 Bilingualism:

◦ “Phenomenon of competence and communication in two

languages” Lam (2001:93).
◦ However, it is difficult to determine what constitutes
competence in two or more languages:
 One argument: relationship between meaning and its symbolic
representation (Does the bilingual learn one set of meanings to which
he/she attaches two linguistic representations or does he/she learn
two complete languages, as if he/she was the sum of two
monolinguals? )
 No clear answer, although translation arguments and imperfect
projection phenomena such as ambiguity and synonyms constitute
some of the criteria claimed against or in favour of considering the
bilingual as an expert in 2 complete sets of systems and meanings.
 What seems clear nowadays is that the task of learning 2 linguistic
systems gives them a neurological advantage in verbal aspects.
 Through a brainstorming activity, try to
define the features of a bilingual.

 And the benefits of bilingualism?

 But what is a bilingual?

◦ Having competence in 2 languages seems

straightforward, but the problem is how to define
and quantify what constitutes competence in two
languages.

L1 L1 < L2 L1= L2
 Key characterizations of bilinguals:
 According to a stricter definition, a bilingual is the individual with
complete competence in both languages.
 If bilingualism is considered as a continuum of abilities, equilibrated
bilinguals are those who have the same competence in both languages.
 Dominant bilinguals are more skilled in one of the two languages.
According to their use.
 Coordinated bilinguals can use both languages in the same situations.
 Compound bilinguals associate each language to a different context.
 Early and late bilinguals, as a function of when they learn each
language,
 Simultaneous and consecutive bilinguals: both languages are acquired
at the same time or one after another.
 Socio-cultural factors are also important: in the process of becoming a
bilingual, the individual may develop negative attitudes towards his/her
mother tongue, and become a subtractive bilingual. If those attitudes
are positive, then he/she is considered an additive bilingual.
 There are many factors affecting the process of
becoming a bilingual :
 Quality and quantity of the input received.
 Interactional style.
 Attitudes developed towards each language and the socio-cultural
context.

 Bilingualism is a phenomenon affected by

linguistic and subject variables:
 Level of concreteness in each language.
 How similar they are (linguistic neighborhood, and the degree of
overlapping in form and/or meaning, including cognates and false
friends).
 Subject variables are determined by the degree of competence in
each language and by the dominant language of the individual.
 The study of bilingualism is a relatively
modern discipline that arose from post-
colonial language policies among other
factors (Lam, 2001).

 Several phenomena have started to be

studied in detail:
 Code-switching
 Diglossia
 Developmental sequences
 Code-switching: intentional or unintentional use of
both linguistic codes at the same time.

Sabes? mi school bus no tiene un stop sign.

Hoy yo era line leader en mi escuela.

Ponemos cranberries y marshmallows y después se pone el glitter

con glue.
 Diglossia: social phenomenon which entails, rather
than code-switch, language switch. Each linguistic
variety is always associated to a different domain in a
society. (E.g., one linguistic variety is used for
administrative matters and the other one in the street.)

• Canadian French and High French.

• United States African American Vernacular English and Standard
American English.
• Haitian French creole and French.
 Bilingual developmental sequences: study the
stages students go through in their acquisition process.

1. First, they use a single lexical system in which they include
items from both languages.

2. Then, they distinguish the words belonging to each variety,

but use one single grammar.

3. In a third stage, they differentiate lexicon and syntax, and

last, they become aware of the two languages (de Vega and
Cuetos, 1999).
 To become a bilingual, individuals must acquire two
languages and achieve an adequate degree of competence
in each linguistic variety.

 Traditionally, bilinguals were only those individuals who

had one or two parents speaking a different language, or
who lived or had moved to a country with a language
different from his/her L1 and that of his/her parents.

 In order to provide for those communities with special

language needs, several types of educational programs
were developed hinging on two main issues:
 Whether the non-dominant language should be used as a medium of
instruction.
 Whether that language ought to be valued as a cultural asset worth
acquiring for itself.
 Nunan & Lam (1998) provide 4 examples:
a) Submersion models: in which students just enter into
the current educational programs of the L2 country,
without any kind of provision for their L1.
b) Transitional bilingualism: in which the L1 is
temporarily used but not respected as a target
language.
c) Heritage language programs: in which the L1 of
immigrant learners is valued as a target language
but not used for instruction.
d) Language exposure time model: in which the L1 is
valued and used for some subjects.
 Which of these 4 models do you think it is
used nowadays in bilingual programmes in
Spain?
 Nowadays: bilingualism not only a phenomenon of certain countries or
communities, but an educational aim in itself in many monolingual
societies.

 In Spain, some bilingual regions have succeeded in developing

educational programs that cater for both linguistic varieties, or even a
third one, in the mode of the language exposure time model: they use
the L2 completely or partly for L1 instruction. That is to say, they teach
some –or all- content subjects using the target language, which is
usually the mother tongue of the teacher and the L2 of the learner.

 The model entails high economical and personal resources: specialized

bilingual or target language teachers are needed, and students may
learn two languages at the cost of losing or trailing behind other
essential instructional contents.
◦ Many years of bilingual education in some bilingual countries and communities (i.e.
see Canadian models) have proved highly successful.
 Nonetheless, becoming bilingual in a
monolingual community in which the L2 is not
used at all (e.g. Andalusia) is no easy feat. A
program of this type should fulfill a number of
conditions:
 Use the target language for part or the whole school
syllabus, including the evaluation process.
 Employ highly linguistically competent and specialized
teachers.
 Foster exchanges with the target language community.
 Develop or maintain a positive attitude towards both the
target language and the mother tongue.
 Start early (although Muñoz et al. have shown conflictive
results in Spain: starting early is no guarantee of success in
FL contexts).
 In pairs, enumerate the criteria you think
are essential to implement a successful
bilingual classroom program in a
monolingual community, such as
Andalusia.
 Definition: it aims to go beyond the bilingualism of students,
understood in terms of language proficiency, but also refers to the
type of education in which both languages (L1 and FL) are used within
an academic context (Edwards, 1984).

«Educación lingüística en la que dos lenguas son instrumentales y vehículo de las

actividades de enseñanza y aprendizaje de cualquier contenido, en cualquier área
educativa no lingüística, o sea, son dos lenguas de instrucción» (Postigo, 1998:
269).

Non-
linguistic
areas
Linguistic
areas
L2 =
 According to Fortanet (2013), some of the
main bilingual approaches developed since
the 20th century are:

◦ Language Across the Curriculum (LAC)

◦ Language (English) for Specific Purposes (ESP)
◦ Content-based Instruction (CBI)
◦ Immersion programmes (IP)
 Started in the 70‟s in Britain.

 Supported the idea that L1 instruction in the education

system should involve all subjects and thus it should be
part of the instruction in different curricular areas.

 These recommendations have had a strong influence on

both primary and secondary education, where an
increasing attention is being paid to the relationship
between content and language (Fortanet, 2013):
◦ Language cannot be effectively learnt without a context while
learning in all subjects is dependent upon language.
◦ In view of the above, language and content are closely interrelated.
◦ Content subjects provide a context for language while effective
language development facilitates the learning of content subjects.
It is therefore necessary to integrate language and content.
 Developed in the UK during the 70‟s and 80‟s.
 It was designed to meet the specific needs of the learners and to be adapted
to the content of particular disciplines.
 It is centred on the language appropriate to certain activities in semantics,
syntax, lexis, etc., although it mainly focuses on discourse analysis (Strevens,
1988).
 Has been developed in many countries around the world, such as universities
and occupational canters with the aim to „specify as closely as possible what
exactly it is that students have to do through the medium of English‟
(Robinson, 1991: 3).
 ESP is used within the framework of the disciplines it serves while focusing on
language skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these areas of
knowledge.
 One of the branches of ESP is EAP (English for Academic Purposes), which was
fostered by the internationalisation of educational centres in the 90‟s in many
countries where English was not the official language, but which was
incorporated in the classrooms as medium of instruction.
 Theme-based

 Sheltered

 Adjunct

Despite the particular differences of these three models, all of them

have in common that content has a relevant focus on the lessons
and usually, authentic tasks and materials are used, with some
adaptations to the needs of the learners, where necessary.
 The beginning of IPs is reported from the 60‟s in Canada when the
impact of French immersion began to be attested in the English
speaking community in Montreal.

 In an area where two monolingual speaking communities existed

(English and French), a new bilingual educational experience took
place in an attempt to gain proficiency in the French language by the
English-speaking community in a quick an efficient way after
realizing that they could not obtain it through traditional FL teaching
methods.
 Hamers & Blanc (2000) classified IPs into three different types:
1. Early total immersion: children receive all the tuition in the FL in early
years and are introduced progressively into the instruction in their L1 up
to a 50% balance at the end of elementary school.
2. Early partial immersion: in which both L1 and FL are used in instruction
from the beginning of schooling.
3. Late immersion: addressed to Secondary and Higher Educational levels, in
which students have only be instructed in the FL in primary education, and
now receive instruction in the FL in more than 80%.

These approaches have set up the basis for most of the current
bilingual programmes in Europe.
 In pairs, think of a educational context or
situation in which each of the previously
mentioned bilingual educational
approaches might take place.
 The CLIL approach has become the model of
reference for bilingual instruction in most
European countries.
 This approach has experienced a considerable
growth and it is being integrated into
curricula all across Europe.
 It is an educational approach in which both
content and language are combined: teaching
of contents, apparently non-language related,
through the medium of a foreign language
(Räisänen, 2009).
 Generally speaking, refers to „educational
settings where a language different from the
students‟ mother tongue is used as medium
of instruction‟ (Dalton-Puffer, 2007: 1).
 The term firstly appeared in the 1990‟s at the
University of Jyväskyla (Finland) and the
European Platform for Dutch education
(Fortanet & Ruiz-Garrido 2009; Marsh 2006).
 Since then, and especially in the late 1990s,
its usage has expanded considerably through
Europe and beyond (Marsh, 2002).
 Definition:

“A dual-focused educational approach in which an additional

language is used for the learning and teaching of content and
language with the objective of promoting both content and
language mastery to pre-defined levels” (Maljers et al, 2010).
 Unlike other language educational approaches, CLIL requires a series of
changes based on specific criteria. According to Marsh & Langé (2000)
the most relevant features of CLIL can be summarized as follows:
◦ Constructing knowledge should exclude teacher-centred approaches and learning
based on memorizing data.
◦ Language develops in social interactions and its use in practice.
◦ Teaching should be learner-centred.
◦ An active role of students should be encouraged in classroom activities.
◦ Co-operative learning should be introduced.
◦ It develops learner autonomy.
◦ It is a task-based approach, process-approach.
◦ It should include a variety of teaching techniques with a variety of materials, including
computer-assisted learning.
◦ Learning should always be context-based or, more specifically, content-driven
(Wielander, 2013), placed in natural contexts.
◦ Different language skills (reading, listening, speaking, talking and writing) should be
developed, and not restricted to grammar and vocabulary.
◦ A well-balanced approach to teaching content and language should be sought.
◦ It should include language redundancy (repetition of content with the use of various
language means and materials).
 Which of the traditional and current
teaching approaches do you think have
most influenced the CLIL approach?
4Cs-framework (Coyle, 2005)
• CONTENT
1

• COGNITION Language
OF
2 learning

• COMMUNICATION
3
Language Language
FOR THROUGH
• CULTURE learning learning
4
 4Cs FRAMEWORK (adapted from Coyle, 2005)
- What will I teach?
- What will they learn?
CONTENT - What are my teaching aims/objectives?
- What are the learning outcomes?
Language - Specialized vocabulary and phrases?
OF - Will I check out key grammatical coverage of a particular tense or
learning feature?

Language - What language do they need to work with the content?

COMMUNICATION
FOR - What kind of talk will they engage in?
learning

Language
THROUGH What about the language of talks and classroom activitities?
learning

- What kind of questions must I ask in order to go beyond „display‟ questions?

COGNITION - Which task will I develop to encourage higher-order thinking skills?
- Which thinking skills will we concentrate on which are appropriate for the content?

- What are the cultural implications of the content focus?

CULTURE - What about otherness and self?
- How does this connect with the all Cs?
The CLIL Pyramid

(Meyer, 2010.)
 STUDENTS’
ACADEMIC EXPOSURE
GROUP LEVEL MOTHER SUBJECT
YEAR TO ENGLISH
TONGUE
CLIL 1st ESO 2010/2011 3 h/ week Spanish SCIENCE

UNIT 8: THE LANDSCAPE


Teaching Objectives
CONTENT
Explain the different landscape
forms.
Explain the location of the
different landscape form in the
Spanish map.
COGNITION
Make the students think about
the differences between
elements of landscape.
Ability to locate them on the
Spanish map.
CULTURE
Know how the different elements studied appear in foreign countries (Europe).
UNIT 8: THE LANDSCAPE
Learning Outcomes COMMUNICATION
CONTENT Language OF learning
Memoryze key vocabulary. Content lexicon:
Learn the differerent
landscape form and their What is a mountain?
location in the Spanish A mountain is…
map.
COGNITION LANGUAGE FOR LEARNING
Understand the differences
between the elements of Language to operate in the lesson:
the Spanish relief.
Where is … located?
What is the difference between…?
LANGUAGE THROUGH LEARNING
Dictionary use for vocabulary
extension.
- Language for feedback.
(adapted from Puntí, 2009)
STEP 1. FIXING THE CONTENT.

Types of
landscape

Spanish
Rivers
geography

CONTENT

Plains Coasts

Mountains
STEP 2. CONNECTING CONTENT AND
COGNITION.

Understand the
differences
between
landscape
Memoryze the
elements
different
Assessing the landscape
work in groups elements of
the Spanish
relief

COGNITION
Know the
Identify
differences and
landscape
similarities of
elements in
lanscape
other European
elements in Learn the
countries
different location of the
countries. different
landscape
elements on the
Spanish map
STEP 3. DEFINING LANGUAGE LEARNING.

• Key vocabulary
Language
• Grammatical
OF
progression (Present
learning
simple)

• Defining concepts.
Language • In groups: asking and
FOR explaining.
learning • Language for locating
describing.

• Using feedback
Language
• Dictionary skills
THROUGH
• Questioning and
learning
answering.
STEP 4. DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL
AWARENESS.

Basic European
geography

Comparison Examples of
between Spanish landscape
and European elements in the
geography European map
CULTURE

Differences
between Spanish Diversity of
and European European
landscape landscapes
elements
CONTENTS:
 1. What is a landscape.
 2. Mountains.
 3. Plains.
 4. Spanish Relief.
 5. The coast.
◦ 5.1. Types of coastline.
◦ 5.2. Spanish coasts.

Pre-tasks Main task Post-tasks

 Pre-tasks

• Wordclouds
(brainstorming).

• Flash cards.

• Reading materials.
Main task

Work in groups:

- Group 1: Relief elements.

- Group 2: rivers, oceans and seas.
- Group 3: coasts.

• Map filling and share with

the rest of the class.

• At the end: global map with

all the elements.
Post-tasks
 Which knowledge do you think students
acquired within this lesson in terms of the
4 Cs model proposed by Do Coyle (2005)?
 In groups of 3-4, select a topic and design
a CLIL unit following the 4 Cs model
proposed by Do Coyle (2005).