Fundamentals of English Writing (FRI 241)

Week 5:
The stages of the writing process, techniques for generating
and narrowing down ideas, and the critical bibliography.

READING

The following pages describe the stages of the writing process, techniques for generating and
narrowing down ideas, and the critical bibliography.

The following diagram shows the stages of the writing process.

Prewriting

Prewriting is the step in which tools such as free writing, brainstorming, outlining, or clustering are
used. In prewriting, no idea is too off topic or too strange. It is these sometimes dissociative ideas
that can lead you to a paper topic that you never would have considered. Though the common
perception is that there is nothing that hasn’t been written about before, if you allow yourself to
think outside the box, you can find a way of looking at an old topic through new eyes.
It is also during prewriting that the writer needs to make a decision about audience. Asking
questions like: “Who is going to read my paper?”, “What is the purpose of this paper?”, and “Why
are they going to read my paper?” will help you set your audience. The simple answer to these
questions is “My professor” and “Because they assigned it.” they are not the true answers. It could
be that your paper needs to be geared towards elementary level students or participants in a
seminar or peers at a conference. The language and tone for either of those audiences would be
very different.

Drafting

Drafting is the beginning of “writing” your paper. It is important to remember that in drafting you
should already have a thesis idea to guide your writing. Without a thesis, your writing will be
prone to drift, making it harder to frame after the fact. In drafting, the writer should use materials
created in the prewriting stage and any notes taken in discovery and investigation to frame and
build body paragraphs. Many writers will tackle their body paragraphs first instead of beginning
with an introduction (especially if you are not sure of the exact direction of your paper). Beginning
with body paragraphs will allow you to work through your ideas without feeling restricted by a
specific thesis, but be prepared to delete paragraphs that don’t fit. Afterwards, create an opening
paragraph (with an appropriate revised thesis) that reflects the body of your essay.

Revising

There are two different scopes of revision: global and local. Global revision involves looking for
issues like cohesion and the overall progression of your paper. If your paper has paragraphs that
do not flow into each other, but change topic abruptly only to return to a previous thought later,
your paper has poor cohesion. If your topics change from paragraph to paragraph, it is necessary
to either consider altering the order of your paragraph and/or revising your writing either by
adding to existing paragraphs or creating new ones that explain your change in topic. A paper that
includes smooth transitions is significantly easier to read and understand. It is preferable to keep
all like thoughts together and to arrange your paragraphs in such a way that your argument builds,
rather than laying everything out with equal weight. Though the blueprint for your paper is in the
thesis, your main point, the end result of your argument should not come early in the paper, but at
the end. Allow the early paragraphs serve as examples and information to build to your
conclusions.

Local issues involve looking for clarity in sentences, ensuring coherence with your ideas. The
greatest asset to avoiding and fixing local issues is to use varied sentence structure and to avoid
using the same words repeatedly. Repeating the same sentence structure can make your paper
feel mechanical and make an interesting topic feel boring.
Editing

The final stage in writing a paper requires a review of what you have written. In this last read of
your paper, you should look for any grammar, spelling, or punctuation errors that have slipped
through the cracks during the revising stage, or that were introduced in your revisions. Reading
your paper aloud, or asking a friend to read your paper to you is a good way to catch errors. Often
if you read your own paper, especially out loud, you can catch errors in grammar, spelling, and
punctuation. Though this step seems minor within the process of writing, it is an easy way to
prevent the loss of points over simple mistakes.

Publication (Formatting, Inner-text citation, and Works Cited)

The formatting required for your paper will change depending on the field of your topic. Generally,
the sciences and business and economics use APA or CSE formatting. English, and other
humanities will use MLA, and History uses Chicago. The appearance of inner-text citations, and
Works cited page will all be affected by these different formats. Consult your syllabus or ask your
professor to learn what format you should use. Guides for APA, Chicago, and MLA are available
online.

Techniques for generating and narrowing ideas

Now let’s see five prewriting techniques too narrow a topic and get words and ideas on paper: (1)
freewriting, (2) questioning, (3) making a list (brainstorming), (4) clustering (diagramming,
mapping), and (5) preparing a scratch outline. These techniques help you think about and create
material, and they are a central part of the writing process.

Technique 1: Freewriting

Freewriting means jotting down in rough sentences or phrases everything that comes to mind
about a possible topic. See if you can write nonstop for ten minutes or more. Do not worry about
spelling or punctuating correctly, about erasing mistakes, about organizing material, or about
finding exact words. Instead, explore an idea by putting down whatever pops into your head. If
you get stuck for words, repeat yourself until more words come. There is no need to feel inhibited,
since mistakes do not count and you do not have to hand in your freewriting.
Example: I like to play basketball. I think, it is one of the most exciting sport in the word since you
have to use all your body to play it. You have to run fast, to move your arms quickly and change
position every moment…

Exercise: Now it’s your turn, write something for 10 minutes about one of the following topics:
food, music, family, TV shows, etc.

Freewriting will limber up your writing muscles and make you familiar with the act of writing. It is a
way to break through mental blocks about writing. Since you do not have to worry about mistakes,
you can focus on discovering what you want to say about a subject. Your initial ideas and
impressions will often become clearer after you have gotten them down on paper, and they may
lead to other impressions and ideas. Through continued practice in freewriting, you will develop
the habit of thinking as you write. And you will learn a helpful technique for getting started on
almost any writing you have to do.

Technique 2: Questioning

In questioning, you generate ideas and details by asking questions about your subject. Such
questions include the “5WH”: why, when, where, who, and how. Ask as many questions as you
can think of. Asking questions can be an effective way of getting yourself to think about a topic
from a number of different angles. The questions can really help you generate details about a
topic.
Example: “Free time activities”
What do I do in my free time? I play videogames, I surf the net, and I walk the dog.
When do I have free time? I’m usually free on weekends.
Who do I spent my free time with? I usually spent time with my parents and my friends.
Why do I not have more free time? Because I work and study a lot.
How would I like to spend my free time? I would like to spend my free time doing something
exciting.

Exercise: To get a sense of the questioning process, use a sheet of paper to ask yourself a series
of questions about a topic that you like (music, love, food, religion, etc.) See how many details
you can accumulate in ten minutes. And remember again not to be concerned about mistakes,
because you are just thinking on paper.
Technique 3: Making a List (brainstorming)
In making a list, also known as brainstorming, you collect ideas and details that relate to your
subject. Pile these items up, one after another, without trying to sort out major details from minor
ones or trying to put the details in any special order. Your goal is just to make a list of everything
about your subject that occurs to you.

Example: “Shopping”.
-money.
-malls.
-local market.
-brands.
-credit card.
-save money
-clothes, etc.

Exercise: To get a sense of list-making (brainstorming), list on a sheet of paper or computer a

series of realistic goals you would like to accomplish by the end of this 2022. Your goals can be
personal, academic, or career-related.

Technique 4: Clustering (diagramming, mapping)

Clustering helps you to “see” your ideas.

Clustering, also known as diagramming or mapping, is another strategy that can be used to
generate material for an essay. This method is helpful for people who like to do their thinking in a
visual way. In clustering, you use lines, boxes, arrows, and circles to show relationships among the
ideas and details that occur to you.
Begin by stating your subject in a few words in the center of a blank sheet of paper. Then, as ideas
and details come to you, put them in boxes or circles around the subject and draw lines to connect
them to each other and to the subject. Put minor ideas or details in smaller boxes or circles, and
use connecting lines to show how they relate as well.
Example:

Diesel,
Buy a car Gasoline.
Get a job

Manager,
Teacher, 2022 Manual,
Automatic.
Call center. Goals

Travel to USA Finish the university

Save money, Get graduated,

Get a visa, Excellent grades,
Marry an American. Get a Master degree.

In addition to helping generate material, clustering can give you an early sense of how ideas and
details relate to one another.
Exercise: Use clustering (diagramming, mapping) to organize your goals for 2022.

Technique 5: Preparing a Scratch Outline.

A scratch outline is an excellent sequel to the first four prewriting techniques. A scratch outline
often follows freewriting, questioning, list-making, or diagramming; or it may gradually emerge in
the midst of these strategies. In fact, trying to make a scratch outline is a good way to see if you
need to do more prewriting. If you cannot come up with a solid outline, then you know you need
to do more prewriting to clarify your main point or its several kinds of support.
In a scratch outline, you think carefully about the point you are making, the supporting items for
that point, and the order in which you will arrange those items. The scratch outline is a plan or
blueprint to help you achieve a unified, supported, well-organized paragraphs.
Example: Create a scratch outline about your goals for 2022.
 2022 Goals

1-Finish the university

a- Get graduated
b- Have excellent grades
c- Look for a master degree

2-Get a Job
a. Work as a manager
b. Work in a call center
c. Teaching

3- Buy a car
a. Manual
b. Automatic
c. Diesel
d. Gasoline

4. Travel to USA
a. Saving money
b. Get a visa
c. Marry an American citizen.

Student Tips
-Writers often use several prewriting techniques. Each technique may provide different results.
-Keeping a journal (to develop the habit of freewriting, keep a personal diary or journal of the
activities that you consider important to you. Write at least three entries a week).
-An important difference between writing and talking is this: In writing, any idea that you present
must be supported with specific reasons or details.

The Critical Bibliography (annotated bibliography)

A bibliography is a complete list of the sources that were used to complete a research paper or
project.
Depending on the style guide you follow, you may also see this called a Works Cited (also called an
MLA bibliography) or Reference List (APA format). Each listed source, or citation, shares
information about the author, title, publishing year, and other details that serve to credit the
original authors whose work informed your research. These details also help other students and
researchers find and read the source materials.
An MLA annotated bibliography and an APA format annotated bibliography are bibliographies that
include a concise explanation, or annotation, of each listed source. Depending on the assignment,
this annotation may be solely descriptive, or analytical. The purpose is to summarize and evaluate.
It should briefly communicate the work’s main point, but also discuss the background of the
author or study, and the strengths/weaknesses of the work.

MLA (Modern Language Association) annotated bibliography format

 Title your reference page as “Annotated Bibliography” or “Annotated List of Works Cited.”
 Place each annotation after its reference.
 Annotations should typically not exceed a single paragraph.
 Annotations should be indented one inch from the start of your citation.
 Double-space all text on the page.
 1-inch margins around the page.
Sources in an annotated bibliography can be organized alphabetically by the first word in each
reference (as with a normal Works Cited page), by publication date, or by subject.

Look the following example of a MLA annotated bibliography:

References:
- Langan, J. (2009). College Writing Skills, Media Edition, 7th edition. McGrawHill Higher
Education.
- MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 7th ed.
https://www.mla.org/handbook_faq
- University of Lynchburg .The Writing Process. Wilmer Writing Center Online Writing Lab.
https://www.lynchburg.edu/academics/writing-center/wilmer-writing-center-online-
writing-lab/the-writing-process/