OXIDES OF CARBON

Carbon Dioxideo odnvsqer

Introduction

Carbon dioxide was first prepared in 1630 by Von

Helmont by the
burning of
materials rich in carbon. The Greenhouse Effect
it was the Scottish
However chemist and physician, The heating of the Earth and atmosphere due
Joseph Black, who, in 1755 identified carbon to infrared radiation trapped by the carbon
dioxide as a constituent of carbonates and named dioxide layer, is called the greenhouse effect.
i t fixed air'.
Greater the amount of carbon dioxide gas in
In 1783, Antoine Lavoisier discovered its the atmosphere or thicker the carbon dioxide
composition as an oxide of carbon. layer, greater will be the insulation effect and
greater will become the temperature of the
Occurrence Earth. This is called global warming.
Carbon dioxide occurs both, free and in the A greenhouse gas traps infrared rays and does
combined state. It is present in the air to the extent not allow them to escape.
of 0.03% by volume.
Example: Carbon dioxide, Ozone, Water vapour
It accunmulates in caves, mines and dry wells near
Note
lime kilns due to its high density. These
places can Ozone exists at higher levels, hence does not
be dangerous to humans and animals because a
play its role as far as absorption of infrared
concentration of carbon dioxide will suffocate them.
rays is concerned. However, it traps the
Carbon diox de itself is not poisonous, but it cuts
ultraviolet rays coming from the Sun.
off necessary supplies of oxygen.
Carbon dioxide is also ejected during volcanic
eruptions.
Greenhouse Effect imd ioggue
Radiation emitted by Sun includes ultraviolet,
visible and infrared rays. Infrared rays are in fact
the heat rays. Infrared rays emitted by Sun possess
sufficient energy to cross the atmosphere and reach To demonstrate the Greenhouse Effect
the Earth. These infrared rays heat up the Earth.
Infrared rays oflower SUN

The Earth on getting heated emits further infrared energy trapped inside
glass
rays that are of smaller energy and longer
wave-

length. This small energy infrared rays rise upward

towards the atmosphere and is absorbed by the
the
of carbon dioxide around the Earth. Thus,
layer Infrared rays of
carbon dioxide not allow the infrared
layer does higher energy
other
rays or heat radiation to pass through it. In
Words, the heat of the Earth is preserved.

effect is experienced in
he greenhouse
crowded,
villages
areas more than in rural, agricultural
Oan
and towns.

(125)
 Preparation, Properties and Uses of Carbon dioxide

1. Laboratory Preparation of Carbon dioxide

In the laboratory, carbon dioxide can be easily Do it Yourself

prepared by the action of an acid on a carbonate. 1. Take a tea spoon of washing soda or
baking soda in a Add a little
glass jar.
Method vinegar into the jar and cover the jar with
The apparatus is set up as shown below. The a lid.
narrow end of the thistle funnel must reach the 2. You will see a chemical reaction taking
bottom of the flask. Othervwise the gas produced place with a lot of bubbling and frothing.
will try to escape through the thistle funnel The jar soon gets filled with a colourless
instead of the delivery tube. gas. The gas is carbon dioxide.

Preparation of Carbon dioxide od eruopo

uoyLid
Thistle funnel
Dilute hydrochloric acid

Delivery tube
. Carefully shift the lid and introduce a
burning splinter into the jar.
Gas jar
10ee808
4. The burning splinter gets
i.e., it stops burning.
extinguished,
This shows that carbon dioxide does not
-Marble chips
support burning. orepeuorneoi
(Calcium carbonate)
Note

CaCO + 2HCI
Washing soda is sodium carbonate. Baking soda
CaCl2 + HO+ CO2 contains sodium
Calcium Hydrochloric Calcium Water Carbon acetic acid.
bicarbonate. Vinegar contains
carbonate acid chloride
dioxide
dilute
orfrul eiens beisen grtrop no hes of
(i) Calcium carbonate in the form of
chips is placed in the flask.
marbleol one v
Points to Note
(ii) Dilute hydrochloric acid is added to the Carbon dioxide is fairly soluble in water.
marble chips with the help of the thistle
funnel.
Therefore, it cannot be collected over water.
However, it can be collected by the
(ii) The gas carbon dioxide is evolved with brisk displacement of air. upward
effervescence (bubbling).
Being heavier than air, carbon dioxide sinks
(iv) The gas being heavier than air is collected down and displaces the air
which rises upwards.
in jars by the upward displacement of air.

(126
2. Test for Carbon dioxide

Collect carbon dioxide in two separate jars and

cover each jar with a lid.
Limewater is not lime juice!
(i) Introduce a burning splinter into one jar. The Limewater is a saturated solution of calcium
flame will be extinguished. hydroxide.
o Limewater is obtained in the following manner:
(ii) Add a little limewater into the second jar
and shake well. It will be seen that the Water is added to solid calcium hydroxide and
limewater turns milky. allowed to stand for a few hours. Calcium
hydroxide dissolves only slightly in water
Even if limewater is left exposed to air for
The mixture is filtered after a few hours. The
sometime, it absorbs carbon dioxide from
colourless filtrate is limewater.
the air and turns milky.
Limewater absorbs carbon dioxide and forms
insoluble calcium carbonate. Since the calcium
Limewater left exposed to air for sometime
carbonate remains suspended in the limewater,
turns milky
the limewater appears milky.
Up
Clear limewater
Ca(OH), + CO H2O
CaCO3 +CO
Limewater limewater white insoluble
calcium carbonate
turns milky

noesng bodt ot boeu eibra 9

3. Properties of Carbon dioxide no beeb opls el sondoe ponie
(i) Nature: Carbon dioxide is colourless gas with o oette arff eodubo of epate
a very odourless
faint smell.
itsupd obixoid nodhs0
(i) Density: Carbon dioxide is 1.5 times heavier
than air.

(ii) Solubility: Carbon dioxide is fairly soluble in Photosynthesis

water. Water plants use the dissolved carbon Carbon dioxide from alr

dioxide to prepare food by photosynthesis.

(iv) Combustibility: Carbon dioxide does not

itself burn and neither does it support the
burning of other substances.
Water from s o I
(v) Action on Litmus: Turns moist blue litmus red.

4. Uses of Carbon dioxide

(i) Photosynthesis
Significance of Photosynthesis
Green plants in the presence of sunlight
use

foobd 1. The food prepared by plants during pho-

the carbon dioxide of the air to prepare tosynthesis is used by humans and animals.
in the form of carbohydrates by
a process

called photosynthesis. 2 During photosynthesis, life supporting

Oxygen is released.
6CO2 + 12H,0CeH1206 + 6H,0 + 6O2

(127)
 (ii) Fire extinguishers: Carbon dioxide is used
in fire extinguishers. This is because:
Bottling of Aerated Drinks

Carbon dioxide does not support burning

and does not itself burn.

Being heavier than air, it sinks and forms

a blanket over the fire, thus cutting off
the air (oxygen) supply.
(ii) Aerated drinks: Carbon dioxide easily
dissolves in water under pressure. When the
pressure is released, the gas is liberated
with a great deal of bubbling. This is what
lends "fizziness'" to soda water, lemonade,
orange and cola drinks.
(iv) Dry ice: When carbon dioxide is compressed
under ordinary temperatures, it
changes into
a liquid. If the
pressure is suddenly released,
some of the liquid solidifies.
This solid carbon dioxide is called
dry ice.
Dry ice produces temperatures as low as
-40°C and is used for food preservation.
Since dry ice sublimes, it is also used on
stage to produce the effect of clouds.

Carbon Dioxide: Equations A Summary

Carbon Dioxide
A. Formation of carbon dioxideby:

1. Burning of :

Carbon C
of
O
() Methane
orhCH 20, CO, + 2H,0
in) Methyl alcohol
2CH,OH +30, 2C0, +4H,OO
(iv) Ethyl alcohol
C.HOH+ 30, 2C0, +3H,0
2 Fermentation of carbohydrates
2C,H OH+ 2C0,
3. Thermal decomposition of metal carbonates Ethyl alcohol

Calcium carbonate
CaCO CaO
(i) Zinc carbonate
white CO
onZnCO ZnO
yellow (hot) white (cold) +CO
(ii) Copper (II) carbonate CuCO, CuO
iv) Silver carbonate
black +CO
2Ag,CO, 4Ag +
0, +
2C0,
(128)
 4. Thermal decomposition ofmetal bicarbonates

Sodium bicarbonate 2NaHCO, + H,O +CO,

7
Na,CO
() Calciumbicarbonate Ca(HCO,) CaCO H,O+ CO
5. Action of dilute acids in metal carbonates
Sodium carbonate Na,CO +2HC1 2NaCl HO +CO,
Calciumcarbonate CaCO +2HC CaCl H,O +CO,
6. Action of dilute acids on metal bicarbonates

Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO+ HCI NaCl +H,O+ CO

() Calciumbicarbonate Ca(HCO),+ 2HCI CaClh +2H,0 + 2C0,
B. Laboratory preparation of Carbon dioxide
Action of hydrochloric acid on calcium carbonate OCaCO, + 2HCI CaCl +H,O + CO
C. Chemical Properties of Carbon dioxide
>1500°C
1. Stability 2CO 2C0 + O

2. Combustibility: Supports combustion of burning reactive metalsdea d avi

Magnesium 2Mg +CO 2MgO C

Gi) Sodium 4Na +3C0, 2Na,CO+C

3. Acidic nature:

a. Reaction with metal oxides to form salt

Sodium oxide Na,O + CO

Na,CO eft w
Calcium oxide CaO +CO CaCO
Reaction with alkalis to form salt and water

Sodium hydroxide 2NaOH + CO, Na,CO + H,O

(excess carbon dioxide) Na,CO, + H,O +CO, 2NaHCO

() Potassium hydroxide 2KOH +CO K,CO +
H,O
(with excess carbon dioxide) K,CO, + H,0 + CO 2KHCO
CaCO + HO
ii) Limewater Ca(OH),+ CO
(excess carbon dioxide) o CaCO, + H,O + CO, Ca(HCO,)

On boiling odel r beoloni Ca[HCO.) asanp>CaCO, +H,O+ CO,

200
4. Reduction ofcarbon dioxide CO +C

D. Testfor carbon dioxide

. Turns limewater milky

Ca(OH), + CO CaCO +H,O
2MgO C
Burning magnesium deposits
black carbon 2Mg +CO +

Burning

E Uses ofcarbon dioxide

150°C/150 atm
2NH + CO, NH,CO.NH,+ H,O
Manufacture of urea
Chlorophyll
Photosynthesis
6CO +
12H,0 CH,,0 +6HL,0+60

129
. Carbon cycle

Processes which add Co, to the atmosphere

Heat
) Burning of Fuels [cellulose-wood] CH105 + 60 6CO, +5H,O

() Chemical Industries [Lime-Kiln r CaCO ica CaO CO

(ii) Fermentation of Sugars 2C,H,OH + 2C0,

Processes which remove CO, from the atmosphere

) Photosynthesis 6CO, 12H,0 CHO,+60, +6H,O

i) Dissolution of CO, in waterT HO tCO HC0,

Exercise
1. Give balanced equations to obtain carbon monoxide:
(i) By dehydration of an organic acid.
(ii) Reduction of a metal oxide.
(iii) By oxidation of a nonmetal. etoe
(iv) Reduction of a non-metallic oxide.
2. Explain briefly:

(i) It is dangerous to start a car engine in a closed garage.

(ii) A blue flame is often observed on top of a coal fire.

(ii) It is dangerous to sleep in an ill ventilated r0om with a

coal fire burning.
(iv) Carbon monoxide is used in metallurgy.
(v) Carbon monoxide forms addition
compounds.
3. How are the following gases dried and collected in the
laboratory?
(i) Carbon monoxide
(i) Carbon dioxide lepotoube
4. State what you would observe when:
(i) Dilute hydrochloric acid is added to marble chips.
(ii) Carbon dioxide is bubbled through limewater.
(ii) Moist blue litmus is introduced into a jar containing carbon dioxide.
(iv) A burning splinter is introduced into a jar containing carbon dioxide.
(v) Limewater is left exposed to air for a
long time.

1 30
5. Explain why:
(i) Carbon dioxide is collected by the upward
displacement of air.
(ii) Carbon dioxide is used in fire extinguishers.
(ii) Carbon dioxide is used in aerated drinks.
6. () What is meant by photosynthesis ?
(i) Explain the significance of photosynthesis.
7. Explain the following terms:

(0) Greenhouse effect

(ii) Global warming
(ii) Dry ice

8. Complete and balance the following equations:

(i) cO2
(ii) CO Cl2
(ii) FeO3 CO
(iv) H.COOH +conc. HaSO4
(v) C2H5OH O2
(vi) Na,CO3 HSO4
(vii) Mg
(Burning)
CO2
(viii) NaOH CO2
(ix) NaCOg + H0 + CO

(x) Ca(OH)2 CO2

(xi) CaO CO2
80°C
(xii) Ni CO
150°C/150 atm

(xiii) NH3 CO2

(xiv) Ca(HCO3)2 + HNO3
(xv) CuO CO

(131)
 Carbon Monoxide

1. Discovery
The formula of carbon monoxide is Co. It was
first prepared in the laboratory in 1776 by the
French chemist J.M.F. de Lassone. He obtained
conok e d s )
the gas by heating zinc oxide with powdered Points to Note
carbon.
1. Persons sleeping inill-ventilatedroom with
The conmposition of the gas was determined in a coal fire burning, breathe in the poisonous
1800 bythe English chemist, William Cruickshank. carbon monoxide without realising it as the
2. Occurrence gas is colourless and odourless. xo

Carbon monoxide is an extremely poisonous gas The carbon monoxide combines with the
that is generated from natural sources as well respiratory pigment haemoglobin and
as artificial: prevents the supply ofoxygen to the tissues.
Lack of oxygen results in death.
1. Decay of swamp gas and other organic
materials in the absence of oxygen yields 2. It is dangerous to start a car engine in a
carbon monoxide. closed garage as the incomplete combustion
of petrol releases poisonous carbon
2. Carbon monoxide is found in traces in the monoxide.
atmosphere near volcanic regions.
3. Incrowded cities, the carbon
3 Carbon monoxide is produced when monoxidecan
build up to dangerous levels. Therefore, in
substances containing carbon - such as coal, many countries, automakers are required to
wood, oil or gasoline are burned in equip vehicles with devices that convert the
insufficient oxygen. carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide.
4 Automobile engines also release carbon
monoxide. Petrol, which is a hydrocarbon,
burns within the engine in a limited supply
of air and the gas is formed. o emuliov lerot esec90o10 seortt ye
5 Carbon monoxide is formed when carbon
dioxide is reduced by coke or coal.
For this reason, A coal fire burns with
a blue flame is often seen
a blue flame
Over a coal fire. otsmto noite deno
Blue-
(i) The coal burns in the air and
initially flame 2C0+O,> 2C0,
forms carbon dioxide.
(ii) As the carbon dioxide rises through the e o t 0uboy
red hot layers of coal, it gets reduced Coal CO + C 2C0
to carbon monoxide.
Kono nodre
(ii) This carbon monoxide is seen burning
with a blue flame and gets oxidised to +O,CO

6
carbon dioxide.
Cigarette smoke contains traces of carbon
Oxygen

Oxygen
monoxide.

(120)
 Laboratory Preparation of Carbon Monoxide
1, Dehydration of formic acid [H.COOH] or oxalic
acid [CH,041
Procedure
() Conc.sulphuric acid is heated to 100°C in a
round bottom flask and formic acid is Role of conc. sulphuric acid
added
to it dropwise from the
thistle funnel as Conc.sulphuric acid acts as a dehydrating
shown below.
agent. It removes the chemically combined
If oxalic acid is used, then elements of water from formic acid and oxalic
oxalic acid is acid.
taken in the flask and conc. rod
sulphuric acid
is added dropwise from the thistle
funnel. 100°C
The mixture is then heated. H.COOH+ H,SO, CO+H,SOH,O
Formic acid (conc.)
(i) The carbon monoxide is passed
flask containing potassium
through a
COOH +H,SO, CO +CO,+[H,SO H,O]
hydroxide (Conc.)
solution. It absorbs any carbon dioxide and
COOH
sulphur dioxide that may have formed due Oxalic acid
to the reduction of sulphuric acid. In the preparation of carbon monoxide from

Collection of the ga Oxalic acid, the carbon dioxide may be

Downward displacement of water as the gas is
very slightly soluble in water.
Drying of the gas
The gas is passed through phosphorus pentoxide.
The dried gas is collected over mercury.
separated
from the mixture of carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide by one of the following methods:
1. Passage through caustic potash solution.
2. Passage through cold water under pressure.

Preparation ofdry Carbon Monoxide

Formic acid

Phosphorus
penfoxide
orommbodh
Potassium
hydroxide Mercury
Conc.
sulphuric acid

(121)
2. Reduction of Carbon dioxide by Coke or Charcoal yo
Procedure

(i) The apparatus is set up as shown alongside.

Charcoal is placed in a combustion tube and
heated. Carbon dioxide is passed over it and CO, + C 2CO

is reduced to carbon monoxide.

CO Charcoal Potassium CO
hydroxide
(ii) Unreacted carbon dioxide is absorbed when Water
the issuing gas mixture is passed through a
washer bottle containing potassium
hydroxide.
(ii) Carbon monoxide is collected by the
Preparation of Carbon monoxide by the
downward displacement of water.
Reduction of Carbon dioxide
Physical Properties of Carbon monoxide Borbynaleerog go
1. Nature: Colourless and tasteless gas. ou
2. Density: Carbon monoxide is slightly lighter than
air. e
ett o cotoi
IVapour density of air is 14.4, and vapour density
of carbon monoxide is 14].

3. Solubility: It is very slightly soluble in water.

LAt 10°C, only 3 volumes of the gas is soluble in

130 volumes of waterl.

4. Liquefaction: On condensing, it gives a

colourless, transparent liquid which boils at
-192°C under atmospheric pressure and freezes
at -207°C.

5. Poisonous Nature: The poisonous nature of

carbon monoxide arises from the fact that it
combines with the haemoglobin of the blood to
form a stable compound carboxyhaemoglobin.
Thus, oxygen is prevented from circulating to
the body tissues. This paralyses the respiratory
organs and death results due to suffocation
[asphyxiation].
It may be noted that air, containing as low as
0.5% by volume of carbon monoxide, is fatal.

(122)
 Chemical Properties of Carbon Monoxide ofadha
1. Stability: Carbon monOxide does not decompose Note
even on strong heating.
The combustion of carbon monoxide is an
2. Neutral character: It is neutral to moist litmus.
exothermic reaction, i.e., it proceeds with
Does not react with acids or with bases under
the liberation ofheat. Hence carbon monoxide
normal conditions. serves as an excellent gaseous fuel.
3. Combustibility:It is a combustible gas, but a
2C0
non-supporter of combustion. It burns in oxygen
+
O, 2CO, + heat
with a pale blue flame to form carbon dioxide.
4. Forms Addition Compounds: Carbon monoxide
is an unsaturated compound as all the four
valencies of carbon are not satisfied. It therefore
forms addition compounds.
osturepo
a. Reaction with Chlorine: In the presence of CO +Cl, Sunlight COCl,
sunlight and catalyst Icharcoal or platinuml, Phosgene
carbon monoxide directly combines with
Phosgene is a highly poisonous gas and is used in
chlorine to give carbonyl chloride chemical warfare.
phosgenel.
b. Reaction with Suiphur: When a mixture of CO +SS Hea COS
carbon monoxide and sulphur vapours are Carbonyl sulphide
passed through in a hot tube, carbonyl
sulphide is formed.
4CO 80°C
C. Reaction with Nickel: Carbon monoxide Ni > NiCO4
reacts with heated nickel to give volatile Nickel carbonyl
nickel carbonyl. This decomposes on heating
to give pure nickel. NiCO 180 Ni +4CO
d. Combination with Sodium hydroxide: Solid NaOH + CO H.COONa
d.
Sodium formate
sodium hydroxide at 200°C under 6-8
form
atmospheric pressure absorbs CO to
sodium formate
CuCl+ CO + 2H,O CuCl.C0.2H,O
e. Absorption of Carbon monoxide: Carbon
ammoniacal Addition compound
monoxide is absorbed in
solution of CuCl in
Cuprous chloride la
ammonium to form an addition
hydroxide]
compound. CuO + CO
Heat
Cu + CO,
monoxide: At high
. Reducing action of Carbon zinc in
of metals below
temperatures, oxides Heat
> Fe 3CO
the activity series
are reduced by
carbon Fe,O, + 3CO 2 2Fe +
3CO,
metals. The gas
corresponding The reducing property of carbon monoxide is used in
monoxide to the metallurgy for the extraction of certainmetals.
Is itself oxidised to
carbon dioxide.

(123)
Tests for Carbon Monoxide
1. Carbon monoxide burns in air with a pale blue
flame. The product, carbon dioxide, turns lime
2CO +O 2CO,
water milky while carbon monoxide has no Ca(OH), + CO, CaCO, +H,O
effect on lime water. White ppt. do
Limewateruen
2. A filter paper soaked in platinum chloride o r d
palladium chloride is turned pink or black due to the
reductionofthe metal chloride by carbon monoxide.
Uses of Carbon Monoxide
1. It is used as an industrial fuel in the form of
producer gas [CO+Nl and water gas [CO+Hl
2. As a reducing agent in various metallurgies.
3. Extraction of metals like nickel.
4. In the manufacture of methanol, synthetic petrol,
sodium formate and phosgene.

Carbon Monoxide: Equations A Summary

Cabon Monoxide shirofn
1. Stages in the formation of carbon monoxide by reduction off coal in a coal fire
0 Oxidation ofcoal C m+ O
CO, notoaef
Reduction of carbon dioxide
ereco, C 2cO modsp
)Oxidation of carbon monoxide 2000
2. Laboratory preparation of carbon monoxide
2C0, beeesu
Dehydration of formic acid H.COOH conc. H,SO CO
H,O
) Dehydration of oxalic acid conc. H,S04
HC,O, qmo CO + CO, +
HO
) Reduction of carbon dioxide
3. Chemical properties of carbon monoxide
CO C 2c0 por
Combustibility 2C0
mgbod wrolbeoidemo0
i) Formation ofaddition compounds with:
O b2CO, uboe
oe of00 2dsoads otueeeng
a. Chlorine to form carbonyl chloride
pirereenirro
CO
C Heat COC
hxor oteoedA
. Sulphur to form sulphuryl chloride CO + S Heat COs nom
Nickel to form nickel carbony
C.

nt4CO30 NiCO euoiouo

normme
NiCO 180C Ni 4CO
d. Sodium hydroxide to form sodium formate NaOH +0 CO H.COONa
C. Ammoniacal cuprous chloride
CuCl+CO+2H,0
(ii) Reducingproperty of carbon monoxide CuCL.Co.2H,O
) Copper (II) oxide reduced to copper CuO CO
Cu Moorm
(i) Iron (II) oxide reduced to iron CO,
Fe,O 3CO
2Fe
3CO
(124)
 Carbon and its Allotropes
Introduction
Carbon is non-metallic element Symbol of Carbon C
that has been known since an- Atomic Number
cient times in the form of coal,
Relative atomic mass 12.01
charcoal, graphite and diamond.
Its eminence arises from the fact Electronic configuration : 2, 4
that, in combination with other 2, 4
Valency
elements, it makes up the living
tissues of all living plants and
Structure f
animals. There are over 1 mil-
Carbon atom
lion known carbon compounds.
Organic chemistry, which is the name given to the
study of compounds made by and derived from living Allotropes of Carbon
organisms, is primarily the study of carbon
compounds. The study of all other elements is
grouped under inorganic chemistry. Several forms
of carbon are also important sources of energy.

1. Carbon is a nonmetal.
2. Carbon has the maximum tendency to form chains.
This property is known as catenation (property of
carbon to form a large number of compounds due
to its ability to combine with other carbon atoms Graphite
forming a chain or ring of atoms).
3. Carbon exhibits allotropy. Diamond, graphite and
coal are the chief allotropes of carbon.
4. Carbon exists as three isotopes. Isotopes are
atoms of the same element which have the
same atomic number but differ in the atomic
mass. Its most common isotope, Carbon-12, was
adopted in 1961 as the standard for atomic
weights and was assigned weight of 12.
Carbon-12 accounts for almost 99% of
naturally occurring carbon.
Carbon-13 accounts for most of the rest.
Diamond
*
Carbon-14, a radioactive isotope, occurs
only in traces. It is used by scientists in
determining the age of prehistoric objects.

(110
 Occurrence of Carbon
Carbon is one of a very select
group of elements
that can exist free in the nature. For
this reason it
was one of the few elements
(along with gold)
known to the ancients.

a. In the elemental state, carbon occurs as

What is Allotropy
diamond, graphite and amorphous carbon.
The property, by virtue of which an element
b. In the combined state it occurs as follows: exists in more than one form in the same
i) Oxides: Carbon combined with physical state, having the same chemical
oxygen forms properties but different physical properties, is
the carbon dioxide
(0.03% by volume of the called allotropy. The different forms are called
air) and the carbon monoxide that occurs in
volcanic gases and in furnace allotropes.
gases.
Reasons for Allotropy
(ii) Carbonates: Limestone
CaCO; Magnesite 1. The different methods by which each form
-

MgCOg; Dolomite CaCOq.MgCOg is prepared.

Calamine ZnCOa, Spathic iron
FeCOg. -

2. Different atomic arrangements in the

(ii) Hydrocarbons: Example, methane,
molecules of each form.
acetylene, benzene, petroleum, natural gas,
etc. anih 3. Different amounts of energyassociated with
each form during its preparation.
(iv) Complex compounds: With hydrogen,
nitrogen and sulphur, carbon forms complex uot oue
compounds in plants and animals.

(v) In natural waters: The carbon dioxide Examples of some elements that show
dissolved in water exists as carbonic acid. Allotropy
*Carbon: Diamond, graphite, amorphous
C. Carbon is also an important constituent of a wide
carbon.
variety of industrial and commercial products
like sugar, paper, leather, marble, petroleum, Sulphur: Rhombic, monoclinic, plastic sulphur.
synthetic materials, silk, medicines, insecticides, *Phosphorus: Yellow and red phosphorus.
dyes and perfumes.

Allotropic Modifications of Carbon

Carbon

Amorphous Carbon
Crystalline Carbon

Charcoal Lamp black

Coal
Diamond Graphite

fullerenes
Gas carbon Wood Sugar Bone
Coke charcoal
charcoal charcoal

(111)
 Structure of Diamond Structure of Graphite

Most diamonds have eight sides which form double In graphite, the carbon atoms are arranged in flat
pyramids. Others have six sides, forming a cube. planes ofhexagonal rings, stacked one on another

The carbon atom can be visualised as a ball with Each carbon atom is attached to just three others
four short sticks pointing in the directions of the within the plane,. As such, only three out ofthefour
vertices ofatetrahedron. Actually, these 'sticks valence electrons are involved in carbon-carbon
are electrons that are available for sharing with bonding.
other atoms.

Weak Van der

sM Waal forces be-
tween layers

The remaining valence electron wandersrelatively

between the planes. This free electron
Indiamond, each of the four valence electrons of oosely
the carbon atom is bonded strongly with another accounts for the electrical conductivity of

carbon atom by covalent bonds. Each of these graphite.

carbon atoms connects with another four carbon Within each layer, the carbon atoms are held by
atoms, and so on. strong covalent bonds. ebnu
Thus, in aregular diamond structure, each carbon However, the links between the adjacent layers or
atom is held firmly in place by four bonds. These sheets
of carbon atom are relatively weak as they
carbon-carbon bonds are the strongest bonds have no carbon-carbon bonding.
to be found in any substance at
They are held by
ordinary weak interatomic forces, or Van der Waal forces.
temperatures. Therefore, the planes can slide over each other
lnaway, a diamondis one giant carbon molecule. easily, and make graphite soft,
There are no free valence electrons present in slippery and a
good lubricant.
its crystal. Since electrons are responsible for
The relatively large distance between the two
conduction, diamond is neither a conductor or
heat of adjacent carbon layers contributes to the low
nor electricity. density of graphite.
Fullerenes
In 1990 scientists discovered another allotrope of
carbon. Its molecular structure looks like
a football or the domed roof of the stadium developed by American
engineer Buckminster
Fuller. This form of carbon was therefore named buckminsterfullerene, and one
molecule
is sometimes called a 'buckyball'. In the fullerenes, the carbon atoms form
spherical cages.
Buckminsterfullerene (shown here) has 60 atoms. Other fullerenes, with 28, 32, 50, 70, and
76 carbon atoms, have also been identified.

112)
 Properties and Uses of Diamond
1. Nature: Diamond is the purest form of
carbon
and the hardest known substance. It is Uses of Diamond
transparent, lustrous and may be coloured
due 1. The colourless or slightly tinted diamonds
to the presence of impurities. For example, black are prized gems and find use in jewellery.
diamonds, called carbonado, contain traces of
graphite. The abrasive nature or hardness of 2. Blackdiamonds are used in making precision
diamond is due to its structure. instruments.

A
large amount of mechanical energy is 3. Being the hardest substance, diamond can
to break the crystal. This is because
required be used for cutting glass and for drilling
the covalent
rocks. Only a diamond can cut another
bonds between the carbon atoms are
extremely diamond.
strong and uniform. Also, a large amount of heat
energy is required to melt the crystal. 4. Diamond dust is used for cutting andpolishing
diamonds and valuable stones.
2. Refractive index: Diamond has a high refractive
index [2.415]. When properly cut, it produces 5. Diamond dyes are used for making thin
maximum total internal reflection. This is tungsten wires.
responsible for its brilliance. irteie
3. Specific gravity: Diamond has a
specific gravity Why Diamond Sparkles
of 3.52.

The distance between the carbon-carbon Light enters ight leaves the crystal
the crystal
bonding is short [1.53A]. This makes the crystal
compact and contributes to its high density.

4. Conductivity: Bad conductor of heat and

electricity.
The structure of diamond lacks free electrons
that are responsible for carrying heat
electricity. All the four valence electrons are
paired and used in the formation of the 4 single
Covalent bonds with the other carbon atoms.
The light that enters the crystal undergoes repeated
reflections within the crystal before it emerges.
As such, light is trapped within the crystal and
lends a sparkle to the diamond.

. Diamond is transparent to X-Rays. Hence, a real

artificial
diamond can be distinguished from an
one. 1773, the FrenchchemistAntoineLavoisier
0. Effect of Heat: It is destroyed by intense heat. burnt diamond in oxygen and collected the gas
produced. Hethen verified that the gas liberated
above 700-800°C it forms
neated in oxygen residue. If was the same as that given off when either
carbon dioxide, leaving behind
no
graphite or coal is burnt in air.
of oxygen,
neated above 1500°C in the absence
It is transformed into graphite. The gas evolved when diamond, graphite and
coal are burnt in air, is carbon dioxide.
inert and
'Chemical activity: It is chemically
solvents, acids
and alkalis C 0, CO,
Tected by organic
under ordinary conditions.

(113)
 Properties and Uses of Graphite
1. Nature: It is a greyish black opaque substance,
soft and slippery to touch, and has a metallic redo
lustre. It leaves a black mark when drawn across
a paper.

2. Specific gravity: Specific gravity is 2.3, making

it lighter than diamond.

3. Conductivity: Good conductor of heat and

electricity.
4. Effect of Heat: It is the most stable allotrope of bnod
carbon. At a temperature of 2500°C, it can be
transformed into diamond.
At about 700°C it burns in pure oxygen forming C
O 700C CO
carbon dioxide.

5. Chemical activity: Chemically, it is slightly more

reactive than diamond. This is because the
reactants are able to penetrate between the
hexagonal layers of carbon atoms in graphite.

It is unaffected by ordinary solvents, dilute acids rneawsed sonteb ent

or fused alkalis. However, chromic acid oxidises
it to carbon dioxide.

Uses of Graphite
1. In making lead of lead' pencils.
Graphite marks paper black. The weakly held layers of carbon atoms in graphite easily slide over each other and
are left behind on the paper. Graphite is mixed with clay in various
proportions to obtain 'lead' of different hardness.
There is no real lead present in the pencil.

2. In the manufacture of electrodes.

The presence of free, mobile electrons in the crystal of

graphite, makes graphite a good conductor of electricity.
3. In the manufacture of refractory crucible.

Graphite is a good conductor of heat, is resistant to chemicals and has a high melting point of about
3500°C.

4. Used as a lubricant for heated machine parts.

Graphite is non-volatile (can withstand high temperatures) and slippery. The slippery nature is due to the
of the weakly held carbon layers. sliding
5. In nuclear reactors as moderators.

Graphite slows down and absorbs the fast moving neutrons. This keeps the reactors
under control.

(114)
 Amorphous Carbon
Coal, coke, soot etc., are all amorphous forms of
carbon.

1. Coal
Uses of Coal
Coal is a blackish rock consisting mainly of
carbon. It is the natural form of amorphous 1. Industrial fuel for heating furnaces and
carbon developed from the remains of plants boilers.
that died 1 million to 440 million years ago. 2. In the manufacture of fuel gases.
The remains of dead plants formed a thick layer 3. In the manufacture of synthetic petrol.
on the swamp floor and
gradually hardened into 4. Production of coke, coal tar, coal gas and
a substance called peat. The buried
peat was gas carbon.
subjected to tremendous pressure, which, over
a period of millions of years, converted the
peat
into coal. Destructive Distillation: The process of
heating a substance in a limited supply of air
2. Coke
is known as destructive distillation.
Coke is obtained by the destructive distillation
of coal in iron retorts. When coal is heated to a on eeob
Dry wood
temperature between 700 C and 13000C in
ovens, without any air, a mixture of liquids and
Wood gas
gases escape from it. These are separated into
coal gas, ammoniacal liquor (an upper layer of
Pyroligenous
watery solution of organic compounds), coal tar acid
(the lower layer), and a solid residue called coke. Cold water
Coke contains more than 80% carbon. - Wood tar

Coke is a black porous substance which Note: When a substance is heated in the
burns without smoke. absence ofair, the volatile impurities escape as
It is a bad conductor of heat and electricity. gaseous products. The product that remains
behind is therefore purer and more porous
It is a good reducing agent. than the original substance. The porous nature
increases the surface area for reactions to
Reducing Agent: Due to its affinity for oxygen,
occur, thereby enhancing the chemical activity
coke and charcoal are good reducing agents as of the product.
they remove oxygen from oxides. At high
temperatures coke and charcoal reduce
Heat
ZnO C Zn CO
(i) Metal oxides to give the corresponding
metal.
1000°C [CO +
a mixture of hydrogen and C +
H,O H,1
S t e a m to give White hot coke Steam Water gas
water gas.
carbon monoxide called 1000°C
CO 2CO
carbon monoxide.
7

Carbon dioxide to give

to form their CaO 3C Het CaC, CO
U Oxides of calcium and silicon
Corresponding carbides. sio 3C Hegt SiC 2CO

(115
 Uses of Coke

1. Smokeless fuel for domestic and industrial use.

2. In metallurgy (reducing agent).
3. Manufacture of water gas, producer gas and artificial graphite

3. Lampblack or Soot
When a carbon rich material such as tar oil, Uses of Lamp black
kerosene or napthalene is burnt in a limited
supply of air, the product formed is lampblack. 1. Lamp black is used in the manufacture of
dprinters ink, shoe polish, carbon paper,
The smoke that is given off contains soot
typewriter ribbon, black paint and
deposits. These settle down in a chamber varnishes (carbon black).
containing a cold surface, or on wet blankets.
The black powder is obtained by scraping. 2. Lamp black is also used for colouring
products made of rubber and leather.
Lamp black is a black, light, velvety powder. It
has density of 1.7-1.8 g/cmS
It does not conduct heat or electricity.
Experiments to Demonstrate Properties of Coke/Charcoal
Experiment 1:To observe the adsorption of gas by wood charcoal To study the adsorbing property of
Adsorption is a surface phenomenon and results from accumulation of charcoal
a substance on the surface of the adsorbing medium.
o
Ammonia gas-
Atube containing ammonia gas is inverted over a dish
containing mercury Charcoal-
as shown alongside A
piece of wood charcoal is pushed inside the tube.
The level of mercury rises indicating that the gas has been Mercury-
charcoal.
adsorbed byy
Experiment 2: To observe the reducing action of wood charcoal
A small cavity is scooped out in a block of charcoal. A
pinch of red
mercury ]oxide is placed in the cavity and moistened with water. The
luminous flame ofa bunsen burner is directed at it,
using a blow pipe. After e1 c 6ud e r
awhile, a silvery grey globule ofmetallic mercury is seen in the cavity. This
indicates that the mercury [II] oxide is reduced to the metal, To study the
reducing property of
mercury. The
charcoal cavity test is used in qualitative charcoal
analysis for identifying metallic
radicals.
Charcoal cavity
Experiment 3: To determine the identical chemical
nature of the
different carbon allotropes.

Equal amounts of pure samples of each carbon allotrope is Blow pipe

heated
separatelywith pure and dry oxygen. The gas liberated in each case is
tested and is found to be carbon dioxide. The amount
of carbon dioxide
given offis the same in all the cases. The amount
of carbon dioxide formed
in each case is confirmed by
absorbing the carbon dioxide in weighed
bottles containing potassium hydroxide.

h nsa*****************esoeasteseasseeneen

(116)
 Comparison of Properties of Diamond and Graphite
Property Diamond Graphite
1. Physical state Transparent with extraordinaryy Black opaque solid with metallic lustre
brilliance.
2. Structure
Compact, three dimensional structure Layers ofarranged sheets held by weakk
in which the atoms are held
firmly by physical forces.oolle orfr
strong bonds.

3. Hardness
Hardest known substance. Soft and slippery.
4. Specific gravity
3.52 2.3
5. Electrical conductivity Bad conductor of electricity.
Good conductor ofelectricity.

Carbon and its Allotropes: Equations -

A Summary
Chemical properties of
Charcoal
1. Reaction with air

Heat
1) Reaction in excess oxygen C +
>CO,
Heat
i) Reaction in limited oxygen 2C +
0, 2C0

2. Reducing property of carbon

) Metal oxides reduced to metal ZnO C Heat Zn + CO

Heat
(11) Steam reduced to hydrogen C H,O > CO +H,
Heat

(111) Carbon dioxide reduced to carbon monoxide CO + C 2C0

1000°C
CaO+ 3C CaC, + CO
(1V) Calcium oxide reduced to calcium carbide

Heat
SiO, 3C SiC +2CO
(V)Silicon dioxide reduced to silicon carbide
*ss*sh*sanssananrrmeseeseisa**anneend

**************sstoreett****a**ise*******ssis***sos*srsreantantnanes

(117)
 Exercise
1. (i) Write the symbols of the three isotopes of carbon.

(ii) which isotope of carbon is used as a standard for comparison of atomic Vweignts

(ii) Which isotope of carbon is used for dating of prehistoric objects ?

2. Define allotropy and state three reasons why it occurs.

3 Name the allotropic form of carbon that is used:

() As a fuel (i) In metallurgy (ii) In water filters

(iv) In nuclear reactors (v) As an abrasive (vi) As rods for electric arcs

(vii) As a gem (viii) As a dry lubricant for heated machine parts

4. Explain briefly:

() When carbon dioxide is heated with coke, the coke eventually disappears.

(ii) Lead monoxide, when heated in a charcoal cavity, leaves a shining globule.

(ii) Graphite is used in the manufacture of refractory crucibles.

(iv) Graphite conducts electricity while diamond does not, although both are the forms of
carbon.
5. () Define destructive distillation.

(ii) Explain how destructive distillation enhances the chemical activity of a substance, for
example, wood.
6. Name the naturally occurring form of amorphous carbon and briefly explain how it was formed.
7. Name one allotrope of carbon that is a
good conductor of electricity.
8. State whether the following statements are true or false:
(i) If diamond is heated above 1500°C in the absence of
air, it is transformed into
graphite.
(i) Diamond is opaque to X-rays.
9. State one use each of:

(i) Black diamonds (i) Diamond dust

10. Complete and balance the following equations. Also state the conditions
about the change. necessary to bring
(i) C
O2
(i) CO2 C

(ii) Sio2 C

(iv) ZnO C beoubey

(v) CaO + C

(118