ieish 4

mrudKqj i|yd lafjdkagï hdka;s%l wdlD;sh

mgqk
ye¢kaùu
4.1 mod¾:fha ;rx.uh yeisÍu
4.2 mod¾:fha oaú;aj iajNdjh
4.3 yhsikan¾.a wksYaÑ; uQ,O¾uh
4.4 lafjdkagï hdka;%sl úoHdj
4.4.1 Iafrdaäka.¾ iólrKh, ;rx. Ys%;h yd iïNdú;djh
4.5 ldlaIsl yd lafjdkagï wxl
4.5.1 ldlaIsl
4.5.2 lafjdkagï wxl
idrdxYh
wNsu;dra:

ye¢kaùu
miq.sh ieisfha § Tn yhsv%cka mrudKqj ms<sn| fnda¾ wdlD;sh wOHhkh
lf,ah. fuu wdlD;sh tal bf,lafg%daksl whk i|yd o fhÈh yels nj o
tfy;a nyq - bf,lafg%daksl mrudKq i|yd fhÈh fkdyels nj o Tn
wOHhkh lf,ah. flfia kuq;a fnda¾ wdlD;sh uÕska b;d jeo.;a
ixl,amhla y÷kajd ÿka nj Tn u;l ;nd .; hq;=h. tkï mrudKqjl
Yla;sh lafjdkaàlrKh ù we;s njhs.
fuu ;;aj hgf;a mrudKql jHqyh úia;r lsrSu i|yd jvd fyd| wdlD;shl
wjYH;djh kej;;a mek ke.S we;. fuu ieisfha § mrudKql jHqyh i|yd
jvd id¾:l kj wdlD;shla f.dvke.Sug lafjdkaàlrKh ixl,amh ;j
ÿrg;a bjy,a jk wdldrh Tn bf.k .kq we;.

4.1 mod¾:fha ;rx.uh yeisÍu (wave behavior of

matter)
fojk ieisfha§ Tn ;rx. (wdf,dalh) wxY= f,i yeisÍula fmkakqï lrk
nj wOHhkh lf,ah.
Mh tfia kï “wxY= j,g ;rx. f,i yeisÍula fmkakqï l, yels o?”
m%xY cd;sl úoHd{fhl= jk ¨úia ã fn%d.a,s wxY= j,go ;rx. f,i yeisßh
yels nj fmkajd fok ,oS. ;jo Tyq wxY=jl ;rx. wdhduh, λ my;
wdldrhg ,súh yels nj fmkajd fok ,oS.

43
tallh I - mrudKql jHqyh i|yd wdlD;s iy kQ;k wdj¾;s;d j.=j

𝐡
𝛌= (8)
𝐦𝐯
fuys λ yÿkajkafka wxY=jl ã fn%da.a,s ;rx. wdhduh hkqfjks. iólrKfha
we;s wfkl=;a rdYSka jkafka ma,dkala ksh;h (h), wxY=jl ialkaOh m yd
wxY=jl fõ.h (v) fõ. mv .=Ks;h uÕska fldaKsl .uH;djh fokq ,efí.
fuu iólrKh ã fn%d. a a,s iólrKh (de Broglie equation) kñka
ye|skafõ. fuuÕska mod¾:fha wxY=uh ,laIKh yd ;rx.uh ,laIKh w;r
iïnkaO;djh ,nd fohs.
kHIaáfha n,mEu hgf;a bf,lafg%dak j, ;rx.uh yeisÍu fmkakqï
lrkafka lsishï kshñ; wdldrhlg nj ä fn%da.a,S úiska fmkajd fok ,oS.
bf,lafg%dak j,g wod,j ;rx. wdhduh;a iys; ;rx.hla uÕska lsishï
Yla;shg wkqrEm ldlaIslhla mj;S o ke;s o hkak ;SrKh lrkq ,nhs.
fuu ixl,amh Tng ;jÿrg;a meyeÈ,s ùu i|yd kHIaáhla jgd jD;a;dldr
llaIhl p,kh jk bf,lafg%dakhla i,luq. kHIaáh jgd bf,lafg%dakh
.uka lrk úg th yd iïnkaê; ;rx.ho kHIaáh jgd tf;a. WodyrKhla
f,i my; oS we;s 4.1 rEmh i,lkak.

rEmh 4.1: (a) fnda¾ llaIhl we;s bf,lafg%dakhla i|yd ia:djr ;rx.hla
(b) mrudKqjl bf,lafg%dakhla i|yd wia:djr ;rx.hla

4.1 (a) rEmhg wkqj bf,lafg%dakh tla ldlaIsl mßN%uKhla iïmq¾K lrk
úg ;rx.h tla fl<jrlska wfkla fl<jrg kshu wdldrhg iïnkaO fõ.
fuu llaIh rEmfhka meyeÈ,s jk ;rx.fha ;rx. wdhdufha mq¾K
ixLHdjl .=Kdldrhla jk nj Tng fmfkkq we;. fuu wjia:dj ia:djr
llaIhla mej;sh yels wjia:djls.
oeka wm 4.1 (b) rEmh i,luq. fuys§ o bf,lafg%dakfha p,s;h ksid
;rx.hla ckkh fõ.
kuq;a m<uq wjia:dj yd ii|k úg fojk wjia:dfjs we;s fjki l=ulao @
fuys§ bf,lafg%dakh tla jD;a;dldr llaIhla iïmq¾K lrk úg ;rx.h
tla fl<jrlska wfkla fl<jrg kshu wdldrhg iïnkaO fkdjk nj
Tng fmfkkq we;.
;rx. fufia wj,x.= ùfuka woyia jkafka tjeks llaIhla mej;Sug
fkdyels njhs. Tn b;d ie,ls,af,ka ne¨jfyd;a fojk wjia:dfõ§ (4.1
(b) rEmh) llaIh ;rx.fha ;rx. wdhdufha mq¾K ixLHd;aul .=Kdldrhla
fkdjk nj fmkS hkq we;.
fuu wjia:d foflka ,efnk wjidk ks.ukh jkafka ia:djr ldlaIslhla
,eîug kï llaIfha mßêh (s) ã fn%d.a,s ;rx. wdhdufha mq¾K
ixLHd;aul .=Kdldrhla úh hq;= njhs.

44
 ieish 4 - mrudKqj i|yd lafjdkagï hdka;%sl wdlD;sh

iólrKhla f,i fuh my; wdldrhg bÈßm;a l,yel.

𝐧𝐡
𝐬= 𝐦𝐯

fuys n hkq mq¾K ixLHdjla fõ.

jD;a;dldr llaIhl mßêh 2πr jk ksid iólrKh my; wdldrhg kej;
,súh yel.
𝐧𝐡
𝒔 = 𝟐𝛑𝐫 = 𝐦𝐯
fyda
𝐧𝐡
𝐦𝐯𝐫 = (9)
𝟐𝛑

fuu iólrKfhka Tng ,eî we;af;a fnda¾ úiska Wml,amkh l, fohls.

ä fn%da.a,s iólrKh Wmfhda.S lr.ksñka, yhsv%cka mrudKqfõ
bf,lafg%dakfha ;rx. wdhduh .Kkh l,yel. WodyrKhla f,i 0.25c
m%fõ.fhka p,kh jk bf,lafg%dak (ialkaOh = 9.06 x 10-19 kg) i|yd ã
fn%da.a,s ;rx. wdhduh .Kkh l, yel. fuys c wdf,dalfha m%fõ.hhs.
bf,lafg%dakfha m%fõ.h i|yd jQ w.h wdfoaYfhka,
𝒉
𝝀= 𝒎𝒗
𝟔.𝟔𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 𝐉𝐬
𝝀= 𝟗.𝟎𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐤𝐠𝒙 𝟎.𝟐𝟓 𝒙 𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏

λ = 9.7x10- 12 m
fuh b;du;au l=vd w.hla nj Tng fmfkkq we;. we;a; jYfhkau fuu
;rx. wdhduh x -lsrK j, ;rx. wdhduh yd ixikaokd;aul fõ.
.uka lrk fudag¾ r:hl fyda ls%lÜ fnda,hla jeks úYd, jia;=jl ã
fn%d.a,S ;rx. wdhduh fiùu i|yd Tn fujeks .Kkh lsÍula l,fyd;a
tho b;du;a l=vd w.hla .kakd nj Tng fmfkkq we;.
m% : ialkaOh 150g we;s 150 km/h fõ.fhka .uka lrk ls%lÜ fnda,hl
ã fn%d.a,s ;rx. wdhduh l=ula úh yels o@
ℎ
ms : λ = 𝑚𝑣 iólrKh wdfoaYfhka Tng λ ys w.h ,nd.; yelsh. fuysoS
Mall .ek ie,ls,su;a jkak.(J = Nm ; N = kg m s-2)
6.63 𝑥10−34 𝐽𝑠
λ= 150 𝑥103 𝑚𝑠−1
0.15 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 ( )
60 𝑥60

= 1.06x10 m.
fuu w.fhys úYd,;ajh wOHhkh l<fyd;a th mshú weig ksÍlaIKh
lsÍug ;rï l=vd nj fmkS hkq we;.

45
tallh I - mrudKql jHqyh i|yd wdlD;s iy kQ;k wdj¾;s;d j.=j

4.2 mod¾:fha oaú;ajuh iajNdjh (The dual nature of

Matter)
fmr ieisfha § Tn bf,lafg%dakh wxY=jla f,i i,lk ,oS. fuu ieisfha §
bf,lafg%dakhg ;rx.uh ,laIK o fmkaúh yels nj bf.k .;af;ah.
bf,lafg%dak j, ;rx.uh ixl,amh fï jk úg b;d fyd¢ka ia:dms; jqjls.
ta wkqj bf,lafg%dako wdf,dalh fukau új¾;kh (diffraction) yd
ksfrdaOkh (interference) jeks ;rx.uh ,laIK fmkajhs. bf,lafg%dak
fuf,i wxY=uh ,laIK yd ;rx.uh ,laIK hk folu fmkaùug we;s
yelshdj bf,lafg%dak j, oaú;aj iajNdjh (dual nature of electrons) f,i
y|qkajhs. we;a; jYfhka fuh iEu mod¾:hlu ,laIKhla fõ.

4.3 yhsikan¾.a wúksYaÑ;;d uq,O¾uh (The Heisenbeg

Uncertainity Principle)
Tn Wiia fm, fN!;sl úoHdj fyda .Ks;h yeoEÍfï §, .uka lrk
ufyalaI (microscopic object) jia;=jl msysàu p,s;h jk ÈYdj yd fõ.h
.Kkh lsÍfï .eg¨ úiokakg we;. WodyrKhla f,i lkaolska my<g
p,kh jk fnda,hla iïnkaê; .eg,q oelaúh yel. fuu .eg¿j úi|Sfï §
Tn Wmfhda.S lr .;af;a jia;=fõ wxY=uh iajNdjh muKla Wml,amkh
lrk fm!rdksl fN!;sl úoHdfõ kshuhkah.
tfy;a bÈß mßÉfÊofha§ Tn bf.k .kakd lajkagï hdka;% úoHd;aul
woyia ;=, lsishï jia;=jl msysàu yßhgu fidhd .ekSfï yelshdj ì|
jefÜ.
jia;=jla lsishï .uH;djhlska wjldYfha p,kh jk úg tys msysàu
ksYaÑ;ju oek.ekSfï § lsishï wúksYaÑ; ;djhla .eíjk nj yhsikan¾.a
wksYaÑ; uq,O¾uh (Heizenberg Uncertinity Principle) uÕska lshkq ,nhs.
fjk;a jpk j,ska ksjfyd;a jia;=fõ .uH;djh ksYaÑ;ju ueksh yels
úg§ tys msysàu ms<sn| lsishï wúksYaÑ;;djhla mj;S ^ke;fyd;a jia;=jl
msysàu okakd úg tys .uH;djh wúksYaÑ;;djfha mj;S&. fï wkqj wxY=jl
.uH;djh iy tys msysàu hk rdYs folu tlúg oek.ekSug yelshdjla
fkdue;.
.Ks; úoHdkql+,j wksYaÑ; uq,O¾uh,
ħ
∆𝐱. ∆𝐩 ≥ 𝟐 (10)
f,i ±lafjs.

fuys Δx hkq wxY=fõ msyàs u ms<sn| wksYaÑ;;djh jk w;r Δp hkq wxY=fõ

.uH;djh ms<sn| wksYaÑ;;djh fõ. ħ ^fuh lshkq ,nkafka h cross
hkqfjks& hkq ma,dkala ksh;h 2π j,ska fn§fuka ,efnk rdYshls.
ls%lÜ fnda,hla jeks ufyalaI jia;=ka i|yd by; iSudj b;du l=vd fõ.
tfy;a bf,lafg%dak jeks b;d l=vd wxY= j,È fuu iSudj b;d jeo.;a fõ.
my; oelafjk WodyrKh wOHhkh lsÍfuka Tng fuh jvd meyeÈ,s jkq
we;.

46
 ieish 4 - mrudKqj i|yd lafjdkagï hdka;%sl wdlD;sh

m% : (a) yhsv%cka mrudkqfõ wrh 0.05 nm muK fõ. yhsv%cka mrudKqfõ

bf,lafg%dakfha msysàu tys wrfhka 1] l ksrjoH;djhlska olakd
nj Wml,amkh lr yhsikan¾.a uq,O¾uh Wmfhda.S lr .ksñka tys
m%fõ.fha wksYaÑ;Ndjh .Kkh lrkak.
bf,lafg%dakfha ialkaOh 9.11 x 10 – 31 kg; h = 6.63 x 10 – 34 Js
(b) 0.2 kg nrla yd 0.05 m wrh jk fnda,hl msysàu tys wrfhka 1]l
ksjroH;djhlska okS kï tys m%fõ.fha wúksYaÑ;;djh .Kkh
lrkak.
(a) yd (b) w.hka ixikaokfha Tng l=uk ks.ukhlg meñKsh yels o@
iólrK wdfoaYfha oS tall .ek ie,ls,su;a jkak.
(J = Nm ; N = kg m s-2)
ħ
ms : (a) yhsikan¾.a wúksYaÑ; uq,O¾uh ∆𝐱. ∆𝐩 ≥
𝟐
yhsikan¾.a uq,O¾uh wkqj l=vdu wúksYaÑ;;djh mj;skqfha
ħ 𝐡
∆𝐱. ∆𝐩 = 𝟐 = 𝟒𝛑 úgh.
o;a; wkqj msysàfï wúksYaÑ;;djh jkqfha tys wrfhka (0.05 nm)
1]ls. tuksid

Δx = (0.01) x (0.05 nm) = 5 x 10 – 4 nm.

= 5 x 10 – 4 x 10 – 9 m
= 5 x 10 – 13 m

ħ 𝐡
∆𝐱. ∆𝐩 = 𝟐 = 𝟒𝛑
ℎ 6.63 𝑥 10−34 𝐽𝑠
Δp = 4𝜋𝛥𝑥 = (4𝑥 3.14)𝑥 (5 𝑥 10−13 𝑚)
= 1.05 x 10 – 22 kg m s - 1

Δp = Δ(mv) = mΔv
1.05 𝑥 10−22 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1
m%fõ.h ms<sn| wksYaÑ;;djh Δv = 9.11 𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔
8 -1
= 1.15 𝑥 10 ms

fuhska woyia jkafka, bf,lafg%dakfha msysàu wksYap;;djh

5 x 10 – 13 m wju w.h jk f,i jQ úg § tys m%fõ.fha
wksYaÑ;;djh wju jYfhka 1.15 x 10 8 ms -1 jk njh. fuh b;d
úYd, w.hls. we;a; jYfhkau fuh wdf,dalh m%fõ.fha (3 x 10 8
ms -1) úYd,;ajhg lsÜgq fõ. fujeks úYd, wksYaÑ;;djhl §
bf,lafg%dakfha m%fõ.h ms<sn|j wmg jegySula ;sìh fkd yel.
(b) by; wdldrhgu .Kkh lsÍula l, úg §
h 6.63 x10−34 Js
m%fõ.fha wksYaÑ;;djh Δv = ∆x.m .4π = (5 X10 −13 m)( 0.2 kg)(4 x 3.14)

= 5 x 10 -22 ms - 1

47
tallh I - mrudKql jHqyh i|yd wdlD;s iy kQ;k wdj¾;s;d j.=j

fuu w.fhka fmfkkqfha fnda,fha m%fõ.h iïnkaOfhka b;d l=vd

wksYaÑ;;djhla mj;sk njh.
(a) yd (b) ,enQ w.hhka ixikaokh lsÍfuka ufyalaISh moaO;s i|yd
wksYaÑ; uQ,O¾ufha j,x.+;djh fkd.sksh yels ;rï nj;a b;d l=vd
nrla we;s jia;=ka i|yd th b;d jeo.;a nj;a fmkakqï lrhs.

ls%hdldrlu 4.1

1. yhsikan¾.a wksYaÑ; uQ,O¾uh wkqj fnda¾ llaI mej;sh yelsoehs Tn

is;kjd o@

ã fn%d.a,S Wml,amkh yd yhsikan¾.a wúksYaÑ; uQ,O¾uh uÕska

mrudKqfõ jHqyh ms<sn| jvd iqÿiq wdlD;shla fiùfï ls%hdj,sh kj
ÈYdjlg fhduq lrhs. fuu wdlD;sh jeo.;a ixl,amhla jk mod¾:fha
oaú;aj iajNdjh ie,ls,a,g .kq ,nhs.
m% : mod¾:fha oaú;aj iajNdjh hkafkka woyia jkafka l=ulao@
ms : mod¾:h uÕska wxY=uh iajNdjh yd ;rx.uh iajNdjh jk folu
fmkaùu.

4.4 lafjdkagï hdka;s%l úoHdj (Quantum Mechanics)

Wiia fm<§ Tn ksõfgdakSh hdka;s%l úoHdfõ moku jk ksõgka kshu
ms<sn|j wOHhkh lr we;. fuu kshu fhÈh yels jkafka úYd, jia;=
i|yd muKs. WodyrK f,i ls%lÜ fnda,hla, .%y jia;= wdÈh. fuys §
mod¾:hg wxY=uh ,laIK muKla fmkaúh yels njg i,lkq ,efí.
lafjdkagï hdka;% úoHdj hkq l=ulao @
lafjdkagï hdka;% úoHdj fyda ;rx. hdka;% úoHdj hkq Wm mrudKql wxY=
jeks b;d l=vd wxY= j,g fhÈh yels kj ixl,amhls. fuh Tiaá%hdkq
fN!;sl úoHd{hl= jk Iafrdaäx.¾ úiska bÈßm;a lrk ,oS. fuu ixl,amh
mokï jkafka Iafrdaäx.¾ iólrKh ke;fyd;a Iafrdaäx.¾ ;rx.
iólrKh u;h. bf,lafg%dak j, wxY=uh iajNdjh muKla i,lk fnda¾
wdlD;sh fuka fkdj Iafrdaäx.¾ iólrKh bf,lafg%dak j, wxY=uh
,laIK fukau ;rx.uh ,laIK o i,ld n,hs.
Iafrdaäx.¾ iólrKh uÕska uQ,slju mrudKqj, we;s bf,lafg%dak j,
Yla;sh yd yeisÍu úia;r lrhs. Iafrdaäka.¾ iólrKh úi£ug kï
oekqfuka by< .Ks;uh uÜgula wjYH fõ. tksid fuu ieisfha § tu
iólrKh úi¢fuka ,efnk m%;sM, muKla m%udKd;aulj i,ld n,kq
,efí.

48
 ieish 4 - mrudKqj i|yd lafjdkagï hdka;%sl wdlD;sh

4.4.1 Iafrdaäx.¾ iólrKh, ;rx. Y%s;h yd iïNdú;djh (Schrodinger

equation, wave function and probability)

yhsv%cka mrudKqj i|yd Iafrdaäx.¾ iólrKh úi£fuka tys Yla;s uÜgï

,ndf.k we;. Iafrdaäx.¾ iólrKfha úi|qï ,efnkqfha Y%s; wdldrfhks
(functions). fuu .Ks;uh Ys%;, ;rx. Ys%; (wave functions) hkqfjka
y|qkajk w;r, maihs hkqfjka Yío jk, (ψ) hk ixfla;fhka fmkakqï
lrhs.
;rx. Ys%;hka uÕska Tng ,nd.; yels f;dr;=re fudkjdo @
;rx. Ys%;h u.ska bf,lafg%dak p,s;h ms<sn| fN!;sluh rEmhla ,nd
fkdfohs. tfy;a ;rx. Ys%;fha j¾.h (ψ2) uÕska lsishï Yla;s uÜgul we;s
bf,lafg%dakfha msysàu ms<sn|j hï woyila fokq ,efí.
m% : iqÿiq jpk Ndú;d lrñka my; ysia;eka mqrjkak.
fnda¾ jdofha § bf,lafg%dak j, ………….. iajNdjh ms<sn|j muKla
i,ld n,k w;r lafjdkagï hdka;%Kfha § bf,lafg%dak j, ………….
iajNdjh fukau …………. iajNdjh ms<sn|j o i,ld n,hs.

ms : fnda¾ jdofha§ bf,lafg%dak j, wxY=uh iajNdjh ms<sn|j muKla i,ld

n,k w;r lafjdkagï hdka;%Kfha § bf,lafg%dakhl ;rx.uh$wxY=uh
fukau wxY=uh $;rx.uh iajNdjh o ms<sn|j i,ld n,kq ,efí.
lafjdkagï hdka;% úoHdj wkqj, bf,lafg%dak p,kh jkafka hï kshñ;
llaIhl fkdj wjldYfha hï m%foaYhlh. ta ksid mrudKqj ms<sn|
lafjdkagï hdka;% úoHd;aul wdlD;sfha § Tng l:d l, yelafla hï
fõ,djl § wjldYfha hï m%foaYhl bf,lafg%dak mej;sh yels iïNdú;djh
ms<sn|j muKs.
wjldYfha tla tla ,laIhkays bf,lafg%dak fidhd.ekSfï idfmalaI
iïNdú;djh tlsfklg fjkia fõ. tkï kHIaáh jgd tlsfklg fjkia
,laIHj, bf,lafg%dak .; lrkq ,nk ld,h tlsfklg fjkiah. fjk;a
jpk j,ska lsjfyd;a kHIaáh jgd iuyr m%foaYhl § bf,lafg%dak
fidhd.ekSfï iïNdú;djhg jvd jeä fõ. ;rx. Ys%;fha j¾.h uÕska
wjldYfha hï ,laIHl§ iïNdú;djh fokq ,nk ksid th iïNdú;d
>k;aj Ys%;h (probability density function) kñka y|qkajhs.
bf,lafg%dak iïNdú;djh ms<sn| fuu woyi jvd meyeÈ,s lr .ekSug
my; i|yka l,ams; mÍlaIKh i,ld n,uq.
yhsv%cka mrudKqfõ bf,lafg%dakh kHIaáh jgd hï Yla;s uÜgul p,kh
ùfï § Tng bf,lafg%dakfha PdhdrEm fYa%Kshla .; yels hehs is;uq. tla
tla PdhdrEmh uÕska lsishï fõ,djl § bf,lafg%dakh msysgk ia:dkh
fmkakqï lrkq we;.
Tng ,efnk PdhdrEmh fln|q wdldrfha tlla oehs Tn is;kafka o@
Tng ,efnk PdhdrEmh 4.2 rEmfhka oelafjk wdldrfha tlla fjkq we;
^fuh yrialv igykla muKs&. ;s;aj, >k;ajh uÕska bf,lafg%dakh
fidhd.ekSfï iïNdú;djh fokq ,efí.

49
tallh I - mrudKql jHqyh i|yd wdlD;s iy kQ;k wdj¾;s;d j.=j

rEmh 4.2: kHIaáh jgd bf,lafg%dakh fidhd .ekSsfus

iïNdú;djh

by; wdldrhg PdhdrEm fYa%Kshla .; fyd;a tlsfklg iudk PdhdrEm

úYd, m%udKhla ,efnkq we;. fuu PdhdrEm tlu; tl wêia:dmss;
(superimpose) lr wjidk tla PdhdrEmhla ,nd.; yel. Tnf.a fuu
wjidk PdhdrEmh 4.3 rEmfha oelafjk wdldrfha tlla jkq we;.

rEmh 4.3: kHIaáh jgd bf,lafg%dakh fidhd .ekSsfï iïNdú;djh

(wêia:dmss; PdhdrEmh)
fuh PdhdrEmh j<dl=,l iajNdjhla .kS. fuuÕska woyia jkafka l=ulao @
wms fuu j<dl=¿ PdhdrEmh jvd fyd¢ka i,ld n,uq.
m% : by; bf,lafg%dak j<dl=¿ rEmfha Tng olakg ,efnk m%Odk ,laIK
fudkjd o@
ms : kHIaáh jgd ;s;a úYd, ixLHdjla we;s w;r kHIaáfhka wE;g hk úg§
;s;a m%udKh wvq fõ.

m% : ;s;a uÕska hï ia:dkhl § bf,lafg%dakhla mej;Sfï iïNdú;djh

fokq ,nk nj Tn okS. tfia kï iïNdú;djh wdY%fhka Tn by;
PdhdrEmh úia;r lrkafka flfia o@
ms : úYd, ;s;a .Kkla kHIaáh wjg mej;Sfuka woyia jkafka kHIaáh
wdikafka bf,lafg%dakh fidhd.ekSfï iïNdú;djh jeä njh.
kHIaáfhka msg;g hk úg § iïNdú;djh flfuka wvq ù hhs.
bf,lafg%dak j<dl=¿ rEmfha Tn oelsh hq;= fjk;a ,laIK lsysmhla o fõ.
bka tlla kï fuu Yla;s uÜgfï § bf,lafg%dak iïNdú;d >k;ajh
f.da,dldr iuñ;sl nj;a fmkakqï lsÍuh. tkï, bf,lafg%dakh fidhd
.ekSfï iïNdú;djh kHIaáfha isg we;s ÿr u; muKla r|d mj;sk njh.
th wlaI w;r lsishï fldaKhla u; r|d fkdmj;S.
tfiau kHIaáfhka fndfyda wE;g hk úg § o ;s;a lsysmhlaj;a olakg
,efí.

50
 ieish 4 - mrudKqj i|yd lafjdkagï hdka;%sl wdlD;sh

m% : kHIaáfhka wE;g hk úg ;s;a lsysmhla muKla ;sîfuka woyia jkafka

l=ulao@
ms : ;s;a uÕska iïNdú;djh ksrEmKh fõ kï, by; m%ldYfhka woyia
jkafka kHIaáfhka b;d wE;l § jqj;a bf,lafg%dakh fidhd.ekSfï
iïNdú;djla mj;sk njhs.
kHIaáfha isg mßñ; ÿrl oS (finite distance) bf,lafg%dak iïNdú;d
>k;ajh lsisu úg § Y=kH fkdjk nj Tn oek.; hq;= jeo.;a lreKls.
fï wkqj wjidk PdhdrEmh Tng úia;r l, yelafla uOH kHIaáhlska yd
meyeÈ,s iSudjla fkdue;s úisrek bf,lafg%dak j,djka iys; rEmhla
f,ih.

4.5 ldlaIsl yd lafjdkagï wxl (Orbitals and quantum

numbers)
4.5.1 ldlaIsl (Orbitals)

mrudKql kHIaáh jgd bf,lafg%dak >k;ajh ;rula jeä m%foaYhla mj;sk

nj Tn by; mßÉfÊofha§ bf.k .;af;ah. tjeks m%foaYhla y|qkajkafka
ldlaIslhla (orbital) kñks. by; l,ams; mÍlaIKfha§ Tn iïNdú;d
>k;aj jHdma;sh uÕska ldlaIslhka rEmuh f,i ksrEmKh lf,ah .
ldlaIslhka (orbital) hkq fnda¾ llaIhla (orbit) fkdjk nj Tn f;areï
.; hq;=hs.
kshñ; iSudjlaa fkdue;s wmeyeÈ,s bf,lafg%dak j<djla uÕska ,ndfok
rEmh ldlaIslhl ksrEmkh lsÍu i|yd fyd| rEmhla fkdjk nj Tn
ms<s.kq we;. wmg ta i|yd meyeÈ,s rEmhla wjYH fõ. ldlaIslhla i|yd
meyeÈ,s rEmhla ,nd.ekSug we;s tla ud¾.hla kï bf,lafg%dak p,s;h
i|yd udhsula fyda iSudjla ,nd §uhs. fuh lsÍug kï, bf,lafg%dak
iïNdú;d >k;ajh i|yd ksh; w.hla iys; lsishï mDIaGhla Tn
ldlaIslfha mßudj f,i f;dard .; hq;=h. fuu mDIaGh we;=,;a mßudj
ldlaIslfha yevh f,i wmg ie,lsh yel.
ldlaIslfha m%udKh l=ula fõ o@
yevh uÕska wdjrKh jk mßudfõ bf,lafg%dak >k;ajh i|yd lsishï
w.hla ,efí. idudkHfhka fuh bf,lafg%dakh mej;sh yels m%foaYfhka
95% la muK fõ. tkï yevh ksrAKh lsÍfï§ wm bf,lafg%dakh
fidhd.ekSfï iïNdú;dj 95% la iys; mßudjla i,lkq ,efí. fuuÕska
ldlaIslhg lsishï m%udKhla ,nd foa.
tkï, ldlaIslhlg yevhla yd m%udKhla mj;S.
rEmh 4.4 ka oelafjkafka yhsv%cka mrudKqfõ wvqu Yla;shla iys;
ldlaIslfha m%udKh yd yevhhs. bf,lafg%dak iïNdú;d >k;ajh
f.da,dldrj iuñ;sl ksid ldlaIslfha yevh f.da,dldr fõ. by< Yla;s
uÜgï j, tlsfklg fjkia m%udK yd yevhla iys; ;j;a ldlaIsl ;sfí.
fïjd ms<sn|j Tng B<Õ ieisfha§ bf.kSug ,efnkq we;.

51
tallh I - mrudKql jHqyh i|yd wdlD;s iy kQ;k wdj¾;s;d j.=j

rEmh 4.4: yhsv%cka mrudKqfõ wvqu Yla;shla iys; ldlaIslh

m% : ldlaIslhl yd llaIhl we;s fjki l=ulao @

ms : ldlaIslhla hkq kHIaáh jgd bf,lafg%dakhla fidhd .ekSfï by<
iïNdú;djhla mj;sk m%foaYhhs. ldlaIsl hk ixl,amh mrudKqj
ms<sn| lafjdkagï hdka;% úoHd;aul oekqu ;=,ska ,enqkls.
llaIhla hkq bf,lafg%dakhl p,s;h isÿjk jD;a;dldr .uka ud¾.hhs.
yhsv%cka mrudKqj ms<sn| fnda¾ wdlD;sh yeoEÍfï§ fuh Wmfhda.S úh.

4.5.2 lafjdkagï wxl (Quantum numbers)

fmr mßÉfÊofha§ ldlaIslh ms<sn| lsishï m%udKd;aul w¾: oelaùula Tn

,nd.;af;ah. tkï bf,lafg%dakh fidhd .ekSfï by< iïNdú;djhla we;s
yd kshñ; yevhla o we;s wjldYfha m%foaYhla f,ih. flfia kuq;a
fujeks w¾: oelaùula uÕska muKla bf,lafg%dakfha yeisÍu ms<sn|j
f;areï .ekSug yelshdjla fkdue;. ta i|yd ldlaIslhla óg jvd iqÿiq
wdldrhlg w¾: oelaùu l< hq;h = .
mrudKqjl bf,lafg%dak ;s%udK wjldYfha p,kh fõ. idudkHfhka
ldlaIslhla bf,lafg%dakh msysgd we;s LKavdxl j, Ys%;hls. ^fndfyda úg
fuu msysàu f.da,dldr O%eùh LKavdxl j,ska fokq ,efí. (weuqKqu
n,kak&. ta f,iu th ldlaIsl lafjdkagï wxl kñka yÿkajk wxl ;=kla
u; o r|d mj;’.
fuu lafjdkagï wxl n, l ,m kï jk w;r ms<sfj,ska
n - m%Odk lafjdkagï wxlh ,
l -fldaKsl .uH;d lafjdkagï wxlh yd
m - pqïNl lafjdkagï wxlh f,i ye|skafõ.
lafjdkagï wxlj,g lsishï úfYaIs; w.hhka muKla .; yels w;r
ldlaIslhl we;s bf,lafg%dakhl jeo.;a fN!;sl f;dr;=re tuÕska
,ndfohs.
m% : fnda¾ wdlD;sh ;=< Tn lafjdkagï wxl ms<sno woyi ÿgqfõo @
ms : Tõ! lafjdkagï wxl hk jpkh fkdfhÿk;a tu f;areu Ndú;d lr
we;. fnda¾ wdlD;sfha§, Yla;s uÜgï úia;r lsÍfï§ Tn bf.k .kafka
ldlaIslhla úia;r lrk n lafjdkagï wxlhhs.

m%Odk lafjdkagï wxlh (Principle quantum number - n)

m%Odk lafjdkagï wxlh uÕska mrudKqfõ lsishï ldlaIslhl we;s

bf,lafg%dakfha Yla;sh ms<sn| ñkqula ,ndfohs.

52
 ieish 4 - mrudKqj i|yd lafjdkagï hdka;%sl wdlD;sh

n i|yd 1,2,3....... w.hhka .; yelsh. fuu lafjdkagï wxlh uÕska

bf,lafg%dakh wh;a jk ljph o fokq ,efí. tlu m%Odk lafjdkagï
wxlh we;s ish¨u ldlaIsl tla ljphlg wh;a fõ. ^we;eï fmd;aj, fuu
ljp K,L,M,N… wd§ jYfhka o kï lr we;. tkï K kï ljph n = 1
Yla;s uÜgug wh;a ljphhs&.
lsishï ljphlg wh;a jk ldlaIsl .Kk n2 ka fokq ,nk nj Tn miqj
bf.k .kq we;. fuys§ n hkq m%Odk lafjdkagï wxlh fõ.

fldaKsl .uH;d lafjdkagï wxlh (Azimuthal quantum number - l )

fldaKsl .uH;d lafjdkagï wxlhg i|yd 0 isg (n-1) f;la w.hhla .;

yel. l i|yd fhÈh yels n w.hhka jkafka,
n = 1 úg l = 0 muKs
n = 2 úg l = 0 iy 1
n = 3 úg l = 0, 1 iy 2
fldaKsl .uH;d lafjdkagï wxlh uÕska bf,lafg%dakfha fldaKsl
.uH;djh úia;r lrkq ,nhs. bf,lafg%dakhl fldaKsl .uH;djh
bf,lafg%dakh kHIaáfha isg msysgk ÿr u; r|d mj;S. fuu lafjdkagï
wxlh uÕska ldlaIslfha yevh o ks¾Kh lrkq ,efí. tkï l ys fjkia
w.hkag wkqrEm jk ldlaIslj, yevhhka fjkia fõ. fuu ldlaIslhka
s,p,d yd f wl=re j,ska y|qkajkq ,efí.
l = 0, s ldlaIslh
l = 1, p ldlaIslh
l = 2, d ldlaIslh
l = 3, f ldlaIslh

pqïNl lafjdkagï wxlh (Magnetic Quantum Number -m)

pqïNl lafjdkagï wxlhg - l isg + l olajd ^Y=kH wh;aj& ´kEu mQ¾K

ixLHdjla .; yelsh. fuu lafjdkagï wxlh uÕska pqïNl lafIa;%hl §
bf,lafg%dakhlg .; yels Yla;sh fokq ,efí. l = 0 jk úg m g .;
yelafla tla w.hhka muKs. th m = 0 fõ. fï wkqj l = 0 jk úg ;sìh
yelafla wdldrfha tla ldlaIslhla muKs. fuh Tn fmr fldgfia § bf.k
.;a wvqu Yla;h
s la we;s f.da,dldr yevhla iys; ldlaIslhhs.
l = 1 úg m g .; yels w.hhka jkafka -1, 0 fyda +1 fõ. fïjd p
wdldrfha ldlaIslhka fõ. fuu ldlaIsl ;=k px, py yd pz f,i kï lrkq
,efí.
fïjd 4.5 rEmfha fmkajd we;.

53
tallh I - mrudKql jHqyh i|yd wdlD;s iy kQ;k wdj¾;s;d j.=j

rEmh 4.5: p ldlaIsl

px, py yd pz tlsfklska fjkia jkafka tajd wjldYfha ÈYdkq.;j we;s
wdldrh wkqj muKs. m%Odk lafjdkagï wxlh ksid tajdg tlu Yla;shla
we;s w;r tajd msßyqkq (degenerate) fyda iu Yla;s ldlaIsl f,i y|qkajhs.
m% : l = 2 jk úg m, g .; yels w.hhka fudkjd o@ tajd w;r iuYla;s
ldlaIsl mj;So @
ms : m i|yd – l isg + l olajd w.hhka .; yel. tkï -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 ys
w.hhka fjs. fïjd ish,a,u tlu m%Odk lajkagï wxlh mj;sk ksid
tajd iuYla;s ldlaIsl fõ. fïjd d ldlaIsl f,i y|qkajhs.

d ldlaIsl mfya yevhhka 4.6 rEmfhka oelafõ.

rEmh 4.6: d ldlaIsl j, yevhhka

n, l, m jk lafjdkagï wxl ;=k uÕska bf,lafg%dak wh;a jk ldlaIslh w¾:
olajkq ,nk nj Tng oeka wjfndaO úh hq;=h. fuh ;jÿrg;a meyeÈ,s ùu
i|yd my; j.=j wOHhkh lrkak. my; 4.1 j.=j uÕska uq,a ljp y;f¾,
tkï m%Odk Yla;s uÜgï y;f¾ ldlaIsl jHdma;sh fmkajd we;.
j.=j wOHhkfhka ,nd .; yels rgdjka /ks.ukhka .ek ie,ls,su;a
jkak.

54
 ieish 4 - mrudKqj i|yd lafjdkagï hdka;%sl wdlD;sh

j.=j.4.1: m<uq ljp w;r ldlaIsl j, me;srSu

m%Odk ljp Wm l i|yd Wm m i|yd ;sìh ldlaIslh uq¿
lajkagï wxlh ljp ;sìh ljpfha yels w.hka ldlaIsl
wxlh fyda .Kk yels ku ixLHdj
(n) ljp w.hka
h

1 1 or K 1 0 1s 0 s 1

2 2 or L 2 0 2s 0 2s

1 2p -1, 0,1 2px,2py,2pz 4

3 3 or M 3 0 3s 0 2s

1 3p -1, 0, 1 2px,2py,2pz 9

2 3d -2,-1,0,1,2 dxy, dyz , dzx,

dx2-y2, dz2

4 4 or N 4 0 4s 0 2s

1 4p -1, 0, 1 2px,2py,2pz 16

2 4d -2,-1,0,1,2 dxy, dyz , dzx,

dx2-y2, dz2
3 4f -3 , -2,-1, 0, 1,2,3
f ldlaIsl
y;ls

by; j.=j wOHhkh lsÍfuka ldlaIslhla i|yd lafjdkagï wxl ,shk

wdldrh Tng mqyqKq úh yel. tfukau, j.=j wOHhkfhka ,nd .; yels
rgdjka /ks.ukhka .ek jegySula ,nd .kak.
4.1 j.=fõ olajd we;s wdldrhg yd l,ska i|yka l< mßÈ tlu n w.hhka
iys; ish¨u ldlaIsl tlu bf,lafg%dak ljphl wvx.= fõ. ;jo, n w.hg
iudk Wm ljp .Kkla bf,lafg%dak ljphl wvx.= fjs. Wm ljpfha ku
;SrKh jkqfha l w.h u;h.
m% : ldlaIsl .Kk yd m%Odk lajkagï wxlh w;r we;s iïnkaO;djh /
rgdj l=ula±hs 4.1 j.=j wOHhkfhka y|qkd.kak.
ms : n = 1 úg ldlaIsl .Kk 1 ls.
n = 2 úg ldlaIsl .Kk 4 ls.
n = 3 úg ldlaIsl .Kk 9 ls.
rgdj yÿkd .;fyd;a m%Odk lafjkagï wxlhlg ^ljphl& we;s
ldlaIsl .Kk n2 g iudk nj fmfka.

55
tallh I - mrudKql jHqyh i|yd wdlD;s iy kQ;k wdj¾;s;d j.=j

ls%hdldrlï 4.2

1. my; tla tla tajdfha fN!;sluh jeo.;alu y|qkd .kak.

(i)  (ii) 
2. j.=jg n = 5 jk úg wjia:dj we;=,a lrkak.
3. M ljphl Wm ljp lShla wvx.= fõo @

N%uK lafjdkagï wxlh (spin quantum number)

m%Odk lafjdkagï wxlh, fldaKsl .uH;d lafjdkagï wxlh yd pqïNl

lafjdkagï wxlh Iafrdäka.¾ iólrKh úi§fuka ,efnk úi|qï fõ.
kuq;a j¾Kdj,sfha f¾Ld iïmq¾Kfhka meyeÈ,s lsÍug kï bf,lafg%dakfha
yeisÍu ksid we;s jQ fjk;a lafjdkagï wxlhlao we;=,;a l< hq;=h.
bf,lafg%dakhlg N%uK kï jQ ksh; ,laIKhla mj;S. fuh bf,lafg%dakh
;u wlaIh jgdu N%uKh ùfuka yg .kakls. th úfYaIs; lafjdkagï
wxlhla uÕska olajhs. thg N%uK lafjdkagï wxlh hehs lshkq ,nk w;r
m s u.ska olajkq ,nhs. m s i|yd +1/2 fyda -1/2 hk w.hka follska tla
w.hla .; yel.
óg miq ieishl § Tn mjq,s nysIaldr uq,O¾uh wOHhkh lrkq we;.
mrudKqjl lsisu bf,lafg%dak foll lafjdkagï wxl y;ru iudk úh
fkdyels nj fuhska lshkq ,nhs.
fï wkqj tl ldlaIslhl ;sìh yelafla Wmßu bf,lafg%dak folla
muKla nj Tng jegfykq we;. fuu bf,lafg%dak fol fjkia jkqfha
N%uK lafjdkagï wxlh uÕska muKs.
m% : (i) mrudKql ldlaIslhka úia;r lsÍug lafjdkagï wxl lShla wjYH o@
(ii) ldlaIslhl mj;sk bf,lafg%dakhla úia;r lsÍug by; lafjdkagï wxl
muKla fhdod .; yels o@

ms : (i) ;=kls. m%Odk lafjdkagï wxlh (n), fldaKsl .uH;d lafjdkagï wxlh
(l) yd pqïNl lafjdkagï wxlh fõ (m).
(ii) ke;. by; lafjdkagï wxl j,g wu;rj bf,lafg%dakh w¾:
oelaùu i|yd Tng wu;r lafjdkagï wxlhla, tkï N%uK
lafjdkagï wxlh o wjYH fõ.

ls%hdldrlu 4.3

1. le,aishï (Ca) ys Yla;sh jeäu bf,lafg%dak fol i|yd lafjdkagï wxl

,shd olajkak.
2. n = 5 yd l = 1 jk Wm ljphlg wod, kdulrKh l=ula o@

56
 ieish 4 - mrudKqj i|yd lafjdkagï hdka;%sl wdlD;sh

3. yhsv%cka mrudKqj i|yd my; llaIhka mej;sh yels o@

n = 2, l = 1, m = 1
n = 1, l = 0, m = 0
n = 4, l = 2, m = - 2
mej;sh yels ldlaIslhka i|yd ;sìh yels Wmljp kdulrK uÕska ,shd
olajkak.
4. áka (Sn) j, N+ñ wjia:dfõ § l =1 lafjdkagï wxlh ;sìh yels
bf,lafg%dak lShla mj;S o@

kj .Ks; oekqula i|yd wjYH;djh ^Wm .%ka:h&

fuf;la Tn wOHhk lr we;s fndfyda .Ks;uh .eg¿ x, y yd z hk

ldáishdkq LKavdxl u; mokï jQ tajdh. flfia kuq;a ldlaIslj, we;eï
,laIK f;areï .ekSu i|yd ^Wod. ldlaIslj, yevh& f.da,Sh O%ejl
LKavdxl jvd myiq wlaI moaO;shls. fuu wlaI moaO;sh Wm .%ka:hys
meyeÈ,s lr we;s w;r B<Õ ieish wOHhkhg fmr Tn th lshjd f;areï
.ekSu jeo.;a fõ.
B<Õ ieisfhaoS Tn ldlaIsl ms<sn|j ^úfYaIfhka yev ms<sn|& ;j;a
wOHhkh lrkq we;.

idrdxYh

lafjdkagï hdka;%Kh u; mokï jQ mrudKqfõ PdhdrEmh ms<sn|j Tn fuu

ieisfha § m%udKd;aul f,i idlÉPd lrk ,§. lafjdkagï hdka;%
úoHdfõ§, bf,lafg%dakhg wxY=uh .=K fukau ;rx.uh .=K o mj;sk nj
ie,ls,a,g .kq ,nhs. fnda¾ i|yka l< mßÈ bf,lafg%dakh ksh; llaIhl
fkdj wjldYfha hï m%foaYhl ^ldlaIslhl& p,kh fõ. fuu ldlaIsl n, l,
m hk lafjdkagï wxl ;=k uÕska meyeÈ,s l< yel. m s kï y;rjk
lafjdkagï wxlh bf,lafg%dakhl N%uKh úia;r lsÍu i|yd fhdod
.kakls.

wNsu;d¾:

fuu ieish wOHhkh wjidkfha § Tng my; oE lsÍug yelshdj ;sìh

hq;=h.
 yhsikan¾.a wksYaÑ;;d uQ,O¾uh i|yka lr tys ish¿u mo y÷kd
.ekSu.
 yhsikan¾.a wksYaÑ;;d uQ,O¾uh meyeos,s lsÍu.

57
tallh I - mrudKql jHqyh i|yd wdlD;s iy kQ;k wdj¾;s;d j.=j

 ã fn%da.a,s iólrKh .Ks;uh wdldrfhka olajd, tys ish¿u mo

y÷kd.ekSu iy ã fn%d. a a,s iólrKh wod< .Kkhka i|yd
fhdod.ekSu.
 mod¾:fha oaú;aj iajNdjh hkq l=ulaoehs myod §u.
 Iafrdaäka.¾ iólrKfha jeo.;alu ;rx. Ys%;hg wod,j i|yka lsÍu.
 ;rx. YS%;fhys j¾.fhys fN!;sh jeo.;alu i|yka lsÍu.
 bf,lafg%dakfha iïNdú;d jHdma;sh weiqfrka mrudKql ldlaIslh
hkafkys w¾:h myod §u.
 llaIhla yd ldlaIslhla w;r fjki yÿkd.ekSu.
 ljp, Wmljp yd ldlaIsl y÷kd .ekSu yd tajd w;r fjki y÷kd
.ekSu.
 mrudKqjl we;s ldlaIslhla /bf,lafg%dakhla úia;r lrk lafjdkagï
wxl kï lr tl tflys we;s fN!;Sh jeo.;alu i|yka lsÍu.
 fok ,o mrudKqjl we;s fok ,o bf,lafg%dakhla i|yd lafjdkagï
wxl ,sùu.

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