑 =
𝟐𝒕 𝟐𝒕
Flux Density 𝝓𝒏 𝒙 = −𝑫𝒏

𝒅𝒏(𝒙)
𝝓𝒑 𝒙 = −𝑫𝒑
𝒅𝒑(𝒙) 𝑑𝑛
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒏(𝒙) 𝒅𝒑(𝒙)
𝑑𝑥
Diffusion Current density 𝑱𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇 = 𝒒𝑫𝒏 𝑱𝒑 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇 = −𝒒𝑫𝒑
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝑛1 < 𝑛2
Diffusion current as a function of concentration gradient Sign of gradient and current

92 93
Electron Concentration
Hole Concentration
Electron Flux Hole Flux
Electron Diffusion Hole Diffusion

Current density Current density
x x
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Continuity equation
The instantaneous carrier concentration in a N-type
semiconductor at two points (separated by 100 m from each
94 96
 Continuity equations give the rate of carriers buildup in the bulk of semiconductor
other) are 11017 #/cm3 and 11015 #/cm3. If the diffusion
coefficient of the electron in the semiconductor is 30 cm 2/s, find out
 dx = length dx semiconductor Jp(x + Δx)
the diffusion current density in the semiconductor?
 Consider movement of holes through it
 The diffusion current density of electron

Currents entering and x + Δx
dn leaving a volume AΔx
J n, diff  qDn Jp(x)
x
dx
 It the diffusion coefficient of electrons are given, Dn=30 cm2/s
 Net increase in hole concentration / unit time
= Difference between the flux of holes entering and leaving the
dn volume AΔx
J n, diff  qDn  1.6  10 19 * 30 *1019  48 A / cm2 + Generation rate
dx
- Recombination rate
Continuity equation Drift

97 98
𝜕𝑝 1 𝐽𝑝 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑝 𝑥 + Δ𝑥
|𝑥 → 𝑥 + Δ𝑥 = − (𝑈 − 𝐺)  Drift: Net motion of carriers in presence of electric field
𝜕𝑡 𝑞 Δ𝑥
U = carrier recombination rate G = generation rate
In the derivative form

𝜕𝑝 1 𝜕𝐽𝑝
=− − (𝑈 − 𝐺)
𝜕𝑡 𝑞 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑛 1 𝜕𝐽𝑛
=− − (𝑈 − 𝐺)
𝜕𝑡 𝑞 𝜕𝑥
 Occurs in semiconductor and metal

Using diffusion equations
𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑝
= 𝐷𝑝 − (𝑈 − 𝐺)  Electrons move in the net direction opposite of the electric field. Holes move in
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑛 𝜕2 𝑛 the net direction of the electric field
= 𝐷𝑛 − (𝑈 − 𝐺)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 2
Mobility (μ) and drift velocity (νd) Drift Equation, Conductivity, and Mobility
99 101
Jx = current density in the x-direction

Ex = electric field applied in the x-direction
 Collision with atom in solid impedes the movement of carriers q = electron charge
n and p = electron and hole concentrations
µn and µp = electron and hole mobilities
 After a short time carrier reaches a constant velocity (drift velocity) for a given
electric field (E)
 If the electric field Ex is applied in the x-direction each electron experiences a net
force which leads to additional acceleration in the direction opposite to the
 Mobility: The ease with which carrier flow direction of the field.
𝒗𝒅 𝑐𝑚2 𝑑𝑝𝑥
 = 𝑠 −𝑞𝐸𝑥 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑬 𝑉
 The net acceleration in the case of steady state current flow is balance by the
decelerations of the collision processes
 Higher impurity and temperature leads to lower mobility
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07-09-2020
Drift Equation, Conductivity, and Mobility Drift Equation, Conductivity, and Mobility
102 103
 If N(t) = No. of e- that have not undergone a collision by time t  Average momentum per electron
𝕡𝑥
𝕡𝑥 = = −𝑞𝕥𝐸𝑥
 Then, rate of decrease of N(t) is proportional to the number left unscattered 𝑛
electrons at t
 The net drift speed
𝑑(𝑁(𝑡) 1 𝕡𝑥 𝑞𝕥
− = 𝑁 𝑡 𝕧𝑥 = = − ∗ 𝐸𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝕥 𝑚𝑛∗ 𝑚𝑛
𝑡
𝑁 𝑡 = 𝑁0 exp(− )
𝕥  The current density = No. of electrons crossing the unit area per unit time
𝑛𝑞2 𝕥
 𝕥 = mean (average) time between scattering events 𝐽𝑥 = −𝑞𝑛𝕧 = ∗ 𝐸𝑥 = 𝜎𝐸𝑥 = 𝑞𝑛𝜇𝑛 𝐸𝑥
𝑚𝑛
 The probability that an electron has a collision in 𝑑𝑡 is 𝑑𝑡Τ𝕥, then the differential
change in 𝑝𝑥 due to collisions in 𝑑𝑡 is  Where σ is conductivity of a semiconductor and μ is mobility of carriers
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑝𝑥 = − 𝑝𝑥
𝕥
𝑑𝑝𝑥 − 𝑝𝑥  Considering both hole and electron conduction
= = 𝑛𝑞𝐸𝑥 𝑱𝒙 = 𝒒 𝒏𝝁𝒏 + 𝒑𝝁𝒑 𝑬𝒙
𝑑𝑡 𝕥
𝑛 = electron concentration
Mobility as a function of temperature and doping concentration Conductivity (Ωcm)-1

104 105
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
1
𝜌=
𝜎
𝐼
𝐽=
𝐴
𝑉
𝐸=
𝐿
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
 The conductivity and resistivity of an extrinsic semiconductor are a function of

majority carrier parameters
Total Current density The Einstein Relation

106 107
Total Four components
𝐽 = 𝐽𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 + 𝐽𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐷𝑛 𝐷𝑝 𝑘𝑇
= =
𝜇𝑛 𝜇𝑝 𝑞
𝒅𝒏(𝒙) 𝒅𝒑(𝒙)
𝐽 = 𝒏𝝁𝒏 + 𝒑𝝁𝒑 𝒒𝑬 + 𝒒𝑫𝒏 − 𝒒𝑫𝒑
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
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07-09-2020
Typical mobility and diffusion values at 300 K Properties of Si

108 110
Property Value
Atomic Density 5 x 1022 cm-3
Atomic Weight 28.09
μn μp Density (ρ) 2.328 g cm-3

Dn Dp
(cm2/V-s) (cm2/V-s) Energy Bandgap (EG) 1.1242 eV
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration (ni) at 300K* 1 x 1010 cm-3
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration (ni) at 25°C* 8.6 x 109 cm-3

Si 1350 480 35 12.4
Lattice Constant 0.543095 nm
Melting Point 1415 °C

GaAs 8500 400 220 10.4 Thermal Conductivity 1.5 Wcm-1K-1
Thermal Expansion Coefficient 2.6 x 10-6 K-1
Ge 3900 1900 101 49.2 Effective Density of States in the Conduction Band (NC) 3 x 1019 cm-3
Effective Density of States in the Conduction Band (NV) 1 x 1019 cm-3
Relative Permittivity (εr) 11.7
Electron Affinity 4.05 eV
111
Fundamentals
Thank You
11
11-09-2020
Objective
CARRIER
CONCENTRATION AND • To describe the I-V characteristics of semiconductor
devices
DISTRIBUTION
• Important step is to determine the number of carriers
in the semiconductor available for conduction
Prof. Paresh Kale

NIT Rourkela.
9/11/2020 Carrier concentration and distribution 2
Electron Effective Mass
• Movement of an e- in a lattice is different from e- in free space
• Apart from externally applied force, internal forces in the crystal

influence the motion of e- in the lattice
• due to positively charged ions or protons
• negatively charged electrons
• Since it is difficult to take into account all of the internal forces

𝑭𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝒎∗ 𝒂
DOS AND FERMI LEVEL 𝑚∗ = Effective mass
• Effective mass takes into account
• Particle mass
• Effect of the internal forces
9/11/2020 Carrier concentration and distribution 3 9/11/2020 Carrier concentration and distribution 4
Pauli exclusion principle Density of states (DOS)
• Only one e- can occupy a given quantum state • Density of quantum states per unit volume of the crystal (general form)
𝟑
𝟒𝝅(𝟐𝒎)𝟐
𝒈 𝑬 = 𝑬
• The No. of carriers contribute to the conduction process is a function 𝒉𝟑
• Parabolic relation between energy and momentum of free electron
of the No. of available energy or quantum states
𝑝2 ℏ2 𝑘 2
𝐸= = , ℏ = ℎ/2𝜋
2𝑚 2𝑚
• Due to splitting of energy levels into bands of allowed and forbidden • Approximating conduction bands as parabola (E versus k curve near k = 0)
energies, band of allowed energies are actually made up of discrete ℏ2 𝑘 2
• 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑐 +
energy levels ∗
2 𝑚𝑛
• 𝐸𝑐 = Bottom Edge of conduction band

• We must determine the density of these allowed energy states as a ∗
• 𝑚𝑛 = electron effective mass
function of energy to calculate the electron and hole concentrations
ℏ2 𝑘 2
• 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 = ∗
2𝑚𝑛
1
11-09-2020
Density of states – Conduction band Density of states – Valence Band
• The general form of the E versus k relation for an e- in the bottom of a • Similarly for holes
conduction band is the same as the free e-, except the mass is replaced by
the effective mass. ∗
• 𝑚𝑝 = Effective mass of hole
• for e- in the bottom of the conduction band, as being a "free" e- with its • approximate the E versus k curve near k = 0 by a parabola for a "free“ hole
own particular mass
𝟑
𝟒𝝅(𝟐𝒎∗𝒏 )𝟐 ℏ2 𝑘 2
𝒈𝒄 𝑬 = 𝑬 − 𝑬𝒄 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸 =
𝒉𝟑 2𝑚𝑝∗
• Equation valid for E > Ec 𝟑

𝟒𝝅(𝟐𝒎∗𝒑 )𝟐
𝒈𝒗 𝑬 = 𝑬𝒗 − 𝑬
𝒉𝟑
• As the energy of the e- in conduction band decreases, No. of available
quantum states decreases
• Valid for E < Ev
Density of energy states as a function of energy Statistical laws for statistical mechanics
• Quantum states do not exist

within the forbidden energy Law / Nature Example
𝑬 𝒈𝒄 (𝑬) probability
band function
Maxwell– • Particles are distinguishable by being behavior

Boltzmann numbered, for example, from 1 to N of gas molecules in a
• 𝑔(𝐸) = 0 for 𝐸𝑣 < 𝐸 < 𝐸𝑐 𝑬𝒄 probability • With no limit to number of particles container at fairly low
function
allowed in each energy state pressure
∗
• If 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑚𝑝∗ , then gc(E) and
𝑬𝒗 Bose– • particles are indistinguishable The behavior of
gv(E) would be symmetrical Einstein • there is no limit to the number of particles photons, or black
about the energy midway function permitted in each quantum state body radiation
between Ec and Ev, or the 𝒈𝒗 (𝑬)
midgap energy (𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑎𝑝 ) Fermi–Dirac • particles are again indistinguishable Electrons in a crystal
𝒈(𝑬) probability • only one particle is permitted in each obey
function quantum state
plot of the density of quantum
states as a function of energy
The Fermi- Dirac Probability Function Fermi-Dirac distribution or probability function

• Pauli exclusion principle : Max of one • Total No. of ways arranging (N1, N2, N3….Nn) indistinguishable particles among 𝑛
particle allowed per quantum state energy levels is the product of all distributions
• There are 𝑔𝑖 ways of choosing where to place 𝑛 𝑔𝑖 !

the first particle, (𝑔𝑖 −1) ways of choosing 𝑊𝑖 = ෑ
where to place the second particle, (𝑔𝑖 −2) * * * * 𝑖=1 𝑁𝑖 ! (𝑔𝑖 ! − 𝑁𝑖 !)
ith
ways of choosing where to place the third 1 2 3 …. gi energy
particle, and so on. level
• Most probable distribution function is
𝑁(𝐸) 𝟏
• Total number of ways arranging 𝑁𝑖 particles in = 𝒇𝑭 𝑬 =
Quantum States 𝑔(𝐸) 𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭
the ith energy level (where 𝑁𝑖 ≤ 𝑔𝑖 ) 𝟏 + 𝐞𝐱𝐩 ( )
𝒌𝑻
𝑔𝑖 !
=
(𝑔𝑖 ! − 𝑁𝑖 !)
• EF = the Fermi energy
• Since particles are indistinguishable, interchange of e- does not produce a new • N(E) = Number density =the number of particles per unit volume per unit energy
arrangement • g(E) = Number of quantum states per unit volume per unit energy.
• Actual no. of independent ways of realizing a distribution is • FF(E) = the Fermi-Dirac distribution or probability function
𝑔𝑖 !
𝑊𝑖 =
𝑁𝑖 ! (𝑔𝑖 ! − 𝑁𝑖 !)
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The Fermi Level Fermi level and Effect of Temperature
𝟏 T=0K E < EF Exp[(E-EF)/kT]  exp(-∞) = 0 fF(E<EF) =1

𝒇𝑭 𝑬 =
𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒙𝒑( ) E > EF Exp[(E-EF)/kT]  exp(+∞) = ∞ fF(E>EF) =0
𝒌𝑻
T>0K E = EF Exp[(E-EF)/kT]  exp(0) = 1 fF(E=EF) =1/2
• Distribution of e- over the range of allowed energy levels at the
thermal equilibrium is given by Fermi function • for T = 0 K, the electrons are in
their lowest possible energy states
fF(E)
• Gives the probability that a quantum state at the energy E will be T=T1
occupied by an electron at temperature T • All electrons have energies below 1.0
the Femi energy at T = 0 K
T=0
• fF(E) = ratio of filled to total quantum states at any energy E
• Probability of a quantum state
0.5
being occupied =1 for E < EF
T=T2 > T1
• The Fermi energy determines the statistical distribution of electrons
and does not have to correspond to an allowed energy level. • Probability of a state being
occupied = 0 for E > EF E
EF
11-09-2020 Solar Photovoltaics : Semiconductor Fundamentals 13 9/11/2020 Carrier concentration and distribution 14
Some conclusions DOS and electrons in continuous energy system at T=0K

• Probability of an energy above EF being occupied increase as the temperature
increases
• Probability of a state below EF being empty decreases as the temperature increases
• Probability of a state a distance dE above EF occupied is the same as the probability of
a state a distance dE below EF being empty.
• The function fF (E) is symmetrical with the function 1 - fF(E) about Fermi Energy, EF
• When E - EF >> kT, where the exponential term in the denominator >>1.
Approximated equation for Fermi Dirac Distribution becomes
− 𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭
𝒇𝑭 𝑬 ≈ 𝐞𝐱𝐩 Maxwell–Boltzmann approximation
𝒌𝑻
1.0
fF(E) 1- fF(E)
0.5
• N0 = electrons in the system
• g(E) = Case of continuous density of quantum states
E
EF • n(E) = distribution of electrons in conduction band
Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons and Holes
• The distribution (wrt energy) of e- in conduction band = density of allowed

quantum states in conduction band * probability that a state is occupied by an e-
𝑛 𝐸 = 𝑔𝑐 (𝐸)𝑓𝐹 (𝐸)
• Total e- concentration per unit volume in conduction band = ‫𝐸𝑑 𝐸 𝑛 ׬‬
INTRINSIC • Similarly distribution (wrt energy) of holes in valence band = density of allowed
quantum states in valence band * probability that a state is occupied by a hole
SEMICONDUCTOR 𝑝(𝐸) = 𝑔𝑣 (𝐸)[1 − 𝑓𝐹 𝐸 ]
• Total hole concentration per unit volume in the valence band = ‫ 𝐸 𝑝 ׬‬dE
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Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons and Holes Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons and Holes
• To find the thermal-equilibrium e- and hole concentration, position of Fermi level wrt
bottom of conduction-band energy and the top of valence band energy needs to be
determined 𝑬
• Consider an intrinsic semiconductor 𝑛 𝐸 = 𝑔𝑐 𝐸 𝑓𝐹 𝐸

Area = electron concentration
𝒈𝒄 (𝑬)
• for an intrinsic semiconductor at T = 0 K, all energy states in the valence band are filled
with e- and all energy states in the conduction band are empty of electrons 𝑬𝒄
𝒇𝑭 (𝑬)
𝑬𝑭
• The Fermi energy must, therefore, be somewhere between Ec and Ev
𝑬𝒗 𝑝(𝐸) = 𝑔𝑣 (𝐸)[1 − 𝑓𝐹 𝐸 ]
Area = hole concentration
• As the temperature begins to increase above 0 K, the valence e- will gain thermal energy. A 𝒈𝒗 (𝑬)
e-
few in the valence band may gain sufficient energy to jump to the conduction band. As
an e- jumps from the valence band to the conduction band, an empty state, or hole, is
created in the valence band.
𝒇𝑭 𝑬 = 𝟎 𝒇𝑭 𝑬 = 𝟏
• In an intrinsic semiconductor, then, e- and holes are created in pairs by the thermal energy 𝒈(𝑬)
no. of e- in the conduction band = no. of holes in the valence band
The no Equations The no Equation

𝐸−𝐸𝑐
• Equation for thermal-equilibrium concentration of e- • Integral can be solved by substituting 𝜂 =
𝑘𝑇
3
‫𝑛 ׬‬0 𝐸 = ‫𝐸𝑑 𝐸 𝐹𝑓 𝐸 𝑐𝑔 ׬‬ ∞ 1
4𝜋(2𝑚𝑛∗ 𝑘𝑇)2 − 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑛𝑜 = exp[ ] න 𝜂2 exp −𝜂 𝑑𝜂
ℎ3 𝑘𝑇 0
• The lower limit of integration is Ec, and the upper limit of integration should be • Using Gama function
the top of the allowed conduction band energy (which is infinity) 3
4𝜋(2𝑚𝑛∗ 𝑘𝑇)2 − 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝐹 1
𝑛𝑜 = exp[ ] 𝜋
ℎ3 𝑘𝑇 2
• Assuming Fermi energy is within the forbidden-energy bandgap 3
• For electrons in the conduction hand, we have 𝐸𝑐 > 𝐸
(2𝜋𝑚𝑛∗ 𝑘𝑇)2 − 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑛𝑜 = 2 exp[ ]
• 𝐼𝑓 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝐹 >> 𝑘𝑇, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 ) >> 𝑘𝑇 ℎ2 𝑘𝑇
3
∗ 𝑘𝑇)2
(2𝜋𝑚𝑛
• Thus 𝑓𝐹 𝐸 ≈ exp[
− 𝐸− 𝐸𝐹
] • Defining 𝑁𝑐 = 2 = effective density states function in the conduction
ℎ2
𝑘𝑇
band
3
− 𝑬𝒄 − 𝑬𝑭
∞ 𝒏𝒐 = 𝑵𝒄 𝒆𝒙𝒑[ ]
4𝜋(2𝑚𝑛∗ )2 − 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 𝒌𝑻
𝑛𝑜 = න (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 ) exp[ ] 𝑑𝐸
𝐸𝑐 ℎ3 𝑘𝑇
• The magnitude of Nc is also on the order of 1025 cm-3 at T = 300 K
The po Equations The po Equations

𝐸𝑣 −𝐸
• ‫𝑝 ׬‬0 𝐸 = ‫[ 𝐸 𝑣𝑔 ׬‬1 − 𝑓𝐹 𝐸 ] 𝑑𝐸 • Integral can be solved by substituting 𝜂 ′ =
𝑘𝑇
3
4𝜋(2𝑚𝑝∗ 𝑘𝑇)2 − 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑣 0 1
• Note: 1 − 𝑓𝐹 𝐸 =
1 𝑝𝑜 = exp[ ] න 𝜂′2 exp −𝜂′ 𝑑𝜂′
𝐸 −𝐸
1+exp( 𝐹𝑘𝑇 )
ℎ3 𝑘𝑇 +∞
• Negative sign comes from differential dE=-kTdη’

• For energy states in the valence band, 𝐸 < 𝐸𝑣
• Changing the order of integration, introduces another negative sign
• Using Gama function
• If (𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑣 ) >> 𝑘𝑇 then 3
(2𝜋𝑚𝑝∗ 𝑘𝑇)2 − 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑣
𝑝𝑜 = 2 exp[ ]
1 − 𝐸 −𝐸 ℎ2 𝑘𝑇
• 1 − 𝑓𝐹 𝐸 = 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸 ≈ exp[ 𝐹 ] 3
1+exp 𝑘𝑇
𝑘𝑇 (2𝜋𝑚∗𝑝 𝑘𝑇)2
• Defining 𝑁𝑣 = 2 = effective density states function in the valence band
ℎ2
3
𝐸𝐹 4𝜋(2𝑚∗𝑝 )2 − 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸 − 𝑬𝑭 − 𝑬𝒗
• 𝑝𝑜 = ‫׬‬ (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸) exp[ ] 𝑑𝐸 𝒑𝒐 = 𝑵𝒗 𝒆𝒙𝒑[ ]
−∞ ℎ3 𝑘𝑇
𝒌𝑻
• The magnitude of Nv is of the order of 1019 cm-3 at T = 300 K
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Important facts about Nc and Nv The Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
• The effective DOS functions, Nc and Nv, are constant for a given • For intrinsic semiconductor, concentration of e- in conduction band (𝑛𝑖 ) =
semiconductor material at a fixed temperature concentration of holes in the valence band (𝑝𝑖 )
• Intrinsic Fermi energy (EF = EFi ): Fermi energy level for intrinsic
semiconductor
Nc (cm-3) Nv (cm-3) m*n/m0 m*p/m0 − 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝐹𝑖 − 𝐸𝐹𝑖 − 𝐸𝑣
𝑛𝑜 = 𝑛𝑖 = 𝑁𝑐 exp[ ] and 𝑝𝑜 = 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑛𝑖 = 𝑁𝑣 exp[ ]
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
Si 2.8 * 1019 1.04 * 1019 1.08 0.56
GaAs 4.7 * 1017 7.0 * 1018 0.067 0.48 − 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝐹𝑖 − 𝐸𝐹𝑖 − 𝐸𝑣
𝑛2𝑖 = 𝑁𝑐 𝑁𝑣 exp[ ] exp[ ]
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
Ge 1.04 * 1019 6.0 * 1018 0.55 0.37
− 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝑣
= 𝑁𝑐 𝑁𝑣 exp[ ]
• Thermal equilibrium concentrations of electrons in conduction band 𝑘𝑇
and of holes in the valence band are directly related to

− 𝑬𝒈
• Effective DOS constants 𝒏𝟐𝒊 = 𝑵𝒄 𝑵𝒗 𝒆𝒙𝒑[ ]
𝒌𝑻
• Fermi energy level • For a given semiconductor material at constant temperature,
• value of ni is a constant
• Independent of the Fermi energy
Commonly accepted values of ni at T=300K The Intrinsic Fermi-Level Position
• ni for Si at T 300 K = 1.5 * 1010 cm-3 1019 • We have qualitatively argued that Fermi level is located near center of forbidden
1018 bandgap for intrinsic semiconductor
• Discrepancy in values of ni due to − 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝐹𝑖 − 𝐸𝐹𝑖 − 𝐸𝑣
1017 𝑁𝑐 exp[ ] = 𝑁𝑣 exp[ ]
• Effective mass slightly dependent on 𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
temperature 1016 Ge
• Difference between theoretical value and 1015
Taking natural log on both sides and solve for EFi,
experimental value of n, is approximately 1014
a factor of 2 Intrinsic
Carrier 1013 1 1 𝑁𝑣
𝐸𝐹𝑖 = 𝐸 + 𝐸𝑣 + 𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝑛
Density
1012
2 𝑐 2 𝑁𝑐
(cm-3)
Nc (cm-3) Nc (cm-3) ni (cm-3) Since,
1011 Si 3 3
1010 (2𝜋𝑚𝑛∗ 𝑘𝑇)2 (2𝜋𝑚𝑝∗ 𝑘𝑇)2
Si 2.8 * 1019 1.04 * 1019 1.5 * 1010 𝑁𝑐 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑣 = 2
109
ℎ2 ℎ2
GaAs 4.7 * 1017 7.0 * 1018 1.8 * 106 108 GaAs ∗
1 3 𝑚𝑝
107 • 𝐸𝐹𝑖 = 𝐸𝑐 + 𝐸𝑣 + 𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝑛 ∗
Ge 1.04 * 1019 6.0 * 1018 2.4 * 1013 2 4 𝑚𝑛
106 1
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 • 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑎𝑝 = 𝐸𝑐 + 𝐸𝑣 is exactly in between Ec and Ev
2
1000/T (K-1)
The Intrinsic Fermi-Level Position
𝟑 𝑚𝑝∗
𝑬𝑭𝒊 − 𝑬𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒈𝒂𝒑 = 𝒌𝑻 𝒍𝒏 ∗
𝟒 𝑚𝑛
m*p = m*n exactly in the center of the bandgap
m*p > m*n slightly above the center of the bandgap
m*p < m*n slightly below the center of the bandgap

EXTRINSIC
• DOS function is directly related to carrier effective mass SEMICONDUCTOR
• A larger effective mass means a larger DOS function
• The intrinsic Fermi level must shift away from the band with larger density of
states in order to maintain equal numbers of electrons and holes
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Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons and Holes Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons and Holes
• Since Fermi energy is related to EF > EFi

distribution function, Fermi energy EF < EFi
will change as dopant atoms are 𝑬 𝑬
added
Area = electron
concentration
• If Fermi energy changes from near 𝒈𝒄 (𝑬) 𝒈𝒄 (𝑬)

Area = electron
concentration
the midgap value, density of e- in
the conduction band and density of 𝑬𝒄 𝑬𝒄
holes in valence band will change 𝑬𝑭 𝒇𝑭 (𝑬) 𝒇𝑭 (𝑬)
𝑬𝑭𝒊 𝑬𝑭𝒊
𝑬𝑭
𝑬𝒗 𝑬𝒗
𝒈𝒗 (𝑬) Area = hole 𝒈𝒗 (𝑬)
EF > EFi e- conc. > hole conc. concentration
Area = hole
concentration
EF< EFi Hole conc. > e- conc.
𝒇𝑭 𝑬 = 𝟎 𝒇𝑭 𝑬 = 𝟏 𝒇𝑭 𝑬 = 𝟎 𝒇𝑭 𝑬 = 𝟏
𝒈(𝑬) 𝒈(𝑬)
Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons and Holes The no po Product
• Another form of equations for thermal-equilibrium concentrations of e- and holes • If EF > Efi, no > n, and po < n, thus no > po - n type semiconductor
• add and subtract an intrinsic Fermi energy in the exponent of • If EF < Efi, po > n, and no < n, thus no < po - p type semiconductor
− 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑛𝑜 = 𝑁𝑐 exp[ ]
𝑘𝑇
Then, − 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑣
− 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝐹𝑖 + 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐹𝑖 𝑛𝑜 𝑝𝑜 = 𝑁𝑐 𝑁𝑣 exp[ ] exp[ ]
𝑛𝑜 = 𝑁𝑐 exp[ ] 𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
𝑘𝑇
−𝐸𝑔
𝑛𝑜 = 𝑁𝑐 exp[
− 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝐹𝑖
] exp[
𝐸𝐹− 𝐸𝐹𝑖
] 𝑛𝑜 𝑝𝑜 = 𝑁𝑐 𝑁𝑣 exp[ ]
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
Since,
− 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝐹𝑖
𝑛𝑖 = 𝑁𝑐 exp[ ] 𝒏𝒐 𝒑𝒐 = 𝒏𝟐𝒊
𝑘𝑇
• Product of no and po is always a constant for a given semiconductor material at a
𝑬𝑭 − 𝑬𝑭𝒊
𝒏𝒐 = 𝒏𝒊 𝒆𝒙𝒑[ ] = 𝒑𝒐 given temperature
𝒌𝑻
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Degenerate Semiconductors Compensated Semiconductors
• If impurity conc. increases, distance between • A compensated semiconductor : That contains both donor and
impurity atoms decreases and a point will be
reached when donor e- will begin to interact with acceptor impurity atoms in same region
each other
• A compensated semiconductor can he formed

• When this occurs, single discrete donor energy
will split into a band of energies • by diffusing acceptor impurities into an n-type material
N-type • by diffusing donor impurities into a p-type material
• As donor conc. further increases, band of donor
states widens and may overlap bottom of
conduction band
Na < Nd n-type compensated semiconductor
• Overlap occurs when donor conc. ~ effective DOS
Na > Nd p-type compensated semiconductor
• When conc. of e- in conduction band exceeds DOS
Nc, Fermi energy lies within conduction band Na = Nd completely compensated semiconductor
P-type
• Known as degenerate n-type semiconductor
Compensated Semiconductors Equilibrium Electron and Hole Concentrations
• Charge neutrality condition is expressed by equating density of –ve

charges to density of +ve charges
𝑛𝑜 + 𝑁𝑎− = 𝑝𝑜 + Nd+
𝑛𝑜 + (𝑁𝑎 − 𝑝𝑎 ) = 𝑝𝑜 + (𝑁𝑑 − 𝑛𝑑 )
• 𝑛𝑜 , 𝑝𝑜 = thermal-equilibrium concentrations of electrons and holes
• 𝑛𝑑 = concetration of electrons in donor energy states

• 𝑝𝑎 = concetration of holes in acceptor energy states
• Nd+ = 𝑁𝑑 − 𝑛𝑑 = concentration of +vely charged donor states

• 𝑁𝑎− = 𝑁𝑎 − 𝑝𝑎 = concentration of -vely charged acceptor states
Thermal-Equilibrium Electron Concentration POSITION OF FERMI ENERGY LEVEL
• Assuming complete ionization, nd=pd=0 − 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐹− 𝐸𝑣

• 𝑛𝑜 = 𝑁𝑐 exp[ ] and 𝑝𝑜 = 𝑁𝑣 exp[ ]
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
𝑁
𝑛𝑜 + 𝑁𝑎 = 𝑝𝑜 + 𝑁𝑑 • Rearranging, 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝐹 = 𝑘𝑇 ln 𝑐
𝑛0
𝑛2𝑖 • If we consider an n-type semiconductor in which Nd >> ni, then n0 = Nd

𝑛𝑜 + 𝑁𝑎 = + 𝑁𝑑
𝑛𝑜 𝑁𝑐
• so that, 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝐹 = 𝑘𝑇 ln
• Solution for quadratic is 𝑁𝑑
(𝑁𝑑 −𝑁𝑎 ) (𝑁𝑑 −𝑁𝑎 ) 2

𝑛𝑜 = + + 𝑛2𝑖 for n-type semiconductor • Distance between bottom of conduction band and Fermi energy is a
2 2
logarithmic function of donor concentration
• +ve sign must be used, since, in the limit of an intrinsic semiconductor when Na =
Nd = 0, e- concentration must be a +ve quantity, or n0 = ni • As the donor concentration increases, the Fermi level moves closer to
the conduction band
(𝑁𝑎 −𝑁𝑑 ) (𝑁𝑎 −𝑁𝑑 ) 2
𝑝𝑜 = + + 𝑛2𝑖 for p-type semiconductor • Conversely, if Femi level moves closer to conduction band, then e-
2 2
concentration in conduction band is increasing
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Position Of Fermi Energy Level – a different approach Carrier concentrations

𝐸𝐹− 𝐸𝐹𝑖
• For n-type semiconductor 𝑛𝑜 = 𝑛𝑖 exp[ ] Band diagram Density of states Fermi-dirac distribution
𝑘𝑇
𝑛0 E E E
• 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐹𝑖 = 𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝑛 Intrinsic
𝑛𝑖 N(E) f(E)
Ec
EFi EF
Ev
• if the net effective donor concentration is zero N(E) (1- f(E))
• i.e. Nd - Na = 0, then n0=ni, and EF = EFi
N(E) f(E)
• A completely compensated semiconductor has the characteristics of an intrinsic N-type (Nd > Na)
material in terms of carrier concentration and Fermi level position Ec

EF
EFi
Ev
𝑁𝑣
• For p-type semiconductor 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑣 = 𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝑛
𝑝 0
P-type (Nd < Na)

𝑁𝑣
• Assuming 𝑁𝑎 >> 𝑛𝑖, 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑣 = 𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝑛 Ec
𝑁𝑎
EFi
𝑝0 EF
• 𝐸𝐹𝑖 − 𝐸𝐹 = 𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝑛 Ev
𝑛𝑖
9/23/2020 Carrier concentration and distribution 46 23-09-2020 Solar Photovoltaics : Semiconductor Fundamentals 47
Variation of EF with Doping Concentration Variation of EF with Doping Concentration and Temperature
As the doping levels increase, the Fermi energy level moves closer to the
conduction band for the n-type material and closer to the valence band for the
p-type material.
n0 p0  ni
2
Question: a)
The electron concentration corresponding to 11016 P atoms/cm3

a) A Si sample is doped with 11016 P atoms/cm3. What will doping is equal to ND:
be the minority hole carrier concentration (po) at room no= 11016 #/cm3
temperature?
Now the intrinsic carrier concentration for Si,
b) Draw the energy band diagram for the Si. Show the ni = 1.51010 #/cm3.
energy difference between the Ei, EF and Ec and Ev.
the minority carrier concentration (po):
c) Calculate the resistivity and the conductivity of the
sample if the electron and hole mobility are given as 1400 (1.5  1010 )2
2
ni
and 500 cm2/V-s respectively. p0    2.25  104 # / cm3
n0 1.0  1016
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• for Si at room temp. Ec-Ev=1.12 eV

b) expression which relates the electron concentration and Fermi level (EF):
• Also Ei  Ec - Eg/2
n 
EF  Ei  kT ln  0  • which implies that Ec-Ei =0.56 eV.
 ni 
• Using these two relationship
no = 11016 #/cm3 Ec-EF=0.22 eV
ni for Si = 1.51010 #/cm3 EF-Ev=0.9 eV
Putting these values in above expression we will get: • These energy levels in eV are shown schematically diagram below.
Ec
n  0.22
EF  Ei  kT ln  0  EF
 ni 
0.56
0.34
 11016  Ei
 0.0256 ln  
10 
 1.5 10  1.12 0.90
 0.34 eV
Ev
c) The conductivity () and the resistivity () of the sample is given by the Eq.:
  (qno  n  qpo  p )  1 / 
the equilibrium electron hole concentrations are as follows:

no= 11016 #/cm3
po= 2.25104 #/cm3
The resistivity of the sample will be inverse of the conductivity:

  q(no  n  po  p )
 1.6 10 19 (1.0 1016 *1400  2.25 10 4 * 500 )
the contribution of minority carriers, the holes, in the conductivity term can be neglected.
Thus, the conductivity of the sample will be:
  1.6  10 19 (1.0  1016 *1400 )  2.24 (  cm)1

1 1
   0.446   cm
 2.24 (  cm)1
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Why P-N Junction
• Increase in the potential energy of carriers

• Generation of electron-hole pair
P-N JUNCTION • Separation of carriers

• asymmetry in the P-N junction
• asymmetry causes generated carriers to cross the
junction resulting in separation of charge carriers
Prof. Paresh Kale

NIT Rourkela.
9/23/2020 P-N Junction 2
BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE pn JUNCTION space charge region, electric field, forces acting on the charged carriers
Metallurgical junction: The interface separating the n and p regions Na -ve Charge Nd +ve Charge
P N
P P N N
Step Junction : abrupt change in doping Space Charge region Quasi-Neutral

Quasi-Neutral
Doping / depletion region region
region
concentration ξ ≠0 ξ=0
Na Metallurgical ξ=0
Width = W
Junction
Nd
NA
Hole
Diffusion Diffusion E-Field Diffusion
Electron ND Forces Forces
Diffusion on on
E-Field
Holes E-Field electrons
Forces
Depth from surface Forces on
on holes electrons
Doping profile of an ideal and practical uniformly doped P-N junction.
9/23/2020 P-N Junction 3 9/23/2020 P-N Junction 4
Doping and concentration distribution of symmetrical junction at

thermal equilibrium
ZERO BIAS
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Energy band diagram Potential difference

N-type
P-type
EC
• At equilibrium drift current = diffusion current in opposite direction
EF 𝒅𝒏
𝒒𝒏𝝁𝒏 𝑬 = −𝒒𝑫𝒏
EFi 𝒅𝒙
𝑑𝜑
EF 𝐸=−
EV
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝜑 𝑫𝒏 𝑑𝑛 1
=
𝑑𝑥 𝝁𝒏 𝑛 𝑑𝑥
• Using Einstein’s Formula
EC
𝑑𝜑 𝒌𝑻 𝑑𝑛 1
EF
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑞 𝑛 𝑑𝑥
EFi
• Integrating, Potential difference is
EV
𝑛𝑝
𝜑 = − 𝑉𝑇 ln ൗ𝑛𝑛 = 𝑉𝐷
space charge region
𝑘𝑇
V • Where 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑇 =
𝑞
𝑁𝐷 𝑁𝐴
• Diffusion voltage = 𝑉𝐷 = 𝑉𝑇 ln( ൗ𝑛2 )
𝑖
-xp 0 xn x
Built-in Potential Barrier (Vbi or Vo) Poisson’s equation
• Vo: Electrons in the conduction band of the • Assuming excess electric charge exist within semiconductor, then electric field is
n region see a potential barrier in trying to
qV0 present – diff in concentration of charge carriers
move into the conduction band of the p EC
qφFp • Relation between electric charge and electric field is given by Poisson’s equation
region EF
qφFn
• Vo: maintains equilibrium between the EFi
majority and minority carriers of the region EV

𝒅𝟐 𝝋 𝒅𝑬 𝑸
− = =
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 𝜺𝜺𝒐
• 𝑉𝑏𝑖 = 𝜑𝐹𝑛 + 𝜑𝐹𝑝 ..1 Q= Total electric charge in the crystal
−𝑘𝑇 𝑁
𝜑𝐹𝑛 = 𝑞
ln 𝑛𝑑 ..2 ε and εo = relative permittivity in the material and in vacuum
𝑖
Φ = potential
− 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝐹 𝑘𝑇 𝑁
• 𝑛𝑜 = 𝑁𝑐 𝑒𝑥𝑝[ ] 𝜑𝐹𝑝 = ln 𝑛𝑎 ..3
𝑘𝑇 𝑞 𝑖
𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐹𝑖 • To determine total charge
• 𝑛𝑜 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒𝑥𝑝[ ]
𝑘𝑇 𝒅𝑬 𝒒
= (𝒑 − 𝒏 + 𝑵+ −
𝑫 − 𝑵𝑨 )
𝒌𝑻 𝑵𝒂 𝑵𝒅 𝑵𝒂 𝑵𝒅 𝒅𝒙 𝜺𝜺𝒐
𝑽𝒃𝒊 = 𝒍𝒏 = 𝑽𝒕 𝒍𝒏
• 𝑞𝜑𝐹𝑛 = 𝐸𝐹𝑖 − 𝐸𝐹 𝒒 𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝒏𝟐𝒊
• The gradient of the field strength is equal to the total charge divided by the
−𝑞𝜑𝐹𝑛 𝑘𝑇 relative permittivity of the material.
• 𝑛𝑜 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒𝑥𝑝[ ] 𝑉𝑡 = = 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑘𝑇 𝑞
9/23/2020 P-N Junction 9 9/23/2020 Carrier concentration and distribution 10
Electric Field Electric Field

ρ (C/cm3) E
• Assuming space charge region p-type n-type
• The electric field in the p region is found by p-type n-type
• abruptly ends in the n region at x= + xn +qNd integrating X =0

-xp +xn
• abruptly ends in the p region at x= - xp
+
-xp −𝜌(𝑥) 𝑞𝑁𝑎 −𝑞𝑁𝑎
• 𝐸= ‫𝜖 ׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 = ‫𝜖 ׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶1
• The electric field is determined from 𝑠 𝑠 𝜖𝑠
+xn
Poisson’s equation -
-qNa • The electric field is assumed to be zero in the
𝑑 2 𝜑(𝑥) −𝜌(𝑥) −𝑑𝐸(𝑥) neutral p region for x < -xp since the currents
= = are zero in thermal equilibrium
𝑑𝑥 2 𝜖𝑠 𝑑𝑥 The space charge density in
uniformly doped pn junction
Electric field in the space charge
region of a uniformly doped pn
assuming abrupt junction approx. junction
• The constant of integration is determined by
• φ(x) = electric potential setting E=0 at x= -xp
• E(x) = electric field 𝜌 𝑥 = −𝑞𝑁𝑎 − 𝑥𝑝 < 𝑥 < 0
𝜌 𝑥 = 𝑞𝑁𝑑 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑥𝑛 • At x=0 (i.e. metallurgical
• ρ(x) = volume charge density • The electric field in the p and n region resp.
junction)
−𝑞𝑁𝑎
• εs = permittivity of the semiconductor 𝐸= (𝑥 + 𝑥𝑝 ) −𝑥𝑝 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0 𝑁𝑎 𝑥𝑝 = 𝑁𝑑 𝑥𝑛
𝜖𝑠
−𝑞𝑁𝑑
𝐸= (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥) 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥𝑛
𝜖𝑠
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Electric potential in space charge region Space Charge Width

𝑁𝑑 𝑥𝑛
• At x=0 (i.e. metallurgical junction) 𝑁𝑎 𝑥𝑝 = 𝑁𝑑 𝑥𝑛 , therefore 𝑥𝑝 =
𝑁𝑎
𝑞
• 𝜑 𝑥 = − ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝐸 ׬‬ • 𝑉𝑏𝑖 = (𝑁𝑑 𝑥𝑛2 + 𝑁𝑎 𝑥𝑝2 )
2𝜀𝑠
E
• For n region, potential is given by p-type n-type • Substituting xp and solving for xn
1/2
2𝜀𝑠 𝑉𝑏𝑖 𝑁𝑎 1
𝑞𝑁𝑑 𝑥2 𝑞𝑁𝑎
+Vbi 𝑥𝑛 =
• 𝜑 𝑥 = 𝑥. 𝑥𝑛 − + 𝑥𝑝2 𝑞 𝑁𝑑 𝑁𝑎 + 𝑁𝑑
𝜀𝑠 2 2𝜀𝑠
• Similarly, substituting xn and solving for xp

• The magnitude of the potential at x = xn 1/2
= built in potential barrier (Vbi) 2𝜀𝑠 𝑉𝑏𝑖 𝑁𝑑 1
-xp +xn 𝑥𝑝 =
X =0 𝑞 𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑎 + 𝑁𝑑
𝒒
𝑽𝒃𝒊 = (𝑵𝒅 𝒙𝟐𝒏 + 𝑵𝒂 𝒙𝟐𝒑 )
𝟐𝜺𝒔 • 𝑊 = 𝑥𝑝 + 𝑥𝑑
𝟏/𝟐
𝟐𝜺𝒔 𝑽𝒃𝒊 𝑵𝒂 + 𝑵𝒅
𝑾=
𝒒 𝑵𝒂 𝑵𝒅
Carrier movements and current densities Carrier concentration profile
Movement of carriers are represented with dotted lines

Corresponding current densities are represented in solid lines
Inet = 0
Jn,drift Jn,diff space
pp0= NA charge
P side N side region
nn0= ND
qV0 Carrier
conc.
EC
pn0= ni2/ND
EE F
F
np0= ni2/NA
Ei
P side N side
Distance
EV
Jp,diff Jp,drift
J n , diff  J n , drift  0 & J p , diff  J p , drift  0

Equations for reverse bias
• 𝑽𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑽𝒃𝒊 + 𝑽𝑹
qVtotal
qφFp
EFp
𝟐𝜺𝒔 (𝑽𝒃𝒊 +𝑽𝑹 ) 𝑵𝒂 +𝑵𝒅 𝟏/𝟐 EC
qVR
• 𝑾=
𝒒 𝑵𝒂 𝑵𝒅 EFn
qφFn
EFi
• Total space charge width increases on EV
applying a reverse-biased voltage
Eapp
• The maximum electric field at the
metallurgical junction
REVERSE BIAS P P N N
−𝑞𝑁𝑎 𝑥𝑝 −𝑞𝑁𝑑 𝑥𝑛
• 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = W
𝜖𝑠 𝜖𝑠
2𝑞(𝑉𝑏𝑖 +𝑉𝑅 ) 𝑁𝑎 +𝑁𝑑 1/2

• 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = - +
𝜖𝑠 𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑 VR
−𝟐(𝑽𝒃𝒊 +𝑽𝑹 )
• 𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝑾
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Ideal Current–Voltage Relationship - Assumptions
1. The space charge regions have abrupt boundaries
2. Semiconductor is neutral outside of the depletion region.
3. The Maxwell–Boltzmann approximation applies to carrier statistics
4. The concepts of low injection and complete ionization apply
FORWARD BIAS 5. Finally

i. Total current is a constant throughout the entire pn structure
ii. Individual e- and hole currents are continuous functions through pn structure
iii. Individual e- and hole currents are constant throughout the depletion region
Commonly used terms Boundary Conditions
Term Meaning
• Electrons from n side has to overcome built-in potential to go to p-side
𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑
Na Acceptor concentration in the p region of the pn junction 𝑉𝑏𝑖 = 𝑉𝑡 𝑙𝑛
Nd Donor concentration in the n region of the pn junction 𝑛𝑖2
nn0 = Nd Thermal-equilibrium majority carrier electron concentration in the n region • Dividing by Vt=kT/q and rearranging
𝑛𝑖2 −𝑞𝑉𝑏𝑖
pp0 = Na Thermal-equilibrium majority carrier hole concentration in the p region = exp( )
𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑 𝑘𝑇
np0 = n2i / Na Thermal-equilibrium minority carrier electron concentration in the p region
• assume complete ionization
pn0 = n2i / Nd Thermal-equilibrium minority carrier hole concentration in the n region 𝑛𝑛𝑜 ≈ 𝑁𝑑
𝑛𝑖2
np Total minority carrier electron concentration in the p region 𝑛𝑝0 ≈
𝑁𝑎
pn Total minority carrier hole concentration in the n region
np (-xp) Minority carrier electron concentration in the p region at the space charge −𝑞𝑉𝑏𝑖
edge 𝑛𝑝0 = 𝑛𝑛0 𝑒𝑥𝑝( )
𝑘𝑇
pn (-xn) Minority carrier hole concentration in the n region at the space charge edge
Δnp = np-np0 Excess minority carrier electron concentration in the p region • Equation relates the minority carrier electron concentration on the p side of the
Δpn = pn-pn0 Excess minority carrier hole concentration in the n region junction to the majority carrier electron concentration on the n side of the junction
in thermal equilibrium
Qualitative Description of Charge Flow in a pn Junction Qualitative Description of Charge Flow in a pn Junction
Eapp • Substituing 𝑉𝑏𝑖 by 𝑉𝑏𝑖 − 𝑉𝑎
P PN N −𝑞(𝑉𝑏𝑖 −𝑉𝑎 ) −𝑞𝑉𝑏𝑖 ) 𝑞𝑉𝑎 )

𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛0 exp( ) = 𝑛𝑛0 exp exp( )
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
W
• Applied Voltage = Va
+ Va - • majority carrier e- concentration nn0 does not change significantly
• net electric field in the
space charge region is • minority carrier concentration, np, can deviate from its thermal-equilibrium value
Electron Flow reduced below the np0 by orders of magnitude
equilibrium value 𝑞𝑉𝑎 )
q(Vbi-Va)
𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑝0 exp( )
EC
𝑘𝑇
• The electric field force
EFp EFn
that prevented majority
carriers from crossing • the total minority carrier e- concentration in the p region, is now greater than the
the space charge region thermal equilibrium value
EFi
is reduced
EV
• Similarly
Hole Flow 𝑞𝑉𝑎 )
𝑝𝑛 = 𝑝𝑛0 exp( )
𝑘𝑇
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23-09-2020
Minority carrier concentrations profile Minority Carrier Distribution
• From Continuity equations

𝜕𝑛 1 𝜕𝐽𝑛 𝜕𝑝 1 𝜕𝐽𝑝
=− − (𝑈 − 𝐺) and =− − (𝑈 − 𝐺)
𝜕𝑡 𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝑞 𝜕𝑥
• Zero rate of generation G=0 ( since no light)

• steady state condition n/t=0 & p/t=0
• Low injection recombination rate U = Δn/τn = Δp/τp
• minority carrier diffuses in the quasi-neutral region where electric field is zero (ξ
= 0), drift current component = 0
• Jn=q*Dn*dn(x)/dx and Jp=-q*Dp*dp(x)/dx
• Diffusion length for electron and holes
Ln {=(Dnn)1/2} and Lp {=(Dpp)1/2}
𝑑2 (𝛿𝑝𝑛 ) 𝛿𝑝𝑛
− =0 (𝑥 > 𝑥𝑛 ) eqn 1
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐿2𝑝
Excess minority carrier concentrations at the space charge edges generated by the 𝑑2 (𝛿𝑛𝑝 ) 𝛿𝑛𝑝
− =0 (𝑥 < 𝑥𝑝 ) eqn 2
forward-bias voltage 𝑑𝑥 2 𝐿2𝑛
Minority Carrier Distribution Minority Carrier Distribution
• The boundary conditions for the total minority carrier concentrations • The minority carrier concentrations decay exponentially with distance away from
𝑞𝑉𝑎 ) 𝑞𝑉𝑎 ) the junction to their thermal-equilibrium values
𝑝𝑛 (𝑥𝑛 ) = 𝑝𝑛0 exp( ) and 𝑛𝑝 (−𝑥𝑝) = 𝑛𝑝0 exp( )
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
𝑝𝑛 𝑥 → +∞ = 𝑝𝑛0 and 𝑛𝑝 𝑥 → −∞ = 𝑛𝑝0
• General solution for eqn 1 and 2 is

𝑥 𝑥
−𝐿
𝛿𝑝𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑝𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑝𝑛𝑜 = 𝐴𝑒 𝐿𝑝 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑝 (𝑥 ≥ 𝑥𝑛 )
𝑥 𝑥
−
𝛿𝑛𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑛𝑝 𝑥 − 𝑛𝑝𝑜 = 𝐶𝑒 𝐿𝑛 + 𝐷𝑒 𝐿𝑛 (𝑥 ≤ −𝑥𝑝 )
• Applying boundary conditions B = C = 0
• The excess carrier concentrations

𝑞𝑉𝑎 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥
𝛿𝑝𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑝𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑝𝑛𝑜 = 𝑝𝑛𝑜 exp − 1 exp 𝑓𝑜𝑟 (𝑥 ≥ 𝑥𝑛 )
𝑘𝑇 𝐿𝑝
𝑞𝑉𝑎 𝑥𝑝 + 𝑥
𝛿𝑛𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑛𝑝 𝑥 − 𝑛𝑝𝑜 = 𝑛𝑝𝑜 exp − 1 exp 𝑓𝑜𝑟 (𝑥 ≤ −𝑥𝑝) Steady-state minority carrier concentrations in a pn junction under forward
𝑘𝑇 𝐿𝑛 bias
Ideal pn Junction Current Ideal pn Junction Current
• total current in the junction = the individual e- and hole currents that are constant • the minority carrier hole diffusion current density at x = xn
through the depletion region 𝑑𝑝𝑛 𝑥
𝐽𝑝 𝑥𝑛 = −𝑞𝐷𝑝 ȁ𝑥=𝑥𝑛
• Since the e- and hole currents are continuous functions through the pn junction, 𝑑𝑥
the total pn junction current = the minority carrier hole diffusion current at (x = xn) • assuming uniformly doped regions, the thermal-equilibrium carrier concentration
+ the minority carrier electron diffusion current at (x = xp) is constant
𝑞𝑉𝑎 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥
• assuming the electric field to be zero at the space charge edges, any minority 𝛿𝑝𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑝𝑛𝑜 exp −1 exp
carrier drift current component is zero 𝑘𝑇 𝐿𝑝
• at x = xn and Taking derivative and substituting
𝑞𝐷𝑝 𝑝𝑛𝑜 𝑞𝑉𝑎

𝐽𝑝 𝑥𝑛 = exp −1
𝐿𝑝 𝑘𝑇
• The hole current density for this forward-bias condition is in the x direction, which
is from the p to the n region
• Similarly
𝑞𝐷𝑛 𝑛𝑝𝑜 𝑞𝑉𝑎
𝐽𝑛 −𝑥𝑝 = exp −1
𝐿𝑛 𝑘𝑇
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Ideal pn Junction Current Carrier movements and current densities
• Total current density

Inet
Jn,drift Jn,diff
𝐽 = 𝐽𝑝 𝑥𝑛 + 𝐽𝑛 −𝑥𝑝
𝑞𝐷𝑛 𝑛𝑝𝑜 𝑞𝐷𝑝 𝑝𝑛𝑜 𝑞𝑉𝑎 q(V0-VA)

𝐽 = + exp −1
𝐿𝑛 𝐿𝑝 𝑘𝑇 EC
EFn
𝑞𝐷𝑛 𝑛𝑝𝑜 𝑞𝐷𝑝 𝑝𝑛𝑜 EFp
Defining Js = + I
𝐿𝑛 𝐿𝑝
EE F i
𝒒𝑽𝒂
𝑱 = 𝑱𝒔 𝒆𝒙𝒑 −𝟏 EV
𝒌𝑻
V=0 Va
-Igen=-I0 =-Is
Js = ideal reverse-saturation current density
Jp,diff Jp,drift
P side N side
Carrier concentration profile Minority and majority carrier current
n, p P side N side
ln(n),
p n ln(p) p n J
majority carrier current
pp0 pp0 Jp Jn
nn0 nn0
Jp
Jn
minority carrier current
pn0 pn0
np0 np0
-xp xn
x
-xp xn x -xp xn x
Practical PN junction diode current High level injection
𝐽𝑟𝑒𝑐 =
𝑞𝑊𝑛𝑖 𝑞𝑉
exp 2𝑘𝑇𝑎 = 𝐽𝑟𝑜 exp
𝑞𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎
2𝜏0 2𝑘𝑇 𝐼 ∝ exp( )
2𝑉𝑡
𝒒𝑽𝒂
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒔 𝒆𝒙𝒑 −𝟏 Ideal Diffusion
𝒏𝒌𝑻 ln(𝐽)
Current JD
Slope = 1 I (Log scale)
Total
Current
• n = ideality factor Recombination
Current Jrec
Slope = 1/2
• For a large forward-bias voltage, n= 1 when diffusion dominates ln (Jro)

Recombination Ideal High level Injection
ln (Js)
• For low forward-bias voltage, n = 2 when recombination dominates
𝑞𝑉𝑎
• Transition region where 1 < n < 2 𝑉𝑎
𝑘𝑇
Ideal diffusion, recombination, and total Forward-bias current versus voltage from low
current in a forward-biased pn junction forward bias to high forward bias
6
23-09-2020
Deviation from ideal behaviour
ln(I) ideal Resistive

curve losses, high
level of current
q/kT
q/2kT
SOLAR CELL
V
thermal generation
and recombination
I-V equation I-V equation
• Total current 𝐽𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐽𝑝 𝑥𝑛 − 𝐽𝑛 −𝑥𝑝

• If there is a constant generation
across the depletion region
∆𝐽𝑛−𝑑𝑒𝑝 = 𝑞𝐺𝑥𝑛
𝑞𝐷𝑛 𝑛𝑝𝑜 𝑞𝐷𝑝 𝑝𝑛𝑜 𝑞𝑉𝑎
𝐽𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + exp − 1 − 𝑞𝐺(𝐿𝑛 + 𝐿𝑝 + 𝑊)
𝐿𝑛 𝐿𝑝 𝑘𝑇
• Jn at the edge of the depletion region in p-type material 𝑞𝐷𝑛 𝑛𝑖2 𝑞𝐷𝑝 𝑛𝑖2 𝑞𝑉𝑎
𝑞𝐷𝑛 𝑛𝑝𝑜 𝑞𝑉𝑎 𝑞𝐷𝑛 𝑞𝐷𝑛 𝑛𝑝𝑜 𝑞𝑉𝑎 𝐽𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑛𝑝𝑜 + 𝑝𝑛𝑜 exp − 1 − 𝑞𝐺(𝐿𝑛 𝜏𝑛 + 𝐿𝑝 𝜏𝑝 )
𝐽𝑛 −𝑥𝑝 =− exp −1 + 𝐺𝜏𝑛 = − exp − 1 + 𝑞𝐺𝐿𝑛 𝐿𝑛 𝐿𝑝 𝑘𝑇
𝐿𝑛 𝑘𝑇 𝐿𝑛 𝐿𝑛 𝑘𝑇
• Jn at the edge of the depletion region in n-type material

𝑞𝐷𝑛 𝑛𝑝𝑜 𝑞𝑉𝑎 • Typically we write equation in the form
𝐽𝑛 −𝑥𝑝 = 𝐽𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + ∆𝐽𝑛−𝑑𝑒𝑝 = − exp − 1 + 𝑞𝐺(𝐿𝑛 + 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥𝑝 )
𝐿𝑛 𝑘𝑇
𝒒𝑽𝒂
𝑱 = 𝑱𝒔 (𝒆𝒙𝒑 − 𝟏) − 𝑱𝒔𝒄
• Analogous expression for Jp 𝒌𝑻
Junction under illumination Junction under illumination
P-type N-type
Carrier will die Time t>0

Time t=0
Ec
EF
Ei Ec Ec
Ev
Ei + Ei -
Ev Pile up of carriers, Ev
responsible for
Current flow Ln W Lp generation of forward Ln W Lp
Hole Diffusion voltage ξ Carrier will die, will not
(Photovoltaic effect) participate in current
Hole Drift
• Shining of light will generate electron-
Electron Diffusion
hole pair throughout the semiconductor Direction of the light
Electron Drift
generated current
7
23-09-2020
Carrier Concentration Profile Current-Voltage (I-V) Curve for solar cell
pp pp0
I
Ln(n), nn nn0
ln(p)
V
np0 pn0
Ln Lp
-xp xn x 𝑞𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 1 − 𝐼𝐿
Away from the edge, the chances of minority carrier drifting to other side decreases and 𝑛𝑘𝑇
hence concentration of minority carriers increases . After the diffusion length the carrier
IL= light generated current Io= saturated current
concentration attains a steady state values related to rate of generation and recombination in
the quasi-neutral region.
9/23/2020 P-N Junction 43 23-09-2020 Solar Photovoltaics :Technology Development and advances 44
9/23/2020 P-N Junction 45
8
28-09-2020
Construction and Working of solar cell
• Generation of hole pair on absorption of photon

• Separation of carriers
• Collection
SOLAR CELL Solar radiation
Front metal
PARAMETERS contact
Antireflective
_
coating
P-N junction V
Emitter (n-type) +
Prof. Paresh Kale
Base (p-type)
Back metal
contact
NIT Rourkela.
28-09-2020 Solar Photovoltaics :Technology Development and advances 2
Current-Voltage (I-V) Curve for solar cell Solar cell parameters
I • Short-circuit current (Isc) :

I
• due to generation and collection of light-
generated carriers. Isc Pm
• largest current which may be drawn Im X
from the solar cell
• Open-circuit voltage (Voc) : amount V

Vm Voc
of forward bias on the solar cell
V
junction due to illumination.
Max. Cell Power V I
  m m
• Fill factor (FF) : Ratio of the Incident light Intensity Pin
𝑞𝑉 maximum power from the actual

Voc I sc FF
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑛𝑘𝑇
− 1 − 𝐼𝐿 solar cell to the maximum power 
from a ideal solar cell Pin
IL= light generated current Io= saturated current
28-09-2020 Solar Photovoltaics :Technology Development and advances 3 28-09-2020 Solar Photovoltaics :Technology Development and advances 4
Short-circuit current (Isc)

• Calculate the number of photons absorbed in the solar cell if
• For maximum Isc, assume no
the current density obtained is about 46 mA/cm2? q=1.610-19
recombination in the material  each
C/electron
photon will contribute to one e- flow to the
load.
• Calculate the number of e- density from the current density.
• A photon with energy > Eg is absorbed
- Isc will depend on the Eg of the material • Hence the number of e- in 1 C charge are 1/1.610-19
= 6.251018 # of electrons/C
• A material with large Eg will absorb less
number of photons as compared to the
materials with low Eg • No. of e- that are generated / cm2 in current density of 46 mA/cm2
= 6.251018  46  10-3
• Therefore Isc increase with decrease in Eg = 2.87510 17 # of electrons/cm2 s.
• For a material of a given Eg, maximum • Si band gap = 1.1 eV • Assume each photon generates an e- after being absorbed
short circuit current is obtained by
• Corresponding upper limit to No. of photons absorbed = No. of e- generated/cm2 s
integrating the photon flux from highest short circuit current = 46
photon energy to the cut-off energy level mA/cm2
(Eg) and multiplying it by elementary • Ans = 2.8751017 # of photons absorbed/cm2 s
charge q
9/28/2020 Solar Cell Parameters 5 9/28/2020 Solar Cell Parameters 6
1
28-09-2020
Open circuit voltage Open circuit voltage
• If there are no potential drops in the solar cell then the electrostatic potential
V=-Eg/q should be maximum possible voltage that can be obtained from a
solar cell.
• Upper limit to Voc is decided by the Eg
• Larger the Eg, higher is the Voc
EFn
• In reality the upper limit of Voc is lower than the limit set by Eg. V=-Eg/q
• Solar cell needs to be contacted in order to collect the excited charge carriers.
Voc=-(EFn- EFp)/q
The difference in the potential level of contacts sets the upper limit for the Voc EFp
of a solar cell
• The recombination current is represented by I 0 in the expression for Voc

𝑘𝑇 𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑐 = ln( + 1)
𝑞 𝐼𝑜
𝑘𝑇 (𝑁𝐴 + ∆𝑛)∆𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑐 = ln( )
𝑞 𝑛𝑖2
Open circuit voltage Open circuit voltage
• For higher Voc, the I0 should be lower
• Lowest value of I0 is obtained when the recombination rate = thermal equilibrium

recombination rate
• Maximum possible Voc for Si solar cell = 0.85 V
• For any solar cell material the lowest value of I0 (thus highest value of Voc)
 D n2 D n2 
I 0  Aq  n i  p i 
L N 
 n A Lp N D 
• A reasonable estimation of the minimum value of I0 in terms of Eg can be written
as Eg

I 0  1.5  10 5 e kT
Fill Factor Fill Factor
• Squareness of the I-V curve

• Ideal value = 100%
• Mainly related to the resistive losses in a 0.9
solar cell
• Empirical equation for FF as a function 0.8
of Voc
FF
oc  ln(oc  0.72)

0.7
FF 
oc  1
0.6
where υoc = Voc/(kT/q

0.5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
• Solar cell with higher Voc has higher FF Voc/(kT/q)
• Typical value = 0.85
2
28-09-2020
Efficiency Efficiency
• For solar cell with increase in band gap

• Isc decreases
• Voc increases
• There is an optimum band gap for which efficiency of a solar cell

would be maximum
• Shockley Quiesser limit: max. solar cell efficiency = 31% is

obtained for the optimum band gap of about 1.45 eV
• The above statement is true only under certain assumptions, such as:
• The solar spectrum is AM1.5
• Solar cell has a single P-N junction.
Maximum possible solar cell efficiencies as a function of energy band
• There is no light concentration i.e. 1-sun radiation.
gap of semiconductor material for AM1.5
Efficiency Typical values c-Si solar cell
under one sun and AM1.5 conditions
Maximum possible
Practical
theoretically
Isc (mA / cm 2) 46 28-35
Voc (mV) 730 600
FF 0.89 0.8-0.83
9/28/2020 Solar Cell Parameters 15 28-09-2020 Solar Photovoltaics :Technology Development and advances 18
Dimensions and of a typical solar cell
• Cell thickness  Typically 200 to 500 m

• Doping of base  Typically 1 Ω-cm, P-type
• Emitter  N-type, thickness < 1 m, doping 1019 #/cm3, 50-100 Ω/ □
• ARC coating  80nm thick Si3N4 layer
• surface texturing  Pyramid of about 4 to 5 m height
• Grid pattern  20 to 200 m wide fingers, 2 to 5 mm apart
Antireflection Bus bar

coating
Antireflection
texturing
Fingers
LOSSES AND MODELING
Emitter
(grid pattern)
Base
Rear
contact
28-09-2020 Solar Photovoltaics :Technology Development and advances 19 9/28/2020 Solar Cell Parameters 20
3
28-09-2020
Losses in solar cell – Fundamental losses Summary of losses in Solar Cell
Loss Characteristics Reflection
Transmission loss • Loss of low energy photons

Optical Shadowing
• ≈ 23% for a single junction solar cell
Un-absorbed radiation
Thermalization loss • Loss due to excess energy of photons
• ≈ 33% for a single junction solar cell Losses in
Solar Cell SC material
Voltage Loss • Voltage corresponding to the Eg of a material = Eg/q Ohmic

• The actual voltage obtained from a solar cell is Voc. Contact Material
• Due to unavoidable intrinsic Auger recombination.
• The ratio of Voc/Eg/q ≈ 0.65 to 0.72 Electrical Emitter material and
surface
Base material and

Fill factor loss • Arises from the parasitic resistance (series and shunt Recombination
Surface
resistance) of the cell
Space charge region
9/28/2020 Solar Cell Parameters 21 28-09-2020 Solar Photovoltaics :Technology Development and advances 22
Collection probability Collection probability
• Probability that a carrier generated by light absorption in a certain region of the

device will be collected by the p-n junction and contribute IL
• Depends on the
• Distance that a light-generated carrier must travel compared to the diffusion
length.
• Surface properties of the device
If carrier is generated closer to a region with higher recombination
• The collection probability of carriers generated in the depletion region is unity
than the junction, then the carrier will recombine.
• Away from the junction, the collection probability drops
Quantum Efficiency (QE) Quantum Efficiency
• Ratio of the number of carriers collected to the number of photons of a

given energy incident on the solar cell
• QE may be given either as a function of wavelength or as energy
• ‘External’ QE (EQE:) of solar cell includes the effect of optical losses

such as transmission and reflection.
• ‘Internal’ QE (IQE) : Efficiency with which photons that are not

reflected or transmitted out of the cell can generate collectable carriers.
• Ideally QE curve has the square shape
• By measuring the reflection and transmission of a device, EQE curve can • If all photons of a certain wavelength are absorbed and the resulting minority
be corrected to obtain the IQE curve. carriers are collected, then the QE at that particular wavelength is unity
• QE for most solar cells is reduced due to recombination effects
• QE for photons with energy below the band gap is zero
4
28-09-2020
Spectral response
• Ratio of the current generated to the power incident on the solar

cell
𝑞𝜆
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑄𝐸
ℎ𝑐
𝐴 𝜆(𝑛𝑚)
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑄𝐸
𝑊 1239.8
𝐴 𝜆(𝜇𝑚)
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑄𝐸
𝑊 1.24
9/28/2020 Solar Cell Parameters 27
5
30-09-2020
Model of Solar Cell - Two diode model Effect of series and shunt resistance on efficiency
• Two diode represents

• Recombination in the bulk and in the
emitter region (including surfaces) of the • Reduce the efficiency of the solar cell by dissipating power in the
cell resistances
Rs I
• Recombination in the space charge Ideal
region of the cell current
source • Parasitic resistances are
• Recombination current flow in opposite
Rsh V • Series resistance
JL
J01 J02 • Shunt resistance
direction to the light generated current
• In a simple model the recombination in the D1: Recombination D2: Recombination in • Magnitude and impact of series and shunt resistance depend on
in base and emitter space charge region
space charge region is neglected
the geometry (Area, thickness) of the solar cell
• Through the inclusion of diode, the effect
of temperature on solar cell performance is
also incorporated
Model of Solar Cell - two diode and single diode model Contributing factors to Rs :
Rs I finger
 qV 
J  J L  J 0  exp  1 Rsh Rbf
 kT  JL
V bus bar
J01 J02
emitter Re Rc We
 q(V  IRs )   q(V  IRs )  V  IRs Wb

J  J L  J 01 exp   J 02  exp  base Rb
 kT   2kT  Rsh
rear contact
𝒒 𝑽+𝑰𝑹𝒔 𝑽+𝑰𝑹𝒔
𝑰 = 𝑰𝑳 − 𝑰𝟎 𝒆𝒙𝒑 −𝟏 −
𝒏𝒌𝑻 𝑹𝑺𝑯
• Movement of current through the emitter and base of solar cell
In a simple solar cell model J02 = 0
• Contact resistance between the metal contact and the silicon
 q(V  IRs )  V  IRs • Resistance of the top and rear metal contacts
J  J L  J 01 exp 
 nkT  Rsh
Characteristic resistance (RCH) Sheet Resistance
• In diffused semiconductor layers, resistivity is a strong function of depth. It is

Isc convenient to a parameter "sheet resistance" (Rs).
Im
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 L
•𝑅= 𝜌 = 𝜌 = 𝑅𝑠
𝑉𝑀𝑃 𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝐴 𝑊𝑡 𝑊
𝑅𝐶𝐻 = ≈
𝐼𝑀𝑃 𝐼𝑆𝐶
W t
Vm Voc
• Unit of ohms/square or Ω/□ (actual unit is Ohms)
• The L/W ratio can be thought of as the number of unit squares (of any size)
• Output resistance of the solar cell at its maximum power point
• Rs of solar cell emitter ≈ of 30 to 100 Ω/□

• Important when examining the impact of parasitic loss mechanisms
1
30-09-2020
Series resistance Shunt resistance

• Slope of the I-V curve near Voc gives
• Due to the manufacturing
indication about Rs
defects
• Ideally Rs should be low, in the order 2.5
of few m-Ohms per cm2 • Ideally Rsh should be very

2.5
large, in the range of several 2
• As Rs increases more and more voltage 2

hundred Ohms.
1.5
Current (A)
drop occurs within the cell and its I-V
Current (A)
starts to deviate 1.5
• Very low value of Rsh affects 1
1 the Voc but not the Isc.

• FF is affected while Isc and Voc does not 0.5
0.5
• As the short circuited path 0
0 provide the lowest resistance 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
and hence current flow through Voltage (V)
Voltage (V)
short circuited path rather then
the leakage path
Extreme series and shunt resistance Effect of solar radiation on efficiency

• Normaliised series resistance
Isc α intensity of radiation
𝑅𝑠ℎ
• 𝑟𝑠 =
𝑅𝐶ℎ
• 𝐹𝐹 = 𝐹𝐹0 (1 − 𝑟𝑠 )
𝑟𝑠
• 𝐹𝐹 = 𝐹𝐹0 (1 − )
𝑟𝑠ℎ
• For very high value of Rs,

• characteristics is straight line
• But Voc remains same, as in open
circuit no current flows and voltage
drop in the cell is zero.
• FFo represents ideal FF in absence of

any parasitic resistance
Effect of solar radiation on efficiency Effect of solar radiation on efficiency

• Expression for Voc can be simplified
kT  I L  kT  I L 
Voc  ln   1  ln  
q  I o  q  Io 
• Pin = intensity of solar radiation
• n = factor accounting for radiation kT  I L 
nI L ln   FF
intensity I scVoc FF q  I o 
 
• n=1 for one Sun Pin Pin
• n=0.5 for half Sun or half radiation intensity
 ln( n)  kT ln( n)
  
• As intensity decreases, efficiency of a  ln( I L / I o )  q Voc
solar cell decreases
• This will happen because of decrease in 𝑘𝑇/𝑞𝑉𝑜𝑐 ≈ 0.04

Voc with decrease in IL

• For Si wafer based cell the efficiency (%)  4  ln( n)
decreases by about 3% for 0.5 Sun  Efficiency of the monocrystalline Si solar cell at a cell temperature of 25 C, as a
intensity as compared to 1-Sun efficiency function of irradiance G (AM1.5 spectrum, operated at the MPP)
2
30-09-2020
Effect of temperature on efficiency Effect of temperature on efficiency
• Voc depends on temperature, which in turn depends 2

qDn ni2 qDp ni
on reverse saturation current, Io Io  
Ln N A Lp N D
• The variation in Io due to temperature is mainly due to
ni (intrinsic carrier concentration)
 E g / kT
ni2  k1e
• Since Eg/q term will always be higher than the Voc
term , the change in Voc due to increase in temperature
will always be negative  E g / kT
I o  k2 e
• Voc decreases as the temperature of the cell increases
kT  I L  Eg
• Assuming Voc of 0.55 V and Eg/q of 1.1 V for Si wafer Voc  ln   
based solar cells, the d(Voc)/dT would be -1.83 mV/oC q  K 2  q
at room temperature
• It gives change in Voc of about 0.35% relative to the d (Voc ) 1  E 

room temperature Voc
 Voc  g 
Characteristic curves I=f(V) for the solar cell with irradiance G=1 kW/m2 (AM1.5 dT T q 
spectrum) and with cell temperature as parameter
Effect of temperature on efficiency
Calculate the efficiency and peak power of a Si solar cell operating at

27oC, with short circuit current of 2.2 A and operating under standard
illumination of 1000 W/m2 . The area of the solar cell is about 100 cm2.
Solution:
• T= 27oC, Isc = 2.2 A, A = 100 cm2

• Assume FF = 0.75
• Typical value of Io for solar cell ~ 10-12 A (assumption, normally its
values are given in terms of current density i.e. A/cm2)
• Voc =kT/q ln (Isc/Io)/q =0.616 V
• η = Voc Isc FF/Pin = 0.616 * 2.2 * 0.75/ 1000*100 * 10-4 = 10.16 %
• Peak power Pmax = Voc * Isc * FF = 1.01 W

VOC, ISC and Pmax as a function of cell temperature in a c-silicon solar cell
In the previous example if the operating temperature of the solar cell

increases to about 35oC calculate the efficiency.
Solution:
• Only parameter that changes with the temperature is the Voc
• The rate of change of Voc ~ 2 mV/oC
• Reduction in Voc = Voc (35oC) = Voc (27oC) – 2  10-3 * (35-27) = 0.60 V
• With this new value of Voc the Pmax can be calculated as in previous
example:
• Pmax= 0.7425 W
• Corresponding cell efficiency = 9.9%
Efficiency and Pmax reduces due to increase in temperature
3
06-10-2020
SOLAR CELL AND PV

MODULE
CELL MANUFACTURING
Prof. Paresh Kale
NIT Rourkela.
10/6/2020 Solar PV Module 2
First gen – Manufacturing Process First gen – Manufacturing Process
• reported in 1954, Bell Labs

• High temperature diffused
junction
• Single crystal, CZ method
• Efficiency ~ 6%
• In 1960s solar cell were

used only for space craft
applications
• Reported in 1941
• Optimized
• Non-uniform junction
• No high purity material • Efficiency ~ 15%
• Efficiency << 1 %
• so called “violet cell” due to
lower wavelength reflection
First gen – Manufacturing Process
• In 1970 cell design was

changed (COMSAT labs)
• Thinner emitter and closed

spaced metal fingers (improved
blue response)
• Back surface field
• Efficiency improvement due to

anisotropic texturing
• These approached improved

the current collection ability of
solar cells
06-10-2020 Solar Photovoltaics :Technology Development and advances 5 10/6/2020 Solar PV Module
5 6
1
06-10-2020
A generic process flow for commercial wafer based solar cell manufacturing A generic process flow for commercial wafer based solar cell manufacturing
Antireflective coating
P-type Starting wafer
Antireflective
coating deposition
Wafer cleaning
& texturing
N-type
Metal Screen Printed
Contacts Metallization
Junction
Diffusion
Contact diffusion
Junction removal Contact Firing

Parasitic Junction
Removal Junction removal
and BSF
10/6/2020 Solar PV Module 7 10/6/2020 Solar PV Module 8
Cleaning and Texturing Ways to reduce optical losses
Using anti reflection coating (Si3N4) Surface texturing (minimize reflection)

10/6/2020 Solar PV Module 9 06-10-2020 Solar Photovoltaics :Technology Development and advances 10
Cleaning and Texturing Emitter diffusion
• Thermal diffusion
• Phosphorous for p-type emitter using phosphorous silicate gas (PSG)
• Temp ~ 820 to 860 deg
Doping Process Cycle
2
06-10-2020
Edge isolation Anti Reflection Coatings

• Silicon nitride is typically deposited using chemical vapour deposition process (CVD)
• 3SiH4 + 4NH3  Si3N4 + 12H2
Screen Printing, Firing, Testing and module
• Silver paste is forced through a patterned

screen for front contact
• Aluminum paste is used for rear pattern
• Dried at about 200 deg
• Firing to form the electrical contact, heating

at 780°C to 900°C followed by rapid cooling
Key points for High efficiency solar Cell passivated emitter with rear locally diffused (PERL)
Possible approach Reason

• Uses micro-electronic techniques
Lightly phosphorus diffused emitters minimize recombination losses
• 25% under the standard AM1.5
Closely spaced metal lines To minimize emitter lateral
resistive power losses
spectrum.
Very fine metal lines ( < 20 µm wide) To minimize emitter lateral

• The passivated emitter refers to
resistive power losses
the high quality oxide at the front
Photolithography : top metal grid patterning Minimize shading losses surface that significantly lowers
the number of carriers
Low metal contact areas and heavy doping Minimize recombination recombining at the surface.
beneath the metal contact
Use of elaborate metallization (titanium / Low contact resistances • The rear is locally diffused only at Efficiency : 23.5%
palladium / silver ) the metal contacts to minimize Area : 22 cm2
recombination at the rear while Voc : 703 mV
Good rear surface passivation Reduce recombination maintaining good electrical Isc : 914 mA
contact. Jsc : 41.3 mA
Use of anti-reflection coatings Reduce surface reflection from Vmp : 600 mV
30% to well below 10% FF : 0.81
Imp : 868 mA
3
06-10-2020
Some highly efficient soalr cell structures
Metal
contact
p+ poly-Si SiNx
(emitter)
n+ poly-Si
n-c-Si
CHARACTERIZATION
Ag
TECHNIQUES
(BSF)
electrode
Structure of p-n solar cell with BSF layer
Prof. Paresh Kale

NIT Rourkela.
Structure of TOPCon solar cell
Solar Simulator: I-V measurement I-V and P-V curve

Illumination Source
0.24
• AM1.5 for terrestrial cells and AM0 for space cells
0.4 • Criteria for using source for illumination (IEC 60904-9 Edition2 and ASTM E927-10)
• Intensity = 100 mW/cm2 (1 kW/m2, one-sun of
illumination) • Spectral match
current (A)
0.3 0.16
power (W)
• Cell temperature = 25 °C • Irradiance inhomogeneity - spatial uniformity over the illumination area
• Four point probe to remove the effect of probe/cell 0.2 • Temporal Instability - stability over time
I-V Curve
contact resistance P-V
0.08
0.1 • Typical sources
• Xenon arc lamp
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 • Halogen lamp
voltage (V)
Parameter Value
Area 20.25 cm2
Insolation 998 W/m2
Voc 0.610 V
Isc 0.4356 A
Vmp 0.4895 V
Imp 0.3325 A
FF 61.25 %
Pmax 0.1627 W
Efficiency 8.036 %
Rs 0.0689 Ohm
Rsh 110 Ohm
10/6/2020 Solar Cell Parameters 21 10/6/2020 Solar PV Module 22
Electronics and Probing Dark IV Measurements
4
06-10-2020
Measurement of Series Resistance Quantum efficiency (QE) measurement
Computer output Chopper control

DAC
Focusing
Lens
Mono-
Solar Cell
chromator Xe arc
lamp
Reference
Cell Beam Splitter
Chopper and filter wheel
Jsc = incremental short circuit

J sc
EQE  current generated by a solar cell
q for incident incremental photon
flux of  at wavelength 
EQE J sc
IQE   R() and T() = reflectance and
1  R( )  T ( ) q 1  R( )  T ( )
transmittance of solar cell at
wavelength 
10/6/2020 Solar PV Module 25 10/6/2020 Solar Cell Parameters 26
Quantum efficiency (QE) measurement Diffusion length

100 • Cell ‘a’ : Response is zero beyond
1100 nm is corresponding to the Eg • The diffusion length of a solar cell can also be obtained from the IQE analysis.
80 of the material
(a)
60 • Cell ‘b’: • Diffusion Length = the slope of the inverse quantum efficiency (IQE -1) when
IQE (%)
(b) • material quality of the cell is good plotted against the optical absorption length (1 / absorption coefficient ())
40 (c) • Front and back surface passivation
(d) is not good, since the IQE is low for
20
blue and red photons
d ( IQE ) 1 1
• Cell ‘c’: 
d 1
0
400 600 800 1000 1200 • Neither the material nor the surface L
Wavelength (nm)
passivation is good.
• Material is not good because the
IQE is low even in the wavelength
Light SW LW range of 600 to 800 nm.
MW
• typically case of poly-crystalline Si
solar cells
• Cell ‘d’:
• a-Si solar cell
• Due to high Eg QE is zero beyond
Front Junction Dotted line 700 nm
surface indicate carrier
• IQE in general is not close to 100%
Depth of cell generation range
at any part of the spectrum because
of the defected material quality
Minority carrier lifetime and diffusion length measurement Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
• Photo voltage decay (PVD)

• Decay time represent the behavior of minority carriers in the material.
• Low quality material, meaning highly defected material, will have faster decay
time while the good quality material will have slow decay time
kT dt

q dVoc
Stroboscope
Light pulses Minority carrier lifetime (flash light source)
from voltage decay time
Light
pulses
Solar cell
Cell holder
DSO
10/6/2020 Solar Cell Parameters 29 10/6/2020 Solar PV Module 30
5
06-10-2020
Electron Beam induced current (EBIC)
6
07-10-2020
PV MODULE
Module Making Process
• Front glass:
• Heaviest part
• Protects and ensure robustness to the entire module
• Maintain a high transparency
Module Making Process Module Making Process

glass cover
Ethyl Vinyl Acetate (EVA): Encapsulant (EVA)
• Encapsulant acts as a binder between the various
solar cells
layers of the PV panel
encapsulant
• Translucent polymer sold in a roll: Cut in sheets
& deposit before and after the PV cells Tedlar
• When subjected to a thermal process of vacuum

cooking, polymer becomes similar to
a transparent gel and incorporates the PV cells
Properties of EVA • Backsheet

• High electrical resistivity (1014 Ω-cm) makes it a good electric insulator, required as the • Made from a plastic material which electrically isolate, protect and shield the PV cells
EVA layers are used at the top and bottom of the electrically connected cells from weather and moisture
• White in color and is sold in rolls or sheets.
• Low fusion and polymerization temperature (melting point 65 oC, it is required for low
temperature processing)
• Interconnected Cell Ribbon
• A hot dip tinned copper conductor installed in panels
• Very low water absorption ratio (0.05 to 0.15% required for protection from moisture)
• Soldered directly onto Si crystal to interconnect solar cells in a panel
• Good optical transmission (over 90% for most of the solar spectrum, it required to • Carries the current generated in solar cells to the PV bus bar
transmit most of the light to solar cells)
1
07-10-2020
Module Making Process Layers of Solar Module
• Junction Box
• Brings electrical connections of the PV module outside
• Contains the protection diodes for shadows and the cables for the connection of the
panels in the field
• Frame
• Normally made of Al
• Ensure robustness and a practical and safe coupling to the module
• Together with the frame, also a layer of sealant is deposited around the walls of the panel
as a moisture barrier. For this purpose the most widely used material is Silicon
Packing Density Module Circuit Design

𝑞𝑉𝑇
Increasing packing density
𝑁
• 𝐼𝑇 = 𝑀 𝐼𝐿 − 𝑀 𝐼0 [exp − 1]
𝑛𝑘𝑇
Area of the module

covered with solar cells • N is the number of cells in series
M is the number of cells in parallel
compared to blank area IT is the total current from the circuit
Circular Pseudo square Square
VT is the total voltage from the circuit
• Total current = Current of an individual cell * No. of cells in parallel

• Total voltage = Voltage of an individual cell * No. of cells in series
• ISC total = ISC × M

• IMP total = IMP × M
• VOC total = VOC × N
• VMP total = VMP × N
Module Circuit Design Module Circuit Design
1.00 1.00
0.80 0.80
Current (A)
Current (A)
0.60 0.60
0.40 0.40
0.20 0.20
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40
Voltage (V) Voltage (V)
• Assured output voltage requirement of 12 V due to:
• Decrease in Voc due to temperature rise
2.00 2.00
• A battery may require voltages of 12V or more to charge
1.60 1.60
Current (A)
Current (A)
1.20 1.20 • No. of solar cells in series = 36

0.80 0.80 • Voc = 21V under standard test conditions
0.40 0.40 • Operating voltage at maximum power and operating temperature = 18V
0.00 0.00
• After miscellaneous voltage drop = 15 V
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40
• e.g. operation away from maximum power point and reductions in light intensity
Voltage (V) Voltage (V) • Jsc from a commercial solar cell = 30 mA/cm2 to 36 mA/cm2
• Area of a Single crystal solar cell = 100 cm2
• Total current = 3.5 A from a module
2
07-10-2020
Wattage of Module Effect of Temperature
• Current size of Si solar cells = 12.5 x 12.5 cm2 and 15 x 15 cm 2. Item

Current (Isc, Voltage
FF
Power
mA/cm2) (Voc, Voltage) (Pm, mW/cm2)
• Can be pseudo square mono-crystalline cells or truly square multi- Typical
30 to 35
0.5 to 0.6 (18 to 21 for
0.6 to 0.8 10 to 15
value module)
crystalline cells. - 2.0 to -2.3 mV / oC
change with +0.06% to -0.1 to - - 0.4% to -
( -0.075 to -0.085 V /
temperature +0.1% / oC oC for module) 0.2% / oC 0.5% / oC
• Current generating capacity of Si cells is about 30 mA/cm 2 at 1000
W/m2 of solar radiation.
• A cell of 15x15 cm 2 produce 6.75 A current
• Module of 36 solar cells will produce power =15 x 6.75100 Wp.
• In symbol Wp ‘p’ represents peak power output under standard test

conditions (STC)
• The area required to place 36 cells of 225 cm 2 in a module ~ 0.81 m2
• Considering spacing between cells and packing Actual Area = 1 m 2
Module Specification
3
09-10-2020
Reasons for Mismatch of Cell/Module
• Difference in the cell processing
• Cells or modules of same rating but different manufacturer
• Different environmental conditions
• Partial shading of cells or modules
MODULE OPERATION • Module damages

• Cell encapsulating material becoming semitransparent due to
UV light
• Breaking of glass cover, cell
• Frame damage
Mismatch Effects Mismatch for Cells Connected in series
• The impact and power loss due to mismatch depend on: • Two types
• Operating point of the PV module
• Circuit configuration
• Mismatch in short-circuit current
• Parameters which are different from the remainder of the solar cells • Mismatch in open-circuit voltage
Shading Hot spot heating
• Shading a single cell causes the current in the string of cells to fall to
the level of the shaded cell.
• If the operating current of the overall series string approaches the short-circuit
current of the "bad" cell, the overall current becomes limited by the bad cell.
• The extra current produced by the good cells then forward biases the good solar
cells.
• If the series string is short circuited, then the forward bias across all of these cells
reverse biases the shaded cell
1
09-10-2020
Formation of a hot spot in a solar cell Bypass Diode – prevention of hotspots

• Connected in parallel with opposite
• Entire generating capacity of all good cells is dissipated in the poor cell
polarity to a solar cell
• Enormous power dissipation occurring in a small area results in local
overheating, leading to destructive effects (cell or glass cracking, melting • Under normal operation: each solar cell
+
of solder or degradation of the solar cell) will be forward biased and the bypass diode V
will be reverse biased i.e. open circuit cell 1 -
• If a solar cell is reverse biased then bypass -

cell 2 V
diode conducts, allowing current from good +
solar cells to flow in the external circuit
rather than forward biasing each good cell Unmatched
or shaded Bypass
cell diode
• Maximum reverse bias across poor cell is
reduced to about a single diode drop, limits
current and prevent hot-spot heating
Bypass Diode – Practical aspects

• One bypass diode/ solar cell is generally too expensive
• Bypass diodes are usually placed across groups of solar cells
• The maximum power dissipation in the shaded cell is approximately equal to the
generating capability of all cells in the group.
• The maximum group size per diode, without causing damage, is about 15
cells/bypass diode, for silicon cells. For a normal 36 cell module, therefore, 2
bypass diodes are used to ensure the module will not be vulnerable to "hot-spot"
damage.
Mismatch for Cells Connected in Parallel
• In small modules cells are in series, parallel mismatch is not an issue

• Modules are paralleled in large arrays so the mismatch usually applies at a
module level rather than at a cell level
2
09-10-2020
Mismatch Effects in Arrays – Open circuit Mismatch Effects in Arrays – Improper rating of bypass diode
• String: A series-connected set of solar Shaded Module
cells or modules
• In a larger PV array, PV modules are

connected in both series and parallel
• Problems due to the combination

• Open-circuit in one of the series strings
• Current from the parallel connected • Problem: by-pass diodes are not rated to
string (often called a "block") will then handle the current of entire parallel
have a lower current than the
remaining blocks in the module connected array
• Electrically identical to the case of one • A mismatch in the series connected modules
shaded solar cell in series with several will cause current to flow in a by-pass
good cells, and the power from the
entire block of solar cells is lost diode, thereby heating it
Mismatch Effects in Arrays Mismatch Effects in Arrays - prevention
• Heating the by-pass diode reduces the • Blocking diode: Additional diode used to
Shaded Module
effective resistance minimize mismatch losses
• Most of current will now flow through • Prevents the module from loading the
the slightly hotter set of by-pass diodes battery at night by preventing current
flow from the battery through the PV
• These by-pass diodes then become even array
hotter, further reducing their resistance,
increasing the current flow
• With parallel connected modules, each
string to be connected in parallel should
• Eventually almost all the current may have its own blocking diode.
flow through one set of by-pass diodes • Reduces the required current carrying
capability of the blocking diode
• If the diodes are not rated to handle the • Prevents current flowing from one
current from the parallel combination of parallel string into a lower-current string
modules, they will burn out • Helps to minimize mismatch losses
arising in parallel connected arrays
Heat Generation and heat loss in PV Modules Nominal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT)
• Performance of the modules is described in two other test conditions

• Reflection from top surface of module • Standard operating conditions (SOC)
• Nominal operating conditions (NOC)
• Electrical operating point of the
module • Temperature reached by open circuited cells in a module under the conditions as
listed below:
• Irradiance on cell surface = 800 W/m2
• Absorption of sunlight by the PV
• Air Temperature = 20°C
module in regions which are not
covered by solar cells • Wind Velocity = 1 m/s
• Mounting = open back side.
• Absorption of low energy (infrared)

𝑵𝑶𝑪𝑻 − 𝟐𝟎
light in module or cells 𝑻𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 = 𝑻𝑨𝒊𝒓 + 𝑺
𝟖𝟎𝟎
• Packing density • S = insolation in W/m2
3
09-10-2020
Comparison of test conditions Increase in Temperature due to module design and civil work
SOC NOC • Impact of Module Design on NOCT

STC
(Standard (Nominal • A rear surface with a lower packing density and reduced thermal
Conditions (Standard test
operating operating
condition) resistance may make a temperature difference of 5°C or more
condition) condition)
Irradiation
1000 1000 800
(W/m2) • Impact of Mounting Conditions
Temperature (oC) 25 NOCT NOCT • Both conductive and convective heat transfer are significantly affected
by the mounting conditions of the PV module
5 80
• A rear surface which cannot exchange heat with the ambient (i.e., a
4  covered rear surface with no air gap), will have an infinite rear thermal
60
 resistance.
Power (Watt)
Current (A)
3
STC 40 • Similarly, convection in these conditions is limited to the convection
2 SOC from the front of the module
1 
NOC 20 • Roof integrated mounting thus causes higher operating temperature,
Peak power point
often increasing the temperature of the modules by 10°C
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Voltage (V)
Degradation and Failure of PV Modules Degradation and Failure of PV Modules

• Degradation: Reduction in the output power of a PV module over time
• Open-Circuited Cells
• Solar Cell Degradation
• A common failure mode
• Increase in RS due to decreased adherence of contacts or corrosion (usually caused by
water vapor) • Although redundant contact points plus
• Decreases in RSH due to metal migration through the p-n junction
"interconnect-busbars" allow the cell to
continue functioning.
• ARC deterioration
• Short-Circuited Cells
• Occur at cell interconnections • Cell cracking can be caused by:
• Top and rear contacts are much closer together and stand more chance of being shorted • Thermal stress
together by pin-holes or regions of corroded or damaged cell material. • Hail
• damage during processing and
assembly, resulting in "latent cracks",
which are not detectable on
manufacturing inspection, but appear
sometime later
Degradation and Failure of PV Modules Degradation and Failure of PV Modules
• Interconnect Open-Circuits • Module Glass Breakage

• Fatigue due to cyclic thermal stress and wind loading leads to • Shattering of the top glass surface can occur due to
interconnect open circuit failures • Vandalism
• thermal stress
• Handling
• Module Open-Circuits
• wind or hail
• Typically in the bus wiring or junction box
• Module Delamination
• Module Short-Circuits
• A common failure mode in early generations of modules, module
• Although each module is tested before sale, module short circuits
delamination is now less of a problem.
are often the result of manufacturing defects
• Caused by reductions in bond strength
• Occur due to insulation degradation with weathering, resulting in
• Environmentally induced by moisture
• Delamination
• Photothermal aging and stress which is induced by differential thermal
• Cracking and humidity expansion
• electrochemical corrosion
4
09-10-2020
Degradation and Failure of PV Modules Solar Module Mounting Options
• Hot-Spot Failures
• Mismatched, cracked or shaded cells can lead to hot-spot failures
• Roof top
• By-Pass Diode Failure
• By-pass diodes, used to overcome cell mismatching problems, can themselves • Ground-mounted
fail,
• Shade-structure
• usually due to overheating, often due to undersizing
• The problem is minimised if junction temperatures are kept below 128°C • Building-integrated (BIPV)
• Over water bodies
• Encapsulant Failure
• UV absorbers and other encapsulant stabilizers ensure a long life for module
encapsulating materials
• In particular, browning of the EVA layer, accompanied by a build-up of acetic
acid, has caused gradual reductions in the output of some arrays, especially
those in concentrating systems
Maintenance Cleaning of Solar Panels
• Online monitoring of electrical parameters
• Inspection for damages / cracks
• Replacement of faulty module/diode/blown fuse
• Cutting trees nearby
• Cleaning of panels
• Preventing rats
Cleaning of Solar Panels
5
16-10-2020
Breakdown of PV system types according to structure
Photovoltaic
Panels
Grid-
Stand Alone
Connected
With Without With Without

Storage Storage Storage Storage
Balance of System (BOS)
Balance of System (BOS) - Paresh Kale
Classification of stand Alone system configuration Classification of stand Alone system configuration
 Type A : Unregulated system with DC load  Type D: Regulated with battery and AC+DC load
 Voltage and current varies as per radiation and load characteristics
 No energy storage  Type E: Regulated hybrid system with battery and AC+DC load
 DC fan or DC pump  More economical and reliable
 DG set is most preferred
 Type B: Regulated system with DC load

 MPPT is used
 Type C: Regulated with battery and DC load
Balance of System (BOS) - Paresh Kale Balance of System (BOS) - Paresh Kale
Typical PV system power ranges

Stand Alone PV Systems
Type of Plant Peak PV Power of plant (Wp)
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
Stand Alone Plant  Autonomous system depends only on PV power

Plants with Storage
• Mobile █ █ █  No auxiliary supply or back-up
• Telecommunication █ █ █ █
• Residence █ █ █
 Typical applications
Plants without Storage
 Powering remote hilly areas
• Irrigation and Ventilation █ █ █ █
 home or cottages
Grid Connected without  Agriculture pumps
storage
• Small (230V, 1 Ph) █ █ █ █
• Large (400V, 3 Ph) █ █ █
 Load is fixed, not possible to always utilize the PV
• Power (11 kV, 3 ph) █ █ █ █ █
power optimally
1
16-10-2020
Layout of a hybrid stand-alone PV system with a battery bank Stand-alone PV system for a home
 Energy flow from left to right
 1 Solar generator  5 DC converter

 2 Charge controller/solar tracker  6 Inverter
 3 Battery bank  7 Consumer load
 4 Discharge controller/deep-  8 auxiliary generator e.g. a
discharge protection device diesel or wind generator in a
hybrid system
Choice of system Configuration depends on Subsystems of Complete Photovoltaic (PV) System
Power-generation side:
 Load requirements
a subsystem of PV devices (cells, modules, arrays) converts
sunlight to direct-current (DC) electricity
 Resource availability
Power-utilisation side:
 Performance Load / application of the PV electricity
 Reliability Balance of system (BOS):

Between these two, a third subsystem enables the PV-
generated electricity to be properly applied to the load
 Cost
Components of BOS:
 Batteries
 Battery charge controllers
 Converters
 Supporting structures for mounting the PV panels
 Protection equipment
PV SYSTEM BATTERIES
Balance of System (BOS) - Paresh

Balance of System (BOS) - Paresh Kale Kale
2
16-10-2020
Batteries Operation of Electrochemical Cell
 No. of cells connected in series/parallel  Redox reaction
 Converts chemical energy to electrical energy  Oxidation:

 loss of electron
 A cell consists of four basic elements:  Reductant  Product + e-
 anode (positive electrode) - usually made up of base metal  Anode
 cathode (negative electrode) – usually made of metal oxide

 Reduction:
 electrolyte
 Gain of electrons
 Separator – allows ions only
 Oxidant + e-  Product
 Cathode
Classification of Batteries Reason for using batteries in PV Systems
 Primary or non-rechargeable batteries:

 Can not be re-charged once they have discharged  Availability
 e.g. Zinc-Chloride, Zinc- Carbon, Alkaline and the Lithium
batteries  Surplus Energy
 Transportation
 Secondary or re-chargeable batteries:
 Can be charged and re-charged several times
 Voltage regulation
 e.g. Lead Acid, Lithium ion and Nickel Cadmium (Ni-Cd)
batteries
 More expensive than the primary batteries
 Used in applications which involve a number of charge and In a PV system, batteries are required as the
discharge cycles energy storage medium.
Theoretical Cell Voltage / Standard Potential and Capacity Theoretical Cell Voltage / Standard Potential and Capacity
 Theoretical Cell voltage: standard electrode potential at 25 C of 2 Type of Electrode Reaction Atomic or Std. Valance Electrochemic
electrode molecular reduction Change al Equivalent
electrodes weight (g) potential (Ah/g)
Anode 1 2.01 0 2 26.59
𝐻+ + 𝑒 = 𝐻
2 2
 Magnitude of cell potential depends on 𝐿𝑖 + + 𝑒 = 𝐿𝑖 6.94 -3.01 1 3.86
 Electrode Material
𝑁𝑖 2+ + 2𝑒 = 𝑁𝑖 58.71 -0.23 2 0.913
 Type of electrode
𝑃𝑏2+ + 2𝑒 = 𝑃𝑏 207.2 -0.13 2 0.26
Cathode 𝐶𝑙2 + 2𝑒 = 2𝐶𝑙 − 71 1.36 2 0.756

 Standard Cell potential = Anode (Oxidation potential) + Cathode
(reduction potential) 𝑃𝑏2 𝑂 + 𝑆𝑂42 − 4𝐻 − + 2𝑒 239.2 1.69 2 0.224
= 𝑃𝑏𝑆𝑜4 + 2 𝐻2𝑂
 Std. Cell potential of Lead-Acid battery = 1.69 –(-0.36) = 2.05 V

 Theoretical Capacity : Total quantity of charge that can be obtained
from the electrochemical reaction of a cell
 One gm eqv weight of material deliver 96487 C or 26.8 Ah charge
 One gram eqv. Weight: Atomic or molecular weight of the active material
 Theoretical capacity depends on active material used in cell expressed in grams divided by the no. of electrons taking part in the reaction
 One gram eqv. Weight Of lead: 207.2/2=103.6g

 1 gm of lead should deliver = 26.8/103.6 = 0.26 Ah
3
16-10-2020
Key Battery Parameters and Characteristics Final discharging voltage curve for a lead battery
 Voltage of a battery  Cell voltage as a function of time for various discharge

 Open circuit voltage : Max theoretical  Currents for a battery with C10 =100 Ah at 200 C
 Nominal Voltage/ Working voltage Available voltage during operation
 Cut-off voltage: after which battery should be cut-off from load
 Typical nominal voltage : 3,6,12,24 V
 Final Discharging Voltage

 Voltage not to be exceeded in order to avoid shortening the battery’s life
span.
 determined by discharge current and is between 1.7 and 1.85V per cell at
ambient temperature
 Charge Limiting Voltage During Cycle Operation (Gassing

Voltage)
 In order to prevent battery electrolytes from forming a detonating gas
secondary to the breakdown of hydrogen and oxygen, the charge limiting
voltage should not be exceeded during the battery charging process
Key Battery Parameters and Characteristics – Battery Capacity

Factors affecting choice of batteries for a particular application
 Battery’s maximum charge storage capacity Q

 Cyclic requirements (deep discharge or shallow discharge) with PV
 Indicated by C systems
 Unit = Ah
 Temperature range of batteries are subjected to temperature
 With Ah, battery voltage is also specified conditions ranging from -300 to +500
 Self discharge
 Total energy capacity = Ah *V = Wh
 Std range: 3,7,5,12,20,50,75,110,150,250 upto 12000 Ah  Availability and frequency of recharge
 Capacity increases so does the size
Discharge and Charge Characteristics of a Battery Usable capacity of a lead battery (nominal capacity) as a function of cell
temperature
 C rate: current rating in amperes that can be drawn from the battery in an hour  Usable capacity decreases markedly at less than around -5 0C, because the
battery freezes when in a low-charge state.
 For e.g. for a 5AHr battery, C rate is 5A.
 As temperature increases, usable capacity also increases but so does self
 If a battery is discharged at C/5 rate it implies that 1A of current is drawn for 5 discharge
 Life span decreases at high temperatures due to quicker rate of internal
hours
corrosion
 The nominal voltage = 1.2 V  Hence PV installation batteries are best operated at 10–20 C, which is the
usual temperature in the basement of a building
Typical discharging characteristic of Ni-Cd cell at C/2 Typical charging characteristic of Ni-Cd cell
4
16-10-2020
Key Battery Parameters and Characteristics Deep Discharge Batteries
 Depth of Discharge (DoD or tZ )  Used where load is supplied for longer time
 Measure of how much energy is withdrawn from battery
 Expressed as % of full capacity  Normal starting, lighting, ignition (SLI – automotive batteries) batteries
 DoD = ratio of discharged battery capacity QE to nominal battery capacity cannot be used
C10
 Indicates DoD during a cycle relative to nominal capacity C10
 SLI – 30 to 150 deep cycles Vs Deep discharge cycle >1000
 DOD / tZ= QE / C10
 Affects the life cycle 100 Lead Acid
 Allowable discharge level is 80% or more
80
Ni-Cd  For more DoD thicker electrodes are used

DoD 60
 more active material hence higher charge capacity

40 Ni-Zn
20
0
1 10 100 1000 10000
No. of Cycles to failure

Cycle-Based Life Span (nZ ) Characteristic lead battery life utility as a function of temperature
 Number of cycles a battery can carry out before its capacity reaches
80% of nominal capacity.
 Cycle-based life span is chiefly determined by
 Battery type
 DoD
O = Ortsfest (stationary) Pz = PanZerplatte (tubular plate) S = Flüssig (flooded)
Self-discharge Lead Battery Charging

 Discharges even with no appliances connected very slow pace
 Higher the temperature, rapid the process
 Heavily influenced by the battery’s internal structure
 Lead battery self-discharge as a function of temperature during
conservation charging, according to the manufacturer’s data.
 The self-discharge rate is considerably faster at higher temperatures.
5
16-10-2020
Target Characteristics for PV System Batteries Batteries commercially used in PV system

 High capacity (for use over a period of days / redundancy)
 Flooded Lead acid
 High cycle-based life span with a relatively low DoD
 Valve regulated Lead Acid (VRLA)

 Occasional deep discharge cycles with 80–100% DoD are allowable,
without any life span reduction
 Nickel Cadmium
 Low self-discharge rate (maximum 2–5% of nominal capacity per
month)
 Nickel Metal hydride
 Good ampere-hour efficiency nah
 Little or no maintenance necessary (topping up with distilled water at  Lithium ion

intervals of one year or more)
 No maintenance at all should be necessary during the entire life span

of sealed gas-tight batteries
Emerging battery technologies Structure and functional principle of a lead battery
 Vanadium redox
 Zinc bromide
 Sodium Sulphur
 Sodium ion
Lead Acid Battery – data

Lead-acid Batteries
During discharging PbO 2  2H 2SO 4 2   Pb  2PbSO 4  2H 2O
During charging 2PbSO 4  2H 2O  Pb  PbO 2  HSO 4   H 
Merits:
a. Inexpensive and simple to manufacture
b. Self discharge is lowest among all battery systems
c. Capable of discharging at high rates
Demerits:
1. Lower energy density
2. Cannot be stored in discharged condition
3. Environmentally unfriendly due to use of presence of lead which is toxic
6
16-10-2020
Flat plate VS Tubular Ni-Cd Batteries
 Net reaction:
Feature Flat plate battery Tubular battery
Electrode type Positive and negative plates Positive tube and negative 2𝑁𝑖𝑂2 𝑠 + 𝐶𝑑 𝑠 2𝐻2𝑂 𝑙 → 2𝑁𝑖 𝑂𝐻 2 𝑠 + 𝐶𝑑 𝑂𝐻 2 𝑠
plate
Battery Life Low (~ 3 Yrs) High (~ 5 Yrs)
Efficiency Has low efficiency, there is Has high efficiency, there is

 Nominal Voltage = 1.2 V
much wastage of current. very less wastage of curren.
Will have lesser electricity
bills long term.  Merits
Maintenance High Medium  Fast charging
Water toppings High Medium  Long life
 Most rugged battery – heavy duty applications
Safety Low Low
Releases harmful gases Yes Yes

 Demerits
Ventilation requirement Yes Yes
 Low energy density
Weight Low High  Memory effect
Top Brands Amaron, Exide, Luminous, Su- Okaya Amaron, Exide,  NOT environmental friendly due to Cd
Kam Luminous, Su-Kam
Li-Ion batteries Comparison of energy density in battery cells
Advantages • High specific energy and high load capabilities with Power Cells
• Long cycle and extend shelf-life; maintenance-free
• High capacity, low internal resistance, good coulombic efficiency
• Simple charge algorithm and reasonably short charge times
• Low self-discharge (less than half that of NiCd and NiMH)
Limitations • Requires protection circuit to prevent thermal runaway if stressed

• Degrades at high temperature and when stored at high voltage
• No rapid charge possible at freezing temperatures (<0°C, <32°F)
• Transportation regulations required when shipping in larger quantities
From material to application
7
16-10-2020
Protection in Standalone PV system
 To avoid deep-discharge events that reduce battery life span, if the final
discharging voltage goes around 1.75 to 1.85V per cell, the connected
appliances should be disconnected from the battery
 A backup surge as a safety precaution
 larger installations should integrate an overcharge protector that operates
independently of the charge controller
POWER ELECTRONICS

Kale Balance of System (BOS) - Paresh Kale
Charge Controller Configuration

Charge Controllers
S2
• switch S1 is connected in shunt
P
Blocking Diode
with the PV panel,
- Charge controllers are the control systems: regulate charging V S1 • which is turned on when the
A Charge
L
O battery voltage reaches its over
Controller A
r
r
D
voltage limit
- To reduce the cost of the system a
y
• The PV array is short circuited
- Ratings of the batteries are designed optimally and it no more feeds the battery
- Battery is not over charged or over discharged
Shunt
- Used where loads are unpredictable S1 S2

• Charge controller the switch is
P connected in series with the PV
- Types V
panel.
L
-Shunt A
r
Charge
Controller
O
A
D
• This switch is turned off to
-Series r prevent battery from
a
y overcharging.
-DC-DC converter • Drawback: losses occurring in
-MPPT Series the switches
Charge Controller Configuration DC-DC converters
PV Array Type Function Voltage Gain (Vo/Vi)
Buck Steps down input voltage D

DC/DC L
Converter O
Boost Steps up input voltage 1/(1-D)
A
(buck, boost, D
buck-boost)
Buck-Boost Both transformation possible D/(1-D)
12
DC-DC Converter
10 Buck
Boost
• controls the charging current in such a way so as to maintain constant 8
Voltage Gain
Buck-Boost
voltage 6
• used for Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) in the PV system 4
2
• The duty cycle is controlled to impose optimum voltage across the PV
array which corresponds to MPP 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Duty Ratio
8
16-10-2020
MPPT charge controllers

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
 Increases power output by around 15 to 30% in a properly sized stand-alone
- Power supplied by the PV array varies with the load voltage PV system that integrates a battery
- Also voltage for optimum power transfer varies largely with  Pay off in large stand-alone systems as from 100W
array temperature and more slowly with intensity of illumination
 However, it is important to determine on a case-by-case basis whether an
- To ensure optimum power transfer, DC to DC converter is used MPPT charge controller is worth the extra cost or whether this money might
not be better spent on additional solar modules.
- A method is required to identify the voltage at which maximum
power is obtained from array and a controller on the power  Problems:
 Ramps up system complexity
converter to maintain array at that voltage.
 Cause electromagnetic compatibility problems, i.e. they may interfere with nearby
sensitive electronic devices such as radios, radio appliances
 Such problems can be mitigated via disturbance suppression measures, as is done
with quality inverters.
Popular MPPT Algorithms Constant Voltage Method
 Ratio of the MPP array voltage (VMPP) to open circuit voltage (Voc) is
nearly a constant (≈ 0.78), independent of any external conditions
 Sensed PV array voltage is compared with a reference voltage to
 Hill Climbing method generate an error signal which, in turn, controls the duty cycle
 Incremental conductance method

POWER
LOAD
 Constant Voltage CONDITIONER
PV
 Curve Fitting ARRAY ARRAY
VOLTAGE
OR
 Look-up Table CURRENT
ERROR
COMPARATOR
AMPLIFIER
VOLTAGE OR
CURRENT REFERENCE
Hill Climbing Method: Incremental conductance method:

 PPV 
In the voltage source region,  0  D=D+ΔD (i.e. increment D) 
V   I PV I 
PV  At voltage source region,   PV  D=D+D (i.e. increment D) 
 PPV  VPV VPV
In the current source region,  0  D=D-ΔD (i.e. decrement D)  
V 
 I PV I 
PV At current source region,   PV  D=D-D (i.e. decrement D)
 VPV VPV
 PPV


At MPP,  0  D=D or ΔD=0 (i.e. retain D)  I PV I 
V  At MPP,   PV  D=D or D=0 (i.e. retain D)
PV  VPV VPV 
= I-V Curve dP
= Operating point for fixed 0
resistive load = P-V Curve dV
= Load Line
PV Array dP
Current PV Array Power dP
0 0
PV Array Power dV dV
Hill-climbing Technique
Array Operating voltage

Array Operating Voltage
9
16-10-2020
Incremental START YES
conductance method: DC-to-AC Converter (Inverters)

NO
dV=V(k)-V(k-1)
dI=I(k)-I(k-1)
• Grid connected and other house hold AC equipment works on AC

dV=0
𝐝𝐈 −𝐈
• Convert the DC power into AC power
= dI=0
𝐝𝐕 𝐕
• Types of DC to AC converters
𝐝𝐈 −𝐈 • Single phase
>
𝐝𝐕 𝐕 dI>0
• Three phase
D+D D-D D+D D-D
Update
V (k-1) =V (k)
P (k-1) = P(k)
Return
Types of PV installation inverters – Standalone applications

Half bridge Single phase DC-to-AC converter
G1 G1 G1
Gating pulses to t
VC1=VS M1
G2 G2 G2
2 M1 Gating pulses to
M2
t
+
Vs O LOAD A VS
-
M2 2
VC1= -VS VAO t
2 - VS
2
 2 3 4 5
(a)
(b)
G1, G3 G1, G3 G1, G3
M1, M2 : Power devices such as a powerGating

MOSFET, IGBT or a thyristor
pulses to t
C1,C2 : Equal Valued capacitors M1, M3
G2, G4 G2, G4
M1 M2 Gating pulses to t
Balance of System (BOS) - Paresh Kale + Balance of System (BOS) - Paresh Kale
M2, M4
Vs A LOAD B VS
-
M4 M3 t
VAB
- VS
 2 3 4 5
(c) (d)
Half bridge Three phase DC-to-AC converter
t
 2
t
M1 M3 M5
+ t
Vs A B C
-
M4 M2 M6 t
10
16-10-2020
Grid-Connected Systems
by Swiss law, at any

given time the sum total
of the generated power
in an electricity grid
must equal the sum total
of the power being
consumed in the grid, an
electricity grid cannot
act as a storage
platform HYBRID PV SYSTEMS

Balance of System (BOS) - Paresh Kale Kale
Hybrid PV Systems PV-Diesel Hybrid System

- System that employs more than one source to meet the
electrical power demand of the loads
DC
- One of these sources is a PV source. bus
- Other sources PV DC-DC Battery

-diesel generators array converter charger
-wind generators Diesel
-micro-turbines generator
-fuel cells
AC
Inverter Battery
- Increases reliability of power supply as compared to PV loads
- Makes efficient use of PV systems
- Provides flexibility in effective utilization of PV systems

PV-Wind Hybrid System PV-Fuel Cell Hybrid System
PV DC-DC
PV DC-DC DC loads
array converter
Wind array Battery
converter
generator AC
Inverter
loads
AC Controller
Inverter Inverter
Inverter loads
Fuel DC-DC
DC loads
Cell converter
11
21-10-2020
Overview of design process
Establish design criteria Life cycle cost Critical loads Reliability Maintenance
Load and Energy demand Environmental

Availability Aesthetics
assessment effects
PV SYSTEM SIZING Solar resource assessment

Type of Time of User specific
Load size Costs
application operation preference
AND ECONOMICS System configuration Regulations,

constraints
PV or Hybrid
Centralized or
decentralized
Component sizing and selection
Installation design
Costing and economic evaluation

Prof. Paresh Kale
NIT Rourkela. Documentation
10/21/2020 PV System sizing and Economics 2
Single module and Multiple module system examples
Water delivery system
Solar home system

Street lighting
Rural kiosks
Lanterns
ATM
Traffic signal
Security lamps
Fuel refilling station BATTERY AND PV ARRAY
Navigation lights
Holiday resorts
SIZING CALCULATION
Forest security camps
Water purifier
Cathodic protection
EV charging system
10/21/2020 PV System sizing and Economics 3 10/21/2020 PV System sizing and Economics 4
Step 1. Determination of allowable DoD and calculate Avg. rate of

discharge
80
70
60
• Calculate the capacity needed for a remote school at Maximum 50
DoD (%)
Leh. The daily AC load is 7525 Wh supplied by an 40
30
inverter (90% efficient). 20
10
• The system requires 3 days of autonomy. Average -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0
temperature in winter is -20 oC. Lowest Battery Temperature (oC)
• For -20 oC, DoD ~ 0.5

• Design battery and PV array.
• Avg. Rate of discharge = Autonomy * 24 (hours/day) / % DoD
= 3 * 24/0.5
= 144 hour rate
1
21-10-2020
Step 2. Determine temperature derating factor Step 3. Determine rate factor and battery capacity
• Choose Exide 6RP670 battery

Discharge (Hours) / Capacity Ah 120 100 20 10 5
Exide 6RP670 735 670 423 376 339
Exide 6RP670 910 830 565 501 452
Exide Enersol 130 132 130 108 100 95
• Rate factor = Capacity at slow avg. PV rate / Capacity at std. rate

= 735 / 376 = 1.95
• Total DC load = AC Load / Inverter efficiency

= 7525 / 0.9 = 8361 Wh
• Battery capacity (Ah)

= Autonomy * Total DC load / 24 * DoD*Temp Derating factor * Rate factor
• Considering 100 hour curve, for -20 oC, temp. derating factor = 0.78 = 3 * 8361 / 24 * 0.5 * 0.78 * 1.95
=1374 Ah
Step 4 Battery Configuration Step 5. Array sizing
• No. of batteries in parallel = Battery Capacity / Capacity of single battery • DC demand in Ah = AC load demand (Wh) / Inverter efficiency * System
nominal voltage
= 1374/735
= 7525 / 0.9 *24 = 348.38 Ah
~2
• Choice of module = 75 Wp, 12 V, 4.4 A
• Thumb rule for choosing system nominal voltage
• Upto 1 kWh = 12 V • Module output = Peak sun shine hour * Imp
• 1 to 4 kWh = 24 V = 4 * 4.4 = 17.6
• Above 4 kWh = 48 V
• No. of parallel modules = DC demand / Module output
• No. of battery in series = System nominal voltage/ Single battery nominal voltage = 348.38 / 17.6 ~ 20
= 24 /6
• No. of series module = System nominal voltage / Module nominal voltage
=4
= 24 / 12 = 2
• Total 8 batteries ( 4 in series , in 2 strings)

• Total no. of modules = No. of series * no. of parallel modules
= 2 * 20 =40
Estimating total dynamic head
Elevation
Water tank
Ground
Standing water
level
DESIGN OF PV drawdown
Well
IRRIGATION SYSTEM
• Total dynamic head (TDH) = Total vertical lift + frictional losses (typically 5%)
• Drawdown: Height by which the standing water level drops due to pumping
2
21-10-2020
Design steps
• Design a PV system for pumping 25000 liters of water every day

Determine from a depth of about 10 meter.
1. Amount of water required per day
• Amount of water to be pumped per day =25000 liter =25 m3
2. TDH for water pumping • Total vertical lift =12 meters (5 m-elevation, 5 m –standing water level, 2 m –
drawdown)
3. Hydraulic energy required per day (Wh/day) to pump • Water density = 1000 kg/m3
the required amount of water
• Acceleration due to gravity = g = 9.8 m/s2
4. Solar Radiation available at a location • Solar PV module used = 75 Wp
• Derating factor = 0.85 (panel aging, dust, rusting etc)

5. Size and number of PV modules required and motor
• Pump efficiency = 30% or 0.30 (can be between 0.25 to 0.40)
rating
• Operating factor = 0.75 (PV panel does not operate at maximum power point, should be
1 if MPPT circuit is used)
Step 1 and 2: Daily Requirement and TDH Step 3: Determine the hydraulic energy required per day
• Hydraulic energy required to raise water level
• Amount of water pumped /day = 25000 liter = 25 m3/day

• Potential energy of the water is raised due to pumping, which must be supplied to
the pump
• Total vertical Lift = 12 m
• Total dynamic head (TDH) = Total vertical lift + frictional = Mass * g * TDH
losses (~ 5%) = Density * Volume * g * TDH
= (1000kg/m3) (25m3/day) (9.8 m/s2) *12.6
• Frictional losses = 5% of total vertical shift = 857.5 Watt-hour/day
• TDH = 12+ 12 * 0.05
• TDH = 12.6 m Step 4 : Determine solar radiation data
• 6 hours/day (peak of 1000 W/m2 equivalent)
Step 5 : Determine the number of PV panel and pump size
• Total wattage of PV panel

= Total hydraulic energy / no. of hours of peak sun shine/day
= 857.5 / 6 = 142.9 Watt
• Considering system losses

= total PV panel wattage /(pump efficiency * derating factor )
= 142.9 / (0.3*0.85) = 560 Watt
• Consider operating factor for PV panel DESIGN OF PV HOME

= Total PV panel wattage after losses / operating factor
=560 / 0.75 = 747.3 Watt LIGHTING SYSTEM
• Number of solar PV panel required of 75Wp each
= 747.3 / 75
=9.96 ≈ 10
• Power rating of the motor = 747.3 /746 ≈ 1 HP motor
3
21-10-2020
Steps of PV system sizing Step 1 : Load Estimation, converter rating and system voltage
•• System
Step 1: Determine daily/weekly/seasonal load
sizing to determine the size of array for a given requirement
Load Watts Hr/day Number Watt-Hr
AC load, DC load, inverter size, inverter
CFL 9 5 2 90
efficiency, total load
Fan 60 8 1 480
• Step 2: Determine the battery bank size TV (21") 150 2 1 300
Battery choice, battery efficiency, no. of batteries,
battery configuration, charge controller Refrigerator 150 8 1 1200
Computer 250 3 1 750

• Step 3: Determining PV array size
Selecting array, maximum current and voltage, Total daily Wh/day 2820
battery efficiency, number of modules, module
configuration, geographic location • Inverter power rating > 628 W
• Total daily energy supplied to inverter = 2820 / 0.9 = 3133.33 Wh
• System Voltage = 24 V
Step 2 : Battery Sizing Step 3: Sizing of PV modules
• Using 12 V, 100 Ah battery • Total Ah generated by PV module = 4095.85 Wh/24 V = 170.66 Ah

• No of Batteries required in series = 24/12 = 2
• Module degradation factor can be considered now if required.

• Required charge capacity = 3133 Wh / 24 V = 130.55 Ah
• Considering location have equivalent to peak sunshine hours = 6 hours

• DoD = 70 %
• Redundancy/battery autonomy =1
• Total amperes modules should produce = 170.66 Ah/6h = 28.44 A
• No. of batteries required in parallel = 130.55 / (100 * 0.7) = 1.86 ~ 2
• Considering 75 Wp module, single module would deliver 75/15 = 5 A current

• Total Batteries required = 4 (= 2 * 2)
• Energy supplied to battery = 3133.33 Wh/0.85 = 3686.27 Wh • No of panels required= 28.44 / 5 = 5.68 ~ 6 Panels
• Energy supplied to MPPT = 3686.27 Wh/0.9 = 4095.85 Wh • Total panels = 6 parallel strings of 2 panels in series = 12 panels
Precise sizing of PV system Wire sizing in PV systems

• In a PV system the distance between the solar PV module and the battery
• Seasonal Variation in load is 10 m. The system voltage is chosen to be 12 V DC. The PV module and
battery are connected by a copper cable of 2.5 mm 2 diameter.
Estimate the voltage drop in the cable if it is carrying 3.5 A current
• Environmental factors
• Estimation of Solar Data
What would happen if the cable of 1.5 mm2 csa is used?
• Ambient temperature
• Dust accumulation 𝜌𝐿 2∗3.5∗1.678∗10−8∗10
• 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑉𝑑 = 2 ∗ 𝐼 ∗ = = 0.47 𝑉
𝐴 2.5 ∗10−6
• Cleaning frequency
• Vd = 3.9 % of system voltage, thus acceptable

• Technology
• PV modules
• Sun-tracking • For 1.5 mm2 csa cable
• Battery and other BOS components
• Mounting option • Vd = 0.783 V which is 6.5 %, beyond acceptable limit
4
21-10-2020
Payback Period
• Period within which the invested money can be recovered or saved

• Types
• Simple Payback period = initial investment cost / annual cost of energy saving
• By estimating lifecycle cost (LCC)
No. in
Component Rating Voltage No. in series Cost/unit Total cost
parallel
Battery 100 Ah 12 2 2 12000 48000
75*80=
PV array 75 Wp 15 2 6 36000
6000
COST ANALYSIS Inverter

Charge
1 kVA
24 V DC /
230 V AC
24 V DC / 24
1 8000 8000
30 A 1 8000 8000
Controller V DC
Other costs 15000
Total Cost 1,15,000
Simple Payback Period Time value of money
• Total investment = 1,15,000 • Value of money changes over time due to
• Units supplied per day = 2.82

• Inflation rate (i)
• Value of money decreases due to inflation
• Cost of electricity from diesel generator = 10 Rs. / unit
• For n years future cost of the product is
𝑛
• 𝐶 𝑛 = 𝐶0 1 + 𝑖
• Annual cost saving made = 2.82 * 365 * 10 = 10, 293
• Simple Payback Period = 1,15,000 / 10,293 • Discount rate (d)

• Value of money increases due to interest it can earn
= 11.17 years
𝑛
• 𝑀 𝑛 = 𝑀0 1 + 𝑑
10/21/2020 PV System sizing and Economics 30 31
Present worth of future one-time investment Present worth of future recurring investments
• Recurring investment is considered as one time investment for each year of

• Amount of money that needs to be invested today with discount rate (d) operation
and inflation rate (i), such that a product can be purchased in future
n 1
 1 i   1 i   1 i 
1 2
PWrecbeg  Co  Co    Co    .......Co  
1 d  1 d  1 d 
• FPW-one = present worth factor for future one time investments

 1 i   1 i   1 i 
1 2 n
PWrec end  Co    Co    .......Co  

𝑛
1 d  1 d  1 d 
1+𝑖
𝐹𝑃𝑊−𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛
1+𝑑 1 i
k
1 d
• If the present cost of a product is C 0, then its present worth (PW) for the 1 k n  1 kn 
PWrec beg  Co    Co FPW  rec beg where FPW  recbeg   
actual one time investment ‘n’ years  1 k   1 k 
1+𝑖 𝑛
𝑃𝑊𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐶0 𝐹𝑃𝑊−𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐶0 𝑛
1+𝑑 1 k n  1 k n 
PWrecend  Co k    Co FPW recend where FPW recend  k  
 1 k   1 k 
5
21-10-2020
Life Cycle Cost (LCC) Lifecycle cost
• Sum of the PWs of all the components • A system has a lifetime of 10 years and has a capital cost C1
(in terms of present cost).
• The life cycle cost may contain elements
pertaining to • It requires replacement of a critical component in 5 years,
• Original purchase price having a cost C2 (in terms of present cost).
• Replacement prices of components
• Maintenance costs
• The system also has an annual maintenance cost of C3 (in
• Fuel and/or operation costs
terms of present cost).
• Salvage costs or salvage revenues
• Used to compare the cost of owing and running LCC  C1  FPW  one (5 year) * C2  FPW  rec end (10 year) * C3
different systems for a given period
Comparison of refrigerators Life Cycle Cost (LCC) Analysis
• Refrigerator A costs $600 and uses 150 kWh of electricity per month. It is designed to last • Cost of using PV system during its lifetime
10 years with no repairs. • Components of LCC
• Refrigerator B costs $800 and uses 100 kWh of electricity per month. It is also designed to • Initial cost
last 10 years with no repairs. • Recurring cost
• Assuming all the other features of the two refrigerators are the same, which is the better • Replacement cost
buy if the cost of electricity is $0.07/kWh? (recurring at beginning of the year)
• What if the cost of electricity is $0.15/kWh? • Compared with electricity using Diesel genset
• Assume a discount rate of 10% and assume an inflation rate of 3% for the electrical costs.
Items Photovoltaic Diesel
• PV Array • Genset
• Battery
Initial Cost
• DC/AC Converters
• Installation
• Taxes • Daily diesel requirements
• Insurance • oil & filter change
O&M
• Maintenance • decarbonisation
• engine overhaul
Non-recurring • Battery • Engine replacement
Expenses • Battery
Example: LCC analysis
• Problem definition: A signboard on an highway is either needs to

be powered by PV system or a diesel generator system.
• The sign board should be on for 24 hours with minimal downtime.
Its lifetime should be 20 years. It would take about 2kWh of energy
per day.
• Which energy source should be employed?
• PV system – 500W module@4$/w, 900 $ / battery, 300$ charge controller, and

100$ annual maintenance cost End of the year), battery replacement every five
years.
• Diesel gen – 500W generator of 250$, 2 kWh/liter petrol, Fuel+annual
maintenance - $1500, engine replacement every five years.
• Assume – inflation rate – 0.03, Discount rate- 0.10

• Fi(5)= 0.72, Fi(10)= 0.51 , Fi(15)=0.37, Frc-beg = 11.5, Frc-end=10.77
6
21-10-2020
Annualized LCC (ALCC) and per unit cost Fluorescent lamp versus incandescent lamp
• For a given light requirement industry needs to use 20 pieces of

incandescent lamp (each costing $1)
𝐿𝐶𝐶
𝐴𝐿𝐶𝐶 =
𝐹𝑃𝑤 • The lifetime of incandescent lamp is one year and needs 4
replacements during 5 years of study. It is given that the cost of
• For PV system = 5727 / 10.77 =532 electricity is 0.1$/unit in the region where industry is located. Total
• For Genset = 24229 / 11.5 = 2107 energy consumption of the incandescent lamp would be about 15
units/day (as per requirement)
• Unit cost of generated electricity = ALCC/annual number of electrical units
• The source which provides the lowest unit cost of electricity to be chosen • The same number of fluorescent light would cost about $400 (20
times more) but they would consume 4 times less energy per day
• For PV system = 532 / 730 = 0.729 $/unit (3.75 units/day) and if we assume the life of the fluorescent to be 5
• For genset = 2107 / 730 = 2.89 $/Unit years, than there would not be any replacement during the study
time of 5 years
• Which type of light source should be chosen?

Fluorescent lamp versus incandescent lamp This is the last lecture

All cost in USD
i= 3%
d = 10 %
• Thank you all !
Incandescent lamp Florescent lamp
Present Present
Lamp cost and
replacement
Present
cost
worth
Present
worth
Present cost worth Present worth • More than 30 lectures
factor factor
1st year 20 1 20 200 1 200

2nd year 20 0.94 18.7 - 0 • Course objective achieved
3rd year 20 0.88 17.5 - 0
4th year 20 0.82 16.4 - 0
5th year 20 0.77 15.4 - 0
• As it gets older, course has become more
Annual
540 4.40 2377.6 135 4.40 594.4 streamlined and updated
Electricity cost
Life Cycle Cost (LCC) 2465.6 794.4

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14-08-2020

 Understanding Light and material

 Part I : Physics of Solar Cell

 Part-II : Solar photovoltaic systems and applications

Text books: Reference books:

Reference books: Manual

Adani Green Energy Share movement since launch

Si Solar Cell Technology: EE 6245

Prof. Paresh Kale

Contents Solar Energy Conversion

Why Solar? Solar Thermal

Credit for Solar PV goes to…..

A French physicist credited with discovery of photovoltaic effect in 1839

From material to end-use Harnessing Solar Power

Agro Solar integrated plant

Roof top Solar PV

Building integrated PV (BIPV) Building integrated PV (BIPV)

Solar powered parking lot

Global cumulative PV capacity in GW (2018) Status of India

Solar Resource Map Installed Solar Power Capacity

State wise status Grid connected plant capacity in India

 State wise install capacity in MW p of commissioned Solar Power plants

Status of India Largest Solar PV parks

Installed PV Capacity (in MW)

Bhadla Solar Park Targets and achievement

• World's biggest solar park in

• Second largest in terms of

 In the Paris Agreement India has committed to an Intended

 As of 31 March 2020, 35.86% of India's installed electricity

Typical Solar Power plant and costs in India

 Breakup for Capital Cost projections for PV projects in Rajasthan and

Capital Cost Norm Capital Cost Norm as

c-Si PV modules 332.35 326.76 328.39

2.6 Rs/unit Civil and General Works

Power Conditioning Unit 45 45 35

2.44 Others (connectivity,

Total 605.85 596.8 530.02

Capital cost breakup (%) US Module Cost structures (2012)

 Distribution of the normalized capital costs for solar

7% Civil and General Works

6% 62% Power Conditioning Unit

Cables, Transformers and

 Drop 20% for every doubling of cumulative shipped volume

Thin-film PV cells : included in Time Magazine 's Best Inventions of 2008

SGS - I : 99.9999% (6N) SGS – II : 99.99999 - 99.999999% (7N - 8N)

Strategies Technical Pathways Impact

Improved Wire Sawing Use of thinner and stronger wires

1st Gen PV : Key points Challenges to PV Technology

 1963: Commercial production of c-Si modules began

 87% Share: c-Si technologies in global PV sales

 A mature technology  Availability of material

 Long money pay back period

Thin Film Technologies Second Generation Solar Cell Technologies

Decrease in material cost Some statistics

Saving further Strategy for next gen PV

High cost due to large volume consumption of high purity material

Thin film C-Si

Losses in standard solar cell

Use of 3rd Gen compatible

Using complete spectrum Approaches

• Band-gap matching with Spectrum

• Reduced thermalisation losses