MODULE 1 Facilitating Learning in Diverse Contexts

Midterm Coverage

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 MODULE 1 Facilitating Learning in Diverse Contexts
Midterm Coverage

Nature of Learning
Unit 1 and its Scope

This unit discusses learner-centered theories of learning as foundation in

understanding the scope of learning along with the comparison of child, adolescent
and adult learning. Different categories of knowledge shall also be
thoroughly explained in this unit.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

● analyze the leaner-centered theories of learning;

● compare child, adolescent and adult learning; and
● categorize knowledge according to different types.

Pretest

Directions: Complete the concept map below. Supply words you could associate to
the word “learning” on the diagram.

LEARNING

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Thank you for answering the

pretest. Your responses will be of great
help as you continue learning this unit.
Good luck!

Content

What is Learning?
The term ‘learning’ has been defined in so many ways. To most, it simply refers
to studying basic subjects in schools from teachers, books or internet. But learning is
actually more than that. So, before we delve into understanding the relevant science
behind the learning process, let’s ground ourselves first with the different definitions of
learning that are drawn from various researches.

1. Learning is the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or

behavior due to experience. This definition has three components: 1) the
duration of the change is long-term rather than short-term; 2) the locus of the
change is the content and structure of knowledge in memory or the behavior
of the learner; 3) the cause of the change is the learner’s experience in the
environment rather than fatigue, motivation, drugs, physical condition or
physiologic intervention.” (Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Richard E.
Mayer)

2. A change in human disposition or capability that persists over a period of time

and is not simply ascribable to processes of growth.” (Robert Gagne)

3. Learning is a process that is active - process of engaging and manipulating

objects, experiences, and conversations in order to build mental models of
the world (Dewey, 1938; Piaget, 1964; Vygotsky, 1986). Learners build
knowledge as they explore the world around them, observe and interact with
phenomena, converse and engage with others, and make connections
between new ideas and prior understandings.

4. Learning is a process that builds on prior knowledge - and involves enriching,

building on, and changing existing understanding, where “one’s knowledge
base is a scaffold that supports the construction of all future learning”
(Alexander, 1996, p. 89).

5. Learning is a process that occurs in a complex social environment - and thus

should not be limited to being examined or perceived as something that

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happens on an individual level. Instead, it is necessary to think of learning as

a social activity involving people, the things they use, the words they speak,
the cultural context they’re in, and the actions they take (Bransford, et al.,
2006; Rogoff, 1998), and that knowledge is built by members in the activity
(Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2006).

6. Learning is a process that is situated in an authentic context - provides

learners with the opportunity to engage with specific ideas and concepts on a
need-to-know or want-to-know basis (Greeno, 2006; Kolodner, 2006).

7. Learning is a process that requires learners’ motivation and cognitive

engagement to be sustained when learning complex ideas, because
considerable mental effort and persistence are necessary.

At the core, learning is a process that results in a change in knowledge or

behavior as a result of experience. Understanding what it takes to get that knowledge in
and out (or promote behavioral change of a specific kind) can help optimize learning.

[Source: teaching.berkeley.edu]

Types of Learning
The activities learned by the individual refer to types of learning. Some of the
important and common learning types are the following:

1. Motor Learning
Most of our activities in our day-to-days life refer to motor activities. The
individual has to learn them in order to maintain his regular life, for example
walking, running, skating, driving, climbing, etc. All these activities involve the
muscular coordination.

2. Verbal Learning
This type of learning involves the language we speak, the communication
devices we use. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds, etc., are
the tools used in such activities. We use words for communication.

3. Concept Learning
It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental processes
like thinking, reasoning, intelligence, etc. we learn different concepts from
childhood. For example, when we see a dog and attach the term ‘dog’, we
learn that the word dog refers to a particular animal. Concept learning
involves two processes, viz. abstraction and generalization. This learning is
very useful in recognizing, identifying things.

4. Discrimination Learning
Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an appropriate
response to these stimuli is called discrimination learning. Example, sound
horns of different vehicles like bus, car, ambulance, etc.

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5. Learning of Principles
Individuals learn certain principles related to science, mathematics, grammar,
etc. in order to manage their work effectively. These principles always show
the relationship between two or more concepts. Example: formulae, laws,
associations, correlations, etc.

6. Problem Solving
This is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use of
cognitive abilities-such as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination,
generalization, etc. This is very useful to overcome difficult problems
encountered by the people.

7. Attitude Learning
Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs our behavior.
We develop different attitudes from our childhood about the people, objects
and everything we know. Our behavior may be positive or negative
depending upon our attitudes. Example: attitudes of nurse towards her
profession, patients, etc.
[Source: psychologydiscussion.net]

Defining Learner – Centered

Lately, there has been a strong advocacy and push for learner-centeredness in
educational practice, especially in curriculum development and teaching methodology.
This means that policy, planning and implementation of educational practice should have
the learners as its focus. It is therefore expected that theories of learning and their
applications should be learner-centered.

Learner-centered is the perspective that focuses on individual learners – their

heredity, experiences, perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interests, capacities, and
needs with a focus on learning - the best available knowledge about learning and how it
occurs, and about teaching practices that are most effective in promoting the highest
levels of motivation, learning and achievement for all learners.

The following are the learner-centered principles:

1. They pertain to the learner and the learning process.
2. They focus on psychological factors primarily internal and under the control of the
leaner.
3. They deal with external and contextual factors that interact with the internal
factors.
4. They are seen an organized set of principles; no principle to be viewed in
isolation.
5. The principles are classified under cognitive, metacognitive, motivational,
affective, developmental, social and individual difference factors related to
learning.
6. These principles apply not only to all learners but to everybody involved in the
educational system, as for example, teachers, administrators, parents, staff and
guidance counselors. [Source: Brawner, 2018]

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Five Current Learning Theories in Education

The following summaries explain the essential components of different learning
theories in education, and how these translate to the classroom setting.

Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a pedagogical theory that defines learning as a process of
knowledge acquisition that takes place through observation (i.e., based on objectively
quantifiable events rather than introspective psychology). No doubt, you have probably
heard of Pavlov’s dog before. Pavlovian conditioning, named after the Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov, is when a particular stimulus is used to elicit a predictable
response. Pavlov discovered that he could trigger salivation in dogs through the use of a
bell, after associating that bell with food. Educational theorists such as B.F. Skinner
revised Pavlov’s theory of ‘learning by association’ by putting forward a theory of operant
conditioning, that demonstrated that behaviors of learners could be influenced by
positive or negative reinforcements.

How, then, does behaviorism translate to the classroom or corporate training

environments? Behaviorism confirms that learning is strengthened through repeated
action, and therefore, having a systematic routine where knowledge is revisited
repeatedly, will undoubtedly reinforce learning.

Feedback is also an important component of behaviorism, especially when it is

used as a form of positive reinforcement. In order to strengthen positive associations
with learning, the timing of the feedback matters. Behaviorists would argue that for
feedback to be an effective form of association, it should be immediate—something that
becomes much more achievable in the microlearning context when students receive
instant rewards for correctly completing tasks or frequently logging in. It is, however,
important to note that the behaviorist school of thought is almost entirely dependent on
teacher/instructor input and views the learner as a passive recipient of information.

Cognitivism
Cognitivism, as suggested by the name, focuses on cognitive processes of the
mind such as thinking, memory, recall, and problem-solving. Similar to behaviorism,
cognitivism is about learning via association; however, the emphasis is placed on
internal processing rather than the external environment.

In contrast to behaviorism, associations are based on creating links between new

understandings and prior knowledge. Cognitivism also differs from behaviorism by
acknowledging that learners process and encode information in different ways. Social
Cognitive Theory (SCT) is a major stand of cognitivism that asserts that observing
others, especially one’s peers, is the most effective form of knowledge acquisition.

So how do we translate cognitivism in the classroom? Collaborative problem-

solving, discussion-based activities, and peer-to-peer teaching are ideal activity formats
that enable social interactions that enhance learning. To support the creation of mental
associations, it is important that information is chunked into groups, and discrete
segments of knowledge are linked together. In order to further knowledge associations,

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be sure to tie theory back to real-world examples. Other methods of association might
include using mnemonics, analogies, or visual cues.

Constructivism
Constructivism is a student-centered learning theory that is based on
cumulatively building understandings from students’ prior experiences and knowledge. In
other words, to continue the construction analogy, learning becomes a process of
constructing new knowledge on the foundation of what is already known. Essentially, it
places learning in a familiar context and aims to translate abstract theories into relatable
concepts.

Done well, constructivist-based learning is always relevant. Any stand-alone

theory should be reframed to have links to practice or real-world scenarios. Whether
knowingly or unknowingly, most classroom teachers will be taking a constructivist
approach to every lesson when they use engagement hooks that relate back to the world
of the student and provide an ‘association anchor’ for new information about the be
introduced. Knowing your students or learner audience is absolutely essential when
practicing constructivism as an educator. For this reason, pre-assessments, surveys,
interviews and learning journals are all useful tools to be used before and during any
learning experience.

Constructivism provides an alternative to teacher-directed curriculum design by

essentially allowing student experiences to dictate the direction of learning. Because
constructivist-oriented learning revolves around the understandings and experiences of
the students, it is inherently a dynamic and ever-changing process.

Humanism
Humanism approaches learning and education with a growth mindset. Similar to
constructivism, humanism is a school of educational thought that is inherently student-
centered. Humanistic education derives many of its values from the intellectual
movement of the seventeenth century, where philosophes such as Voltaire (1642-1778)
believed that humans were born with innate potential.
Humanistic education, therefore, focuses on fostering individual potential and
personal growth. Humanism tends to be even more individual-focused than
constructivism, with an emphasis placed on choice and autonomy. Educators adopting a
humanist approach aim to foster self-directed learning among students, in the belief
intrinsic motivation to learn comes from this. In order to support self-directed learning,
teaching students how to learn becomes a key priority. Along the same lines, humanist
educators believe that learners should be given opportunities to evaluate their own
learning, whether that be through formalized self-assessment or descriptive, reflective
journaling.

It is important to note that unlike most other schools of thought, humanism gives
equal weight to the cognitive (knowledge) and affective (feeling) domains, which not only
impacts what and how content is conveyed, but also how outcomes are measured. A
humanistic education aims to redefine what traditional academic success looks like.
When it comes to measuring student outcomes, humanistic educators take a more
holistic view in that they view emotions, moral understandings, and knowledge as

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equally important outcomes in a learning experience, and therefore, tend to avoid

traditional grading.

Connectivism
Connectivism is inherently a future-focused learning theory. It is a relatively
recent pedagogical view that takes into account the changing nature of knowledge
acquisition in our digital age. In contrast to constructivism, which revolves around what a
learner already knows, connectivism pinpoints what a learner needs to know, and
targets the learning at a relevant time of need.

While connectivists generally believe that expanding knowledge is ultimately

more important than taking into account prior knowledge, connectivism allows learners
to situate new knowledge within existing schemas of understanding. Similar to
humanism, connectivism empowers students to make their own learning decisions.
Students are aided in this process by technology, which assists in threading together
different strands of knowledge.

Connectivism mirrors our ever-changing digital landscape in that it is forever

changing and never static. According to Siemens (2004), a core principle of
connectivism is that ‘learning and knowledge rest in diversity of opinions.’ Connectivist
educators aim for precision in breaking up content into discrete segments in the form of
short strategic bursts of learning, very much in line with the science of microlearning.
Reflective of continuous learning cultures in corporate environments, connectivism
recognizes that learning is a continual lifelong pursuit.
[Source: edapp.com]

What is Pedagogy and Andragogy?

Today, pedagogy refers to the theories and methods used in teaching. However,
in the past, pedagogy referred specifically to the methods used to educate children. It
literally means ‘leading children’. Andragogy which was coined by Malcolm Knowles
focuses on the practices used to teach adults.

Characteristics of Young Learners

1. They can learn through talking about themselves, families and their lives.
2. They are curious to learn and discover new concepts on their own.
3. They like to use their imagination and to discover things.
4. They naturally need to touch, see, hear and interact to learn.
5. Because their attention span is limited, they need engaging and entertaining
activities in order to not lose interest.
6. They like to cooperate and work in groups.
7. They need support and encouragement while learning.
8. Teachers need to work their students individually because they need to be
guided.

Characteristics of Adolescent Learners

1. They are in search for personal identity.
2. They are in need of activities that meet their needs and learning expectations.
3. They become disruptive when they lose interest in the lesson or feel bored.

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4. They need help and support from the teacher and to be provided with
constructive feedback.
5. They can draw upon a variety of resources in the learning environment,
including personal experience, the local community, and the Internet.
6. They need the teacher to build bridges between the syllabus and their world
of interests and experiences.
7. They can learn abstract issues and do challenging activities.
8. Their personal initiative and energy are moved into action through meaningful
involvement with relevant and current content.

Characteristics of Adult Learners

1. Adults are more disciplined than adolescents.
2. They have a clear understanding of their learning objectives.
3. They need to be involved in choosing what and how to learn.
4. They prefer to rely on themselves and work on their own pace.
5. They come to the classroom with a wide range of knowledge, expectations,
and experiences.
6. They are able to do a wide range of activities.
7. Adults learn at various rates and in different ways according to their
intellectual ability, educational level, personality, and cognitive learning styles.
8. They come into the classroom with diverse experiences, opinions, thoughts,
and beliefs which need be respected.

Knowles’ Assumptions about Adult Learners

As a teacher, it is expected that you make specific assumptions about adult
learners. Knowles’ Theory of Andragogy outlines the five assumptions below:
1. Self-concept: Adults move from being dependent on others to self-direction
as they mature.
2. Experience: Adults gain experience as they grow that, in turn, becomes a
valuable tool in learning.
3. Readiness to learn: The priorities of adults shift as they begin to increasingly
value and are therefore more ready to learn about his or her role in society.
4. Orientation to learning: Adults change their perspectives on learning as they
grow, moving from procrastination to immediate application and from subject
interest to problem-solving.
5. Motivation to learn: Adults move from extrinsic towards intrinsic motivation as
they grow and mature.
[Source: educationaltechnology.net]

Types of Knowledge

Understanding the nature of knowledge is imperative because it’s one of the

outcomes of the learning process. Fact is, before one develops certain skills and
attitudes, he has to have knowledge first. Experts and researchers identity and classify
knowledge in several ways but for the purpose of this unit, we shall discuss only eleven.

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1. A Posteriori Knowledge

This knowledge comes directly from our own personal experiences. A “Posteriori”
is latin for ‘that which comes after’. So, when we talk about posteriori knowledge, we are
talking about knowledge that comes after we have had some experiences. It is
knowledge that is a result of our own experiences.

For example in education, many social constructivist theorists believe that A

Posteriori knowledge is excellent for learning because it helps students develop neural
pathways. Learning by doing, experiencing and discovering is also popular in 21st
Century educational approaches such as phenomenon based learning, problem posing
education and play based learning.

2. A Priori Knowledge

A Priori knowledge is the opposite of posteriori knowledge. It is knowledge and

facts that exist without the need to experience it. You can come to your conclusions
through reason alone.

An example is: 1 + 1 = 2. You can figure this out without actually getting two
separate things and placing them in front of your eyes to count them. You use your A
Priori knowledge of mathematical principles to figure it out!

Another example is, many great scientific, architectural and engineering feats
have been achieved through priori knowledge. For example, the engineer is able to
order a multi-million dollar bridge to be constructed and be confident that it will withhold
the weight of trucks and cars because she has used her A Priori knowledge of physics to
guarantee the bridge will hold its weight.

3. Dispersed or Distributed Knowledge

Dispersed knowledge is knowledge that no single person has the capacity to see
in its entirety. The knowledge is dispersed or spread out among many different people. If
we want to bring a whole lot of knowledge together to achieve something great, we need
to get a team of experts on different topics together to input their knowledge to achieve
our goals.

For example, your surgeon may be the expert in fixing hearts, but he could not
conduct the surgery without other specialists and anesthesiologists who have knowledge
and perspectives that the surgeon is not trained in.

4. Domain or Expert Knowledge

Domain knowledge is deep knowledge about a particular domain or discipline.

We might also call it expert knowledge. A person with domain knowledge is incredibly
knowledgeable within their discipline but may just have general knowledge about
everything else.

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For instance, after compulsory education ends, many people continue studying at
university. When we go to university, we get the opportunity to specialize in a specific
domain: maybe it’s Computer Sciences, Communication Studies, or Teaching. This is
even more the case at postgraduate level. Many such university degrees are all about
developing specific domain knowledge rather than broad generalized knowledge (with
the possible exception of liberal arts degrees).

5. Empirical Knowledge

Empirical knowledge is knowledge obtained through the senses. It is distinct from

A Posteriori knowledge because empirical knowledge must be experienced through the
senses alone. It cannot be a metaphysical, reflective, dream or other a posteriori
experience.
Here is a quick summary of that distinction:
• A Posteriori knowledge : knowledge derived from any experience.
• Empirical knowledge : knowledge derived from experience observable by
the senses.
Most research is empirical. If you read a piece of research in a journal article, it
will report on something that was observed, such as answers to interviews or research
participants’ responses to an exam.

6. Encoded Knowledge

Encoded knowledge is knowledge that has been recorded in symbolic codes.

This makes the knowledge easily retrievable by people who know how to decode that
knowledge at a later date. We might also call it ‘stored’ knowledge.

For example, written English is the code of our language. We encode knowledge
when we write it down and anyone who can read our ‘can then decode it at a later date.

We have also created generalizable codes in our road signs. Red octagon
means ‘stop’, green light means ‘go’, etc.

7. Tacit Knowledge

Tacit knowledge is knowledge that you have but cannot express. A person with
tacit knowledge has usually had that knowledge for so long that they cannot remember
how they learned it or why it is true. They are simply aware that it is useful, accurate
knowledge that exists in their mind.

Many expert practitioners know how to do things out of intuition. An expert vet
knows how to connect with a horse and settle its nerves but may be unable to explain
how they can develop that relationship so quickly. An expert teacher may be able to
diffuse a troublesome situation in a classroom but not really be able to explain to their
apprentice teacher just how they did it.

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8. Explicit Knowledge

Explicit knowledge is the opposite of tacit knowledge. It is knowledge that can be

easily explained to outsiders. It is knowledge that we could quickly codify into words and
express to others.

For instance in teaching, it involves guiding students through a process in a

methodological way. Once the student has been explicitly modelled the knowledge, the
teacher steps back and lets the student practice applying their new knowledge without
support.

9. Imperative or Procedural Knowledge

Imperative knowledge is ‘knowing how’. It is knowledge about how to carry out

tasks effectively. This may involve specific steps or a general understanding of the
process by which something gets achieved. Some people hold the secrets to their
imperative knowledge close to their chest, such as when a grandmother passes down a
family recipe to her granddaughter.

For example, the famous KFC 11 herbs and spices are said to generate their
specific ‘KFC flavor’ from the procedures in which they are cooked. This procedural
knowledge is highly classified and the intellectual property of KFC.

10. Descriptive Knowledge

Also known as propositional knowledge, descriptive knowledge is ‘knowing that’

something is true (as opposed to ‘knowing how’ something should be done). Descriptive
knowledge can be learned through memorization and does not require significant
practical experience in the field. By contrast, imperative (‘knowing how’) knowledge
usually requires practical skill in a task.

In education, for example, century teaching pedagogies like behaviorism focused

exclusively on descriptive knowledge. Students learned facts through passive learning,
without being given the opportunity to apply them to the real world.

11. Situated Knowledge

Situated knowledge is knowledge that emerges out of a specific context,

community or culture. It is knowledge that is specific to that situation and is hard to
understand from outside of that perspective. All of us have situated cultural knowledge.
This is the knowledge that we’ve inherited from our cultures. Others might have different
knowledge that has grown from different cultures and you may find it hard to understand
their knowledge from your ‘outsider’ perspective.

In education, situated learning theory by Lave and Wegner advocates that

students should learn within the context in which the knowledge is applied. For example,
someone should take up an apprentice as a baker’s aide in order to learn to bake bread,
rather than learn it from paper. [Source: helpfulprofessor.com]

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That was quite long, right? But I

know you were able to follow.
If you have questions or
clarifications, don’t hesitate to contact
your instructor.
Now, you’re ready to
accomplish the tasks that follow.
Good luck!

Learning Activities

A. Direction: Following are learning activities and practices commonly applied inside the
classroom. Identify what theory is applied in each learning activity and
why you think so.

Learning Activities and Practices Theory Applied

1. The teacher assigned the students to
memorize the multiplication table.
2. The trainer showed a ten-minute video
about an effective teacher to a group of
teacher-trainees.
3. The teacher gave five algebra problems
for students to solve.
4. The teacher first gave a lecture on a
topic on Philippine history, after which he
asked the students to answer recall
questions.
5. The teacher asked the students to
memorize and recite Jose Rizal’s “My
Last Farewell”.
6. The teacher invited one resource person
to give a lecture on developing habits of
cleanliness and hygiene. After the
lecture, the students were encouraged to
ask questions to the resource speaker.
7. In a science class, the teacher asked the
students to do an experiment and
answer the questions based on the
results of the experiment.
8. The teacher gives a “star” to the pupil
who gave correct answers to her
questions.

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9. In statistics class, the students were

asked to interpret the data illustrated in
graphs.
10. The teacher asked the students to do
interviews with local officials. The
purpose was to identify who among the
local officials are good and effective
leaders based on a set of criteria.
11. The teacher asked the students to
observe a chef on the correct way of
cooking a recipe.
12. In a coconut-growing locality, many of
the topics in the course had to do with
coconuts. In TLE, lessons are on
cooking using coconut recipes. In
science, lessons are on how to improve
the by-products of coconuts.
13. On a lesson on environmental
conservation, students climbed a
mountain to study the kinds of
topographical changes taking place.
14. In an English class, the topic was Joyce
Kilmer’s poem, “Trees.” The teacher
asked two students to write two
paragraphs of their interpretation of the
poem from a science perspective. Two
students were also asked to interpret the
poem in music form.
15. The topic under study is to study the use
of computer programs needed for
different tasks in the workplace.

B. Directions: Conduct a simple interview with a child, an adolescent and an adult. Ask
them where they want to live, in a city or in a barrio, and why. Encourage them to explain
their reasons. Write their answers on the boxes provided and your reflection stating
comparisons of their responses after the interview.

Child

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Adolescent

Adult

Personal Reflection/Realization after the Interview

BRAVO! Congratulations for

completing the tasks on time.
If you have not completed the
tasks or have a difficulty accomplishing
such, just contact your instructor.
You’re one way to go!
It’s assessment time!

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Assessment

A. Direction: Given all the theories presented and learned in this unit, what gives them
the characteristic of being learner-centered. Explain each theory.

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

B. Directions: Below is a list of classroom activities. Identify whose needs will be

addressed by each activity – young? adolescents? adults?

___________ 1. Students go to the seashore to study different kinds of shells.

___________ 2. Students name and identify real fruits shown by the teacher.
___________ 3. Students are given ingredients and were asked to cook them using their
own method.
___________ 4. Students were grouped into three and were given two problems to
solve.
___________ 5. Students were doing an experiment and the teacher was present to
guide them.
___________ 6. The students were asked to tell stories about their family using pictures.
___________ 7. Students were asked to interpret a poem.
___________ 8. Students were asked to interview five leaders in the community, from
which they were to make an assessment of how effective or ineffective
the leaders are.
___________ 9. Students were asked to make table in two hours.
___________ 10. Students were asked to observe the leaves of plants in the garden.

C. Directions: List down 5 strategies and by which students can improve the quality of
the knowledge they have developed or acquired. Explain each briefly.
Make sure you craft your own strategies. Do not copy answers from the
internet.

1. ________________________________________________________________

2. ________________________________________________________________

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3. ________________________________________________________________

4. ________________________________________________________________

5. ________________________________________________________________

Congratulations for completing

Unit 1! You did great!
If you have questions or
clarifications, please don’t hesitate to
contact your instructor.
Please write honestly your insights
and thoughts about the completion of
this unit on the space provided for this
purpose.
You are now ready to learn Unit
II. Enjoy learning.

Write your final

thoughts
about this unit
HERE!

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
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