John W. Griffiths - Treatise On Marine and Naval Architecture

TREATISE
ON
.MARINE AID NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

OR
THEORY AND PRACTICE

BLENDED IN
SHIP BUILDING.
BY
JOHN W. GRIFFITHS,
MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECT.
ILLUSTRATED WITH MORE THAN FIFTY ENGRAVINGS.
$l)irb (ftrttion.
NEW- YORK:
D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 200 BROADWAY.
LONDON: JOHN WEALE, 59 HIGH HOLBORN.
1 85a.
M
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1849,
BY JOHN W. GRIFFITHS,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the
Southern District of New-York.
N/rv)
EXPLANATION OF CHARACTERS;
ALSO, DECIMAL AND FRACTIONAL PARTS OF A FOOT, USED IN THE WORK.
=Equal to, as 144 square inohes=I square foot.
+ Plus, or more, signifies addition, as 3+3+6+9=21.

—Minus, or less, signifies subtraction, as 10 — 5=5.
X Multiplication, or multiplied by, or into, as 7x9=63.
-^Signifies division, as 63-^9=7.
: :: : Signifies proportion that is, as 3 :
6 "18 : 36.
. Decimal point signifies, when prefixed to a number, that the number has a unite for its denominator,
as .1 is TV.01 is j^j, or .792 TWo-

The decimal parts of a foot are expressed in the table on the left ; and the common fractional parts of
the foot, as found on the 12 inch rule, will be found in the tables on the right : the latter is used in taking
off tables from the model ; the former is used in tables of displacements. The decimal and fractional
parts will apply equally to all the inches of the foot, as well as the first.
1
«'
— —
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I. CHAPTER VII.
Early History of Ship Building —The cause of its The Author's Discovery in obtaining the Centre of
Decline — Its Revival during the Middle Ages Expansion — Its importance to a Proper Distribu-
Reasons why so little is known of the Art from tion of the materials for strength — Continued
History — Equilibrium of Fluids —Laws of Buoy- expositions on the floor.
ancy elucidated — The Importance of Stability,
and the Laws that Govern it. CHAPTER VIII.
CHAPTER II.
Cants by Water Lines — Cants by diagonals —
An Exposition of the Tonnage Laws — Their dele-
Square Stern, without stern frame — Its Advan-
terious Effects —Necessity of Change — Tonnage tages — Stern Frame —Instruction for Building
Laws of other Nations — Laws of Resistance

them —making Moulds.
Laws of Propulsion.
CHAPTER IX.
CHAPTER III.
Important Rules in Practical Operations —Direc-
Importance of a Knowledge of the location of the the successive stages of
tions applicable to
Centre of Effort —Method of obtaining it —The Advancement in Building — Rules for Planking
Model, an American Invention — Its Advantages Ceiling —making Spars, &c.
— Its Origin — complete Adaptation
Its to our
Wants —Instructions making them.
for
CHAPTER X.
CHAPTER IV. Steam-Boats —Ocean Steamers — Coasting Vessels

Taking off Tables — Their Distribution on the Floor Vessels Suited to River Navigation.
— Sheer Plan — Sheering General— in Intimate Its
Connexion with the Appearance of Vessels.

CHAPTER XL
Vessels of War less complex in their Construction
CHAPTER V.
than Merchant Vessels — The United Navy States'
Parallels to the Line of Flotation, commonly called
behind the age — Ships of Line expensive
the
Water Lines — Their Effect modelling—Half- in
and inefficient —Frigates and Sloops-of-War
Breadth Plan — Body Plan — Operations on the
War Steamers.
Floor in Laying Off.
CHAPTER VI. CHAPTER XII.
Diagonal Lines — Their Use — Mathematical Demon- Laws of Beauty and Taste Heads and Sterns —
strations in Modelling by Diagonal and Water Compend of all the Rules for Masting and Spar-
Lines, discovered by the Author-?— Their Superi- ring vessels of all descriptions —the Author's
ority over the Present Mode. improvements — Yachts.
(52)
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PREFACE.
In the dedication of this work to the Comparatively few American me-

Shipwrights of the United States, the chanics bury their talents within the
Author has no apology to offer. dock yard, conse-
walls of a navy or
However much may have been pub- quently, works on Naval Architecture
lished by Naval Architects in the old are of little service in the western
world, it is but too plain to the think- world. The economy of our govern-
ing mechanic that the science of Ship ment exhibits the of a small, but
utility
building is yet in its infancy. efficient naval force, while maritime

The efforts of European authors to enterprise points to our merchant ships
impart such information as shall meet as the bulwark of her defence. To
the wants of operative mechanics, to this enterprise we are indebted for the
qualify them for the responsibilities of symmetry and efficiency accredited to
builders,have thus far proved abortive American ships throughout the com-
both in the old and new world; the mercial world.
reasons are obvious. This work is designed to form the
The very limited amount of inform- connecting link between science and
ation their works contain upon the practice, with a view to the element-
branches connected with the merchant ary instruction of those who have not
service, in connexion with their com- previously studied the principles of
plex character, and want of adaptation science in modelling and building ships.
tothe technical terms used intheUnited But while it is designed as the novi-
States, has proved, and must continue tiate's guide, it will be found to contain
to prove, a barrier to their extensive much imformation adapted to all
circulation in this country. branches of maritime enterprise not ;
PREFACE
only the elementary principles, but all ments, and it is confidently ved
the departments of this science will be that it will n<>! only be found
distinctly explained and by body in all departments, the latest im-
illustrated
plates and diagrams. The subject of provements, but to be in advance of

masting and sparring vessels, that has the age, in this complicated art.
been considered beyond the grasp of Finally, in submitting the work to the
scientific men, will be explained in its judgment of the mechanical and mer-
proper department. cantile, community, the author may,
Popularity has not been sought at perhaps, be allowed to say, that he lias
the expense of science, nor brevity by left no means untried that appeared
the sacrifice of useful information and likely to ensure the accuracy and ex-
appropriate illustrations. The work cellence of the work.
contains not a few original improve- JOHN W. GRIFFITHS.
*
MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
CHAPTER I.
Early History of Ship Building —The cause of its Decline — Its Revival during the Middle Ages —Reasons
why so little is known of the Art from History — Equilibrium of Fluids —Laws of Buoyancy elucidated
—The Importance of Stability, and the Laws that Govern it.
No leaf from the pages of antiquity language has been exhausted to laud
can contribute so much towards en- the hero, and foster a spirit of military
dowing posterity with a correct know- glory ; the bloody riots of butchers
ledge of the race of man, as that of their race, and the desolating inarch
which narrates the progress of Science of tyrants, have been narrated with
and Art. As no descriptive exhibitions redundant effusion. The irretrievable
of the tree equals that ot its fruit, so loss of information respecting the pro-
no expositions of the workings of mind minent mechanics of early ages, may
so fully develope the capacities of the be attributed to the unsophisticated
inner and the outer man, as the work dogmas of such men as Plato, who
of his hands. In scanning the musty poured out ebullitions of wrath against
folios of the past, it would seem that a his followers for debasing the excel-
second deluge had swept every page of lence of geometry, by applying it to
the history of mechanical science from sensible things. Thus, the waves of
the face of the earth. Our reductive oblivion cover the crumbling temple
energies are shackled by historians, and its builder in the same solitary
who have delighted to luxuriate on the shadows of the
grave. The baleful
rise, progress and ruin of their race, past become thick and impenetrable,
while the most prolific mines of Science like the midnight of Egypt the fluc- ;
and Art have been left unexplored; the tuous tide of time leaves only the
most valuable discoveries to the com- mound between the furrows on its
mercial world have been consigned to shores, to mark the spot where nations
the incendiary's torch, ordoomed to the sleep. Alas! this unsparing scythe
tomb of Capulets the exuberance of has swept over the glories of the 'past,
;
10 MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE,
and thus we road the and throw ourselves on the bosom of
fate of the pres-
ent. The lover of antiquarian know- the tempestuous wave, feeling at ease
ledge strains his eager vision in por- amid boisterous commotion, as one re-
ing over the musty pages of the past lic leads to the remembrance of an-
he looks in vain to find anything calcu- other. It is thus associations become,
lated to make him wiser, surviving the in our hand, a golden chain, the links of
wreck of time. The philosopher sighs which lead us through the misty laby-
and mourns over the desolation. The rinths of commingling thought, to the
man of science weeps as he looks at birth-place of their existence. When-
the almost universal blank. The agri- ever we attempt to penetrate the veil
culturalist is palsied in amazement at of obscurity, that mantles from our
the silence that everywhere reigns, on view the work of ancient mechanics,
the subject of sustaining animal life. we are led to regret that some one of
The mechanic is led to exclaim : If the their number did not, for the sake of
past can furnish no wholesome admo- posterity, undertake to give a graphic
nitions for the future, let it perish from description of the state of mechanical
the recollection for ever ; let the man- science. Many learned men of old
tle of oblivious drapery cover its crum- deemed it the part of wisdom to con-
bling pyramids and solitary graves ceal in mysticism all discoveries in
!
It is nothing to know what our ances- science. This custom was so pre-
tors were, unless it be accompanied valent at one time, that philosophers
with the desire to emulate their virtues refused to leave anything in writing ex-
and avoid their errors. What, though plaining their researches. How vast
the mildew of mythology coversthe past; the change The world, in modern !
and like the simoon of the desert, com- times, would give more to witness the
missioned to obliterate all impressions, evolutions of the Athenian Ship-yard,
and leave one wide-spreading waste than to witness the battles of all the
!
But our Creator has, in benevolence, marshalled armies of their race.

as in wisdom, adapted our mental con- The light of science, mental, moral,
stitutions to our moral responsibilities, and physical, have dispelled the gloom
and permitted us to weave the rainbow of barbarism, and given a powerful
of anticipation on the dark rolling impetus to man's career, down to the
clouds that overshadow the past. How latest future in the vista of time.
willingly, when thus illumined, do we Alas, for the scruples of Plato and
recur to periods of by-gone greatness, his coadjutors However unwilling !
MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. 11
some few shreds of ancient mechanism their vessels, when they could no long-
have found a conveyance to posterity, er defend it ; and this, too, about five
although mingled with the narration hundred and seventy years before the
of political convulsions, and honored Christian era, shows that they possess-
heroes all bathed in human gore ! And ed more than a superficial knowledge of
though the relics of ancient mechanism commercial pursuits. The great naval
crumble into dust with the weight of victory obtained by the Greeks over
centuries —
the hush of shipwreck and Xerxes, (520 years B. C.,) would lead
the briny deep, that great charnel- us to conclude that the art of construct-
house which has swallowed up millions ing vessels was known and practised to
of our race, and mantled in oblivion a considerable extent, more particular-
every vestige of the art — no tower- ly when we remember
Xerxes had that
ing pyramids, or massive columns, point a fleet of twelve hundred and seven
generations, yet unborn, to the skill of vessels, each capable of carrying two
their ancestors little remains above
; hundred and thirty men, engaged in the
the wide-spread ocean to show what combat. The very fact of the Grecian
was the form of that engine of war, or mariners making use of the screw-
the messenger of peace. The mytho- pump, introduced by Achimedes, to dis-
logical story of the famous Argonautic charge water from their vessels' holds,
expedition, by Janos and his compan- would lead us to conclude that their
ions, seems to represent the result of vessels were not mere shallops, as those
some bold commercial expedition after of Europe in more modern times.
the golden fleece of Phyrxus, that far Early records which are, doubtless,
outstripped all the previous discoveries worthy of credit, state, that when the
of its time, by which Greek maritime Chaldeans, under Nebuchadnezzar,
knowledge was extended to the farthest conquered Egypt, they struck terror
shores of the Euxine, and bears a into the hearts of the Egyptians, at the
strong resemblance to the golden expe- sight of their vessels ; this was five
ditions of the present time. hundred and seventy-two years before

Little
doubt exists of the Phoenicians having the Christian era the Egyptians them-;
been the discoverers of the Art of Sail- selves never navigated the ocean, being
ing their skill in evading the vigilance prejudiced against the sea, because it
;
of Nebuchadnezzar, of swallowed up the river which they wor-

at the siege
Tyre, which lasted thirteen years, es- shipped. Hence, the reason why they
caping with the wealth of the city in never attempted to construct vessels of
12 MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
any considerable size. They first trav- art of building ships, that, in some re-
ersed the river Nileupon rafts, then in spects, is scarcely surpassed at the pre-
the canoe, these were succeeded by the sent day. A ship requiring three hun-
boat built with joist, fastened together men
one year to build, could, by
dred
with wooden pins, and rendered water- no means, have been considered an in-
tight by interposing the leaves of the significant affair, more particularly
papyrus ; to this boat was, at length, when we are told that she had three
added a mast of Acanthus, and sail of decks, and as many masts having also ;
papyrus. The Phoenecians were a na- an engine for assaulting purposes, capa-
tion nearly as ancient as the Egyptians; ble of throwing stones of three hundred
situated directly on the sea, without the pounds weight a distance of two hun-
advantages of a noble river, they were dred and twenty yards ;
possessing, also,
compelled to provide means for sailing engines for grapplhfg with the enemy,
on a wider expanse of water. It is and guards of iron to prevent them
said, however, that they first traversed from boarding the stanchions which
;
the Mediterranean, and even visited supported the upper deck represented
distant islands, with no better means of statues of Atlas, nine feet long ; she
conveyance than a raft of timber. was fastened throughout with copper
This is none weighing less than ten
rendered more probable from the bolts,
fact, that the Peruvians, even in mod- pounds each on the middle deck were ;
ern times, ventured on the Pacific thirty rooms, in each of which were
Ocean on their balza, a raft made of a four beds, all the inventions of Arch
spongy tree of that name.
first constructed by the
The vessels medes himself. In addition to the force
Phoenecians required to operate her engines
U
of
were used for commercial purposes death, twelve hundred young men form-
they were flat-bottomed, broad, and of ed her complement for operations. The
a small draught of water and those of; wonders of this ponderous fabric were
the Carthagenians and Greeks were not alone exhibited in her size and
similar in shape. By successive im- powerful armament, —her baths, gar-
provements the ships of antiquity were dens, conservatory for fish, library,
at length brought to combine good pro- room for Venus, the Goddess ofBeauty
portions and considerable beauty. We and Love in addition to the vari- ;
learn from Athenius, that Archimedes, ous embellishments and contrivances

that illustrious philosopher, who lived for all the services of life, her ceilings
250 years B. C, exhibited a skill in the represented the spangled heavens ; she
MARTNE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, 13
had a single screw pump, by the use stove in the sides of each other's
of which one man could pump out all vessels.
the water that leaked into her she After the Phoenicians discovered the
;
was also supplied with machines, simi- art of sailing, all their vessels were pro-
lar to our forcing pumps, for raising- vided with a single mast that could be
water. She was supplied with twenty elevated or taken down at pleasure
ranges of oars, and twelve anchors, they were also provided with oars, and
eight of which were of iron. She was thus propelled when occasion required.
named the Syracusan, and sent as a While in this stage of advancement, they
present to the king of Egypt, laden were stranded at the termination of
with corn, and subsequently named the every voyage, and were thus drawn
Alexandria. upon the shore for several centuries,
The bows of vessels, in the earlier with but few exceptions, in which they
ages,were denominated the proic, and were too large. The addition of a
ornamented with eyes, as those of the keel, and the increase in size, soon
Chinese at the present time and in ; made it impracticable. At this time
many cases decorated with sculptur- sheet-lead sheathing came into use
ed figures of heathen and other-
deities, the anchor and cable came in for their
wise adorned with paint and gilding, share of the laurels (about the same
while the sterns, which were usually in time) with which to decorate the brow
the form of shields, were elaborately of the inventor. The first anchor was
wrought in carved work, (a practice nothing more than a large stone ; af-
adhered to at the present time.) terwards wood, and finally iron, was
The vessels first used for war- the sole material. Improving in size,
like purposes were mere row-boats, as in other qualities, they became
although termed ships-of-war. They about as large as what was subse-
were much smaller than merchant quently termed galleys, with one,
craft, and rendered so for convenience two, and three banks of oars.
in working them, in which the combat- When in battle the combatants con-
ants rushed upon each other, and de- tended above, being in part defended
cided the combat by valor and physical
from the missiles of opposing foes by
strength. As they increased in size towers and screens placed on deck,
they became more formidable, and and by shields carried on the arm. The
were armed with an iron beak, with approved length of a merchant ship
which the contending parties often was four times its breadth, while those
14 MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
for war purposes were from six to eight the condition in which the Carthage-
times their breadth. From these pro- nians left it, until the middle of the
portions arose the distinction of long fourteenth century. Alas, for the com-
ships and round ships, or, as we would mercial world ! that the transcendent
transpose the term, to sharp ships and art should amid the smouldering
lie
full ships : thus we discover, that the ruins of obscurity should be mantled ;
ancients, more than two thousand years with the drapery of blood, for nearly
ago, knew what many of our commer- fifteen hundred years ! At this era the
cial men have yet to learn. The gene- inconsiderable galleys of former times
ral sizeof merchant ships in the best began to be superseded by larger ves-
days of antiquity, was not greater than sels, in which, however, oars were not
that of our sloops and schooners but entirely dispensed with.
; The great
there are instances on record which change in the general construction of
prove that they occasionally equalled vessels arose from the discovery of the
in capacity those of modern times. The polarity of the magnet, and the appli-
destruction of commerce, caused by the cation of astronomy to nautical pur-
general desolations of the northern suits ; for by the aid of these means
barbarians, and the ruthless incursions the mariner was released from his de-
of those heathen conquerors, divert- pendence on the sight of land in guid-
ed the channels of commerce from ing his vessel on its course.
their legitimate field of operation, and To the Italians, Catalans, and Por-
caused all the intercourse, as well as tuguese, was ship building mostly
the expedition of a warlike character, indebted in the early ages of its
to be conducted on land. The invasion revival. The Spaniards followed up

of the Roman empire had much to do their discovery of the new world with
with causing a retrogression. In rapid improvements in both the form
some parts of Europe it almost extin- and size of their ships, some of which
guished the art of building vessels: have been rated two thousand tons
at
and it soon dwindled into insignificance, burthen. In more modern times the
and thus remained until the middle French, in connexion with the Span-
ages, when the active trade which iards, are entitled to the credit of near-
arose in the Mediterranean, and the ly all the improvements which have
naval enterprises connected with the been made in the theory of the art.
Crusades, occasioned a revival of the Although those made by the Eng-
art. Yet it did not advance beyond lish have been of some importance,
yet they have been, and are, to the rate the hoary traditions of their an-
present day, behind the age in many cestors. The commercial world has
important matters pertaining to the had abundant proof, that theory with-
art, their contributions never having out practical knowledge is like a steam-
been commensurate with, the advantages boat without an engine, a steam boiler
they possessed for advancement, al- without fuel, or an axe in the hands of
though the greatest naval power of this the man who has not learned its use.
or any other time. Her narrow-mind- It is not the author's province to induct
ed policy in this branch of commercial American mechanics into the glories of
enterprise, causing her to rear restric- commerce, the great engine by which
tive barriers against foreigners, has the blessings of civilization have been
proved her commercial inter- diffused throughout the world
fatal to or to ;
ests. This fatality will, doubtless, be linger around the smouldering portals
more plainly seen, now that the bul- of antiquated cities, to show what have
warks restricting her intercourse in been the advantages of commerce
navigation, between mother and daugh- to our ancestors. But we may go
ter, have been broken down. Its back a distance in the vista of time,
effects are but too manifest, not only in only commensurate with the his-
her works on ship building, but in her tory of this Republic, and view the
dock-yards its blighting influence is commercial condition of Europe and
seen and felt, mildew in every de-
like America. Look at England, whose
partment of hereditary knowledge, national policy has been strictly com-
this great enemy of improvement. mercial; with unbounded resources for
Foreign, and particularly English inprovements, the canvas of whose
authors, have frankly admitted, that ships whitened every sea, — whose pow-
there are abstruse questions connect- er and influence was felt in every clime !
ed with the art of building merch- what has she not done to maintain her
ant ships upon the principles of sci- supremacy? She abandoned her ton-
ence, that does not exist in the con- nage laws, and adopted another code,
struction of vessels of war and with ; calculated to give an impetus to her
every facility afforded them in Europe, own commerce, and at the same time to
they almost universally announce the fetter American genius. Failing to ac-
art of building one of complish her designs, she sought other

ships to be
analogies and comparisons. Not an fields of operations, in the construc-
author has dared to do more than reite- tion of Ocean Steamers learned, in ;
1838, that which had genius. But her owners had learned
Americans
learned more than twenty years pre- something more than the mere fact,
vious and, but for the timely assistance that it was possible
;
they had learned,
:
of the British government, the enter- that steam power for long voyages was
prise would have been relinquished. unprofitable, unless endowed with cer-
Contrast the ebullitionsof the English tain privileges that sailing vessels did
press at the successful termination of not possess. Hence the reason of its
their firstvoyage made by steam across abandonment, until our government
the Atlantic, with the history of steam should find it necessary to foster the
navigation in the western world, and enterprise. The silent footfall of time
the contemplative mind will be con- obliterated from the public mind the
strained to regard the Anglo-Saxon as sensation produced by this achievement,
a working rather than a boasting race. without bombastic eruptions.
Scarcely ten years had elapsed after Ful- The fact is too palpably plain to be
ton had made his first passage to Al- for a moment questioned, that Ameri-
bany, by the aid of steam, when Ame- cans have much more to gain by ocean
ricans were ploughing the trackless steam navigation than other nations.
deep by the same agency. The ocean Hence the reason why all Europe ma-
steamship Savannah, as she approach- nifested so much surprise at the tor-
ed Cape Clear, was reported in Liver- pidity of Americans in embarking into
pool, by telegraph, to be a ship on fire; this great commercial scheme. The
and His Majesty's cutter was sent to American character seems to be but
her relief. Their chagrin and amaze- partially known abroad. It is only ne-
ment may be imagined at the discove- cessary for him to receive an affirma-
ry, that with all sail set, in a fast sailing tive answer to the question, icillit paif I
vessel, they could not overhaul this when he gathers up his scattered
thing of life under bare poles. The thoughts, and concentrates them into a
prosecution of the voyage from Liver- single idea, or into the compass of a
pool to Copenhagen, Stockholm, St. telegraphic despatch and then, as on
;
Petersburgh, Arendal in Norway, wings of lightning, he is ready to cir-

and her safe return to the United cumnavigate the globe, or to embark
States, at once solved the problem in any enterprise within the grasp of
of the feasibility of navigating the thought, or the conception of the hu-
ocean by steam, and at thesame time man mind.
exhibits the fecundity of American What, may we not inquire, is the
%
standard value of American ships has imparted an indomitable energy of

abroad? Is it not universally admitted, Herculean power to her favored sons,
that Americans surpass all other nations that surmounts every obstacle, and
on the globe in the superiority of their knows no barrier. The boundless fields
vessels for commercial purposes ? open on every side, marking no dis-
Let us now turn our eyes homeward tinctive lines of birth or wealth but ;
and see what can be done. There are affording genius of every grade an op-
few of our prominent ship-builders in portunity for development, and its con-
the United States, who, (under a judi- sequent reward. On the other hand,
cious code of tonnage laws,) do not it must not be supposed that energy
see in the future greater improvements alone is a universal Alcahest.
than the world has yet witnessed. We The prejudices interwoven with the
pause to inquire, from whence have present mode of modelling ships, cling-
they obtained this perspective glance, to the builder like the poisonous ivy to
the outline of such stupendous improve- the monarch of the wood, binding his
ments ? The casual observer may have thinking powers with fetters, which, if
supposed, from works on naval archi- not rent asunder, will cause him, like
tecture ; one of their number the oak, to perish in their palsying
but let
speak for himself, and before introduc- embrace. The streams of knowledge,
ing him, let me add, that no man connected with the art of building
upon earth enjoys a better reputation ships upon the principles of philosophy,
as a practical builder. In a conver- have been poisoned at the fountain.
sation upon this David Rustic and philosopher, sage, sire, and
subject with
Brown, he said, "it has always ap- school-boy, all have drunk at the muddy
peared to me that naval architects have pool. The hoary head of prejudice,
done all they could to mystify the the- mantled with a guise of experience,
ory of ship-building ; subjects that dams up the streams of knowledge, and
are plain have been rendered intricate, hurls defiance at the man who dares to
and costly works have been abandoned assert that the fields of science are
on this account." Let the reader decide, open alike to all. The man who builds
whether science without practice, or one hundred ships by the same model,
theory and practice combined, are contracted or expanded, has had no
most likely to accomplish the work of more real experience than the man
revolutionizing the commercial world. who has built but one. It is impossi-
The genius of American institutions ble to model vessels by the eye, having
no reference to known laws that gov- of a knowledge of the laws governing
ern the elements. They are designed non-elastic fluids, and of solid bodies
to navigate without becoming familiar- floating on fluids. The state of fluid-
ized with a certain shape that pleases ity may be defined as that property in
us, and from which we cannot depart, bodies which tends to form drops and :
that every ship-builder is fettered with this property does not exist in but one
a shape peculiar to his notion and the of the three states in which matter ex-
;
ship is as indelibly stamped with lineal ists, namely, the solid, the fluid, and the
genealogy, as hereditary lineaments are gaseous. The solid may be reduced to
visible in the human face. powder, and is found to possess no
It is not my purpose to tax the read- fluidity. Some writers make a distinc-
er's forbearance with a detailed history tion between fluid and liquid, confining
of the discrepancies of the present, or the latter term to those substances
to draw an analysis of the princi- whose particles adhere to other bodies
ples that has governed the progress of plunged into them. Thus, mercury
the art, as recorded on the historic and air are fluids, but not liquids they ;
page. Were we thus disposed, we leave no moisture on other bodies im-

should find ourselves encompassed by mersed in them while water and
;
the trammelling influence of prejudice, alcohol are both fluid and liquid. It
which has not been confined to the old may be remarked here, that the terms
world, but has been transmitted to the elastic and non-elastic are used in a
shores of this Republic, and has relative sense, and not in an absolute;
already spread over a surface as wide for water, and probably all other fluids
as the commercial interests of our of the same class, are, to a certain ex-
country. tent, compressible and elastic, though
Science, in most comprehensive they resist compression with a very
its
sense, may be classed under two heads: great force. Writers have attempted
a knowledge of reasons, and their con- to give mechanical ideas of a fluid
clusions, constitute abstract that of body, but the impossibility of giving any
;
causes and their effects, and of the laws kind of mechanical comminution, must
of nature, natural science. Marine ar- appear obvious, if we but consider the
chitecture, or the art of building ships circumstances necessary to constitute
upon scientific principles, may be re- a fluid body. First, that the parts,
garded as the legitimate offspring of notwithstanding any compression, may
natural science. Hence the necessity be moved in relation to each other, with
MARTNE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. 19
the smallest conceivable force, the and subdivided into the smallest con-
particles or molecules, (for such is the ceivable molecules, and each particle
distinctive and appropriate term, when will adjust itself around a common
applied to the very minute parts of a centre. This independent action of
fluid,) yield to any force, however fluid bodies, denominated equilibri-
small and by so yielding are easily
; um, is a property which has perplexed
moved among themselves, and give no not only the mass of mankind, but
sensible resistance to motion within learned men in every age.
the mass, in any direction. Second, From what has been shown, it
That the parts shall gravitate to each follows, that the essential difference
other, whereby they have a constant ten- between fluids and solids, consists in
dency to arrange themselves around a the equilibriated gravity of the for-
common centre, and assume a spherical mer, or their equal pressure in all di-
form, which is easily executed in rections —
upwards, downwards, ob-
small bodies, inasmuch as the parts do liquely or laterally. The whole doctrine
not resist motion hence the appear- of the equilibrium of fluids is deduced
:
ance of drops always takes place when from this fundamental law.
a fluid is in proper condition. The Whence, if any particle sustained a
dew-drop stands out in drastic contrast greater pressure in one direction than
with solid bodies, similarly circumstan- another, it would, necessarily, by reason
ced. Being a liquid, it must of neces- of the absolute facility of motion, and
sity towards the centre
gravitate the extreme lubricity with which it is
;
hence the reason of its globular endowed, give way and move towards
form, and the facility with which the that part where the resistance is least,
particles may be moved towards each and, consequently, there would be no
other. It will be perceived, that were equilibrium. One of the obvious con-
it possessed of the inherent properties sequences of this property is, that its
of matter in a solid state, it could not surface, when

an open ves-at rest in
be raised above the surface of a vessel, sel, and acted upon by no other force
or heaped up in a spherical form, as the than attraction, is horizontal or perpen-
reader may have often witnessed. So- picular to the direction of gravity if ;
lid bodies can by no means conform to the gravitating forces are parallel,
these conditions; they gravitate down- the surface, as a consequence, will
wards, or toward the centre of the be a plane, free from inequalities. If
earth, while a fluid body may be divided they tend to one point from different
places, or all converge to the same The appended diagram will doubtless
point, the surface of the liquid will be make this law of equilibriated gravity
a sphere. Such is the ocean, bending in fluids so plain, that further exposi-
away from a perfectly straight line, tions will be unnecessary. (See Fig. 1.)
eight inches in every mile ; but by It is the altitude that determines the
reason of the magnitude of the sphere, pressure, and not the bulk. It will be
the curvature of any small portion is observed that the diagram represents
imperceptible, and may be regarded as the water at the same height on both
a plane. The pressure of a fluid on sides of the ship. AVithout this equili-
all and every particle of the vessel con- brium the ocean would be of no ser-
taining it, or any other surface in con- vice to man vessels might be built, but
;
tact with it, is equal at the same alti- they never could be sent to sea, the
tude. From this proposition it obvi- preponderating power of the ocean (be-
ously follows, that the pressure on the ing the largest bulk) pressing upon every
bottom of the vessel depends entirely coast, and upon every river and outlet,
on the area of the bottom and the would for ever lock every vessel to its
depth of the liquid, and is entirely inde- native shore. Upon this principle a few
pendent of the force of the sides, and ounces of water may be made to sup-
of the quantity of liquid in the vessel. port any weight, however great. Many
This proposition gives rise to such striking phenomena of the material
results as, at first view, appear world are deduced from this principle.
most absurd and, as a consequence, A pipe having an internal surface of 1
;
has been termed the hydrostatic par- foot, or an interior circumference of 1

adox, which may be defined on a larger foot, or 4 inches diameter, the area of
scale, sufficiently comprehensible to an such pipe would be 1 foot, which mul-
ordinary mind. A column of water tiplied by 1 foot, or 12 inches of length,
of half an inch, or even less in thick- equals 144 square inches. If such pipe
ness, will as effectually float the largest were extended 140 feet perpendicular,
ship, as the whole ocean and abun- the lower section, already described,
;
dant proof of this is afforded at every would sustain a bursting pressure of

wharf or pier at which vessels are 8640 pounds, which is about equal to that
moored. Vessels are there seen pre- produced on many high pressure steam
serving an equilibrium, with a small boilers. A column of water, the area of
column of water on one side, and the whose section is one square inch, and
river's whole breadth on the other. of which the height is 27.727, or
nearly 28 inches, weighs 1 pound, and surface of the fluid. It would, doubtless,
28 inches are contained 60 times in 140 be considered superfluous to pursue
feet. Hence the lower end of the pipe, these illustrations farther, as it is be-
1 foot from the base, must sustain this lieved the subject has been made suffi-
enormous pressure, because 144 inches, an ordinary mind. Al-
ciently clear to
the contents of the foot of pipe, multi- though water is a body, and a non-
plied by 60, gives 8,640 and this pres- elastic fluid, yet it may readily be de-
;
sure would remain unchanged, however composed, and reduced to a gaseous

much the pipe might be altered at the state. It is a curious fact, that
top, while its perpendicular height notwithstanding its qualities to quench
remained because, while the altitude fire, its component parts (without che-
;
remained the same, the weight of a mical combination) constitute the most
column of water of 140 feet in length, combustible and explosive compound
1 foot area, is upon the base, known
pressing and at the freezing point,
;
and being a frictionless body, must press contains 140 degrees of latent or
with the same weight, even though the secret heat. It is a good conductor of
upper 139 feet of the pipe be but 1 sound, and is entirely free from friction-
inch in diameter. If a farther illustra- al properties, inasmuch as the com-
tion were necessary, it might be obtain- mingling influence of a small quantity
ed in witnessing the result of boring a of the fluid poured into the ocean, af-
hole in the bottom of a ship when afloat, fects all the water therein contained,
—we at once see the fluid ascend- and sets in motion every particle of its
ing with a pressure proportionate to enormous bulk.
the area of the hole. Although water is a frictionless body,
If the fluid did
not exert a pressure upward as well as and at all times maintains an equili-
downward, it would be a difficult matter briated surface, and cannot be lashed
to account, upon philosophical princi- into commotion by itself, yet we see it
ples, for this freak of nature. It will sometimes threatening to rend into
readily be perceived that the atmos- fragments the boasted representative of
pheric pressure which universally cov- man's ingenuity and power. It is the
ers matter, whether solid or fluid, has friction caused by the action of the
not been removed from the ship's hold, wind upon the surface of the fluid that
and, as a consequence, the same amount causes such wondrous results. The
of pressure is operating upon the area casual observer would be led to con-
of the aperture that is exerted at the clude, that the equilibrium of fluids
X
•>

exists only in the brain of the adherents particles to which the original impulse
to this dogma; the progression of the was given, being alternately higher
wave would appear to annihilate every and lower, a series of waves are form-
vestige of such theory. But upon a ed, consequent upon the force and un-
more minute examination we find that equal pressure of the wind. But if
the wave has not a progressive motion; this free oscillation be prevented by
when the fluid motion by agi- shallow water or rocks, so that the co-
is set in
tation, the mass is not transferred, as lumns in deep water are not balanced
will appear manifest upon observing by those in the shallow, they in conse-
any light body upon the surface. The quence acquire a progressive motion
appearance of progression is but a de- towards the shallower water or rocks,
ception of the eye, caused by the form and form breakers hence the reason :
of the wave, and the mode of its oscil- why waves always break against the
lations. By close attention it will be shore, it matters not what is the direc-
seen that the fore part is always in the tion of the wind. It has been often
act of rising, and the hinder part in the asked why so much damage is done at
act of falling and thus the whole mass sea, if the waves have not a progres-
;
appears to roll onward, while each par- sive motion? This is partly o\. nig to the
ticle of water merely oscillates succes- strength of the wind, r nd pa) ly to the
sively, with a vertical ascent and de- influence of the pass^^ or approach-
scent. The cause of this reciprocating ingvessel —

the side ofthewave present-
—
motion may be thus defined; when the ed to the wind acquires a gentle slope,
surface of the water is unequally pres- while the opposite or lee side is per-
sed by the wind, the columns sustaining pendicular when at its summit, and its
the greatest pressure sink below the own weight added to the power of the
original level this pressure being com- wind, while the balancing column is
;
municated to the adjacent columns, cut off by the proximity of the vessel,
causes them to rise above the level, and causing it to strike with destructive
this lengthened column having no hy- force. The progressive wave sent
draulic pressure or balancing power to forward by a vessel in motion (or gene-
sustain it, again falls, and in its descent rated in any other manner) differs en-
acquires a velocity proportionate to its tirely, not only in its character, but in
height, descending below the level, and in phenomena, from the oscillatory
its
its turn communicates a pressure to the waves of the ocean, or such as ripple
contiguous columns. Thus, by the the surface of a lake, or are caused by
the sudden elevation or depression of a bulk, regardless of its size or shape. If

small portion of the fluid. It does not, the specific gravity of the fluid be
necessarily, arbitrarily demand a de- greater, the body will displace less, be-
pression or elevation, but is a single cause a smaller bulk is equivalent to
elevation of a well defined form, and the weight of the body example,
; foi
transferred with uniform velocity to the a ship will not sink as deep if the
contiguous mass. This wave is, by water be salt, as though it were fresh ;
Mr. Russell, said to be analogous to* the nor would it be immersed as deep at
tide wave, which travels at the rate of sea as in a fresh water river, notwith-
1,000 miles per hour, and would cir- standing the weight of the ship might
cumnavigate the globe in a lunar day. be precisely the same in both cases. If
The limits of this work prohibits more the density of the fluid be less the body
than a cursory glance at this interest- will sink deeper, because a greater
ing subject. The reader is referred to bulk of the fluid is required to com-
the reports of the British Association pensate the loss of weight in an equal
of 1S38, for details. The author does bulk ; therefore, in all cases the water
not feel free to occupy a space com- displaced by a floating body will be equal
mensurat: / witli the importance of in- in weight to that body. But as de-
vestigating subjects that do not imme- scribed in a former hypothesis, on the
diately pertain to the subject before constituent properties of the fluid, it
him ; although tne cause, formation, does not follow that a smaller bulk of
size,anu comparative strength of the would not float a ship but it does
fluid ;
ocean wave is a subject well worthy the follow, that however small the column of
attention of every builder, in endeavor- water may be, the altitude must remain
ing to approximate the resistance to be the same, as illustrated by the diagram
overcome, and the power he possesses of the ship at the pier preserving her
of subduing it. equilibrium, or balanced by the small
The laws of equilibriated gravity in column between herself and the pier, so
fluids having been established, the buoy- that there must be a line of immersion,
ant property of the fluid will be next or a line of flotation, equivalent to the
considered. A
body floating in a fluid weight of every floating body but the ;
is pressed upward by a force equal to external fulcrum, or line of flotation,
the weight of the fluid it displaces or remains unaltered only under the fol-
sets aside, and the weight of the entire lowing circumstances, viz. while the :
body is exactly equal to the displaced weight of the ship remains the same,
and the fluid remains undisturbed, water than in air, as the bulk of water
for water is found to be less buoy- it displaced whereas the cork would
:
ant when in commotion than when require a pressure downward to sub-

at rest. Hence the reason why steam- merge it, equal to the difference of its
boats careen to the disturbed side when own weight in air and a bulk of water
one water-wheel is suddenly revolved. of equal magnitude. If this weight
It will appear obvious, that when the were applied to the cork it would be
fluid beneath or around a vessel is exactly equipoised, without the appli-

disturbed, from whatever cause, in cation of force. When it is stated
the same ratio the necessary support is that a body loses part of its weight in
drawn from the vessel, and as a conse- a fluid, it must not be supposed that
quence, she must yield to the side thus its absolute weight is less than it was
disturbed. This is apparent from two before, but that it is partly supported
causes first, the pressure on the un-
: by the reaction of the fluid under it, or
disturbed side is the greatest, and con- the upward pressure, so that it requires
sequently the preponderating power less power to sustain or balance it.
must be felt while, by disturbing the

; This proposition, which is capable of
fluid we take away a portion of the strict demonstration, may be also illus-
support required to sustain the weight, trated as follows: Suppose any interior
and the an portion of a liquid to become solid, it
vessel careens until she finds
equivalent line of flotation. It is from would evidently remain in the same
this fundamental law that the weight state of indifference or equilibrium as

of all floating bodies may be determin- before. It must, therefore, be borne
ed the weight which a body has when up by the vertical pressure of the fluid,
:
wholly immersed in a fluid, is equal to with a force just equal to its weight, or
the weight of an equal bulk of the which is the same, to the weight of the
fluid. We do not mean by this, as in fluid, whose place it occupies and if ;
the case of the body partly submerged, we conceive this congealed mass to
that the immersed portion, and the bulk have its weight increased or diminished,
of displaced fluid are equal in weight. it will be pulled downwards or upwards
In the case of immersion it matters not by the difference between its new Aveight
whether it weighs more or less than the and the weight of an equal bulk of the
fluid, whether it be cork or lead. In the fluid. It is the same if we substitute
case of lead, of course, woidd sink, any solid body instead of this block of
it,
but would weigh as much less in the ice. The equilibrium of solid bodies
floating on an important part

fluids, is matter it contains, or its excess of
of hydrostatics, in consequence of its weight, that it falls much faster than
relation to the proper construction of the feather. The centre of gravitv is
ships. The laws of gravitation teach us an imaginary point or axis ; every body
that all solid bodies gravitate toward has a centre of gravity, and so has
the surface of the earth, and at the every system of bodies. It is not al-
same time have a central point within ways within the body itself; the cen-
themselves, which is so situated that a tre of gravity of a ring is not in
line or plane passing through the body, the ring ; neither is the centre of
and cutting at the same time the cen- gravity of a ship in the materials
tre of gravity, whether equally or un- of which she is built]; it forms no part
equally dividing them, will render their of the structure itself, and yet there
weight equal. Hence it follows, that can be no structure without its having
if the centre of gravity be sustained, this central point. Thus it will be
the whole body will remain at rest, perceived that the centre of gravity is
whether supported from beneath, or an imaginary axis, around which solid

sustained from above, for the weights bodies will oscillate when circumscribed
on both sides of this vertical plane, or by but a single fluid, or wholly immers-
perpendicular line, passing through the ed in water or any other fluid va-
air, ;
line of support or centre of gravity, rying the position of the body will not
being equal, the body can have no ten- cause a change in the centre of gra-
dency to angular motion. But we must vity, since any such change will be
distinguish between the effects of grav- nothing more than changing the direc-
ity and that of weight gravity has no
; tion of the forces, without their ceas-
dependence uponthe mass, while weight ing to be parallel and if the forces do ;
depends entirely upon it. For exam- not remain the same are increased or —
ple, in a vacuum, or a reservoir from diminished as the body approaches or
which air has been extracted, a feather recedes from the point of attraction;
will obey the laws of gravity as easily still the forces upon all the particles of
as a lump of lead and having been which the body is composed, vary pro-
;
started from the top at the same time, portionally, and their centres remain
would also reach the bottom at the unchanged. If, when a body stands
same time. But when exposed to the upon a plane, a vertical or perpen-
atmosphere we find that by reason of dicular line passing through the centre
the density of the lead, or the bulk of of gravity, falls within the base on
which the body stands, it will not fall of suspension, as before, and its inter-
over ; but if the vertical line foils section with the surface of the middle
without the base, the body will fall, line, and where the line crosses the for-
unless it be prevented by external sup- mer plumb-line of suspension, or the
port. When the vertical line falls upon point of intersection, is the centre of
the extreme edge of the base, the body gravity, as in fig. 2. ; or the model may
may stand, but its equilibrium, or its be suspended by two lines from the same
stability is so small that it may be dis- point, but attached to different parts of
turbed by a very trifling force, ..while the model, or the same points designa-
the nearer the vertical line falls to the ted in the first example. A plummet
centre of the base, the more firmly will suspended from the same point will fall
the body stand. To find the centre of on the centre of gravity. In this ex-
gravity mechanically, it is only neces- ample, if the lines are of equal length,
sary to dispose the body successively in the centre of gravity will be determin-
two positions of equilibrium. This ed longitudinally only ; but having as-
may be exemplified by particularizing certained its longitudinal location, one
a few methods. Suppose the body to of the lines may be lengthened, and the
be the model of a ship made for the operation again performed, when the
purposes of calculations, without plummet's intersection with the former
screws or dowels, as in all cases twin lnarkwilldetermineitsaltitude: seefig. 2.
models should be made, where accuracy The same process may be resorted
is required. Insert a tack in the sur- to in determining the centre of buoy-
face of the plane representing the ancy, by separating the model at the
middle line near the extreme point of load, or any line of flotation, below
intersection of rail, with knight-head, which the centre of displacement is
from which suspend the model by a required, as in fig. 3. It is, doubtless,

line, hang a plummet from the same perfectly clear to the thinking man,
point of suspension, and when at rest that if we obtain the location of this
mark the intersection of the line with point, longitudinally and vertically, that
the plane or straight surface of the we have it transversely, inasmuch as the
model the model may now be suspend- plane surface representing the centre of
;
ed by the other extremity, representing the vessel transversely, must of neces-

the intersection of the rail with the sity confine its transverse location to
stern; when suspended from this point, that plane, as the exact location of the
a plummet may be hung from the point centre of displacement is a vastly im-
FIG.2. /
port ant consideration in determining being the fulcrum, either the section or
the ratio of stability the vessel may pos- fulcrum may be shifted until it is bal-
sess, and is the only index for the pro- anced, when its equilibriating point is
per location of the engines of steam- noted or marked on the middle line or
ers. It is necessary that some pains square edge of the section. This me-
should be taken in determining this thod is adopted with each section, be-
point. Its location may be found on low the greatest immersed line of flo-
the model, without knowing the actual tation, when the mean of the whole is
amount of the displacement, or the ag- determined, according to the ratio of

gregate bulk of water displaced. This, the bulk of each section. But this
however, may also be determined by the method is objectionable. Building mo-
model ; but when the draft of the ship dels, or models made for building pur-
is amount of poses, are usually screwed together,
the field of operations, the
displacement must be known, to locate without reference in the distribution of
its centre, and this can only be known the screws to any mechanical method
by calculating the area of every paral- of equilibriating and mechanics, in ;
lel section, (to the line of flotation,) or common with the rest of mankind, are
base line, according as the sheer-plan easily led to believe what they wish to
may be disposed, or the difference in be true. Hence they avoid the neces-
draught of water be determined upon, sity of making a model facsimile of
whether parallel draught, or most at the first, for the purposes of calcula-
the stern. When the buoyancy is so ar- tions, or twin models, as they are
ranged that the vessel will draw the sometimes called. The variation in
greatest draught aft, the difference is in consequence of the holes for the
spacing the first line above the base screws, being very nearly equally dis-
;
and, as a consequence, the remaining tributed, is so small, that it will furnish

ordinates or parallel lines should be equi- the required points with sufficient ac-
distant from each other. Some build- curacy for all practical purposes. It
ers determine the longitudinal centre is important that another model should
of displacement, by separating the mo- be made, to which the thickness of the
del, and applying the edge of a knife or plank should be added ; it may be glued
any appropriate instrument, for this together as high as the load-line of flo-
purpose, to the square edge of the sec- tation, at which line it should be left
tion, with its surfaces or planes in a free for separation the top-side, or ;
vertical position, the edge of the knife the section above the line of immersion,
may have the thickness of the priate weights at hand the box may
also ;
plank added, and its several sections or now be filled with pure rain or distilled
shear pieces glued together. When the water, as high as the facit will allow
several methods, already described, for without leakage ; the model should
obtaining the centre and be suspended by the line, and carefully
of gravity
centre of displacement, or the centre lowered into the box until it finds its
of gravity of the displacement, are con- balance in its buoyant properties, when
ducted with care, the location deter- the end of the line leading through the
mined is sufficiently reliable for any and pulley may be slowly taken in, until the
every practical purpose. There are model is immersed, as in Fig. 4, when it
several methods of obtaining the dis- will be found that a bulk of water, ex-
placement, or the actual bulk of water actly equal to the model which repre-
displaced by a vessel, two of which sents half of the immersed portion of
only are necessary. The first is, with the vessel, is deposited in the scale un-
the aid of the model, in which case a der the facit. The water may now be
box made of some material that will weighed, and the displacement readily
not absorb the water the box should computed in the following manner
;
be made by such dimension as will en- For the sake of convenience we have
sure the immersion of the model. At assumed the model to have been made
one end, near the top, (which should be upon a scale of 3S.4 of a foot, or
open) a facit may be inserted, and at the when the foot is divided into inches,
bottom, on the inside of the box, a eighths and sixteenths, it would be re-
small pulley may be fastened, through cognized as being ~, or one quarter and
which a horse-hair, or some very fine one sixteenth. The reason for adopting
line may lead to the top, sufficiently this scale for the elucidation of this
long to fasten one end to the model, subject, is simply because it divides the
while the other end, leading through the cubic foot into 64,000 cubes, or cubic
pulley, will come above the top of the feet, represented in the model, each of
box. A nice pair of balances should which equals in bulk 7.5, or 7|
now be prefixed, having a concave grains of distilled water. By this hy-
scale at one or both ends of the beam, pothesis we have but to know or as-
sufficiently large to contain a bulk of sume the weight of the bulk of water
water equal to the bulk of the model, forced out of the box, and the tonnage
and adjusted with one scale immediate- is at hand assuming the bulk to be
;
ly under the facit and having the appro- 160 ounces, we have this formula.
Grains. Cubic Pounds Pounds
Oz. Grains, per ft. feet. per ft. Pounds. per ton. Tons. Pds. Tons. Pds.
160=76,8004-7.5= 10,240x62.5=640,0004-2,240=285+ 1,600x2=571+960
Thus it is plain, that the displace- will be found that there is a discrepan-
ment of one half of the vessel equals cy in the calculation, if the cargo is
285 tons, 1,600 pounds, while the en- weighed and compared with the dis-
tire displacement of both sides equals placement noted down at the several
571 tons and 960 pounds ; it must be lines of flotation. This arises from the
remembered that this is the weight of difference in the specific gravity of the
the vessel and cargo, when loaded to water used in the hydrostatic balance,
the greatest immersed line of flotation, and that in which the vessel floats.
and not the weight of the vessel Distilled or pure rain-water has been
alone, if it were built of such mate- regarded as an invariable standar^when
rial, that its specific gravity and that under the same weight of air hence ;
of the model were alike, or the the reason for selecting it. But. the
same, then the weight of the vessel water in our rivers is variable in its
could be determined by allowing the weight, or its specific gravity. It is
model with the top well-known that although water is a

to float in the box,
side annexed, and the bulk of water non-elastic fluid, (speaking in general
forced into the scale would denote the terms) yet it is capable of containing
weight of the vessel by the same for- accessions from the mineral kingdom,
mula as has already been described. without increasing its bulk, although
The laws of displacement are plain and its specific gravity augmented in pro-
is
easily understood. Every vessel dis- portion to the density and quantity of
places an amount of water, the bulk of such increase. As has been already
which is of sufficient weight to com- stated, the fluid being composed of in-
pensate, or to equilibriate the weight finitely small particles, of spherical or
of the and the difference be- globular form it is thus cavities are
vessel, ;
tween the lines of flotation that com- formed. A glass may be filled with
pensates the weight of the vessel, water until it will contain no more, yet
(sometimes called the launching line of it will be found sufficiently capacious
flotation) and the greatest line of im- to contain sugar, alum, and salt.
mersion is the displacement or bulk of Hence it is clear that water may differ
water set aside by the cargo and stores, in its specific gravity, and that the less
or whatever is put on board the vessel pure the more dense or greater its
after the launching line is taken. It weight. And that it weighs less in a
state of purity than in any other state. may have often seen a full measure of
In the exposition of the method of ob- and although no more could be
apples,
taining displacement by the aid of the pressed into the measure, yet it would
hydrostatic balance, we have set down contain various kinds of grain and ;
its specific gravity, when in a state of when thus doubly filled with apples and
purity, at 1,000 ounces, while the mean grain, it would hold water in addition
specific gravity of sea-water, according to what it already contained : so with
to the experiments of the late Dr. the fluid itself. The vessel will be
Marcet, was found to equal 1.02777, found to draw less water at sea than
near the equator. We are also inform- the balance indicated hence the ne- ;
ed that there no notable difference

is cessity of an addition to the weight of
between sea-water, under different me- the fluid, which is found to equal about
ridians. Perhaps a homely illustra- 3 per cent., or one-thirtieth of its
tion of some every-day occurrence may weight in solid matter, the bulk of
serve a better purpose than any other which is chiefly salt. Thus, in the for-
that I might be able to adduce. We mula, instead of
Pds. per
Pounds. Ton. Tons. Pds. Tons. Pds.
640,000-^2,240, we have, 640,000+19,200=659,200-=- 2,240=294 + 6402 = 588 + 1280
Or, the formula may be thus :
Pounds. Tons. Pds. Tons. Pds,

„,
640,000+ —-L_
640,000x3
= 659,200-^2,240=294+640 x 2=588+ I2S0
This additional weight will not be ne- of a material that will not absorb the
cessary for the navigation of our lakes, fluid, with a facit in its end, and a pulley
although the use of the hydrostatic bal- arranged, as in the former case. An-
ance is one of the most efficient and other box should also be prepared, of
reliable modes of determining same material, the internal contents
the the
amount of displacement from the mo- of which may be known, as follows A :
del, unless by actual computation, which box in the form of a cube of 1.05
exacts a tax of time which few builders inches, will contain 64 cubic feet, or
are willing to submit. There are other 2.5 will contain 512 cubic feet, or a
modes of facilitating the work that cube of 5 inches, will contain 4.096
air. perhaps, worthy of our attention feet, we have assumed the scale to re-
;
a box may be made, as in the former main unchanged, as in the first exam-
case, without reference to its contents, ple of the hydrostatic balance. The
box itself in which the model is im- rials, the specific gravity of which is
mersed may be thus apportioned on its known, a block of the same material,
sides, by marking the scale of contents and of the same specific gravity, in the
in the ratio, as given, and the displace- form of a cube of 5 inches, which, by
ment may be determined, without far- the last example, contains 4,096 cubic
ther trouble, by the computation of feet and assuming the specific gravity ;
cubic feet into tons, as per example, to be equal to that of distilled water,
assuming the box to have an area of both that of the model and block we
5x1 (feet,) then we have this formula, have the following If 4 pounds =the :
5 feet of length =50 feet per scale, 1 weight of the block containing 4,096
foot =10 feet per scale cubic feet, what will be the contents of
of breadth :
thus, 50x10=500. Then we have, for the model, assuming the model to weigh
every ^ of height in the box, 500 cu- 16 pounds.
6
Thus we have the same
bic feet. There are two other meth- results as before 4 pounds weight of :
ods of determining the amount of dis- block contain 4,096 cubic feet, what
placement, one by comparative bulk, are the contents of 10 pounds, the
the other by comparative weight. As- weight of the model?
suming the model to be made of mate-
Contents
Weight of
in feet Pds. per
Block of model. block. Pds, Cubic ft. foot. Pounds. Ton. Tons. Pds. Tons. Pds.
4,096 X 10 40,060 -v- 4 = 10,240 X 62.5 = 640,000^- 2,240=285+1,600 x 2=571+960
To this add the difference between distilled and salt water, 19,200 pounds,
and we have,
Tons. Pds. Tons. Pds.
640,000 + 19,200 = 659,200 4- 2,240 = 294+640 x 2 = 588+ 12S0
Thus we have the same results as be- the second example of the hydrostatic
fore. There is another method that is me-
balance, with this exception, the
sometimes adopted ; but as it is liable dium is sand instead of water. Having
to variations, and subjects the prac- prepared the two boxes, as in the case
most rigid
titioner to error, unless the alluded to, we shall require a bulk of
scrutiny is observed throughout the sand sufficient to fill the box, free from
operation and even under this test, I
; moats and every other impurity. It
should only deem it safe where an ap- should be also perfectly dry, and the
proxiination was all that I required. entire cubical contents of the box
Tin; mode alluded to has a similarity to known. After which it may be filled,
with moat care, through a sieve would be made by the same scale, ~ of an inch,
be the preferable mode, as sand is to a box of five inches square will
some extent like grain, and will settle in contain 4,096 cubic feet while on ;
a smaller compass readily the box be- an inch scale, or ± of the foot, the
;
ing filled, the surplus above the edges box will contain but 125 cubic feet.
may be carefully stricken off with the Thus the importance will be readily
straight-edge or ruler. The surplus discovered, of continuing to adopt the
should now be removed, and a large scale with which we begin our compu-
cloth spread to receive the sand from tation. Some may have supposed that
the box, which being empty, is ready the scale upon which a model is made
for that part of the model below the should be without any fractional parts.
load-line, or line of immersion. If the And, as a necessary consequence, it
model cannot be separated without in- may be more readily understood. But
jury, the surface representing the mid- I have never been able to discover such
dle line may be placed against the side advantage. Whenever calculations are
of the box, the load-line at the same to be made, it is certainly much more
time cutting the edge of the box. Thus convenient to deal in round numbers ;
having the immersed portion in the box, and to do this we may divide the foot
and emerged part out,when this me- into tenths ; the scale assumed is a
thod is taken, the box may be made of more than the $ of a
small fraction
wood, and the sides and edges must be foot and to divide the foot into 40
:
perfectly straight. The model having equal parts, would be the correct mode
been adjusted in the box, the sand may of proceeding, as it will be discovered
now be put in, as before. Particular that were a sufficient number of x | ad-
care should be taken that the methods ded together, we would not find the
.
of filling the box should be alike in scale to be the exact ratio, as 40 times
both cases, —being filled to the edge, a would make 121 inches but having ;
and stricken off by the edge on the adopted this scale as approximating the
box, and load-line on the model. The nearest to the scale in general use and ;
surplus, or that portion of sand the box at the same time a very near approxi-
will not contain, may now be measured mation to the truth, it was deemed
by the small box prepared for the pur- prudent to adopt the course as better
pose ; as in the second example of the calculated to illustrate the leading prin-
hydrostatic balance. Assuming the ciples, than another scale that could not
model made for those several modes, to be found marked on the rule in genera]
use. It may be well to remark further, vessel increased to 125 feet long, 31
that in making models to build, or to feet wide, and 15ifeet deep. Thus, it
make calculations from, it is always will be readily discovered, that the

best to make a scale on a slip of paper, scale is to the model, what the key is to
and if the practitioner is not sufficient- the lock ; and if we adopt another
ly skilled in the use of the drawing- scale we alter the model or shape of the
pen, he would realize the time well vessel. It does not, however, follow
spent in learning its use. When we that a scale cannot be made
answer to
have lost the scale by which a model is the purposes of expanding and con-
made, the model is of no use unless the tracting models or draughts, and yet re-
scale known. Thus we have the
is tain the shape and proportionate di-
key, and no man can, without much mensions. This can be accomplished,
difficulty, make use of the model or and will be fully explained in its proper
drawing, without this key. It will be place.
readily discovered, that if the scale is There is yet another mode of deter-
altered after the model is made, that it mining the displacement, by the use of
disproportions the vessel; and that by the model separated at the line of im-
departing from the dimensions we lose mersion. And if this mode be deemed
the shape. For example, if the scale preferable, reference should be had to
be increased from ~ to ~, or|, (the scale it when the model is made, which
in general use) we diminish the size of should be glued together. In the se-
the vessel. But this is not all; we alter lection of materials for the model,
the principal dimensions, and thus, by enough should be reserved out of the
increasing the scale, we diminish the middle of the board to make a water-
size of the vessel ; and, by diminishing line section, as shown in the appended
the scale, while the model remains the diagram, Fig. 5. It will be observed,
same size, we increase the size of the that although this mode of operation is
vessel. A vessel 100 feet long, 25

denominated coinjxirativc weight, yet it
feet
wide, and 12ifeet deep, by the scale we depends materially upon the specific
have assumed in our foregoing exam- gravity of the material. Hence the
ples, jj, would measure, by an increase necessity of selecting all the pieces of
of the scale to~, or |, S3 feet 4 inches which the block is composed, from the
long, 20 feet 8 inches wide, and 10 feet middle of the same board of which the
4 inches deep, while, by reducing the ends are taken for the model, the top
scale to -5, ir \ of an inch, we have the end of the board forming one length of
water-line, and the butt-end another, &c. Hence one of the reasons why the
the middle being the block, would be draught is repudiated by the casual ob-
the mean density of the board. It will server. In calculating the amount of
also be observed by the diagram, that displacement, or the number of cubic
the pieces are equal in thickness, and feet of water displaced below a given
precisely the same as those of the line of immersion, we assume that the
model. And this being the case, it is draught is divided into longitudinal
only necessary to determine how many sections, parallel to the line of immer-
cubic feet is equal to the required dis- sion, usually called water lines. To
placement, (remembering that the determine the amount of displacement
number of water-line pieces and the is to compute the area of each of those
depth of the block compare exactly planes or water-lines from the half-
with the depth of the model.) Having breadth plan, (which shows the shape
thus ascertained the number of feet re- of the vessel longitudinally,) and the
quired to equal half the displacement, cubical contents of the spaces be-
or half the model, it remains to reduce tween those lines. In Europe, the
the block to its equivalent size. In line of flotation, or the inscribed
the example given in the diagram, the line at the surface of the water,
depth of the model is twelve feet, as is is called the first water-line, or load-
also the block. Thus we discover that line, and as they descend the numbers
the half model contains S49 tons 1,920 increase. In the United States the
pounds or the block equals a bulk of
; lowest water-line denominated theis
water which would weigh that amount; first, and the numbers increase as we
and, as the model is of equal weight, ascend. The greatest immersed line
contains the same amount of tons. of flotation is universally called the
As we have thus given all the available load-line ; and the usual mode of cal-
modes of determining the displacement culation commences with the load-line,
from the model, we shall next inves- which is divided into equal spaces, by
tigate the manner of accomplishing lines running at right angles with the
the same from the draught. Few middle line in the half-breadth plan.
vessels are built in the United States
Those lines represent frames, and are
from the draught and, as a con- numbered in the after-body, (or from
;
sequence, ship-wrights in general are the largest frame toward the stern,)
unacquainted with its advantages in ob- and lettered in the fore-body, (or from
taining the ratio of stability, expansion, the largest frame toward the bow,)
MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE 35
commencing extreme breadth or bulk of water displaced by the vessel

at the
greatest transverse section. In thus must have a central point or axis upon
dividing the ship longitudinally into sec- which it would equilibriate if congealed.
tions, it is in all cases proper to place And this has been denominated the
this frame, representing the greatest centre of displacement, or the centre of
breath, and having the greatest area, gravity of displacement. It does not,
in such place that it may prove to be however, follow as a consequence, that
what it represents. It is usually de- this point is to be found only in the
nominated dead flat, from its having centre of the cavity, either longitudi-
less rise on the floor than the rest of nally or vertically but if the two sides ;
the frames in the ship. It is usually of the vessel are alike, it will always
marked ®. The location of this be found in the centre, transversely,
frame should be known before the when the vessel is upright. Neither
shape of the half-breadth plan is deter- does it follow, that this assumed axis is
mined. It will be seen, that to make immoveable, or always in the same
the spaces equal between the frames, place ; but whenever the vessel is ca-
the division or setting off must proceed reened, or drawn aside from an upright
from <g> frame in and that position,
each body ; or a change takes place in the
if the frames are to be 2^ feet apart, shape of the line of flotation, the centre
every fourth frame will be 10 feet of gravity of displacement changes its

apart. It will be only necessary for our location, unless the body is homoge-
present purpose to consider the fourth neous, or of such shape as to create no

frames, until we approach the extremi- change in the form of the cavity. In
ties, when Ave may include every second such case, if the body is of equal den-
frame, and at the extremes, sometimes, sity the centre of gravity becomes the
every frame. See the Displacement axis. A second axiom may be deduced
Tables of Plate 2. from this law of equilibriated gravity
The stability of vessels is an impor- in bulks, in the seeming paradox, that
tant branch of hydrostatics, and is the centre of gravity is not the centre
among the first considerations that of motion. In all bodies floating on
should engage the attention of the fluids, and only partially immersed, the
builder. There are two kinds of sta- line or point of support has a separate
bility, natural and artificial, speaking in and distinct location, unless as before
general terms. stated. The body is homogeneous in
It has been already shown, that the shape, and of equal density; in such
3G MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
case it has no appear gravity of displacement, and the direc-

stability. It will
quite manifest, upon a moment's re- tion of its effort is perpendicular to the
flection, apart from the conclusions surface of the fluid. Therefore, if a
drawn from mathematical investigation, vessel is at rest, and in smooth water,
that a body having itscentre of gravity her centre of gravity is in the mean
depressed below its vertical centre, and direction of the effort of the water
suspended by a point above the vertical which supports her. When a vessel is
centre, such body would be subject to inclined, or heels, she should have a
less oscillatory motion, than if suspend- tendency in herself, without ballast, to
ed at the centre of gravity. He.nce it regain her upright position : that is to
follows, that to depress the centre of say, her centre of gravity ought to be
gravity, and elevate the point of sup- so sustained, that the effort of the
port, is to increase the stability of a vessel's weight should concur with the
body thus suspended. It is a conced- effort of the water to right her. This
ed point, a truth with which all are fa- concurrence of efforts is what may be
miliar, that all bodies are supported by properly termed stability, and its pro-
the centre of gravity and that it re- portions may be measured and as the
; ;
quires a force more than equal to the inches upon a rule show the proportions
weight of the entire bulk, to lift that of a foot, so the altitude of the point I
body when applied to this centre and shall denominate the centre of effort,
;
that the body thus suspended has no may be measured, and the amount of
stability, but revolves around this cen- stability determined. It should be re-
tre. however, with a body, or membered, that the centre of effort is
Not so,
vessel, floating on a fluid and sustain- that point in the vertical section of the
ing the pressure of two elements —
the vessel's length, at the middle line, under
centre of gravity loses its influence as which the centre of gravity of the ves-
a point of support, because the fluid sel ought always to be, in order to pre-
beneath is non-elastic, and of greater vent the vessel from falling on her
density than the fluid above. Thus it beam ends, or turning bottom up.
is plain, that the forces of the fluid up- The measure of stability, or centre
ward must exceed the forces of the of effort, is also a moveable point, and
fluid downward, or there is no stability. changes its position at every change in
The effort of the waters power to sus- the line of flotation, the stability of the
tain a vessel in an upright position, vessel being determined by the altitude
passes through the centre of cavity, or of the centre of effort, or its distance
from the centre of gravity, which the consideration of which we will defer
remains unaltered while the vessel's to a subsequent chapter. The equili-
weight is the same, and is homoge- brium of fluids should teach us this
neous. It will be necessary, in order truth, that the pressure of the fluid, or
that the reader may be made familiar the direction of the resistance, is at
with the locality of those moveable right angles with the surface of the
points, to make a proper distinction body, or the exterior surface of the
between the two centres of gravity ;
cavity made by the vessel ; hence, it
that of the entire vessel we shall de- follows, that to find the centre of effort
nominate the centre of absolute gravity, of a floating body, is to find the centre
while the centre of gravity of displace- of that force enabling a ship to pre-
ment we may know as the centre of serve an equilibrium perpendicular to
cavity, or under its former appellation. the surface of the fluid by which she
It will be perceived, that as the vessel is sustained. This point is always
is immersed by the reception of cargo found to be in the centre of cavity
to a more elevated line of flotation, the when the vessel is in an upright posi-
centre of the absolute gravity descends, tion, and it is equally apparent, that
not because the body is heavier, but when a vessel is at rest in smooth wa-
because it is not homogeneous, or be- ter, the centre of gravity is in the mean
cause the lower part of the vessel is direction of the effort of the fluid that
heavier than the topsides by the addi- sustains her. In other words, the cen-
tional weight of cargo, the centre of tre of effort is the centre of the for-
cavity has taken a higher position con- eign power that deprives the centre of
sequent upon the increased displace- gravity of much of its influence in
ment, and as every addition to the floating bodies. It will be readily seen,
displacement must take place at the that, were lines drawn at right angles
surface of the fluid and increase the from every part of the exterior surface
altitude of the line of flotation, so the of the vessel inward, to the longitu-
results of such increase will be seen in dinal and vertical plane extending
the increased altitude of the centre of through the vessel, or the line known
this displaced bulk of fluid or the centre as the middle line, those lines running
of cavity. The centre of effort may
from the section near the keel, would
be
thus defined It is the centre of di- point higher than those coming from
:
rection of all the forces that support the bilge, and those coming from the
the vessel this leads us to a point, bilge would extend higher than others
;
near the surface. Thus, the sum total precise location of all the moveable
of the effort of all those lines of direc- centres, we will now proceed cau-
tion, either adjacent to the keel and tiously to remove the ballast on deck.
pointing upwards, or those from the We shall perceive that the stability of
bilge and pointing diagonally, or those the vessel diminishes very and be-
last,
near the surface and pointing horizon- fore the ballast is half removed from
tally, the sum total of those efforts is the hold, it will be necessary to use
the point I have denominated the cen- precautionary measures to maintain

tre of effort. Hence, it follows, that an upright position, or the position
the altitude of the centre of effort upon the vessel maintained when we com-
which so much depends, is consequent menced. Under such circumstances,
upon the dimensions more than artifi- is it not plain that the centre of cavity
cial moans, and as we increase the has remained in the same place ? The
breadth of vessels, we elevate it so, in vessel displaces no more water than
;
the same ratio we depress it when we before, the ship and ballast weigh
diminish the breadth or increase the the same, whether it is all in the hold,
depth. A case in point may serve as or part in the hold ami part on deck ;
an exposition to illustrate the princi- and as it is the centre of the bulk of

ples upon which the stability of all water, and the bulk is the same, so in
vessels depend, perhaps better than any like manner the centre must be at the
the author may be able to adduce. same point. It is equally as palpable
Assuming, that a ship built for com- that the centre of effort has remained
mercial purposes is found to possess in the same place, as that point is del-
a precarious amount of stability, and egated to represent all the forces of

as a consequence, must carry ballast the lines of direction of the immersed
in her hold to create; an artificial sta- and if the immersed
part of the hull ;
bility and secure an upright position surface remains unchanged, both in

;
we will now determine the location of form and bulk, the nature and extent
the centre of the absolute gravity, the of that delegation are the same. We
centre of cavity, and the centre of will now inquire into the nature and
effort ;the two latter, in this instance, extent of the change that has pro-
will duced such wondrous results.
remain stationary, while the centre We
of absolute gravity will be the moveable have already discovered that the cen-
point, when a change in tin; location tre of gravity is an immoveable point,
of the ballast takes place. Having the while the weight of the body remains
unchanged, and homogeneous but, of measurement of stability the centre

is ; ;
although the ship and ballast weigh of effort to which is delegated the
precisely the same, whether in the hold power of contending with a combina-
or on deck, yet the body or the ship, tion of forces emanating from two ele-
in this instance, is not homogeneous ments, is the highest power the ful- ;
when the ballast was in the hold, the crum, or the oscillating point, or centre
bottom was the most dense and now, of motion, is located at the surface, as
;
as consequent upon the change, the the fulcrum is at the surface of the
topsides are more, and the bottom is less beam, while the centre of cavity and
dense ;hence the reason of the instabil- the centre of gravity take their places,
ity when the ballast is removed, the cen- like the scales at less elevated positions.
tre of gravity has changed its position, From what has been shown, this truth
its altitude has been increased. This is deducible, that by increasing the
leads us to another proposition : nei- breadth of a vessel, we increase the
ther the centre of effort, the centre of stability, and elevate the centre of
cavity, or the centre of gravity is the effort, or increase the distance be-
oscillating point or the fulcrum upon tween the centre of effort and the cen-
which stupendous fabric moves. tre of absolute gravity.
this But, another
When the centre of gravity is located fact worthy of our consideration claims
below the surface of the fluid, the os- our attention. Every vessel has a
cillating point is found at the surface natural position, or a position pecu-
but when the centre of gravity is at liar to the shape of the vessel when
the same, or a greater altitude, itself launched. For example, if the great-
becomes the oscillating point, as all est transverse section is forward of the
bodies above the surface of the water longitudinal centre, and the usual pro-
oscillate upon that point. The several portional expansion of the lines for-
centres may be represented by the or- ward, and contraction aft, take place
dinary store-keepers' scale-beam ; upon in the formation of the vessel, it
the nail or point of suspension depends causes her to set by the stern ; this is a
the weight of the scales, weights, and fact with which all are familiar, but it
articles weighed this point is at a must not be supposed that the launch-
;
greater altitude than the fulcrum upon in" line of flotation is the natural line
which the beam oscillates, while the of immersion. In order to obtain this,
scales, in their distended capacity, are the model should be separated at the
found still lower. So with those points line of flotation, at which the na-
tural position is required. Another practical illustration from a pine log.
illustration may serve better : A log It is well known, that a log straight
of timber is and squared both ways to an equal
said to be propelled with a
given speed with less force the butt size, whose specific gravity does not
end foremost than the small end the exceed three-quarters of the specific
;
reason of this is, that nearly all of the gravity of water, will not float with
resistance to be overcome, is found at either of its planes parallel to the sur-
the ends, the pressure of the water face of the water ; assuming that its
being at right angles with the bottom specific gravity is exactly three-quar-
and sides of the log ; in water in which it
connection ters that of the
with the fact, that the log draws the floats, with which, under some cir-
most water at the butt, which materi- cumstances, yellow pine is found to
ally diminishes the friction when the comply with the already expressed
log is in motion ; whereas, if the small terms of proportion. From what has
end were foremost, the friction would been shown, a bulk of water, three-
be augmented by this right-angled pres- quarters of the entire bulk of the log 51
sure. Philosophers have, by this over- will weigh as much as the entire log;
sight, done the science of ship-building hence, it follows, that only three-quar-
no material service. Builders have ters of the log will be immersed, or
been led to suppose that a full bow, that a line of flotation, three-quarters
and a thin after end, with large but- of the distance up from the base on
tocks to keep the vessel from going thetwo perpendicular planes or sides,
down aft altogether, was the proper would satisfy the demands of weight.
shape. I shall endeavour to show, in The supposed to be homogeneous,
log is
the proper department of this work, hence, the centre of the absolute gra-
that this error has proved fatal to the vity is found in the centre of the log
commercial world. In civil architect- longitudinally, and the centre of motion
ure, an extravagance or a blunder, is at the surface, the centre of effort is
may be an eye-sore to men of taste, found to be at the centre of gravity;

and render the projector of the design hence, it is plain there is no stability
ridiculous; but in marine and naval while the log remains with one of its
architecture, it too often proves fatal planes parallel to the surface of the
to human life. water, and will not rest until it as-
We may be able to give another ex- sumes a position that will separate the
position of the laws of stability, by a centre of effort from the centre of the
absolute gravity at the farthest possible the extreme corners ? Hence it follows,
distance ; and if this separation cannot that the centre of effort has taken a
be made, the log will have no stability more elevated position, and as in this
in any position ; hence, the reason why position the centre of effort has its
a log, as described, will assume a posi- highest possible location, so also the
tion, in which two of its corners form log, in this position, has its greatest sta-
a vertical line, and the other two being bility. From this simple illustration,
at right angles with the first, will, as we may deduce this truth, that vessels
a Consequence, be parallel to the sur- having no more breadth than depth,
face. Thus it will have no stability a fact too well de-
be- seen at once, ;
that the right-angled pressure from monstrated by vessels that have been
the exterior surface inward, is of a built in the Eastern states. The prin-
more elevated character, and raises the cipal dimensions of vessels have much
centre of effort above the centre of to do with their performances beyond
absolute gravity, in the same ratio their stability ; a small addition to the
that the proportion of breadth is in- topsides, in a manner that does not
creased over the draft of water. Assu- affect their depth at the usual meas-
ming the log have been 12 inches
to uring point, may not only greatly di-
square, the draft of water was 9 inches, minish their stability, but affect and
while the breadth was 12 but when ; counteract the very object for which
the log was canted, the breadth was 17 such addition was made. The ship-
inches, while the draft of water was but owner does not seem to realize, that
11. In the former case, the centre of for the additional 50 tons of weight he
cavity was one inch and a half below has added to the weight of the ship,
the centre of absolute gravity, while in in what is usually termed top-hamper,
the latter it was but one inch ; thus it or in houses, poop-deck, high bulwarks,
is plain that the stability of the log did &c,
compelled to carry 100
that he is
not depend upon the depressed location tons of ballast more than without it ;
of the centre of cavity; had this been thus, one hundred and fifty tons of dis-
the case, the stability would have been placement are lost, or worse than lost,
greatest when the surface of the log was being actually an injury to the per-
parallel to the horizon, as was then
forming qualities of the ship.
it at The
the lowest possible point. Is it not plain notion of having a large topside on a
that the direction of the exterior pres- small bottom, is without a basis in the
sure is upward from the lower edge to principles of sound philosophy in ship-
building, its such ship receive her cargo, and
deleterious effects will be let
shown in connection with the baneful perform her intended voyage, and the
effects of the tonnage laws as a first story is soon told. She is found to be
cause of disproportions. It should be one of the most uneasy vessels that
remembered, that about one-third of navigate the ocean. The reason will
the length of most vessels has no sta- appear obvious to the thinking man,
bility, and as a consequence, the coun- that it is because there is an undue
teracting leverage must be supported proportion of buoyancy near the base,
by the bulkier parts of the vessel and an insufficiency at the 1<khI-1pu<
hence, it follows, that to increase the of flotation; the consequences art
length, (while at the same time we plain to be seen : this expanded buoy-
possess a due proportion of breadth,) ancy near the base receives nearly all
is to increase the stability of a vessel the upward pressure, and, consequent-
—another demonstrable truth in rela- ly, has a tendency to trip the vessel,
tion to the stability of vessels. It is while at the surface there is an insuf-

well known that ships have been built ficiency of buoyancy to counteract it,
with their greatest transverse section or to relieve the ship from those sudden
so formed, that its extreme breadth and irregular lurches to which she is
was depressed below the launching line constantly exposed and I have no hesi-
;
of flotation, while the depth was in- tancy in saying, that the testimony of
creased beyond what it would have mariners will agree with the deductions
been in an ordinary formed vessel, un- drawn. It should be remembered, that
der the false notion, that if the breadth although the points delineated are in-
were depressed, the vessel would be visible and moveable, having no visible
rendered more stable than otherwise. resting place in the hull of the vessel
This, to some extent, is true while the yet they represent forces that have a
;
vessel without cargo, she covers a tangible locality in the natural world,
is
larger surface than she would other- and are an index to the destiny of
wise, and as a consequence, the centre those who break down the bulwarks
of effort is and the centre of of creative wisdom, and in defiance of
higher,
the absolute gravity lower, by such a nature's laws, rear others suited to
distribution of breadth, and such ves- their own notions. It has been con-
sels are often found to maintain an ceded by men of science, that in ar-
upright position without ballast, with ranging the proportions of ships suited
their spars and rigging adjusted ; but to navigate the ocean, the stability is
MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, 43
the first consideration ; practicalknow- a proportionate breadth to a given

ledge has added weight to the dogma, depth the depth of the
; vessel, as al-
and with this two-fold evidence, or this ready designated, may be divided into
collateral testimony, it has been ren- four parts, and the quotient multiplied
dered a truism, and should be so re- by seven, which would be \ of the depth.
ceived. For general reference, it may Thus, for a depth of 22 feet from base
be well to lay down certain rules with to plank shear, we have 22 -h 4 =5.\ x
regard to the augmentation of stability 7 = 384 feet, this would be a propor-
under ordinary circumstances. Sta- tionate breadth for ships having a poop-
thus circumstanced, increases as deck and forecastle-deck, but without
bility,
the cubes of the breadth, as by adding these, | would be quite as good pro-
one-quarter to the breadth, we double portions ; in smaller vessels, the pro-
the stability, and as a consequence, a portionate breadth increases, and will
capacity to carry double the sail, with be delineated in a part of the work set
but (under any circumstances) one- apart for that class of vessels. Steam-
fourth more resistance. In every ers require a greater proportion of beam
branch of mechanism, wherein pro- than any other description of large
portions are recognised as the stand- vessels two parts of breadth for one —
ard of found necessary to of depth have been found to be the
utility, it is
assume one portion of the dimensions, most efficient that have yet been
in order to proportion the remaining adopted. It must be quite apparent
parts to the first ; this course is quite to the thinking man, that inasmuch as
as essential in marine and naval, as in the centre of gravity of the engine,
civil architecture. In mercantile sail- boilers, wheels, &c., is near the centre
ing vessels of the larger class, of motion, in addition to which, the
it is ne-
cessary to assume the depth from the vessel having less stability at the ex-
base line to what is sometimes termed tremities than sailing vessels, demands
the top height, or the lower side of the a greater proportion of breadth to in-
plank shear ; two-thirds of which sure an equal amount of stability. In
should be set apart for the immersed reply
demand, it has been said,
to this
portion, and the line of separation may that the fuel was amply sufficient to
be denominated the load-line, or the restore the equilibrium of stability, and
greatest immersed line of flotation. thus render the additional breadth un-
Having thus determined the depth of necessary. But again, it should be
the vessel, we are now enabled to give remembered, that although n steamer
might, at the commencement of a voy- dark and forbidding aspect of public

age, be found to possess a sufficiency opinion and popular prejudice stare
of stability, having the proportionate him in the face. The merchant or

breadth of sailing vessels ;
yet, at the may
knowledge of the
builder desire a
end of the voyage, |he would possess weight of the ship he owns or builds;
much less, in consequence of the con- and as the process of calculating the
sumption of her ballast, apart from the weight of all parts of the ship, and
objectionable features of artificial sta- every piece of timber, and every bolt,
bility instead of natural, and the con- spike, tree-nail, &c, is tedious and
sequent loss of speed, to which ocean complex, even with the aid of the hy-
steamers are subject, by a heavy draft drostatic balance, it will rarely be re-
of water. Having considered the quisite to have more than an approxi-
length and breadth suitable for ships mation to the truth. True, the builder
and ocean steamers, we will now pro- may know the precise weight of his
ceed to determine their length propor- ship by knoAving the displacement be-
tionate to breadth whether the object low the launching line of flotation ;
;
be burthen or speed, a good degree of but when the ship is built and launched,
length will be found advantageous 4\ it is too late to make alterations how-
;
times the breadth for the length on ever desirable by knowing the actual ;
load-line, or 5 times the breadth for the weight of the ship within a few per
length on deck, are fair proportions cent, before she is built, we proceed
;
and should the smallest ratio of beam be with more confidence in the prosecu-
selected, the length may be increased tion of the work ; by knowing the dis-
to advantage, both for and placement of the ship below the load-
stability
burthen. The author is aware, that line of flotation, and deducting her
the proportions of breadth already weight from the same, we have the
given, are rarely adopted that 3 feet displacement remaining for cargo.—
;
of breadth for 2 of depth, is very gene- Ordinary sailing ships, for freighting
rally regarded as good proportions for purposes, from 5 to 800 tons, weigh 9 -
freighting ships he, however, challen- of their load-line displacement freight-

;
;
ges a comparison of the profits accruing ing ships of 1000 tons and upward,
for one year, of two ships of equal dis- weigh one-half of their load-line dis-
placement, one having the proportions placement ocean steamers weigh from
;
herein laid down, and the other having I to of their displacement this ap-
r, —
those in general use, even though the plies to such as are built by propor-
MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE 4-5
tions approximating to those already between perpendiculars, by the area of

given when these dimensions are not the greatest immersed section, or ®
;
adhered to, they weigh more. Iron frame in square feet, and divide this
steamers weigh about one-ninth less product by 43 to 46 for a merchant
than those built of timber. —
For an ship if the ship be fall, take the
approximation to the displacement of smaller number. This rule is not a
sailing ships, multiply the three princi- reliable one for ocean steamers, vary-
pal dimensions together, length, breadth ing from 48 to 62. f>No rule can be
and depth, and that product by the made that may be deemed reliable for
ratio, four-ninths, or one-half, as the all descriptions of vessels apart from
case may require, the second product the calculation itself, or the several
by the weight of one cubic foot of modes described and illustrated by the
water, the last product divide by the diagrams, comparative weight or
viz.,
number of pounds in a ton, the result comparative bulk, with the aid of the
will be sufficiently near to enable us to hydrostatic balance.
determine something in reference to Mr. Pook, naval constructor at Char-
the dimensions and shape, but is not to lestown, Mass., has discovered an inge-
be relied on as sufficiently near to build nious mode of deterrMning the capacity
by, unless we are indifferent as to the of vessels ; and its approximation to the
amount of displacement. The ratio actual displacement of government and
given will not apply to ocean steamers, ordinary freighting ships, renders it val-
without immersing them too deep, as uably its ready application to such
this description of vessels should not be vessels as have had their displacement
immersed more than five-eighths of their calculated, will enable the reader to
depth of hold, and if they have more test its accuracy. Adapted, as it is, to
than a proportionate depth, nine-six- almost all descriptions of freighting
teenths of their depth of hold should be vessels; very sharp vessels, and parti-
marked as their load-line, above base- cularly our sharpest ocean steamers,
line, beyond which, they should not go. are exceptions to the general rule,
In approximating the displacement of having a smaller displacement than the

ocean steamers, the ratio may be seven- rulewould give, owing to their having
eighteenths. There is another rule no dead rise, and an easy bilge. The
that is sometimes used to ascertain the rule is as follows: From 90^ deduct
displacement of vessels: multiply the the angle of the floor, or the degrees
mean of the lengths of the keel and of dead rise ; multiply by ,0075 the
quotient the decimal for capacity
is is the capacity in tons. Thus assu-
multiply the length by the breadth, and ming a ship to be 160 feet long, 35
that product by the depth, from the feet wide, and from the bottom of the
bottom of the garboard to load-line, garboard to load-line 14 feet deep, with
and the last product by the decimal of four degrees of dead rise, as in Fig. 6.
capacity, and divide by 35, the quotient Thus we have
Decimal Cubic feet
of Capacity. Length. readth. Depth. Exponent. per ton.
90° — 4°= 86° X. 0075 =,645 160 X 35 = 5600 x 14 = 78400 x, 645 = 50568 -H 35 = 1444 capacity in tons.
The principal, and perhaps the only rival. After the actual displacement
difficulty in applying this rule as a has been found, a very convenient
standard of measurement, is its liability method of obtaining the capacity will
to evasion, (which is the most objec- be found in the following : Multiply

tionable feature in the present law.) the length between perpendiculars by
The load-line could not be marked a the breadth, that product by the depth
proportionate distance from the base- from base to load-line, this last pro-
line or from the plank-shear, without duct divided into the whole displace-
exposing the law Jo the same amount ment, and the quotient w ill furnish the
of infractions the present one is. But, exponent of the ratio of capacity, and
as a ready rule for general reference will apply equally well to all descrip-
and approximating the truth, Mr. tions of vessels.
Pook's rule is doubtless without a
CHAPTER II.
An Exposition of the Tonnage Laws — Their Deleterious Effects—Necessity of Change —Tonnage Laws of
other Nations —Laws of Resistance—Laws of Propulsion.
Having endeavored to show that re- ted to riot without control. But I
liable pause to give place to the introduction

proportions cannot be furnished
apart from mathematical demonstra- of a new era in the commercial world.
tion, we shall now proceed to show the The change that has taken place in
deleterious effects of the Tonnage Laws the British Navigation Laws, and the
upon the commerce of the United consequent reciprocal change in those
States. It has been a matter of no of the United States, has awakened in
little surprise to scientific men in the the two greatest commercial nations
old world, that a country like ours on the globe, a rivalry, that in less
should continue in force laws so de- than five years will revolutionise the
trimental to her commercial interests commercial world. Had the United
as the existing tonnage laws have States a code of tonnage laws worthy
proved to be nor is the surprise con- of the name, she would have nothing
;
fined to the old world: our ship-build- to fear ; but with her present laws,
ers have long witnessed its baneful actually inviting fraud, she has much
effects, and nothing but an indomita- to dread the terms are now unequal,
;
ble energy has saved us from defeat in the odds are against us, and the ship-
our race with England for the ascen- owner will soon find that it is not
dency in building ships. The hoary, enough to have equally as good a sail-
the venerated prejudices of their fathers ing ship, and one that will carry as
has too much influence to allow the much per every ton of displacement
ship-owner to think for himself, in con- as his rival, but that he must carry
nection with a growing jealousy, lest more, and sail faster, if he would suc-
the builder should foster his own in- cessfully compete in this commercial
terest, while marking out a course for race; this a ship with large topsides on
the measurement of ships, more conge- a small bottom cannot do. We should
nial to the spirit of the age, and, as a remember that English ships are now
consequence, avarice has been permit- built under the fostering influence of
48 MARTNE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
the best code of laws on the globe, true ; when ships will not only be built
while we are building under those with reference to utility alone, but
among the and measured by the same standard.
most heterogeneous ;
although the great bulk of English It cannot be denied, that our ton-
ships may have been built prior to the nage laws, as they now exist, have
alteration of her tonnage laws, yet done more to clog the wheels of im-
these are not the ships that are to be provement in marine architecture, than
our rivals. As the author has already everything beside whether we regard ;
stated in substance, the American has them as the parent of legalized fraud,
nothing to fear when his energies can or as the fruitful source of premature
be concentrated on a single point with graves, their deleterious effects are
the world combined in the race to alike obvious to the thinking portion
wealth or fame. It is between the of the commercial world. While the
conflicting interests of successfully present practice prevails, of accounting
competing with his rival, and the the one-half, or any proportion of a
amount of dollars supposed to be saved ship's breadth for the depth, it must be
in tonnage dues by disproportionate quite apparent that ships will be dis-
ships ; and if we are lost in this rival proportioned, and, consequently, unfit
race, it will be found that we have ocean by a dimin-
for navigating the ;
foundered in the straits of avarice. ished breadth, and an increased depth,

It is mortifying to witness in the the ship-owner registers his ship at
shipwright the mere mechanic. It is, much less than her actual tonnage,
indeed, humiliating, to see the most and, as a consequence, that wholesome

prominent intellectual art in the cata- competition which in every other enter-
logue, reduced to a mere drudgery. prise is the muscle of improvement, is
In these days of competition and hard rendered weak and inefficient. Me-
utilitarianism, it is not only a pure re- chanics finding their boldest thoughts
lief to the and best exertions fettered by the on-
mind, but a source of high
enjoyment to the man who has kept erous burdens entailed upon commerce,
an idea constantly before him, and has have partially lost the laudable ambi-
followed it with a fearless and faithful tion to excel, they once possessed, and,
heart. It is he alone who can look like ship-owners, seem to have forgot-
through the perspective labyrinths of ten, in their haste for the dollar, that
futurity, to an era when nothing will our ships perforin little better, or make
be acknowledged beautiful that is not a voyage in no less time across the
ocean than they did forty years ago. no less advantageous to our commerce
Startling as this announcement may than to our country. England, sensi-
appear, it is nevertheless true, that ble of this, abolished her heterogeneous
voyages of thirteen and fourteen days, code in 1836, since which time her
from this city to Liverpool, by sailing improvements have been without a pa-
ships, were as frequent forty years ago rallel in the history of the commercial
as they now are. It will not be de- world. In framing a law that will
nied, that there arc ships owned in equalize the burdens, and make com-
this city, that under the same circum- petition a fair and laudable enterprise,
stances in which the best voyages making the ship something more than
have been made, would, without doubt, a mere floating warehouse, and at the
perform the voyage within eleven same time a source of profit to her
days ; but those ships are engaged in owners, without abridging her carry-
a trade over which the tonnage laws ing properties in the least, but rather
have no warping influence augmenting them
; I allude and, as a conse- ;
to the trade with China. The profits quence, making her owners greater
accruing from our commercial inter- returns than they can possibly do un-
course with that remote nation, is der the existing code, and giving him
found to consist in the quick returns, an equal chance for the rewards of
rather than the bulk of cargo hence, energy and enterprise with his English
;
the reason why no notice is taken of competitor under the reciprocal navi-
the inducement to evade the provisions gation laws ; it needs but a glance at
of the present law, and the results are, our geographical position to satisfy the
that Canton has already been meas- incredulous, that the United States is
ured as distant but seventy-five days destined to become the great theatre
from New- York and the day is not for commercial improvements, and that
;
far distant, when the time will be re- it only remains for her legislators to
duced to sixty. one feature enact such laws as will cherish a spirit
There is
in political science that teaches us that of emulation worthy of our favoured

cheerful submission to law is only ren- locality, and of the age in which we
dered when based on the principles of live, to place her far in advance of
equity when its wholesome provisions other nations in commercial improve-
;
bear alike on all its subjects. This ments. The present mode of deter-
great principle, the glorious bond of mining the tonnage of ships by law, is
union in this republic, will be found a powerless aid to science and emula-
tion, and no sophistry can make that mercial science, this universal alcahest,
right which common sense pronounces lies like a statue in the quarry. The
wrong. It only remains for our legis- science of building ships is kept in
lators to be true to the instinctive im- dwarfish imbecility by the onerous bur-
pulses that have prompted the exten- dens entailed by legislation. It will be
sion of our commercial interest to the rendered at once apparent to the dis-
present time, and this monstrosity in cerning mind, that to equalize the ton-
commercial science shall be found only nage laws, it will be necessary to ob-
in the history of the past. Nature has tain the actual capacity, which may
afforded all the necessary aid ; her laws be shown in cubic feet, tons, chaldrons,
furnish —
an axiom around which all or bushels this mode is far preferable
may rally, and feel safe in the assump- to that of regulating the tonnage by
tion that beauty and truth are commen- displacement or weight were the laws —
surate qualifications. By this stand- based upon displacement, the vessel
ard of principles, we are willing that carving iron would perhaps be loaded
the science marine architecture when but half full, while the vessel
of
should be weighed, and if found want- carrying cotton would scarce be loaded
ing, let the fallacious dogma of science when she was full thus, the dues of ;
in this seemingly complicated art, be the one-half full would equal those of
blown to the winds. Let precedent as- the vessel that had stowed a full cargo.
sert her prerogative. Let ship-building The laws respecting the measurement
stand as it has ever stood in America, of ships, denominated tonnage, origi-
without a basis of principles. Let the nally implied the number of tons-weight
continued watch-word through the un- a vessel might safely carry; hence, it
measured vista of time be precedent. will be readily discovered, that it has
Let the mildew of hereditary knowledge lost its original signification, and is not
brood over the genius of intellect until now recognised as a tangible medium,
the march of science shall be down- but as a fictitious balance. The rule
ward and backward, instead of upward established by the British Parliament
and onward. It is one of the wonders prior to 1S36, had long been discovered
of this wonder-working age, to see the to befounded on erroneous principles,
very heavens and earth bending to and often led to the most mischievous
American genius, and every element consequences. Under this pernicious
of nature made subservient to man's system, vessels came to be built narrow
comfort and convenience, while com- and deep, and thus, not only less efli-
cient, but highly dangerous ; and as depths. To the upper and lower
early as 1823, a committee was ap- breadths, at the foremost division, add
pointed to devise measures for the re- three times the upper and lower
lief of commerce from its deleterious breadths at the midship division, and
effects ; that committee recommended the upper and twice the lower breadth
the measurement of the internal capa- at the aftermost division, for the sum
city, by taking the breadth and depth of the breadths. Multiply the sum of
at each quarter of the length but for ;
the depths by the sum of the breadths,
some reason, no step was taken, and and the product by the length, and di-
the subject slumbered until 1832, when vide this product by 3500, the result is
another committee was appointed to the tonnage for register. In vessels
consider the subject. In order that with a poop, or a break in the upper
the committee might be put in posses- deck, measure the mean length, breadth
sion of all the available information pos- and height, multiply these together,
sible to possess, her majesty's govern- and divide by 92.4, and add the result
ment obtained from various places the to the former quantity. In open ves-
modes of measuring ship-tonnage, and sels, the depth is measured from the
the following was drawn up from the upper edge of the upper strake. In
documents transmitted, commencing steam vessels, the tonnage due to the
with England :
contents of the engine room (the
Divide the upper deck, between the depth being considered at the midship
afterpart of the stem and the forepart depth, and the breadth at jjths of this
of the stern post, into six equal parts. depth) divided by 92.4 is to be de-
At the foremost, middle, and aftermost ducted. The relative capacities of
points of division, measure in feet and ships are determined very nearly by
decimals, the depth from the underside this method. In France, the three
of the upper deck, to the ceiling at the measures of length, breadth and depth,
limber strake. Divide each depth into are multiplied together, and divided by
five equal parts, and measure the inside 94, for the tonnage. In single-decked
breadths at |th and |ths (from the vessels, the length is taken from the
upper deck) at the two extreme depths, after part of the stem on deck to the
and at Iths and ^ths of the midship stern post the extreme breadth is
;
depth. Measure the length, as above, taken inside from the ceiling, and the
at half the midship depth. To twice depth from the ceiling to the under
the midship depth, add the extreme side of the deck; in vessels of two
decks, at Bordeaux, the length of the with the upper surface of the keelson ;
upper deck, and that of the keelson, are 3d, at a level half way between the
meaned but at Brest, two former positions.

for the length ;
To find the
Marseilles, and Boulogne, the mean of area of each section, the half of the
the length on the two decks, from the sum of the upper and lower measure-
stem to the stern-post, is taken as the ments is added to the middle measure-
length ; the depth of the hold, from the ment, and this sum is multiplied by the
ceiling tounder surface of the height of one above the other then
the ;
lower deck, is added to that of the half the areas of the fore and after sec-
height between decks, and considered tion is added to that of the middle sec-
as the depth. The extreme inside tion, and this sum is multiplied by the
breadth is taken as in single vessels. length which the sections are apart
At Bordeaux, an allowance is some- from each other, the result will express
times made for the rake of the vessel. in burgos cubic feet the capacity of
At Boulogne, in measuring steamboats, the part of the hold between the fore
the length of the and engine and after sections and it still remains
coal ;
chambers is deducted from the length to add the spaces between these and
of the vessel, and her breadth is taken the stem and stern-post these are :
at the fore and after extremities of the found, without any considerable error,
same, the mean of which is considered by multiplying the area of the foremost
as the breadth the depth is taken in- section by half its distance from the
;
side of the pumps from the lower sur- stern post. The room occupied by the
face of the deck between the timbers. pumps must be deducted from the fore-
At Brest, measures are frequently ta- going result, in order to obtain the fair
ken with a string, although contrary quantity of space filled by the cargo.
to law, and an error of seven tons in Having thus found the capacity of the
the tonnage of a cutter has been the hold of any vessel in the above man-
result. In Spain, three breadths are ner, in burgos cubic feet, it is to be di-
measured at the following places : 1st, vided by 41,61.779 feet of burgos.

at the mizzen-mast 2nd, a few
; feet In Portugal, for single-decked vessels,
abaft the fore-mast; 3d, at a point the length is measured from the cabin
half way between the two former. bulk-heads to the forecastle bulk-heads:
The heights at which the breadths are measured from the upper
the depth is
taken at the above places, are, 1st, on surface of the keelson to the under sur-
a level with the deck 2nd, on a level face of the beams
; the extreme breadth ;
of the deck is considered the breadth; and the product by the depth ; this
the continued product of these three di- then divided by 96, the num-
product is
mensions will give the contents in cu- ber of Portuguese cubic feet contained
bic feet, which, divided by57.726 gives in a ton, and the result is the tonnage
the tonnage. In vessels having two of the vessel. In Naples, the vessel
decks, two distinct operations are per- having two decks is measured from
formed, one for the hold, and the other one end to the other over all the ;
for the middle deck for the hold, the length is also measured from the after
;
length is measured from the heel of the part of the stem to the rudder-port
bowsprit to the stern-post the breadth under the poop
; the mean of these ;
is the extreme breadth of the upper two lengths is multiplied by the ex-
deck, deducting two feet the depth is treme breadth of the vessel.
; The
from the upper surface of the keelson depth is then taken from the bottom
to the under surface of the beams, for of the well to the lower surface of the
the middle deck the length is con- upper or poop deck, and the above
;
sidered as half of that of the hold, the product being multiplied by this depth,
other half being allowed for cabins, and divided by 94, gives the tonnage.
&c. ; the breadth as before, and for For single-decked vessels, the tonnage
the height to the under surface of the is found by multiplying theextreme
beams of the upper deck. The fore- length by the extreme breadth, and
going is the mode at Lisbon, but at the product by the extreme depth, di-
Oporto, the length of the vessel is vided by 94, as above. In the Nether-
taken from the second timber at the lands, the length is measured on deck
bows to the stern-post, the breadth from the stem to the stern-post for ;
at the widest part, from the inside the breadth, the hold is divided into
of each bulwark on the upper deck, four portions, and two measurements
and the depth from the upper surface taken at each of these divisions 1st, —
of the keelson to the lower surface of across the keelson, on a level with the
the beams of the upper deck at the upper surface from ceiling; 2nd, the
main hatch. If the keelson be more greatest breadth of the hold at each di-
than the ordinary depth, allowance is vision the mean of these six meas-
;
—
made accordingly and where there are urements is considered the breadth the ;
two decks, the thickness of the lower depths are taken at each of (he forego-
deck is also deducted from the depth ing points of division, from the upper
;
the length is multiplied by the breadth, surface of the keelson to the low « r
surface of the upper deck, between the the product multiplied again by half
beams, and the mean of* these three is the breadth, and divided by 94, which
assumed. The and gives the number of English tons. In
length, breadth
depth, are then multiplied together, and the United States, if the vessel be
two-thirds of the product considered double-decked, the length is taken
as the tonnage but an allowance for from the forepart of the main stem to
;
provisions, water, cabin and ship-stores, the afterpart of the stern-post, above
varying from thirty to forty-five, is de- the upper deck, the breadth at the
ducted from the depth before it is mul- broadest part above the main-wales,
tipliedby the length and breadth. In half of which is accounted for the
Norway, the length of a ship is taken depth; from the length, three-fifths of
from the afterpart of the stem to the the breadth is deducted, the remainder
inner part of the stern-post, dividing is multiplied by the breadth, and the
the length of the vessel into four equal product by the depth this last product :
parts ; the breadth is measured at each is divided by 95,and the quotient is

of these divisions. The depth of the deemed the true contents or tonnage
vessel, from the under surface of the of such ship or vessel. If the vessel
upper deck to the keelson, to be taken be single-decked,the length and breadth
at the above three points of division are taken as above for a double-
;
then multiply the length by the mean decked vessel, three-fifths of the
of the three breadths, and the product breadth are deducted from the length;
thereof by the mean three depths ; the the depth of the hold is taken from the
result of the foregoing is divided by under side of the deck-plank to the
242.1-2, if there be no fractional parts ceiling in the hold ; these are multiplied
of feet, but if there be, the calculation and divided as aforesaid, and the quo-
ismade in inches, and the divisor be- tient is the tonnage. The foregoing
comes 322, 767; the result thus obtained is the government rule, but at Phila-
being the burthen of the vessel in wood- delphia and New-Orleans there is a
lasts, of 4,000 Neva pounds each, to mode of measurement called carpen-
reduce into commerce-lasts, one of ters' tonnage. The Philadelphia rule

which is equal to 5,200 Neva pounds, one deck multiply the
it for vessels with —
\ multiplied by 10 and divided by 13. length of the keel by the breadth of the
.
In Russia, the length of the keel is main-beam, and the product by the
taken in feet, and multiplied by the depth divide this second product by ;
extreme breadth of the sheathing, and 95. For double-decked vessels, take
half of the breadth of the main-beam owner. The accurate estimation of

for the depth, and work as for a single- the tonnage of a ship is a very difficult
decked vessel. At New-Orleans, the problem indeed and it is indispensable, ;
mode in use is as follows Take the that any system to be adopted in prac-
:
length from the stem to the afterpart tice, be not very complex for if so, it :
of the stern-post on the deck; take the will either be wholly inapplicable, or it
greatest breadth over the main-hatch, will be sure to be incorrectly applied.
and the depth from the ceiling of the The relative capacities of ships are de-
hold to the lower surface of the deck; termined very nearly by this method,
at the main-hatch from the length de- that is, within little more than four or
duct three-fifths of the breadth, multi- five per cent, generally, though in ex-
ply the remainder by the actual breadth treme cases, the difference may amount
and depth, divide by 95, if the vessel to ten or twelve per cent. this, how- ;
be single-decked, but if the vessel be ever, is insignificant, when compared

double-decked, half of the breadth of with the errors so common under the
the beam is considered as equivalent to former rule. The divisor, by which
the depth, and is multiplied accordingly. the cubic content is reduced to ton-
The Tonnage Committee having 1
nage, was adopted merely, that while

embodied in their report the tonnage the reputed tonnage of nearly all kinds
laws of all the principal commercial na- of vessels would be corrected by the
tions, the discrepancy is at once ren- new rule, the total registered tonnage
dered apparent. They recommend in of the kingdom might remain unal-
their report, as a basis for the new law, tered : thus, virtually substituting ca-
that the whole internal capacity be pacity or cubic feet for tons, or internal
measured; which, being under cover for external capacity. By the new
of prominent decks, may be available method, the dues paid on tonnage are
for stowage. They have given a short proportioned to the capacities of the
and easy rule for determining the ca- vessels and as no advantage is gained
;
pacity, with such accuracy, that if the in these respects by defective fori us
whole mercantile marine were meas- consequent upon disproportionate di-
ured by the new process, the total mensions, a marked improvement in
registered tonnage would be very little merchant vessels has followed the pas-
altered. But they recommend, that sage of the law in 1835. The author
no ship already registered, shall be re- is disposed to look through the vista
measured, unless at the request of the of perspective futurity to the period
when the commerce of the United cook, is only equivalent to an extension
States will be relieved from the present While we
of those accommodations.
heterogeneous code. With a slight measure ships, and regard that meas-
amendment, the English law would be urement as a standard for the payment
well-suited to the wants of the United of dues, the whole capacity should be
States. The clause assuming the ves- measured but the author hesitates ;
sels tohave a poop, or half-deck, should not to say, that the world never com-
read thus " If any vessel have a half-
: mitted a greater error in commercial
deck, poop, or weather-proof house, economy, than when they first deter-
above the upper or main-deck, or break mined the existence of a law for levy-
in the main or upper-deck, &c." It is ing dues according to tonnage : be the
notoriously true, that almost every ship law of tonnage founded on weight, di-
that is now and being

built, built, has mensions, or capacity, in every case it
a house upon deck and it ;some- operates as a check to the most im-
is
times the case, that in the distribution portant manufacture of the country.
of deck surface, direct reference is had In order that any nation may have
to the evasion of the laws of this or free exercise for its skill, capital and
some other country. Vessels have been enterprise, that nation must not be
built in this city, and so arranged, that bound by injurious laws. Our govern-
at pleasure they could be converted ment, by continuing in force laws so
from a bark into a brig the object detrimental to commerce, deprives her-
;
was the evasion of measurement of the self of that aid so essential in the event
length of the vessel, which was set of a rupture with a foreign power.
down as extending from the bow to Our European packets possess every
the end of the tiller thus, by removing
; other (] imbrication than that of proper
the mizzen-mast, and substituting a dimensions for rendering efficient aid
long tiller for a short one, before en- to what has been termed the right arm
tering port, some advantage was of our national defence. Our tonnage
gained, where such laws of measure- laws have a direct bearing on the di-
ment existed. It must be apparent to mensions of every vessel built in the
the discerning mind, that any mode of United States having more than one
measurement other than the whole ca- deck. But the ship-owners proceed
pacity is subject to evasion that to with caution, lest the magnitude of the
;
set apart any part of the ship for pas- mischief provoke national legislation.
sengers, stores, or even a galley for the Leaving the tonnage laws in the
hands of those that made them, we only in name but who, among the ;
shall endeavor to analyze the laws of mechanical portion of the commercial

resistance. world, does not know, that by copper-
A variety of theories have been pro- ing a vessel, we increase her speed, or
mulgated by men of science, for over- that by coating the bottom with var-
coming what the author has, in com- nish and black lead, we augment the
mon with his fellow-mechanics, called velocity with the same power. These,
resistance ; each in their turn produ- with other facts in the possession of
cing what, in the projector's opinion, the commercial world, teach us, that
seemed to be the most tangible, the although water is frictionless, itself
most conclusive. Some have absorbed considered, yet, when brought into jux-
nearly all the retarding forces into the taposition with a floating body or ves-
power of inertia, and have lost sight of sel, friction forms a considerable part
all other influences ; others have com- of the opposing force.
puted various other opposing forces, Resistance has, from time immemo-
and have assigned to inertia but a rial, furnished not only an extensive
small place in the catalogue ; some field for operative genius and skill in
have even ventured to delineate the every age, but has also furnished the
only proper shape, and to furnish pro- motive power for overcoming the same,
portionate dimensions, by deductions and may emphatically be termed the
drawn from the planetary world for main-spring in mechanics. The great
all vessels adapted to the purposes of Syracusan philosopher required but an
commerce. But the reader, who is amount of resistance commensurate
adding practical knowledge to the stock with the friction of his levers added to
of information he may have gained the weight of the world, and he would
from theorists, will discover, that nei- have had a platform for his fulcrum.
ther the earth's path, or the path of It may be regarded as an axiom, or a
any other planet, will furnish him with universal law, that action and re-action,
a stereotyped edition of shapes or di- when applied to solid bodies, are com-
mensions ; that there is a variety of mensurate quantities. The laws of
influences known only to practical motion are deducible, and may be
men, that retard our progress in navi- known under three general heads :
gating the ocean. The lubricity of The first, an inherent property of

the element we navigate, would lead matter called inertia, and known as
many to conclude that friction existed that law of the material world, by
which all bodies are absolutely passive the compound force of the two im-
or indifferent to a state of rest or mo- pressions. In like manner, if a ship
tion, and would forever continue in be sailing before the wind, the impulse
the same state, unless disturbed by is in direct line, and, as a consequence,
some external force, commonly called the resistance to be overcome by the
resistance. According- to this law, the two fluids is absolute and the resist- ;
heavenly bodies preserve their progress- ance met by the ship in the thud that
ive motions undiminished in those re- sustains her, and through which she
gions which are void of all resistance ;
passes, is only equal to the resistance
the same law would keep the boy's top met by the sails, and communicated to
forever in motion with an endless revo- the moving ship. If a ship be sailing
lution, were it not impeded by the air, before the wind, due east, if you please,
and the friction produced by its point at the rate of eight miles per hour, and
on the plane on which it moves. A a current setting to the north, at the
ball discharged from a cannon would rate of four miles an hour, the vessel
forever persevere in its motion, were it is driven between these two acting-
not retarded by the resistance of the forces compounded at the rate of
atmosphere, and the operating influ- nearly nine miles per hour.
ence of gravity. The third law of motion teaches us
The second general law is found that action and re-action are always
when a change of motion is required equal and contrary or the action of
;
which must be proportional to the two bodies on each other, or on a third

moving force by which it is produced, body remaining passive, is always equal,
and the change will be made in the but in contrary directions. Thus,
line of direction in which that force is when a horse draws a. load, the power
applied ; hence, it follows, that motion, of the horse is diminished, or the ani-
thus generated, is mal drawn back, with a force equal to
in right line with a
velocity equal to the degree of im- that which sets the load in motion for ;
pulse, and the course of a body in mo- if the weight of the load be increased,
tion can only be altered by a fresh im- until it is equal to the strength of the
pulse, and is then compounded of its horse, it will remain at rest, though
own velocity and the impelling force the whole force of the animal be in ac-
that is, the body will be either accele- tion. If a load-stone, and a piece of
rated or retarded in the same or a iron of equal weight, be suspended by
right-lined direction, in proportion to strings near each other, the mutual
force or attraction between them

tance apart, in smooth water, where
will
cause an equal action, and the two there are no currents then connecting ;
bodies will leave their respective posi- them with a rope, and applying a force
tions with an equal impulse and velo-
one end of the rope on either vessel,
to
city, and meet in a point equally distant a buoy being placed equidistant from
from each. If the bodies be unequal, each vessel, it will be readily deter-
they will meet in a point, whose dis- mined which vessel arrives at the buoy
tance from the bodies will be recipro- first ; the same possesses the least
cally proportioned to the difference of amount of resistance, or is best adapt-
the powers. two floating vessels, ed
If to overcome the inertia at that line
of equal magnitude and density, and, of flotation, and, as a consequence,
as a consequence, of equal displace- that vessel would sail the faster, other
ment, and, in addition, possessing an things being equal.
equal amount of resistance, be attached As the whole doctrine of resistance
to each other by a rope, the vessels in fluids is based on the equilibrium
being at some distance from
each of the same, we shall here give a
other, a force applied to the rope in general view of the leading principles
either vessel will mutually draw them of this branch of equilibriated gravity
together with an equal velocity, until in fluids.
they meet in a point equidistant from Resistance comprises all the influ-
their first position ; but if the amount ences that directly and indirectly op-
of resistance be unequal, even though pose our progress in navigating the
the magnitude and weight, or displace- ocean, and may be divided into its
ment of the vessel, be equal, they will several departments ; inertia being the
not meet in a point equidistant from first and most powerful. The power
each other, but the vessel possessing of attraction, although seemingly of a
the least amount of resistance will ad- negative character, forms a large bulk
vance the farthest and the compara- of the resistance to be overcome in
;
tive sailing qualities of vessels may be navigating our rivers. Attraction is

tested in port as well as at Sea, provi- the cause, power or principle, by
ded the propelling power is equally which all bodies mutually lend to-
well applied in both vessels. Thus, it wards each other. This universal
may be readily determined which of principle may be considered as one of
two vessels possesses the greater amount the first agents of nature in all her
of resistanee, by placing I hem any dis- operations — the whole universe is gov-
GO MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
erned by its influence —and yet, after navigate ? How often have our readers
endless opinions, some of its properties witnessed the effects of crossing a bar
are still concealed in the bosom of nain a river, or of a near proximity to a
ture. We clearly see the effects of shoal, or to the shore, on the speed of
attraction, and decide on its laws ; but the vessel, and the effect upon the
human ingenuity has not been able to water in the increased disturbance,
penetrate its fathom caused by the addition of this attract-
principles, or to
its essence. It was considered by that ive power to the resistance produced by
profound thinker, Sir Isaac Newton, other of nature's laws. This law has
as a power proceeding from bodies in different divisions, and in those divi-
every direction, which decreases in sions, different modifications. The
energy or effect, in proportion as the principal attractive forces known in
squares of the distance from the body the material world, are, cohesive, elec-
increase ; that is, at any given dis- trical, magnetical, and gravitating ; the
tance, it will be four times as great as former and latter are those which
at twice that distance, and nine times should form a branch of the science
as great as at three times the distance, of marine and naval architecture, in-
and so on in like proportion. The asmuch as a very material portion of
formation of the element we navigate, the absolute resistance met by floating
and of all bodies, arises from the adhe- bodies is found to be made up of co-
sion or attraction of the particles. hesive and gravitative attraction. A
Who, of our readers, has not often few examples Avill serve to illustrate
witnessed its effects upon vessels sail- the connection existing between them :
ing beside each other ? An inferior sail- Cohesion is the resistance witnessed
ing vessel is enabled, by this universal
on attempts to separate bodies, and is
law, to keep pace with her faster sail- most powerful in the point of contact,
ing rival for many miles, until, by some or where the particles touch at a little ;
sudden freak, the superior sailing ves- distance it becomes considerably less,
sel is enabled to break the seemingly and when the particles are still further
attractive charm, and, by increasing removed, the effect is rendered insensi-

the distance, diminishes the attraction. ble ; the ratio, as found by Newton,
Or, who
has not often witnessed a rival has been already given.
steamboat, holding at a convenient The cohesion of particles of small
distance a much faster boat, by the bodies ;may shown by a variety
be
power of attraction in the fluid they of amusing experiments. Take two
musket balls, cut away, say one-third force is proportional to the number of
of the bulk of each, thus forming parts that touch each other. Plates
*
planes, which should be made even, or, of iron, or other metals, of small di-
as the carpenters would term it, (with- mensions, may be made to cohere with
out winding,) press the two' flat sur- such force as would require the united
faces together, and twist the bullets as force of a number of men to pull them
they are pressed with the fingers, the asunder. Experiments have shown,
plane will, by this means, be worn per- that plates, not more than two inches
fectly smooth and even the parts thus in diameter, have taken a force of 950
;
in contact will adhere, or be attracted pounds weight to separate them. In

by a cohesive force that will resist a such cases, the surfaces have been
power of near fifty pounds weight to smeared with boiling grease, and then
separate them by this means, the air left to cool before the power was ap-
;
is expelled from between the planes, plied the grease serves to fill up the
;
and a greater number of parts or par- pores of the surface, and bring a
ticles brought into contact; as the greater number of particles in contact
formation of bodies arises from the ad- with each other. This adhesive power,
hesion or attractive properties of the or property in the particles of bodies,
particles of matter. If the metal in is not occasioned or aided by the gravi-
the above experiment were perfectly tating weight of the atmosphere ; for
free from porosity, and the planes per- it is found by experiment, that it re-
fectly level, or mathematically even, on quires the same weight to separate
joining them together, the parts in ad- them, whether joined together in open
hesion would be as firm and insepara- air or in vacuo. The author has wit-
ble as any other parts of the balls. nessed experiments of a similar nature
The elasticity of the air which is con- producing the most wondrous results.
tained in the interstices, consequent This cohesive law governs the union
upon the inequality of the planes, is of iron to iron, and of iron to steel,
the power that is perpetually endeav- commonly called welding. It is well
ouring to rend them asunder. The known, that when at a certain degree
planes of bodies can adhere only when of temperature, or at what is called a
the power of the parts in contact is white-heat, two pieces of iron may be
greater than the natural gravity, and brought together, and the fibres of one
the elastic power of the air contained piece driven by the hammer into the
between them; therefore, the cohesive pores of the other, and thus, the air is
not only excluded by filling up the section-lines on the flat of the floor or
pores. the pieces arc actually riv-
I>iit bottom. The example of the board
eted together, and it* the work is prop- may illustrate this principle still far-
erly done, is as substantial as any other ther, showing that the board present
part of the material. ing a flat surface to the fluid, as a
by the attraction of cohesion consequence, receives the impulse of
It is
the particles of a fluid or liquid arrange attraction in a direction opposite to the

themselves into a spherical form, and force applied to lift it and it must fol- ;
extend their through the low, that force directly applied, must
influence
same channel to all bodies with which be more effectual than force obliquely
they come in contact. If a piece of or diagonally applied, which the board,
board be laid upon the surface of water having a convex surface, avowedly re-
when in a state of rest, it will require presents. It has been stated, that the
a power nearly six times as great as the
law of attraction has different divi-
weight of the board, to take it up per- sions and modifications. The wonders
pendicularly. These, and many other of another department of this sovereign
facts which daily occur in the com- law may be seen in capillary attrac-
mon occupations of life, serve to show tion, through the medium of which,
the universal tendency of that corpus- ascend the contiguous surfaces
liquids
cular attraction which exists between of bodies. This term is generally used
small bodies, and which teaches, if we to denote the ascent of fluids throuL'h
will be taught by the laws of nature, small pipes or tubes that compose a
that the resistance met by vessels when considerable part of the animal as well
operated upon by a propelling force, as the vegetable body. By these tubes,
can be augmented and diminished in as various in their as they are number
proportion as we adhere to, or depart different in their capacity, nature con-
from, nature's laws. The last exam- veys nutriment to supply the most dis-
ple, of the board, will teach us that a tant branches of vegetation, where it
flat surface meets with more resistance could never arrive by the ordinary mo-
than a convex one; thus, the longitu- tion of fluids. The extent of the at-
dinally straight-sided ship below water traction is in proportion to the diameter
meets with more resistance from the of the tube, that is, those tubes which
water than one having a convex side, are the smallest raise the fluid to the
other things being equal ; this is greatest height, and the larger to a
eqnalU true of the ship Inning straight less height, in a reciprocal proportion.
When the earth receives rain on A

remark of Maupertius is in
its tance.
surface, the fluid is attracted through perfect keeping- on this subject that the :
all the internal and contiguous parts, manner in which the different proper-
and then absorbed by the roots of trees ties reside in a subject, is always incon-
and plants, and carried from thence by ceivable to us. The mass of mankind
capillary attraction to the most ex- are not astonished when they see a
tended parts through the multitudi- body in motion communicate its mo-
nous pores contained in the trunk and tion to other bodies ; we are accus-
branches. by capillary attraction tomed to the phenomenon, which pre-
It is
that the flaming wick of a lamp is sup- vents our perceiving in it anything
plied with oil from the reservoir be- marvelous. But philosophers will not
neath. By a knowledge of the laws readily believe that an impulsive force
of attraction, we fancy we see the is more conceivable than an attractive
reason why A attracts B, or why B is one. What in fact is this impulsive
compelled to follow the motions of A, force ? How does it reside in bodies ?

when connected ; but when two dis- Who could have predicted its exist-
tinct bodies, not ence before seeing the bodies impinge

connected by any visi-
ble bond of union, are observed to against each other? The existence
approach one another, the phenomenon of other properties in bodies is not
seems to assume a greater degree of more clear. In what way does impen-
mystery, from our being no longer able etrability and the other properties be-
to perceive any mode by which the one come joined to extension ? In these
body can act on the other. On re- there will always be mysteries for us.
flecting, however, on the constitution It must not, however, be supposed, that
of material substances, and considering because mankind are ignorant of the
that they are composed of distinct par- why and wherefore, that they are in
ticles, which there are many reasons reality without available knowledge of
for believing are not in contact with the laws that govern the material
each other, we may soon satisfy our- world. Philosophers, without any re-
selves that there is, in reality, as much ference to the question, whether the
difficulty in conceiving how the differ- power which produces that tendency
ent particles of a body cohere, or act inherent in the bodies, or consists in

is
on each other by impulse, as in con- the expulsion of an external agent

ceiving how one body can be the cause they regard it as one of the ultimate
of motion in another placed at a dis- phenomena to which the analysis of
64 MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. .
matter leads. Newton himself, partic- much less, Mr. Russell himself, per-
ularly cautions his readers against haps, would be willing to admit, when
supposing that there is really an at- applied to vessels. The extreme lu-
tractive force residing in the centre to- bricity of the fluid being frictionless,
wards which bodies tend, the centres must of necessity materially affect any
being only mathematical points. It change in the application of force.
will doubtless be discovered, from what Mr. Russell discovered that, the sum
has been shown, that cohesive attrac- total of the resistance on the anterior
tion forms a very material part of the part of a solid was found in the wave
resistance met by floating bodies, and generated at the surface; hence, by
that by a knowledge of, and a strict ad- this hypothesis, it was only necessary
herence to these laws, we are enabled to find the force required to generate
to modify the resistance on vessels, and that wave, and the resistance was de-
thus the advantages of science blended termined ; here, again, we are shown
with practice, are made manifest, not the imbecility of science without prac-
only to the thinking-man, but to the tical knowledge. Had Mr. Russell
casual observer. Mr. Russell, in his known that vessels have been built in
experiments, met with some results the United States so sharp, longitudi-
which are said to be of great value to nally, that at a speed of 20 miles per
practical men on hour they did not generate a wave on
the general problem
of the resistance of a fluid to a solid the anterior part, he would have hesi-
body; a department of science of which tated before launching that dogma
the mechanical world is avowedly igno- upon the commercial world. It will
rant. The assumption, that the fluid appear manifest to the thinking man,
impinging against a solid, or the solid that a vessel moving through the water
against the fluid, were the same, or must communicate a motion to the
produced the same results, must be re- particles of fluid with which it success-
garded as erroneous, and calculated to ively comes in contact. The quantity
mislead the inquirer after truth the of motion, therefore, communicated to
;
solid impinging against the fluid, not the fluid, is necessarily equal to that
only causes a greater elevation at the which is lost by the vessel, and as a
surface, but a greater disturbance, as a consequence is the measure of resist-
consequence beneath, of which the ance. We cannot pursue the subject
surface may be regarded as an index without giving an exposition of the
that the diflerence, however, would be prominent features of the attracting
power of and the pressure of whether the stern is adapted to the

gravity,
air, as forming one of the component bow, or the bow to the stern hence, ;
parts of the resistance .to be overcome it follows, that men of science, as well
in navigating oceans, lakes, or rivers. as men of practice, must forever grope
The power of gravity gives the same in the dark, while every man follows
velocity to all bodies, the truth of his own whims in shaping vessels, with-
which may be tested by removing the out reference to a system of propor-
pressure of the atmosphere. Every tions in accordance with the laws gov-
square foot of the surface of the ocean, erning the elements. Few men reflect,
as well as the earth, sustains a pressure when modelling vessels, that the after
of 2,160 pounds ; end of the vessel is operated on when
this, as a conse-
quence, in connection with gravitating performing her evolutions, by a force
and cohesive attraction, forms the re- that pulls directly aft, and that, while
sistance at the surface of the water propulsion may be centered at one
hence, it follows, that in the ocean, point, the resistance cannot be so lo-
where neither the shore nor bottom has cated. It has been already set down
any influence upon the vessel, the at- as a truism, that a vessel moving
mospheric pressure forms a large por- through the water, communicates a
tion of the resistance to be overcome motion to the same, and this quantity
by the vessel, apart from the cohesive of motion is equal to that which is lost
attraction to the vessel by the water. by the moving vessel. As vessels are
It has been found, that at an angle of now modelled without reference to a
six degrees on the line of flotation from universal system of proportions, an ap-
the longitudinal axis, or twelve degrees, proximation only can be made to the
with the two sides united, a wave was direct resistance this may be deter- ;
not generated at the highest speed that mined on the anterior part of the ves-
steamboats have attained in the United sel, and will answer for all ordinary
States thus, it is plain, that on the purposes, in the following manner
;
:
anterior part, the resistance was within Multiply the area (in square feet) of
2.1(30 pounds on every square foot of the immersed portion of the greatest
surface. It would be impossible to transverse section by 645 the weight
tell, however, what amount of resist- of one cubic foot of sea-water multi- ;
ance the posterior part of the vessel ply that product by the velocity in feet
meets, while the method of modelling per minute this product multiply by ;
is left to the eye. No builder knows .4, .5, or .6, as the shape of the ves-
6G MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE,
sel may require, the sharpest vessel re- monstration. It is a truism at once
quiring the lowest number, while the conceded, that an increase of speed is
fullest vessels demanding the higher. an increase of. resist a nee, where no
An example will perhaps illustrate changes have been made to diminish
Assuming the area of the greatest the same; the resistance is found at
transverse section to be 892 feet, and the two ends of the vessel, and the
the speed to be set down at fifteen power applied at or near the centre.
miles we have 1320 feet
per hour, Does it not appear quite manifest, that
per minute thus, we have 1320 x
;
between those two powers the vessel
892= 1177440x64 =75141120 x .4 = \ may be rent into fragments? It mat-
30056448 2240 = 13418 tons, 138
-r- ters not how strong she may have been
pounds per minute, in adverse pressure built, the resistance pressing the vessel
or resistance. In order to have this aft,and the power pressing forward,
resistance or pressure constant, the which may be increased to thousands
quotient or last number must be divi- of tons, will undoubtedly crush her if
ded by 60, and we have the sum of increased and continued. If proof
223 tons, 1420 pounds. But this were necessary, abundant may be
amount of resistance is not wholly de- afforded in the wholesale failures on
pendent upon the length or shape of steamboats, from which little appears
the anterior part ; the amount of the have been learned.
to There are
propelling power, and its application, steamboats running on the Hudson
have much to do with the resistance ;
River, that will not bear the power
neither does it follow, that the same they already possess, having a plumb-
mean angle of resistance on the inte- side, a hard bilge, and a flat bottom, at
rior part, with the same area of great- the same time having a large amount
est transverse section or (g) frame, will of resistance with a proportionate
attain the same speed with the same amount of power, they groan beneath
amount of propulsion. There is a defi- a load too intolerable to be borne the ;
nite amount of speed peculiar to every effects are both felt and seen, particu-
shape, and belonging to every shape, larly in shoal water, where it not uii-
and beyond which, if forced, the vessel frequently occurs, that steamboats
will not go without hazard. This ground where there is from one to
principle, the author is aware, has not two feet more water than would be
been received with favour ; but he ven- required to float them when in a state
tures to assert the possibility of its de- of rest. The proper form or shape
that will effectually obviate this discre- are thus directed; and it must be elearto
pancy, will appear when it is known the thinking man, that a greater num-
that the direction of the opposing in- ber of particles is set in motion on a
fluence, or the direction of the resist- vessel having a certain surfaced area
ance, is met at right angles from every of displaced fluid, and also a greater
part of the immersed surface of the proportion of flat surface, than another
vessel ; hence it follows, as an inevit- having less, in other respects equal ;
able consequence, that vessels present- those disturbed particles furnish a reg-
ing to the action of the fluid a large ulating medium at the stern of the ves-
area of flat surface, must, in propor- sel, and the extent of the disturbance
tion to the amount of that surface, determines the amount of speed, inas-
have a large amount of direct resist- much as the vessel, by her shape, fur-
ance. It matters not as far as the ac- nishes more or less cohesive attraction,
whether the flat surface and in the proportion of the cohesion
tion extends,
be on the side or under the bottom, is the speed of the vessel, the one
the deductive results of experiments having the least is found to be the
already shown have set this question fastest. This may, to many, seem pa-
at rest, the prejudices of public opin- radoxical, inasmuch as some of our
ion to the contrary, notwithstanding coasting vessels are remarkably fast
and were further proof required, we sailers, and are perfectly flat, (hence, it
have only to point to the steamboat seems to follow, that theory and prac-
New World, having doubtless a greater tice disagree.) It will appear clear
amount of surface perfectly flat, than upon a moment's reflection, that all
any other vessel near the sea-board of science in modelling vessels must be
the western world. The direction of based upon the equilibrium of fluids,
the resistance being at right angles and all systems void of this inherent
from the outside surface, it follows, quality, must be spurious, and will
that the lines usually called water- eventually fall to the ground. It mat-
lines, are improperly named, being ters not in what direction the vessel
only parallels to the line of flotation, parts the water; if'a light draught of
and not lines of resistance. We do not water is desirable, it may be obtained,
mean that the water passes in the di- as in the sloop of our rivers, or as in
rection of lines running diagonally, as the steamboats. It is not the draught
such course would indicate, but that of water, or the angle of rise on the
the spherical motion of the molecules transverse section, that exhibits those
objectionable features so detrimental to the first ; the attrition of so many mo-
speed, but tbe perfectly flat plane pre- lecules at the same time from the bot-
sented tor attractive cohesion. AVater, tom of the
and the bottom of the vessel
as has been observed, is a frictionless river, causes an augmentation of pres-
body, hence, the manifest deductive sure and disturbance consequently, a ;
principle, were there no other, that commensurate loss of buoyancy, and

at the least inclination or disturb- the particles being unequally pressed,
ance, the efforts to be relieved of seek an equilibrium around the vessel
the pressure are sudden and irregular, rather than under her ; whereas, had
and that a sheet of water below its the vessel presented no perfectly flat
level at the surface cannot be held surface, but the lines gradually rising
with a steady pressure when that sheet in every direction, so that the direction
is in the form of a plane ; this truth is of the forces would not have been par-
recognised even by the school-boy, allel, it will be clearly perceived that
who plays with his boat in the gurgling the sheet forward of the greatest trans-
brook. We have but to reflect that verse section could not have found
the direction of the forces are parallel an equilibrium by passing aft without
on the bottom or side, and, as a
flat encountering a still greater pressure,
consequence, it is as easy to move the inasmuch as the ® would be the lowest,
sheet of fluid in one direction as and the surface forward would be more
another ; hence, when relief is ob- elevated than the sheet aft but the ;
tained from the pressure, all the mole- great and universal law remains yet to
cules move in the direction of the least be described. Inasmuch as all and
pressure,and as a consequence, the every molecule of the fluid is spherical,
whole mass presenting the flat surface and revolves around its own centre, so
moves at once, and in the same direc- every molecule is least disturbed by
tion, disturbing all the contiguous appropriating a line of direction to it-
particles in a greater degree than they self alone the motion of the molecules ;
could under other circumstances have thus directed prevents their crowding
been disturbed thus we can philosoph- on each other, and upon this, the
;
ically arrive at the reason why a steam- whole theory not only of equilibriated
boat having a greater area of flat bot- gravity in fluids but of resistance rests ;
tom than another, will ground in shoal whether from cohesive attraction or
water, while another having less will from attrition.it all centres in this uni-
pass clear, drawing more water than versal law. But again, we may follow
this subject farther, perhaps, with profit cedent, and that they had rather guess
to our readers, by showing the results at what they want, even though they
or the effects of an extensive area of should be compelled to pay for the
flat surface on some of our steamboats second effort thousands of dollars. All
;
the biljje connecting the side with the parties concerned in these wholesale
bottom being short, the consequence blunders have become so accustomed
-
is, that but a small sheet of water passes to this mode of piecing and patching
between the wheel and the edge of the steamboats, that it seems to be regard-
flat of the bottom this column (for wa- ed as unavoidable
; and if a company ;
ter may be so considered, the pressure or an individual is so fortunate as to

being the same horizontal as vertical) obtain a boat that req uires no altera-
being pressed by the sheet under the tions, they or he is congratulated on
bottom, and attracted by the water- their success in securing the services
wheel, gives place to the unequal of men who have guessed so near.
pressure, and is filled up by the sheet Science, or the principles of philoso-
below; and thus a continual current is phy, seem to have been set aside alto-
formed while the wheel is in motion gether, as unworthy of the Anglo-
and this current diminishes the buoy- Saxon race. Public opinion has been
ancy very materially, and that too, in melted in the crucible of precedent, and
the very place it is most needed, under moulded into a bundle of prejudices.
the engine ; thus, it will be perceived, Were steamboat companies to unite in
that the means adopted to sustain the and continue experiment-
this matter,
engine, support the vessel, and keep ing on the same boat, they might ar-
her in proper shape, are the very cause rive at something tangible but this ;
of her being broken-backed, and set- would bespeak a want of knowledge

tling down under the engine a fact that they are unwilling to admit.
:
too well known to be questioned, the Resistance presents itself to the mind
cause of which has been sought only of the mechanic in other forms, and is
among the many false notions of the known by other names than those al-
age. It is a well-known fact, that ready enumerated. All the force op-
millions of dollars have been spent in posing the vessel's progress is abso-
this city alone on wholesale experi- lute resistance, whether met on the
ments on steamboats, on which the bow or on the stern. On sailing ves-
projectors have given the clearest evi- sels there are two kinds of resistance
dence of their blind adherence to pre- that steamboats do not encounter: the
first is called lateral resistance, or the tion ; but whendraw an
ships that
opposing force which the vessel pre- equal draught of water when leaving
sents to drifting to leeward, at right- port, are found from one to three feet
angles, or at any other angle with her by the head at sea, we are led to con-
course. This resistance is unlike other elude that the distribution of the pro-
retarding forces and a vessel cannot he pulsive power has been improperly
;
said to he a fair sailer unless she possess made; the inequality existing between
a proportionate degree of lateral re- the lines of emergence ami immersion
sistance inasmuch as a loss of late- is to some extent unavoidable, hut as
;
ral resistance amounts to a corres- far as may be, they can be equalized
ponding loss of speed for it follows as with great advantage to the vessel.
;
an inevitable consequence, that all the Experiments have clearly indicated,

propulsive power expended on the lee- that by rendering the mean-angle of
way would he added to the head-way resistance more acute on the anterior
were the vessel to make no lee-way part, the greatest transverse section
in other words, were the absolute re- may be located farther aft, and the
sistance converted into lateral, in a lines of resistance on the after-body
given time the vessel would be farther swelled out to advantage for speed or
advanced in her onward course, the But this augmentation of dis-
stability.
propulsive power remaining unchanged. placement on the posterior, and a di-
It does not, however, follow, that the minution on the anterior parts, should
vessel having the most lateral resist- be distributed very differently from what
ance, has also the least absolute ; it has been usually witnessed. First, it
not unfrequently happens, that a large is important that the resistance should
amount of both is found in the same be distributed as near equally as is-
vessel. The second and denomi- consistent with the employment of the
last
nation of resistance that is not peculiar vessel, on every line of resistance be-
to steamboats, and only applicable to low the line of flotation the lines of ;
sailing vessels, is consequent upon the resistance on the after-body may be

leverage, and the inequality of the lines filled out to great advantage below the
of immersion and emergence that surface of the water, and by so doing,
;
part of the resistance consequent upon we may materially diminish the con-
the leverage would indeed be small, stant strain aft that exists, consequent
were the centre of the propulsive upon the resistance on the posterior
power in all cases in its proper loca- part, wheU vessels are performing their
evolutions. We have but to look at the false notion, that, because most of
the white foam that skirts the surface the various species of fish are largest
of the contiguous columns on certain near the head, and have their greatest
parts of the line of flotation of ordinary transverse section forward of the cen-
modeled vessels, to learn from whence tre must necessarily
of their length, it
conies this after-tow by filling out the follow, that the ship must be so con-
;
after-body, we do not mean that ir- structed, and when the buoyancy or
regular shape so characteristic of Eng- displacement is thus arranged, the ves-
under the old tonnage laws, sel is best adapted to all the purposes
lish ships
taken from the stereotyped editions of of commerce. The author can dis-
English works on Naval Architecture cover no analogy existing between
;
the ponderous buttocks would be re- the ship and fish in their evolutions
moved^ and an equal bulk placed in through the trackless deep. Were
the part requiring augmentation : in a this fallacious dogma not set at rest by
word, the displacement would be regu- experiment in the scientific world, it
lated to act in concert with the resist- would perhaps be worthy of more than
ance. a passing glance. A body, partly im-
A very popular mode of reasoning mersed, meets with much more resist-
upon the subject of resistance is worthy ance than one wholly immersed, at a
of notice, not on account of its approx- corresponding speed the body wholly ;
imation to any standard of truth, as immersed, displaces a volume of fluid,

deduced from science, experiments, or the magnitude of which is precisely
daily practice, but on account of its the same as that of the body itself,
predominating influence over the minds while the volume of fluid displaced by
of young mechanics, who are beginning the floating body is just equal to the
to think for themselves, and who will entire weight of that body and it ne- ;
shine in the road to science, when un- cessarily follows, that a body wholly
shackled from those venerated notions immersed, meets with the same amount
so prevalent in the commercial world. of resistance at every change of posi-
There is not the case with \essels
a striking analogy supposed to tion, which is
exist between the resistance to be partially immersed the ship must con- ;
overcome by the ship, and that met tend with the bufferings of two ele-
and overcome by the fish ; hence, the ments, while the fish knows but one,
reason why many vessels are propelled and that one always tranquil. But
with the wrong end foremost, under another difficulty, in addition to many,
presents itself—the ship should not The laws of propulsion claim our
draw more than half as much water attention, and seem to be almost in-
aft as forward, and she should be much separably connected with resistance* as
less buoyant aft, so that it will be there can be no propulsion without re-
readily perceived the analogy does not sistance. The term, however, has no
appear so great after all —the fish pos- application to a body moving on a
sessing also within itself the elements rigid plane. In its most comprehen-
of impulsion. Under some circumstan- sive sense, it may be defined as being
ces the ship meets with more resist- applicable only to such bodies as are
ance from the wind than she would if sustained on a fluid, for the evident
wholly immersed, and propelled at a reason, that no body sustained on a
corresponding velocity ; or the same rigid plane by the centre of gravity.
amount of power applied upon a vessel can be moved without the application
wholly immersed, would produce an of an excess of power over that con-
equal amount of speed, apart from the centrated at the same. The law of mo-
resistance of the water which would tion, under such circumstances, would
be found to equal the first. It is not properly belong to another branch of

unfrequently the ease, that the power mechanics. When force is applied to
of the waves and wind more than a floating body, it yields to the impulse,
is
equal to all the power of a propulsory however feeble that impulsive power
nature that can be brought to bear on may be if it be a continued pressure
;
a ship, while at the same time the re- the body must move in the direction
sistance below the water partakes of of the force applied, unless there be
no perceptible change, or some countervailing power acting at
is not in-
creased. The resistance of the atmos- the same time in an opposite direction ;
phere has seldom been brought into and the relative connection between
the account when summing up the the moving body and the impulsive
whole amount to be overcome, when it power is the speed attained. Here,
is remembered, that upon every square again, we see equilibrated weight in
inch of surface a pressure is sustained floating bodies, standing out in drastic
of fifteen pounds, and some reference contrast with equilibrium in the same
should be had to this part of the resist- body when on a rigid plane. Resist-
ance, when modelling that part of the ance increases under the same circum-
hull above the greatest immersed line stances in proportion as the density of
of Hotation. the fluidincreases by which the float-
ing body is sustained ; and were it pos- way, hence, the reason why all vessels
sible for tbe fluid on which a ves- have their sails so arranged, that when
sel floats become of equal density
to rilled by the wind (although braced up
with the earth, and at the same time to the sharpest point) the impulsive
occupy no larger space than when a direction is aft of the direction of the
fluid, beam. It should be remembered, that
the vessel, instead of being sus-
tained by a portion, being immersed, whatever may be the angle which
would continue to rise until she would the direction of the wind makes with
rest on the surface under such cir- the plane of the sails, the only effective
:
cumstances, it would require a power force of the wind on the sail is that
more than equal to the weight of the part of the whole force which can be
vessel to move her, without the appli- resolved into a direction perpendicular
cation of measures to reduce the fric- to the surface of the sails ; therefore,
tion. In solid bodies floating on fluids, whatever may be the whole force of
the angle of surface in juxtaposition the wind, its effective force will vary
with the fluid and area of such as the angle which the direction of the
itself,
surface, determine the ratio of resist- wind makes with the sail, and as the
ance on vessels or bodies of equal velocity of the ship is in proportion to
bulk. We have shown that motion the effective force of the wind, it will
cannot be imparted to a solid body in also (all things else remaining un-
equilibrium floating on a fluid, without changed) vary this angle see Fig. 7. —
the application of external force ; but It is evident, that when the ship is
it does not follow that the impulse under sail, the direction of its motion
must be received in the direction of should coincide with the direction of
tbe motion thus imparted, for the evi- the keel, inasmuch as the amount of
dent reason, that the effect produced is resistance encountered on the immersed
at right angles with the surface or part of the hull is less when the ship
angle of the plane receiving the im- moves in that direction than it is when
pulse, as shown in Fig. 7 ; hence, the the line of motion meets the ship ob-
reason why vessels can be impelled liquely; all that part of the force of the
within a few points of wind which acts in any other direction
tilt direction of
the wind and were vessels' sails so ar- than that of the keel, must be a hin-
;
ranged, that the right-angled impulsive drance to her progress, and tends to
power would be in the direction of the force her in a direction in which she
beam, the vessel could make no head- will meet with an increased resistance
10
74 MARINE AM) NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
from the water. From what has been isapproaching or leaving the
either
shown, this increased resistance or re- shore, and her head is constantly kept
tarding tendency must necessarily oc- at the same point of the compass, her
cur under every circumstance of the course will be along the line of the
action of the wind on the sails of a ship lee-way, and by taking the bearing of
or other vessel, excepting in that under an object on shore, we may, at the ex-
which the trim of the sail is in the di- piration of a stated time, take the
rection of the beam, or at right-angles angle again, and the difference between
with the keel of the ship. From two angles will be the angle of
this these
exposition, the angle of lee-way de- lee-way. But as the pursuit of this
pends wholly on the angle of the sail subject is less congenial to mechanics
with the line of the keel of the vessel, than to nautical men, we will pursue
without any reference to the velocity the legitimate subject of the article
of the ship; and the whole question of under consideration. The centre of
equilibrium existing between the force propulsion should be located perpen-
of the wind and the resistance of the dicular to the centre of displacement,
water resolves itself into the foreyoino for the evident reasons, if placed lor
conclusion, assuming the wind to be ward of the centre of displacement, (it
invariable, and the velocity of the ship is like a fulcrum on a precarious foun-
to remain unchanged. But as the va- dation,) the bow yields to the pressure,
riation in the force of the wind causes and the ship brought by the head
is :
a change in the velocity of the ship, a hence, the reason why so many ships
consequent change takes place in the lose their trim at sea when under a press
angle of lee-way, and no writer has of sail. The reasons almost universally
ever been able to produce a tangible assigned (when a reason can be given
theory upon this subject but the dis-
; for crowding so much sail forward) are
tance a ship falls leeward of her to prevent the ship from carrying too
to
course in any given time, may, witli much of the weather helm in other ;
rare exceptions, be easily ascertained, words, to prevent her strong tendenej

and tables formed from actual obser- to come to the wind. The laws of
vation for ships. In the open sea, the leverage ma™ be aptly applied to tin
amount of lee-way made in a given sails of a ship. The centre of effort
time, may be measured by the angle of all the sails (or, as the term will
of the ship's wake, with the line of her perhaps be better understood, the
keel or a line on deck. When a ship ((Mitre of propulsion) may, like the
«•
fulcrum, be concentrated at a single head of all the lower and continue

sails,
point, and represented as sustaining to do so alternately on the foot and

all the forces tending to propel the head of all the sails, the lines running
ship ; but like the centre of gravity, parallel to the first now measure the
;
it is an imaginary axis, and yet it is altitude from the head of the royal to
the index which will faithfully exhibit the foot of the lower sails, deducting
any discrepancy of moment in the dis- the openings between the lines repre-
tribution of the propelling power. senting the head of one sail and the foot
Plate 1 is designed to illustrate one of of the next above; the remaining alti-
the methods adopted in Europe among tude divide into equal parts, and draw
men of science, of locating the centre ordinates or lines representing those
of propulsion forward of the centre of divisions, setting down the length of
the vessel, longitudinally divided on the those lines —half of the upper and lower
load-line of flotation ; the plate is the lines only should be taken — add all
representation of a three-masted fore those lengths together, and divide by

and main topsail schooner, with the the number of parts, and you have the
centre of propulsion 3^ feet forward of whole area of sail, the centre of which
the centre of load-line. Some Euro- is the centre of propulsion, or, as is
pean architects place this point a rela- sometimes called, the centre of effort.
tive distance from the centre of dis- It does not, however, follow, that any
placement, which is an approximation number of square feet above this point
to the true method of distribution. It will effect the same that an equal
will be observed, that not only the number will below, either on the velo-
,
centre of the area of all the sail is dis- city or the stability of the ship ; for it
tinctly marked, but that the centre of must be at once apparent, that if the
the surface of every sail is also marked ;
laws of leverage are applicable to the
and by having the centre and the distribution of sail on a ship or other
whole area of all the sails marked at vessel, that the farther from the ful-
their respective places, we are able crum, the less the weight required to
readily to determine an equivalent to accomplish the same purpose hence, ;
the whole. Or, we may adopt another it is plain, that one square foot of the
course to acquire the same results royal, the wind blowing with a given
:
Draw a line that may be regarded as force, will not propel the ship with an
the mean base of all the lower sails, equal velocity that the same surface
and another, that may designate the under the same pressure would near
the hull of the vessel, for the followingupon the direction of the impulse, and
reasons the power exerted on the sail the action of the wind on the hull and
:
aloft has a much greater tendency to rigging, which augments the lee-way.
careen the vessel, and as a consequence, Persons unaccustomed to attend to

her best sailing position is departed these things are apt to imbibe a notion
from. The advantage of lofty sails that the velocity of a ship can have no
are, however, apparent from a know- sensible proportion to that of the wind.
ledge of the fact that currents of wind " Swift as the wind" is a proverbial
are often felt above, that do not de- expression ;
yet, the velocity of a ship
scend to the surface of the ocean. always bears a sensible ratio to that of
But, although the same area of sail the wind, and even very frequently
aloft has a much greater tendency to exceeds it. Fig. 7 exhibits the phi-
heel the ship, yet it must also be losophy of sailing by the wind. Many
borne in mind, that the sails are much have doubtless wondered how vessels
smaller aloft, and continue to decrease could sail partly in the direction from
in size in proportion to their altitude ;
which the wind blows. It will be ob-
and this principle should always govern by referring to the diagram,
served,
us in the distribution of sail, as will be that the yards are braced as sharp as
shown more fully in Ghap. XII., on they may be to advantage, and that the
masting and sparring. wind is represented as blowing in the
If a ship were a cylindrical body, direction of nearly one point farther
like a tub, floating on its bottom or aft ; hence, it will be quite apparent,
flat side, and fitted with a mast, that the sheet of wind acting on the
and sail in the centre, she would al- sail is wedging the vessel along, and
ways sail in a direction perpendicular that the direction of the force is shown
to, or at right-angles with the yard, by the dotted line which is at right-an-
and as a consequence, would make no gles with the yard or sail : also, that
lee-way but, being an oblong body,

; the same line as before stated, must
may be compared to a chest, whose indicate the force as being aft of the
length greatly exceeds its breadth, and beam, or the vessel can make no head-
being so shaped that a moderate force way. Much, however, may be gained
will propel her head or stern foremost, by a proper distribution of the surface
while it requires a very great force to of sail, in order that one part or end
propel her sideways with the same ve- of the ship may neither have more, nor
locity. The lee-way depends wholly yet less than the buoyancy actually
requires. It is not a little surprising, course, that will regard the form of the
that to the present time nothing has an invariable index in an ar-
vessel as
been done in the United States to- rangement of so much importance.
wards systematizing the distribution of About the time the ship's decks are
the propelling power in sailing vessels ;
framed, the builder furnishes the
but each builder carves out a path for owner with a sketch-draft, or the di-
himself; and among the many notions mensions of the spars of the ship he is
that grow into rank luxuriance among building for his approval ; by this
commercial men, none bears a more course, the responsibility is divided, the
glaring resemblance to superstition, builder relieved, and the vanity of the
than those pertaining to the propul- owner flattered. All ship-builders do
sion of vessels ; hence, the reason of not, however, pursue this course, but
so much mysticism each builder
; some have one peculiar to themselves,
clings
to his stereotyped notions with a tena- supposing they know enough in rela-
city scarcely witnessed in other mat- tion to the subject before them, and
ters. would seem, that if experience without consultation, furnish the spar-
It
was the great and grand palladium of maker with a schedule of dimensions.
success, (a quality claimed by its adhe- We shall endeavor, in its appropriate
rents,) that would have done some- place, to show what is yet required
it to
thing ere this, towards making a reliable enable the ship-builder to exclaim
Behold the genius of mechanic's skill

!
Ploughs trackless furrows at her master's will,

As if endowed with artificial life,
To lash an ocean into angry strife !

CHAPTER III.
—
Importance of a Knowledge of the location of the Centre of Effort Method of obtaining it The Model, an —
— — —
American Invention Its Advantages Its Origin Its complete Adaptation to our Wants Instructions —
for making them.
In this, as in the former chapter, deduced by strict geometri-

it all results
will be found that a judicious union of cal inference from the laws of motion
theory and practice is necessary to are found by actual experience to be
carry the branches of which it treats perfectly consistent with matter of fact,
onward towards perfection the two when subjected to the most decisive
;
must be united —and harmo- trials, yet, in the application of these

cordially
niously united; practice must not de- laws to the subject in question, diffi-
cline the assistance of theory, nor must culties often occur, either from the
theory disdain to be taught the lessons obscure nature of the conditions, or
of practice. " There are many princi- the intricate analytical operations aris-
ples," says Mr. Atwood, (a distinguished ing from them, which either renders it
writer upon this science,) " deducible impracticable to obtain a solution, or
from the laws of mechanics, which it if a result is obtained, it is expressed
is probable no species of experiment, in terms so involved and complicated,
however long as to become in a manner useless to
or series of observations,
continued, would discover and there any purpose. Thus, the mathemati-
;
are others no less important, which cian has thrown barriers in the path
have been practically determined with to knowledge on this science bent on ;
sufficient exactness —the investigation his purpose, he gives a solution to a

of which scarcely
it is possible to infer problem, while \ie is perfectly indiffer-
from the laws of motion—the compli- ent whether the world can or cannot
cated and ill-defined nature of the con- comprehend the same. And it is re-
ditions, in particular instances, render- how many instances

markable, in un-
ing analytical operations founded on educated men have anticipated the
them liable to soundest deductions of the most en-
uncertainty." It is
true, indeed, as the same writer re- larged theories, particularly in the Uni-
marks in another place, that, although ted States; so" much so, that they have
become proverbial. one of the will be recognised when it is remem-

It is
instinctives of Genius to mark out an bered that artificial stability cannot

independent course of action. The compensate its loss. But while many
untutored savage, though a stranger to assent to the dogma, few indeed have
Newton's law of motion, applies given the subject that attention its im-
third
it to practical use, when he sets his portance demands. Ship-builders in
canoe afloat by pushing with a pole the United States have had recourse
against the shore, or by adding a mo- to analogy for determining the propor-
mentum to his missile weapons, by tions of this important property, which
gaining an eminence. The perhaps in ordinary cases may answer
practical
knowledge the builder of a canoe exer- every purpose; but cases have occurred
cises, is obtruded on the organs of ex- in which our most prominent builders
ternal sense by the hand of nature have been left entirely in the dark upon
herself. The Indian found, for ex- this subject : hence the necessity of
ample, that a particular disposition of a rule of reference upon a subject of
the sail of his little bark would give it such vast importance. To illustrate
greater velocity than any other ;a the principles upon which the stability
change of position of his own body, or of equilibrium depends, it will be ne-
of a stone in the bottom of his canoe, cessary to assume certain conditions
would alike influence its sailing quali- from which we may be able to deduce
ties. These to him would be maxims tangible results. If a ship has been
of great practical value for, by the
; brought by any force out of her erect
operation of this instinctive genius two position, it is important that the cir-
objects were accomplished by the same cumstances be indicated by which she

movement; for, while he made abetter will again adopt it ; this ability is very
distribution of the buoyancy, he also properly called stability, and the amount
augmented the stability, and as a con- of effort exerted for the recovery of the
sequence increased the speed. Thus erect position is the index showing the
we perceive, that without the aid of value of, or the amount of stability, and
science, man may be brought to the as a consequence, the greater efforts
recognition of its fundamental laws, or to maintain the erect position, the
to the discovery of this most important greater the stability of the vessel. It
truth, viz., that stability is an all-import- must be quite apparent to the most
ant qualification. casual observer, that an addition to the
The importance of natural stability breadth of a vessel adds to the stability.
But how much has been added to the Suppose A. D. B., Fig. 8, to be the
by increasing the breadth one greatest transverse section or dead-flat
stability
inch or one foot, are questions that frame of a vessel in the position of its
the most experienced cannot answer stability ; draw a vertical line through
from experience alone he must have
; the centre of gravity of the section,
recourse to mathematical expositions, and it will be found that in this line
which furnish the basis of every intel- the centre of displacement or the centre
lectual art in the catalogue. It must be of gravity of displacement is located,
remembered that the whole theory of either above or below E., which repre-
stability is embodied in the emergence sents the centre of gravity. Careen the
and emersion of that part of the ves- vessel as in Fig. 9, and let F. be the
sel in the immediate vicinity of the line centre of displacement ; draw a vertical
of flotation — in other words, the vessel line from F. until it intersects the mid-
being careened, a portion of one side is dle line D. C. at G., above the centre
immersed, while the opposite side is of absolute gravity E., at which point
emerged ;consequently, the power or the whole weight of the vessel is con-
effort exerted by the immersed side to centrated, and as a consequence, the
push the vessel upright, and the lever- value of E. is the entire weight of the
age of the opposite side to pull down- vessel. Before proceeding farther, we
ward the index, showing that power is will examine the peculiar properties of
increased or diminished by adding to or M., which is found to be the point
detracting from the breadth of the ves- where the two lines of flotation cross
sel, or by adding to or taking from the each other, viz.,, the upright and the
depth, and is all that is expressed in careened lines, and as a consequence,

the solution of the problem of stability. the efforts of the water to right the ves-
We shall endeavor to give a clear and sel are centered at F., in a vertical line
luminous exposition of this subject in from M., and operate at G. when the
all its bearings and if the reader will vessel is drawn aside from her erect
;
follow us attentively, we think he can- position. E. works downwards in a

not fail to understand this subject, vertical line, as from E. to L., and
which has perplexed mechanics in the pushing powers upwards con- ;
every age, and which may, with truth, sequently these forces turn the body or
be regarded as one of the most diffi- incline the ship to right, when the
cult problems in the science of building power that careened her is removed,
ships. and she floats with stability. But if
the centre of gravity of the displaced From (2) MCBL X RT= ALM X q (3)
water be at H, and the vertical H J But ALM = LBN (4)
meets GD between E and D, as in Fig-. Substituting (3) and (4) in (1)
9, then the pressure of the water acts MCN x E H= LBN x h (5)
upwards in the direction H J, and the

making j> + q =h
weight of the body downwards in the Whence E H= ""'J**!? x h (6)
"'•MCN
direction E L ; these forces will there-
fore have a tendency to turn the body If the distance ES=i, and the an-
still farther from its former position, gle H P E cp =
and it floats without stability this will S G = E H —d
: sin ?
be a state of instantaneous equilibrium. NLB TOl -
= voi.
—
MCN
X h — cl sin <f> (7)/
V
Through F the centre of gravity of

the displaced fluid, draw the vertical Designating the weight of the vessel
line F M G intersecting C D in G ; the by m, the moment of stability will be
point G is called the meta-centre, or as
N L B—
we have denominated the centre of 971 h
.
—d sin is
( MCN
(8)
it,
+ )
effort ; it is evident from what precedes,
that the equilibrium will be stable when The upper sign is to be used when
G is above E, and instantaneous when S is above E, and the lower sign in the
it is below E. contrary case,
To determine the centre of effort, let
£p= EJI = NLB ilA
S (Fig. 10) be the centre of gravity of sin <p MCN sin?
the body, E that of the displacement in the distance from the centre of displace-
the erect position of the vessel, and F ment to the centre of effort.
in its inclined position, h, ti and R the We will now determine the analyti-
centres of gravity of N L B, A L M and cal values of E H, E P, &c. If we
BLMC respectively. If through the suppose the floating body to be a little
point E we draw a vertical plane at inclined, the plane of flotation AB is re-

right ancles to the section NC A, and placed by PN ; these two planes cut
take the moments with reference to this by a vertical plane, give? the section
plane, we have, if we represent the per- N L B if we continue to draw : parallel
pendiculars from h' and h upon E J by vertical planes, we shall divide the solid
p and q. into an infinite number of elementary

MCNx E H = MC B L x RT + LBX Xj(l) solids parallel to N L B.
A C B x = M C B L x KT-ALM
o x q (2) If we take the common intersection
it
of the two planes N L M and B L A for If we suppose d x to be finite, and

the axis of x, and place the axis of y that the vertical planes parallel to ACN
perpendicular to that of x, in the plane are equidistant from each other —the
N L, tlie ordinates will be the perpen- ordinates being y x, y„, y 3 &c,
,
diculars N L, N' L N" L", &c.

, If the
_|-sin
3 3
+ lh + 2/3+-
3
%s\n<p^yidx
infinitely small, AL = LB, EH <P (yi .)</.r
angle cp lie
therefore C 3 3
P = q =t y and h = p + q = I y EP = %\ yi + y-2 + ..} rfa; 5 >/, d .T

V
The area of the section BDN is
& sin <f>.

y" = h. <f>
y~ (10)
Moment
stability
of
mQ sin <p § yi dx — rf sin <p
j
Multiplying this section by dx, we shall
have for the contents of the elementary Hence, to calculate the moment of
solid BDN,h stability, we must know the distance
£ <p y" d x from the centre of gravity of the vessel
and for its moment, to that of the displacement ; as it is
£ <P y- dx x §y =J <p y
3
dx inconvenient in most cases to deter-
Hence mine the centre of gravity of the ship,
(11) l vf'f~ d Jo = sum of the elementary solids. the usual method in comparing the
(12) iffy 3 dx= sum of the moments of the stability of different ships is, to suppose
elementary solids.
two centres coincide.
that the
If we substitute these values in equa- The calculation of Si y\ dx is to be
tions, (6,) (7,) (8) and represent performed in the same manner as in
and (9,)
the volume of the displacement by V, calculating the area of a plane figure,
we have the cubes of the ordinates being used
§ sin <p
J* y
3
dx instead of the ordinates.
EH: (13)
In the division of the ordinates in the
§ sin <p y* if dx
— upper water-line, there remain the two
SG <Z sin <p (14)
V triangles r a a and id h h', which must
EP JfV 3
dx
(15)
be included in the calculation.
V For such a triangle l y\ dx is equal
cube of the base of the triangle
Moment
stab ;£/ — § sin <?>
y*
—d sin <p
J
(16)
to the
(Fig. 13) multiplied by one-fourth of its
height ; a be the base of the
for, if tri-
angle, and b the height, then a = \ b,
and the middle ordinate is \ a. =

S4 MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE,
placement, the ship is just as likely to of gravity emerges by the inclination of
upset as to come back ; in a ship of the ship, the centre of displacement
proportionate dimensions the centre of becomes the oscillating point, and the
gravity is low, and, (when properly distance between the centre of dis-
shaped,) the centre of buoyancy high placement and the centre of gravity will
;
the ship would then return to the determine how much farther the ship
erect position, even though the keel will go without being able to return to
were above the surface of the water, the upright position. The centre of
when the force that careened her was effort should not be less than eight feel
removed. It is only those ill-shaped above the centre of displacement, in
disproportionate ships that are thrown order that the ship may have a sufli
down on beam ends
their ; it is possible ciency of stability for sea voyages.
that any ship may be thus stricken This applies to ships of from eight hun-
down, but in nine cases out of ten they dred to one thousand tons burthen.
are such ships as have a high centre of There can be no invariable rule given
absolute gravity, and a low centre of that will apply to all sizes and descrip-
displacement. In looking into this tions of vessels. The centre of dis-
important part of the science of ship- placement, however, will regulate the.
building, the mechanic will receive an index that

an centre of effort, and is
additional stock of information by cut- will exhibit any discrepancy of magni-

ting a piece of pasteboard to the shape tude in the ship's proportionate dimen-
of the greatest transverse section, mark- sions. In the United States the proper
ing the lines of flotation, the centre of location of the centre of this particular
gravity and the centre of displacement force is seldom if ever thought of, while
as taken from the calculations ; he will in different parts of Europe among men
then discover the mannerinwhieh these of science it is seldom forgotten, and is
forces perform their evolutions around found within certain prescribed limits,
the centre of motion a pin or needle which multiplied by the height of the
;
may represent the axis. It should be re- load-line above the base, will furnish a
membered that the area of the immersed medium as well as the extremes beyond
surface or the solid of immersion must be which it should not be placed vertically ;
invariable, notwithstanding the line of its longitudinal limits are equally well
flotation is changing at every change defined. The vertical maximum dis-
in the inclination. It must also be re- tance below the load-line is, .4 x by
membered that as soon as the centre the height or multiplied by II; the mi-
iiiiiiLim distance below the load-line is
.3215 x by H, and the medium distance

below the load-line is .3623 x by H.
For example, we assume the load-line
of a ship to be fourteen feet above the
base-line, we have then
Feet.
SG MARINE AND NAY AL ARCHITECTURE.
tions, while the same line contains the equals one hundred; this last product
same results in all the columns of the is half of the horizontal moments from
first division, or as tar as the first num- section40 to frame p. In the right-
bers of reference extend. The first hand column of the fortieth line of each
twenty lines contain the half-breadths water-line calculation, we have the half
of the frames or sections from the mid- horizontal moments of the part forward
dle line to the several water-lines on of p, obtained, as will be seen by refer-
which they are taken; and on their re- ing to the table in the same manner;
spective frames, the rule under this this sum must be added to the amount
system requires alternate multipliers, aft of p. The half area of the water-
the products of which are added toge- line, to which the calculation belongs,
ther as on the twenty-first line, this sum is divided into the sum total of the
is divided by three, and the quotient mul- horizontal moments, and the quotient
tiplied by ten, because the sections or furnishes the distance (in feet and deci-
fourth frames are ten feet apart. The mal parts as explained on page 3) from
last product is, as will be seen on the section 40 to the centre of displace-
twenty-fourth line, the half area of the ment of the same, (or the centre of
line on which it is taken aft of frame gravity.) In order to obtain the centre
p. The on the of gravity of the keel we may proceed
vertical line of figures
rieht of each water-line column are the as follows: Length of keel, straight-
products obtained by multiplying the rabbet, 213 feet, half area between rab-
number of the sections from frame 40, bets siding direction or transversely .5,
by the last product, and from which is then we have this formula,
obtained half the horizontal moments. Length. Breadth. Square feet.
The moment (whether horizontal or

213 X .5 = 106.5
vertical) is the quantity multiplied by the half area. It then follows that the
the distance of its centre of gravity centre of gravity is 106.3 feet distant
from a fixed plane. Now, the fixed from section 40. Therefore, 106.5 x
plane is section 40 ; the quantity is 106.3 = 11310.3 the half horizontal
found in the products of the half moments of the keel. The next cal-
breadths multiplied by the rule of alter- culation we shall endeavor to explain,
nate multipliers. The sum of the last will be that of obtaining the centre of
column divided by and the quo- the entire displacement from the half
three,
tient multiplied by the square of the area of the water-lines, and their hori-
section distance, which is ten feet, zontal moments, as found in the middle
cqIuiiius of the
lower section of the sults we have, we think, made it per-
g #
tables, it will be seen that the rule of fectly intelligible to an ordinary mind.
alternate multipliers is also used here, The half-breadths of the sections are
and the same course is pursued as in taken on the load-line, beginning with
the upper columns. It will also be ob- section 40 as when obtaining the half
served, that the calculations of the area, and taking all the sections on the
water-lines furnish only the half areas same line on which the half-breadth is
of the same, but from the lower sec- shown; its cube is also shown, or the
tion of the tables we obtain the entire number multiplied by itself and the pro-
displacement by adding those half areas duct by the same a second time, for
into one sum, then multiplying by the example, 1728 is the cube of 12, thus
alternate numbers and dividing the sum 12 x 12 144 x 12 172S, so with the = =
total of their product by three, the quo- half-breadths, in calculating the centre
tient being multiplied by the distance of effort. It must be observed in
between the lines, which is 1.5 feet, adopting the parabolic system not only
gives half of the entire displacement, for the ends of the vessel, but in calcu-
which divided into the vertical moments lating the displacement and eentre of
furnishes the altitude of the centre of effort, that the water-lines, with the
gravity, or its distance below the sixth and the number of ordinates,
base-line
water-line. We next obtain the centre sections or frames, must be odd, so that
of the entire displacement longitudinal- the first and the last sections have the
ly from the half areas and their cubes same multipliers; likewise in obtaining
as shown in the lower section of the the altitude of the centre of displace-
tables. The calculation for the centre ment, it is important that there should
of effort will be found on the right of the be an even number of water-lines,
lower section of the tables. The prob- which with the keel, will make the
lem of determining the location of this number odd. The general rule for
important point, we have endeavored finding the contents of surfaces and so-
to solve in all its bearings or relations lids by the equidistant ordinate method,
;
its altitude, like the length of a lever, is included in this proposition, viz. : If
determines the power with a given any right line as r 10 Fig. 13 be divi-
weight; and although to give the theory ded into an even number of equal parts
of the centre of effort, com- (which as a consequence makes an
we are
the higher branches odd number of lines) y "if, &c, and at
l
pelled to resort to
of mathematics, yet in its practical re- the points of division be erected per-
S8 M AIM \ I : A N D X AVAL ARCH1 T E CTDRE,
#
pendicular ordinates, such as a a, h h, load-line arc shorter, and being of dif-
and so on, terminated by any curve, would require a perpen- ferent lengths
such as Fig. 13, or any other form, dicular for each line, and as a conse-
then if a be put for the sum of the quence, the ordinates would require a
first and last ordinate a a, h h, B for corresponding change it may be well ;
6
the ordinate marked "~y 4
y y, &c, and to observe that section 40 was taken

3 z
C for the sum of y y, &c, viz., the somewhat larger than the half breadth
and so on, or the odd ordi- would require, in order that no calcu-
third, fifth,
nates, excepting the first and last then lation would be required aft of the per-
;
2
the common distance \j y, &c. of the pendicular. It should be remembered,
ordinates being multiplied into the sum that the perpendicular is at the inside
arising from the addition of a, four of the rabbet, on the load-line of flota-
2
times y and twice \j, &c, one-third tion, and we feel safe in marking the
of the product will be the area a a, h h terminations of this line as the only
very nearly. That is, proper place for the perpendiculars of
a + 4 -ij + *y any vessel. We are aware that the per-
3 pendicular has been located higher than
D = area, D being = to a "y *y, &c. the load-line by naval architects, but the
The same theorem will serve equally author is unable to discover any good
well for the contents of other surfaces, reason for adhering to a practice that
by using the section perpendicular to has not shown itself to have any claims
the axis or middle line, and an ex- to practical utility, however venerated
is
cellent approximation for the area of all by hoary traditions. The old perpen-
solids. The greater number of ordi- dicular has no reference to the measure-
nales (or frames if you please) that are ment for tonnage, capacity or displace-
taken, the more accurately will the ment, nor is it the length on any of the
area or capacity be determined, as it decks, being placed at the termination
will work equally as well on the inside of a sheer line at the height of the cross
of the vessel as the outside, and is some- seam, hence it will be rendered appa-
times used in cask ffauffinff. The rea- rent at once, that although two vessels
son why the calculations in the tables might be built by the same moulds, and
do not extend to the forward perpen- by the same man if you please, by ele-
dicular, and dispense with the calcula- vating or depressing the sheer forward
tions of a triangular part, is found in in one vessel, the other would be of a
this fact; the several lines below the different length between those points,
DISPLACEMENT OF THE OCEAN STEAMER.
PLATE 2.
CALCULATIONS CALCULATIONS CALCULATIONS

c E CALCULATIONS CALCULATIONS CALCULATIONS
B •> I
FOR FOB FOR FOR FOR
SIXTH WATER LINE. FIFTH WATER LINE. FOURTH WATER LINE. THIRD WATER LINE. SECOND WATER
Jialf
LINE. FIRST WATER LINE
lialf
Seel. I.realili. bait half
Sect, breadth. half half
40= 16 Xl= 1.6 X 0= SecL breadth. Sect, breadth.
10= 15Xl= 1.5 X 0= Xl= Sect, breadth. Sect, breadta.
36= 6 35X1=25.4 X 1= "=5.4 X4=21.6 X 1=216 40= 12
1.2 X 0= 0.0 10= Xt= X 0= 00 40=
3*= 9.35X2=19.7 X 2=
25.4
36= X4=17.6
4.4 X 1= 17.6 " 1.
3.5 X4=14.
1.
X 1= .75X1= 75X 0= 0.0 40= .6 Xl= .6X0= 0.0
28=I2.01X4=43.16X 3=114 19
39 4 32= 875X2=17.5 X 2= 35. 32= X2=14.6
7 3 X 2= 29.2
:
32= 6. X2=12. X 2=
14. 36=
32=
2.5 X4=10. X 1= 10. = 1 5 X4= 6. X 1= 6.
28=11. 12X1=44. 48X 3=133.41
X4=38.8 X 3=116
24. 4.42X2= 8.84 X 2= 17 63 32= 2.55X2= 5.1 X 2= 10 2
24=13 75X2=27,5 X 1=110. 21=12 9 X2=25 S X 4=103.2
: 9.7
21=11.75X2=23 5 X 4=
4 28= 8.15X4=32.6 X 3= 97.8 28= 6.32X4=25.28X 3= 75.84 29= 3.9 X4=15.6 X 3= 46 8
20=15. X1=60 X 5=300. 20=14 4 X4=S76 X 5=2-^
91. 21=10.1 X2=20 2 X 1= 80.8 24= 8.25X2=16.5 X 4= 21= 5 56X2=11. 12X 4=
16=16. X2=32. X 6=192. 20=13.5 X4=54. X 5=270. X4=49. X 5=240.
20=12. 66. 44.49
12=16.9 Xl=67 2 7=170 1 X
16=15 54X2=31. 08X 6=186 48
16=41.85X2=29 7 X 6=178.2 16=13 58X2=27 16X 6=162.96
20=10. X4=I0. X 5=200. 20= 7 42X4=29 63X 5=149.4
12=16.49X4=65 92X 7=461.44 16=11.8 X2=23 6 X 6=1416 16= 9 4 X2=I8.8 X 6=11-2 8
8=17 12X2=34 S4X 6=279 72 12=15.9 X4=636 X 7=445 2 12=14.95X4=59.8 X 7=113 6
4=I7.S X4=71.2 X 9=610.8
8=17 15X2=31 3 X B= 16.7 X2=33 4 X 8=267.2 8=16. X2=32. X 8=256.
12=13.45X4=53.8 X 7=376.6 2=11 3 X4=45.2 X 7=316.4
4 = I7S6XI=70.21X 9=632.16 4=17 25X4=69. X 9=621. 8=14 3 X2=29 6 X 8=236 3 8=12 92X2=25. 84X 8=206 72
M=1S.08X2=36.16X10=361 6 i>=17 83X2=35 65X10=316 6 4=16.75X1=67. X 9=603. 4=15 78X4=63. 12X 9=56S03 4=14.24X4=56 96X 9=512.64
D=1S.04X4=72. 16X1 1=793.76 (•7=1753X2=35 06X10=35116 (9=17.1 X2=31.2 X10=342.
D=17 3 X4=71.2 XH=783 2 D=175 Xl=70. Xll=770. S=I6 -25X2=32 5 X Hi=325. (2t=14.8 X2=29.6.X1IJ=296.
H=I7 85X2=35 7 X12=428.4 H=17.6 X2=35.2 X12=122.4 D=17. X4=68. XI 1=748. D=16 08X1=64.32X11=707.52 0=14 55X4=53.2 Xll=640.2
.11=17.5 X4=70. X13=910. H=17.3 X2=34.S X12=415 2 H=16 65X2=33 3 X12=399.6
M=I7 1 X4=63.4 XI3=889.2 M=16 64X1=66 56X13=865. 23 M=15.9 X4=63
H=15.55X2=3l.l X12=373.2 H=137 X2=27.1 X 12=223 9
Q=16 78X2=33 56X11=469.84 (1=16 3 X2=326 XI4=456.4 6 X13=826 8 IW=14 6 X4=S8.4 XI3=759 2 .11=1-2 55X1=50 2 X13=652.6
[7=15.75X4=63. X 15^915. 0=15.65X2=31.3 X14=4 0=14.67X2=29. 34X14=410.67 Q=I3 3 X2=26.6 X 14=372.4
l"=l> 03X4=60.32X15=904 8 Q=ll 08X2=22.16X14=310.24
Y=I13 XfcS 6 X16=457 6 V=13 54X2=27.08X16=433.28
U=14. 25X1=57. X15=S55. U=13.2 X4=52.S X15=792. 17=11.7 X4=16.8 X15=702. U= 9 55X4=39 2 X15=573.
C=I2 4 X4=19C X17=843.2 Y=12.55X2=2I.l X16=101.6 Y=ll 42X2=22.84X16=365.64 Y= 9.92X2=19.84X16=317 41
£=10 05X2=211.1 XI9=361.3
58X4=16.32X17=787.44
I
C=10.53X4=12. 32X17=719 14 C= 9.5 X4=39.

X17=616.
Y= 7.9 X2=158 X16=252.8
g= 9:12X2=18.61X18=335 52 g= 8.45X2=16.9 X18=304.2 C= 8.15X4=326 X17=554.2 c= 6 33X4=25 32X17=430.44
(= 7.55X4=30.2 X 19=573.8 (= 6.9 X4=27 6 X19=S24.4 g= 7.5 X2=15.
X18=270. g= 6 33X2=12.66X18=227.88 g= 4.8 X2=
9 6 X18=I72 8
p= 4.9 Xl= 4.9X20= 98. t= 6.25X4=25 XI9=475. 1= 5.44X1=21.76X19=413.44
p= 4.46X1= 4.46X20= 89.2 Jl= 4. Xl= 4. X20= 80. Xl=
(= 4.58X4=18.32X19=2357.08 (= 3.1 X4=13 6 X19=2SS4
3)831.59 3)8444.2 3)797.5 3)3118.16
P= 3.4 3.4 X20= 68. p= 2.83X1 =2.83X2 0= 56.6 p= 2.08X1= 2 08X20= 41.6
3)753.24 3)77 13.32 3)696. 3)71794
277.19 2814.73 3)617.46 3)644452
26583 2706.05
Bet. sect. X 10 ft. s quar. 100 Betw. sec.Xlotj.squar.Xloo
251. OS 2571.11 232. 2393.13 20582 2148.17
Betw. SCC9.X10 100 Bet. sec. Xlo. squar.
J or.aftofp277l.9 281473.
ft. 100. Betw. sects. 10. squar. 100.
ft ar. aft ofp 2653 3 270605. 2510.8 ~
I Qrea for- 257111. 2320. 239313.
area for- 1 ar.aft of p 2058.2 214817.3
ward of p -i- 45.3 9336.33
ft
i area for- area for
ward of p 40 53 8359.49 ward -! - 36.69 Jr 7555.2 ft
ft area for-
area ward 30. 6174.75 ward of p 21.47 5017.57
ft 2317.2 )290809.33 area
ft 2698.83 )278964.48 1 area 2517.49
From )-26486iT2 ft area 2350. )245497.75 area 2082.67 )2I9834.87
serf. 40 to cen- From ft
40 to centre From
tre of gravity, 40 to centre From 40 to centre
103.2-2 ft of gravity 103 47 of gravity From sec. 40 to cen
103.89 ofgravity 101.46 of gravity
Concent forward of p. Contents forward of
I
tre 105 55
p. Contents fonoard of p.
p=4.9 Xl= 4.9 X0= Contents forward of p.
(=2.67X4=10.68X1=10.68
P=4 46X1=1.46X0= 0.0 JJ=4. Xl=4. X0= p=3 4 Xl=3.4 X0=
Contents forward of p.
Stem= XI= X2= (=2.45X4=9.8 Xl= 9.8 (=2.3 X4=9.2 Xl= P =2.83X1=2.83X0= 0.0
.4 .4 .8 Stem = 4 XI= .4 X2= .8 Stem= .4 Xl= .4 X2=
9.2
.8
(=1.9 X4=7.6 Xl=
Stem= .4 Xl= .4 X2=
7.6 (=1 61X4=6,44X1= 6,44
3)15.93 3 1 1.48 3)14.65
.8 Stem= .4 Xl1=
= .4 X2= .8
3)10.6
3)11.4 3 3.4
5.33 3.83
dist. from p 4 89 3.53
ft
1 (list betw. p from p
2.8
to stem ami stem
ft dist.
J ilist. fromp
8 3 squar. 68.89 to stem 8.1 sq. 65.61
area for. ofp to stem sq. 62.41
ft
45^3 )276.71
40.58 )243.18 area 36.69
ft 7218.48
From p to ceri. ofgrav. 6 1 ftT From p to een. ofgrav.
From 40 to p 6. feet. From p to cen. ofgrav. 5.92 From p to cen. ofgrav.
200, ft. From 40 to p 200. feet. From 40 to p 5.82
200. From 40 top 200.
206 1
206
area forward of p 45.3
-
205.92 205.82
ft
4 area of part forward 40 58 otea of part forward X 36.69 , ,
ft
ft area of part forward 30.
i horizontal moments 9336.33~~
horizontal momenta 8359.43
ft
ft horizontal moments 7555.2 ft horizontal momenta 6174.75~~
DISPLACEMENT
TWO FEET ABOVB
SIXTH WATER LINE.
40=.2 5 Xl= 2 5 X 0=
36= 7.8 X4=31 2 X 1= 31
32=ll.22X-2=22. 44X 2= 44.
28=13.2 X4=52 8 X 3=158.
21=146 X2=29. 2 X 1=116.
20=15.6 X 1=6-2 4 X 5=312.
6=16.45X2=33 9 X 6=203.
2=17.1 Xl=68 4 X 7=478.
8=17 6 X2=3S 2 X B=28l.
4=17.9 X4=71, 6 X 9=614
(Xfc-18 0SX2=36 16X10=361
D=I9 03X4=72 32X11=795.
H=I304X2=36 08X12=432.
M=178 X4=71 2 XI 3=925.
0=17 3 X2=34 6 XI4=184.
IJ=I65 X4=66 X 15=990.
Y=15. 25X2=30 5 XJ6=488
C=I3.35X4=53 1 X17=907.
g=ll. X2=22. X 18=396.
(=8 4 X4=33 6 X19=638
p= 5 5 X2=ll X20=220.
1= 2.65X4=10 6 X21=222.
3)837.1 3)9134.36
2957 3044.79
Bet. sects. 10. 6quar. 100,
28 ft area 2957. J301479.
27 From 40 to cen ofgrav. 102.97

.
Rfl
MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE S9
although the same model; but this is not tard her speed, which in ocean steamers
all : the longest vessel between the per-
one of the most important considera-
is
pendiculars is not always the longest on tions the author regards an ocean ;
the load-line, and although a ship might steamer that is deficient in speed as
be considered longer, and as a conse- scarcely less than a total failure, how-
quence be expected to sail faster, be- ever many other good qualities she may
cause she measures more between the possess. We shall doubtless be able to
perpendiculars than another, she would see at a glance what is the capacity of
perhaps in truth be shorter than her this steamer, at the twelve feet draught,
rival. Having cleared all the obstruc- the half area of the 9 feet line above
tions that have a tendency to mystify base 2S17 feet, and the half area of =
this subject, we shall pursue the expo- the 11 feet line 2957, which added =
sition of the centre of effort —
the cubes together and multiplied by 2 feet, the
of the breadths are multiplied as already distance between them, gives 11548 cu-
explained in the first and last sections bic feet, this added to 39211 cubic feet, the
by and the intermediate sections are displacement between the 9 feet line and
1,
multiplied by 4, 2, 4, 2, &c., alternately, the base, gives 50759 cubic feet below
the products are added, and their sum the 12 feet draught, which multiplied
is divided by 3, the quotient by eighteen-seventeenths, gives the ad-
is multi-
plied by 10, the distance in feet between ditional displacement for the plank, ma-
the sections, this product is multiplied king the number of cubic feet 53745 ;
by |, and the last product is divided by this sum multiplied by five-ninths for
the displacement in cubic feet, the quo- the weight of the vessel, we have re-
tient will be the height in feet above the maining nearly 30000 cubic feet for
centre of displacement, viz., 11.32 feet; the entire capacity; this sum divided
we have also shown in another column by 35, the number of cubic feet in a
the displacement of the next two feet ton, we have 857 tons if the draught
;
above the sixth water-line, which would of water were increased to 12j feet, the
reduce the distance from the centre of capacity would be increased about S5
effort to the centre of displacement to tons, making in all 942 tons. We shall
9 feet. The draught of water would not now show the manner of finding the
be heavy even if the line above, or the exponent of capacity for
ratio of the
line 11 feet above base were adopted as the several water-lines, and from the
the load-line of flotation, being but 12 entire displacement first, to find the ;
feet this however would materially re- exponent of the sixth water-line, set
;
12
90 MAI! INK AND NAVAL ARC H I TK (
'
T I
RE.
down the length between the perpen- Few, if any of those who have the
diculars, and multiply the same by half reputation of being skilled in draught-
of the main breadth, and divide the pro- ing vessels, can by any power of con-
duct into the half area of the same wa- ception form a correct idea of the form
ter-line, the result furnishes the expo- of the vessel drawn in its rotundity, or
nent for that line ; example if they possess this rare endowment, it
Length. 1 Breadth. J Area- is impossible to convey in language the

218 X 18,0S = 411l.ll 2817.2 = ;68
same to a second or third party; in
which is the exponent of the sixth wa-
Europe, ship-owners as well as builders
ter-line, and the remaining lines may have found it necessary to learn and
be obtained in the same manner. To practice drawing, that they might be

find the exponent of capacity for the able to acquire a proper conception of
entire vessel below the sixth water-line, the form of vessels from the same, and
multiply the length between the per- with the aid of a work on naval archi-
pendiculars by the breadth, and that tecture many have become proficient in
product by the distance from the base the art, while they really knew much less
to the sixth water-line the last proof shape ; in its rotundity than the ope-
duct, which is cubic feet, must be di- rative mechanic in the United States,
vided into the whole displacement be- who, in obedience to his own notions,
low the sixth water-line, and the quo- has whittled out his first model. It
tient is the exponent of capacity ex- will be at once apparent to the think- ;
ample ing-man, that it is impossible to repre-

Length. Breadth. Cubic Feet. Whole Displacement. Cubic Feet. sent two curves in a single line, or to
218.5 X 36.2 =71187.3 39211.74 -H 71187.3 =.55
delineate the shape of a line in two ways
the exponent of capacity. without making two lines; the most pro-
Did we deem it necessary we might found mathematician will admit this,
show another mode of calculating dis- and still further, it is difficult to retain
placement, but having occupied more two shapes in the eye at the same time,
than a proportionate space in our ex- in all their relative proportions. While
positions of this subject, we deem it the present practice is adhered to, of
wholly unnecessary, and shall proceed in determining the shape we want by the
our efforts to frjrnish some information eye, we can scarcely suit ourselves on
upon such other parts of this important a plane, or if we do on the draught we
fabric as have been set apart for this are not suited in the vessel, because
chapter. she is not exactly what we expected.
MAR I NE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE 91
This discrepancy iii the mode can only ate place, it exhibits not only the form
be remedied by drawing a perspective but a ready mode of obtaining tables for
plan, which must of necessity form a the loft, and is for the purposes deli-
second drawing, the principal objection neated, to the draught, what statuary
to which exists in the fact, that it is is to a written description of the physi-
quite an extensive operation, and un- cal man, the latter the shadow, the for-
less the work is performed in strict ac- mer the substance. But there is ano-
cordance with the laws of perspective, ther particular which the model ex-
in
which pertain to geometrical science, hibits its superior advantages over the
a correct idea cannot be given thus it draught, an expansion plan, or a ves-
;
will be perceived that the draught alone sel expanded on a plane for the pur-
does not furnish an index to rotundity pose of showing the true shape of every
in ships, and although useful, and in plank (or for obtaining the spiling of
many respects far more convenient, yet every plank as if taken from the ship
for the single purpose of delineating the
on a rule staff) cannot be furnished
form of a vessel by the eye, the model from the draught. There is not a work
is incomparably its superior, and to its extant that contains a correct plan of
invention are we measurably indebted expansion ; it requires but a moment's
for much of our success in preserving reflection to discover, that if a sheet
an equilibrium against the conflicting of tea-lead, or some similar substance,
interests that surrounded us. The his- were brought around the exterior sur-
tory of commerce has witnessed no face of a half model, and the lower edge
greater achievement than is furnished cut to the base-line or side of the keel,
in this ensign of mechanical genius. the upper edge cut by the lower side of
By its use we have been enabled to the rail, the ends being respectively cut
wring reluctant laurels from surround- by the rabbets, both forward and aft
ing nations, who have paid a just tri- along the cross seam and quarter piece;
bute to this proud emblem of Ameri- the sheet being now flattened out, it
can skill. That the model is com- would be discovered that the lower
pletely adapted to our wants must be edge is not straight as represented in
admitted even by the casual observer, all plans of expansion by naval archi-
when he discovers that every part of tects. Every mechanic at all familiar
the vessel may be exhibited, all with the operation of planking knows,
the pro-
portionate lengths, breadths and depths, that by twisting plank the (h\^vs vary
every line may be seen in its appropri- proportionately from a straight line,
and as there no strake below water men who were acquainted with the artof
is
on the ship that has more twist than construction upon paper, made from a
the garboard strake, it follows, that no block the form of the vessel they intend-
strake has a greater departure from a ed to build, which was cut into several
straight line below water and although transverse sections; those sections re-
;
most of this winding is found at the presenting frames, were then expanded
(nu\fi of the vessel, yet it would be found from the scale upon which the model
that a straight-lined plank would re- was made, to the size of the vessel
quire hard sets to make it seam to the and frames were worked out to which
rabbet on the keel, were the strake in harpens were attached, and the re-
one length the model makes ample maining parts, or intermediate spaces,
;
provision for this discrepancy, and will filled in by making moulds to those
furnish the shape required, as will be harpens. In making one of those block
shown in its proper department. The models, the block was found to be too
sni (to use the familiar term) that in- small to give the required depth, to
creases so fast, as we ascend, is occa- which a piece was added, and when
sioned by diminishing the strake at the finished it was discovered that the lon-
ends. We have occasion to re-
shall gitudinal form of the vessel was shown
sume this subject, and treat it more at by the line uniting the two pieces to-
length in a subsequent chapter, under gether. The question at once arose, if
its appropriate head. one seam was an advantage two would
The model, we have said, is a proud be a still greater and as early as 1790
;
emblem of American skill, and to it are water-line models were made for build-
we indebted for much of our success. ing purposes. The author has seen
Models have been made in Europe as the model of a ketch, called the Eliza,
early as the middle of the last century 190 tons burthen, which was launched
but they were what would be recog- in the middle of June, 1794 ; this
nized as the skeleton model, made of model was made in three pieces, by
pieces representing the half frames, the scale of one quarter of an inch to
and are neither adapted to the purposes the foot, 84 feet keel, 24 feet beam,
of building, or of exhibiting the lines and 9 feet hold, and may be seen in the
of flotation. The invention of water- rooms of the East India Marine So-
line models, like many others, was the ciety, at Salem, Mass. This model has
result of mere accident. In the East- been preserved on account of the re-
ern states, and in the British provinces, markable qualities the vessel possessed
for sailing fast ; she was built by Mr. " New- York, January 20, 1850.
Briggs, the same builder who built the " Mr. J. W. Griffiths :
frigate Essex, at Salem. The first " Dear Sir,—

model made in this city was by David " I am truly gratified to know of
Seabury, which was soon followed by your intention of publishing a treatise
others. The Ohio, seventy-four, built on the subject of Naval Architecture.
for the Government, from a model It is a work much needed. Your labors
made by Stephen Smith, of this city, in this cause already merit the thanks
then an apprentice to Mf. Eckford, of the profession, and I trust that your
was among the first vessels built from present undertaking, as it deserves well,
the model in the immediate vicinity of so will it fare well at their hands, and
New-York its advantages were soon of the public generally, Avhose safety
;
appreciated, and the draught was laid and interests are so deeply involved in
aside, and has at length grown ob- everything which has for its object the
solete. promoting of scientific knowledge in
Before entering upon the responsible relation to this subject.
duties of delineating the construction " I suppose there is no class of me-
of models, we shall render our readers chanics in the world who have labored
a service by furnishing them with ma- at such disadvantages in the practice
terials for reflection, from the frame- of their profession as ship-builders. Al-
work of 30 years experience in build- though ship-building, as a practical art,
ing ships, by one whose opinion we has been
in existence for thousands of
have had occasion to notice in the first years, yet, as a matter of science, little
chapter. To an inquiry made of se- or nothing has been done in its favor
veral of the builders of this city, the until quite lately. It is still true, that
author received but one reply, viz., the with the«exception of those conflicting-
eye is the text-book for modelling ves- rules of tonnage, and that ill-advised
sels. dictation of owners, by which he is
The following letter we have deem- hampered and vexed, rather than as-
ed worthy not only of a place in this sisted, each individual modeller has
work, but of an inscription on the tablet little else besides his own taste and eye
of the memory of all such ship-owners to guide him. That the subject is
or others as may suppose they know capable of being brought under more
all that is worth knowing about build- general rules, like other departments
ing and masting ships of mechanics — in other words, that
94 MAK1NE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
the subject of Naval Architecture may different ; the thing is to be both at rest
be made a science as well as an art, and in motion, liable to a thousand
no builder of experience has the least varying circumstances. His vessel is
doubt. And ship-building can never required to be strong, to be swift, to be
be on a par with other practical pro- capacious; to act well in sudden and
fessions until such is the case. rough weather, as well as in smooth:
"Doubtless, here, as in other depart- and to act well also upon the possible
ments, practical men ought
and often actual conditions of mis-
to look for
a certain degree of information from placed weight, loss of spars, and mis-
the labors and studies of scientific management or incapacity of those in
men. The general laws of the resis- whose hands she is. In addition to all
tance of bodies in fluids ; the laws of this, she is often required to be pre-
motion ; of the application of forces accordance with viously modelled, in
the laws of gravity and dynamics, are the fancy of some conceited owner,
fixed laws of nature, and should be as who, having made, perhaps, a single
familiar to the ship-builder as the laws voyage in a ship, and perhaps not —
of heal and steam to the steam-engine even that, thinks he knows more than —
builder. They should, indeed, be es- all the builders in the world, and he-
pecially familiar to him, from the very comes ambitious of Inning his ships
fact, that the conditions and circum- pass for his own, not only as owner but
stances of their application are, in his as inventor and builder also. Then,
case, so variable —almost infinitely so. too, the ship-builder is not always at
This it is that makes the problem of liberty to carry out his own idea as
modelling so uncommonly difficult. regards the sparring but after sub- ;
The question, in each particular case, mitting his list of spars, is often put to
is involved (besides the preliminary the mortifying necessity of making
conditions) with so many possible ac- changes, which he knows must injure
cidents, altogether beyond the builder's the action of the ship. Thus, not only
control, and which must, nevertheless, his general art, but his individual re-
come into the consideration of his putation, mercy of those who
is at the
model. When a mechanic builds a have no more than a mere smattering-

steam-engine, a sugar or a cotton of knowledge. Of those who, while
factory, as soon as his work is put up they think they know everything, are,
it is fixed and done. But when a in reality, so unskilled and ignorant as
builder launches a ship, it is entirely to be unable to detect differences in a
model sufficient to .alter the character the main thing to be done in order to
of a vessel. promote the science of ship-building, is
" It is not ship-merchants, nor is it to get rid of those unnecessary re-
always ship-captains, that are possessed straints which have been heretofore
of that cultivation of the eye which is cramping the labors of builders, and
necessary in order to pass judgment at preventing them from carrying out
a glance, upon the merits of any par- their own ideas in the practice of their
ticular model. This is a thing which profession. In the first place I would
is only to be acquired by the practice, advise the advocacy, by your treatise,
not of looking at, or being ever so of an International tonnage law. Let
conversant in other respects with a the rule of measurement be that which
ship, but of making ships. It may be takes in the actual capacity of the
safely said that his judgment of a mo- vessel. This is the only sensible rule,
del is not worth much, who cannot and the only one which will leave mo-
make a model. And those who are so delling free. How perfectly absurd is
unwise as to think they are qualified to it, that a builder should, at this day, be
control the mind of a builder in these subjected to a rule of tonnage meas-
respects, should learn modest urement, which, if he were to follow
to be
enough to admit the truth of the above it, would require the general propor-
observation. They would find it vast- tions of his vessel to be the same that
ly to their interest to do so. We shall were in vessels at the time of Crom-
never generally get first-rate vessels well !
until owners and others shall be willing " In the next place, let builders be
to remain in their own departments, and of the fancies and conceits of

left free
give builders the credit of being suffi- owners and others. Let them be sup-
ciently informed in theirs. Let them posed to know their own business best,
give us the size, that is, and have no other requirements ex-
the capacity,
and the object of the vessel they wish cept the general terms of the contract,
to contract for, and then let us alone. to hamper them. Then would they be
This is all we ask, and we will pledge on a par with other mechanics, to
ourselves hereafter to give them better make observations, and to adopt the
ships, without their assistance, than has results of experience. I have said,
hitherto been done with it ; and the re- that builders are to look to the labors
sult will very quickly show it to be so. of science for assistance. In many re-
" It appears to me, therefore, that spects they are, but by no means to the
96 M WtlNE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
same extent, as other practical men. science of building : and then will the
All science depends upon experiment interests not only of individuals, and
but the only adequate experimenters in of the nation, but the safety and pros-
this matter, are the builders themselves, perity of men, generally, be promoted
together with the assistance which they to a degree not easily calculated.
derive from captains and sailors. It is " Concerning my views on sparring,
not in the power of an experimenter, for which you inquire, I am prepared

with cut blocks, in a pond of smooth at present only to say, that while 1
water, and with artificially applied have some views on that subject which
forces, to determine the best model for I have never yet been at liberty to
a given end. It is a very easy thing to carry fully into practice, I have not
build an ideal ship that shall be perfect had that opportunity for experiment
but to build a ship to go to sea, and and reflection which would warrant
carry cargo, and be exposed to the ac- me in expressing, at this time, those
cidents of shore and ocean, is a very points in which I should vary at all
different thing. Scientific experiments from the common practice.
upon land, of the kind mentioned, are " With the best wishes for the suc-
certainly in their place, and have help- cess of your present undertaking, I re-
ed us to decide many important ques- main, very truly,
tions ; and properly conducted will help "Yours,
us to decide more. But still the only "DAVID BROWN."
adequate experimenters in ship-build-
ing are those who make and sail ships. The very first consideration, when
The only sufficient elements in the ex- about making a model from which to
periment are with the ships themselves; build a vessel, is the service for which
and the only fair scene of experiment she is intended. From this knowledge
is the ocean upon which those ships we determine the proportionate dimen-
are to sail, and to whose accidents they sions of the vessel to be built. In the
are liable. The great thing to be ac- concluding paragraph of the first chap-
complished is, that ship-builders should ter we have given suitable proportions
be left free as possible to observe those for freighting ships ; circumstances,

experiments, learn from the results of however, must govern the builder in
them, and apply that knowledge to each his adherence to, or his departure from
successive model. Then will the art those proportions : the altitude of the
of building be, at the same time, the load-line of flotation has also been de-
fined. Should it be necessary to know ancy lost on this steamer, is .45 per
the capacity or its approximate amount cent., or the exponent of the entire
without knowing the actual displace- capacity is .55 per cent. In our ex-
ment, we maybe able to determine the positions on the readiest mode of ma-
exponent of capacity of any part of king models, we shall assume, that the
the model and from this, by compa- eye alone is our text-book with regard
;
rison with other models —

the en- to form and having learned what we ;
tire capacity and exponent of a cor- actually do want, we are prepared to
responding part being known —

we may make an effort to obtain it. The
deduce, in relation to capacity, all that dimensions of the ship being known,
may be necessary for ordinary purposes. and the altitude of the load-line of
For example, we will take the sixth flotation above the base-line also known,
water-line of the Ocean Steamer, Plate we may divide the portion between
2 ; length between the perpendiculars, those lines into equal or unequal parts,
218 feet, half-breadth, 18.08 feet; these as occasion may require. If the ordi-
multiplied together gives the area in nary mode is adopted, of making the
square of an oblong plane (square alternate sections of cedar and pine, as
feet
at the ends) with nothing taken off for in Fig. 5, the lowest piece should be
shape ; we may now
take the half area of cedar, because it presents to the ac-
of the sixth water-line, which, by re- tion of the file the largest surface, and
ferring to the tables, we find to be, is more
than pine. If
easily made fair
2817.2 square feet divide the product the ship have but little rise on the floor,
;
of the dimensions into the half area, or as it is sometimes expressed, has but
then we have the formula as shown on little dead-rise, the lower piece should
page 90. The term capacity is here be the thinnest, on account of having
used in the same sense as displacement, a line at the lower part of the bilge,
but more strictly speaking, it pertains which facilitates the laying off on the
to the interior part of the vessel for the floor of the mould loft. There was a
reception of cargo. The unit, or 100, time when builders supposed that ves-
bein<>- all that can be obtained from the sels must of necessity draw more water
square box, consequently, we have lost aft than forward, in order that they
32 per cent., or parts of buoyancy, in and the
might obey the helm readily ;
providing ;i shape to answer our pur- difference was often made to appear in
pose at the sixth water-line. But we the first water-line, by making the
find that the whole per centage of buoy- lower piece thicker or deeper aft than
13
9S MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHI TECT I" R K.
forward, by as much as the required may be farther remarked, in relation
difference was assumed to be. But to former practices, that when ships
this practice has grown obsolete, and a were supposed to require a heavier
paralleldraught of water is generally draught of water alt than forward,
adopted not, however, before the most they were no deeper, when measured,
;
abundant proof had been afforded, that from the water-line to the rail forward,
the practice was without a basis in the than aft. But, as we before remarked,
principles of sound philosophy. In all the difference of depth was beneath
determining the altitudes of the load- the surface of the water and although ;
line of flotation, it does not arbitrarily the practice is not now adhered to
follow, that the model shall have no among the prominent builders of this
parallel pieces above this line ; we may country, it is yet tenaciously guarded
forconvenience insert more ; the effect against innovations in many parts of
of which is to reduce the thickness of the old world. The idea would be re-
the first sheer-piece. Nor is it abso- garded as preposterous, of building a
lutely necessary that the sheer-pieces ship deeper forward than aft ; but such
should be alternately of cedar and pine. is the present practice in New-York,
Some reference should be had to the where it was first introduced, and the
disposition of the plank on the top- have proved most satisfactory ;
results
sides of the ship, if it is designed to and ships have been built in this city,
have a projection of the upper wale having from three to five feet of differ-
and thinner plank above, such as are ence in depth at the ends, which adds
usuallv called strings the sheers on the greatly to their appearance, as well as
:
model should correspond with such ar- to their performance. It will not be
rangements, in order that the sirmarks denied, that a ship cannot be placed in
m.iy serve as a guide in regulating the a more awkward trim, as it regards her
sheer on the ship. It will be seen that appearance, than to appear to trim by
the proportions of deptli for ships, as the head ; this applies to every ship of
defined on page 43, are calculated from equal deptli at the two ends. But this
base line to the lower side of the is not all; the bulkiest part of the bow
plank-sheer, or as sometimes call- is brought into immediate contact with
it is
ed, the covering board and as a conse- the surges of every wave whereas,
; ;
quence, one sheer-line should be shown had the same, or nearly the same, an-
on the model at this height, measured gle of resistance been continued above
on the greatest transverse section. It the load-line, and the flare of the
whole bow been raised some three or the stem, and likewise on the stern-
four feet, as the exigencies of the case post, which is usually the inside of those
might have required, the ship would parts, respectively the upper sheer is ;
have sailed faster, taken less water on regarded as the lower side of the rail
board, and made better weather, in hence it follows, that the sheer-plan
every respect. As we have set apart determines the length of the ship, and
a portion of a subsequent chapter, to the heights at the several sheers and
delineate the advantages
O and tbe read- water-lines, or parallels to the line of
iest mode of sheering, we will follow flotation. Although the practice of
the subject no farther one or more regarding the rabbet as the inside of the
:
pieces may fill the space between the stem and stern-post, has been adhered
lower side of the plank-sheer and the to, almost from time immemorial, yet
lower side of the rail; if the lower sheer- it cannot be shown to be the most ju-
piece of the model have for boun- dicious arrangement that can be made
its
dary lines a straight side below, and of in securing those important parts of the
any considerable thickness, the upper vessel. We shall give an exposition, in
pieces may be made thin, and bent into its proper place, of the utility of having
the lower sheer this will answer all the stem and stern-post inside, instead
;
practical purposes, and will save time, of outside of the ship. The materials
as a piece of parallel thickness and for the model having been arranged and
straight, is much quicker prepared than secured, either with screws or dowels
one of different thickness, and crooked. and the plane, representing the middle
The whole number of pieces may be line, made perfectly fair, we may dress
confined with dowels running perpen- the opposite side parallel to the first
dicular to the surface, or they may be setting oft* the dimensions, as being
screwed together in whatever half the beam of the ship re-
layers. As the
model represents but half the ship, as quires to be in feet and parts, when ap-
a consequence, one side must present plied to the scale by which the model
a plane, which must be perfectly fair is made. We next come to the loca-
;
and upon this plane, the plan denomi- tion and shape of the greatest trans-
nated the sheer-plan, is projected verse section. Much has been written
this plan, which is the first laid oft", upon this subject, and there being still
(whether on the model, or on the floor,) room for more, we shall not stop the
is bounded by the base-line, which progress of the model to discuss this
is the top of tin; keel, by the rabbet on matter, farther than to tell our readers
where we would and give our ject in which the comfort of all who
place it,
reasons for so doing, after we have navigate the ocean is most intimately
progressed farther with the work before connected; but we pause not now to
us. We hesitate not to assert, that if investigate this theorem, having an
nine ships out of every ten bad their model before us.
ideal
greatest transverse section shifted far- After having suited ourselves in the
ther aft, and their centre of propul- shape of the greatest transverse seo
sion made to correspond with the tion, we may follow in the beaten track,
change, that they would perform bet- and work oft' the model until it fills the
ter than they now do and entertain- eye, or suits our taste, by first mould-
;
ing these views, based upon the most ing out the top sheer or lower side of
reliable evidence, we would, on the the rail, as near as we can at present
model before us, place this section or judge of what Ave want, subject, how-
frame on the longitudinal centre of the ever, to such alterations as will present
load-line of flotation, having assumed themselves, after the surplus bulk is re-
the ship to be adapted to freighting moved ; or we may pursue the course
purposes and as a consequence, would
; already described in finding the expo-
not advise more than from four to six nent of the area of load-line; and, by
degrees of rise on the floor, which is separating the model, adjust the form
enough to give us a bilge, sufficiently and the area to the
to suit our notion,
easy not only for the stability of the surface we require the immersed part
;
vessel, but to prevent her from rolling; of the model may be again united to
as the motion of a ship has less to do the topsides, or kept apart, until par-
with the dimensions, and more to do tially finished. If we adopt the method
with the shape, than the great bulk of shown in Fig. 4, of obtaining the ca-
mechanics and seamen are willing to pacity or displacement we require, by
admit and as far as the stability of a ship the hydrostatic balance, or if we adopt
;
is consequent upon the three principal that of Fig. 5, by comparative weight,
dimensions, so far do our ship-owners, we must keep the model free for sepa-
masters, and very many builders, be- ration at load-line. We have shown,
lieve the preventatives against rolling in Chapter I., the more simple methods
extend, and no farther. This is a con- of obtaining the centre of gravity of
tracted view of this important question, displacement, as illustrated in Fig. 3 ;
and teaches us that theory. and practice and without a knowledge of the local-
have never held intercourse upon a sub- ity of this point, we shall be unable to
adjust the propelling power, with any the deck, or plank-sheer. A proper
certainty of success, before the bottom rake for the stem' may be thus defined:
is we may connect it with the enough above water to give life to the
done,
topside, and make one part to suit the bow. Below water there is no absolute
other. In shaping the topsides, we should necessity for any rake but enough to ;
remember that although a flaring bow make the bow below look as if it be-
causes the ship to have a light and longed to the same ship as that of the
lively appearance, yet it should flare bow above water, is not objectionable.
but little, if any, as far aft as the fore- We would not be as stringent in this
mast, on account of the fore-rigging-, matter, as many theorists have been in
which will come in contact with the rearing restrictive bulwarks around the
rail, unless the channels are wide, which stem of a ship by giving the exact
;
isalways to be avoided when practica- angle of its rake, we believe that no

ble. Utility has also adopted the pre- definite angle can be given that will ap-
vailing custom of forming the topsides ply to every vessel the whole bow has
;
aft, or the rail with more round than something to do with its boundary line,
the wale the object of which is, that
; which the stem undoubtedly is and ;
the mizzen-rigging may be kept clear we would add, that not only the shape,
of the rail, with a smaller channel than but the strength of the bow, has some-
either that of the fore or main, as the thing' to do with the rake of the stem.
breadth and length of the channels A lively light bow may be obtained,
should bear the same proportions to with a very considerable rake to the
each other that the masts do, one to stem. Fifteen degrees is an abundance
the other hence it follows, that the for almost any description of vessels.
;
mizzen-mast being the shortest, and If we have a great rake to the stem, it
the inizzen-channel the narrowest, the inevitably follows that we have a great
railwould become the channel, unless overhang to the bow, which tends to
there was more round to the after strain and hog the ship all, or most ;
frames on the head. This remark will of the flare we require, may be obtain-
apply to all the top hamper on the side ed by curving the knight-heads forward,
of the ship, above the channels, which which is an advantage in more than
can scarcely be made sufficiently se- one respect; it not only adds to the
cure (without direct reference is had lively appearance of the bow, but it
to a more elevated position in the dis- sharpens the rail, and cases the whole
tribution of timber in the frames) above bow above the plank-sheer, which ma-
terially relieves the ship from those rudder, were it hung on pintles. It
surges, in ;i heavy head sea, which does not require as much rudder as
every mariner knows makes the strong- many suppose to steer a ship, if it be
est ship vibrate from stem to stern. placed in the proper place. And we
This form of stem was introduced by dogmatically assert it, that the aft edge
the author, and exhibited at the fair of of a large stern-post is not the place
the American Institute in 1S42. It for a rudder. For steering purposes,
was not,however, well received at that the rudder should be placed at the ter-
time, but has since been regarded as an mination of the lines of the bottom,
improvement, and adopted as such. and when this is the case much less
Upon the proper rake for the stern-post rudder is required, particularly if the
much has been written by scientific have a fair swell of all the lines.
vessel
men, from which the mechanic might Diagram No. 14, exhibits the present
be led to infer, that the success of a mode of uniting the rudder to the stern-
ship depended upon the particular rake post, outside of the ship, contrasted
of the stern-post. This is not the with that of connecting the rudder to
case, the steering qualities of a ship are the post, at the termination of the
not consequent upon the rake of the and the motion of the contiguous
lines,
post, but they are, to a very great ex- body of water shows at once which is
tent, upon the manner in which it is the most effective mode. The differ-
connected with the ship. l{ the post ence is so apparent, that a ship having
be large, fore-and-aft, and is placed out- a stern-post, as No. 2 of the same dia-
side of a ship that is full about the gram, with an ordinary sized rudder,
load-line, she cannot perform to the will feel her helm so quick, that a ma-
entire satisfaction of those who man- jority of good seamen would pronounce
age her. appear quite manifest her a bad steering ship, while the only
It will
to the thinking man, that a ship, or fault would be, too much rudder; and
other vessel, would steer with a much any manageable ship, under# the pro-
smaller rudder, were all but a suffi- posed improvement, would not require
ciency of caulking- wood placed inside more than two-thirds of the rudder-
of the vessel, and the remainder beard- surface that she otherwise would, un-
ed off in the direction and with the lines der the old method. And if the ship
of the vessel below water, as in Fig. were modelled in accordance with the
14. There are many vessels that have expositions already given, viz., by ma-
a stern-post quite large enough for a king the bow sharper, placing the great-
est transverse section at or aft of the tinctly we do not

understood, that
longitudinal centre, and filling- out the mean, when we recommend a fullness
stern, as has been described, the ship aft, that irregular sicell in the load-
would not require more than half the under the quarter, and a large
line,
usual amount of rudder-surface. But skeig below neither do we mean a

;
we must look farther to see all the ad- fullness below water, by carrying the flat
vantages accruing from this improve- of the floor almost to the stern-post ;
ment; the security of the rudder itself but we mean a regular swell on all the
should not be regarded as a matter of and the removal of
lines below water.,
little moment. A large rudder, swing- the cumbrous buttocks that cause ves-
ing at the mercy of a heavy cross-sea, sels to carry a weather-helm, by making
is, at all times, to be avoided, even so great a contrast in the weather and
when the post to which it is attached lee-lines of flotation. The full but-
is perfectly secure but when we con- tocks that are adhered to by the build-
;
sider that the post itself, to which the ers, with so much tenacity, are a great
rudder is attached, can hardly be made detriment to the ship in many respects,
secure, in its isolated position, we must and no advantage in any ; for, on the
at once yield to this innovation into most feasible grounds that can be ad-
the stereotyped practice of our sires. duced, viz., stability and beauty, its
And the very fact of ships having haddisadvantages are but too visible, and
their stern-posts started from their the causes for their removal fairly gain
place, is sufficient to convince us that the ascendancy. If stability be the ob-
any measure that will render the post ject in view, we defeat our own pur-
secure, and reduce the size of the rud- pose, for the reason, that no vessel can
der, must be regarded as an improve- be stablethat hasan insufficiency of beam
ment, and should be at once adopted, midships and however much may be;
for the better security of human life, added to the ends, at or above the sur-
in confiding passengers, and those face, that addition of buoyancy defeats
whose home is on the deep. the very object it was designed to ac-
We are aware that this does not accomplish. When at rest the ship is
cord with the cherished opinions of the more stable, we admit, but when she
commercial world but we have fairly is pressed forward, whether propelled
;
examined and proved this problem, and by canvass or steam, the positive resist-
therefore risk nothing in giving it pub- ance along the bow, and the negative
licity. We wish, however, to be dis- resistance on the quarter, cause a de-
104 M AIM N E A N D N A V A I, A If CHITE CTDRE.
pression midships, which makes the ves- ties of a ship is an item worth attend-
sel roll, because of too much buoyancy ing to, consequent upon the
and is
at the ends ; whereas, had the ship an shape of both ends of the vessel. This
easier bow, and the irregular fullness re- we are aware is presenting the subject
moved from under the quarter, even under a different aspect. To the after
with the same principal dimensions, she end of the ship has always been assign-
would have been steadier. But let the ed the duty of regulating her steering
fullness betaken off the bow and quar- qualities. However new the dogma,
ter, and added to the breadth, midships, and however much it may conflict with
and the ship will steer easier, sail faster, the preconceived notions or prejudices
and carry the same amount of cargo. of the age, the diligent inquirer after
One of the principal objections to this truth will find that resistance is a dis-
increase of breadth, is, that it makes a turbance of the fluid; and that the
ship roll. This opinion is without a vessel having the most resistance, cre-
foundation in practical stability or ates the greatest disturbance of the
sound philosophy, and we think it never fluid. This, doubtless, is a conceded
would have been entertained by prac- point, from what has been shown in a
tical men, but for the invitation to former chapter, viz., that the ship will
evade the tonnage laws, by building draw more water, when the water is in
narrow ships. It is a great mistake to a disturbed state, than when at rest.
identify the rolling of a ship wholly It follows, that the ship, passing the
with the principal dimensions, (as we water to the rudder with the least dis-
shallshow in its appropriate place.) turbance, will steer with the smallest
Another reason assigned for a full rudder. This will also be conceded ;
quarter, and a straight transom, is the and having yielded those two points,
appearance of the an the third inevitably follows, that the bow
ship, or that it is
addition to her beauty, we do not so un- has quite as much to do with disturb-
derstand the import of the term beauty. ing the fluid as the after part of the
We can give no other definition than bottom and that the stern should be ;
the following fitness for the ])urpose, adopted to the bow, and the bow to
:
and proportion to effect the object de- the stern, not by making the stern full,
signed. The eye becomes familiarized because the bow is full ; or by making
with a certain shape, and habit causes the stern lean, because the bow is
us to think that the best Ave know the sharp ; but by observing the action of
most about. The good steering quali- the element, and learning from what
nature and experience teach us, as well is increased with the same power. But
;is theory and practice, both testifying the shape of the ship not only governs
in this matter, our reasoning will be her speed, her capacity, and her theo-
conclusive. retical stability, but it governs her prac-
It has been set down as a truism, tical stability. This problem, in the
that a full bow and a lean after-end science of building ships, has been left
were the best for speed, and every other to theorists for solution, who have com-
good quality. We will not undertake mitted an error that has proved fatal
to say this is not true ; but we do say, to the commercial world. By an in-
that it needs qualifying ; and we will genious mode of reasoning they have,
also say, that the reverse is equally upon false premises, drawn absurd con-
true. First, that it and mankind, ever ready to
requires a longer clusions ;
after-end to equilibriate the fluid, when believe that which their interest leads
greatly disturbed, than when less, is them to desire, adhered to the dogma,
quite apparent and the short bow is without having even claimed the right
;
undoubtedly the full one, and the long of thinking for themselves. After hav-
after- body is also the lean one. ing determined the dimensions of a
But while this is partially true, it is ship, without reference to her practical
strictly so, that a long bow, or a sharp stability, or her rolling properties, but
bow, will perform in every respect, with a view to her power to maintain
better with a an upright position under a press of
proportionately short
after-end, because the shape of the sail in smooth water, which may be
short after-end is better adapted to the denominated theoretical stability, the
restoration of the fluid, when less dis- index of which is found in the altitude!
turbed. And it is at once apparent, of the centre of effort, as we have al-
that the long bow is sharper than the ready shown, we should then depend
short one and, if properly formed, upon the shape for the motion at sea,
;
disturbs the water less at a given in connection with the proper distribu-
speed, or has less resistance at the same tion of the weights, which have much to
speed. It must be evident to the think- do with the easy or uneasy motions of
ing-man, that a given amount of power, vessels. Twosame prin-

ships of the
when applied to propel vessels, will cipal dimensions, may, when at rest,
counteract an amount of resistance have an equal amount of practical sta-
equivalent to that power and that as ; bility ; but when at sea there will be a
the resistance is diminished the speed wide difference in the amount; not only
14
]06 MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE,
so, but the same ship may be so altered tangibly settle any question in relation
as to have her calculated stability de- to stability, believing with the author
creased, and practical stability increas- of the letter found in this chapter, that
ed, as we base shown by reducing the the place for experimenting is the
fullness forward, and of decreasing- the ocean. But we have usvd as a figure it
practical stability, by making a full bow to illustrate a principle that we feel safe
and a straight side to the ship, as we in affirming, having ocular demonstra-
have also shown or in another way, by tion at hand to establish it on a larger
;
keeping the extreme breadth below the scale. The steam-ship Georgia, doubt-
surface of the water, as is often done less the widest ship of her class (except
to evade the tonnage laws. The whole the iron ship Great Britain) in the
problem of practical stability is found world, is one of the most easy vessels
to be embodied in this truth, that the in her motions that floats, notwithstand-
motions of ships at sea are consequent ing public opinion had marked her as
upon, first, the altitude of the centre an unmanageable ship, on account of
of effort, and, second, upon the sta- her being three feet wider than another
bility of the centre of gravity hence ship of the same line, the Ohio, and
;
it appear quite manifest, that if the wider than cither of Collins' line of
will
centre of gravity has a vertical motion, steamers, which are much larger than
it is not consequent upon the principal the Georgia. The Cunard steamers
dimensions; for if it were, homogeneous are also much narrower, although
floating bodies, in shape as well as in longer and deeper. The America and
density, would have a vertical mo- Europa have but thirty-eight feet of
also
tion to their centres of gravity, which moulded beam, and the Canada thirty-
we know is not the case. For exam- nine and a half feet, while the com-
ple, take a floating body in the form of plexion of the practical stability of
a segar, cut it in two lengthwise, and those ships is so well known that we
it will be found, that although its centre need not enlarge upon their perform-
of gravity is high, yet it is the stiffest ing qualities. In this particular it may
shape that can be obtained withthe same suffice to add, that the Georgia, with
dimensions and area of surface. Take ten feet more beam, has more practical
a smaller proportion of depth, which is stability than any European steamer
the same as increasing the beam or the that has ever entered American ports.
width, and the results are the same. We have made our comparisons from
We do not adduce this experiment to steam-ships, because they are less vari-
able in the altitude of their line of flo- cause the vessel to incline from the
tation and because the two extremes windward side.
; A steam-boat, with
were more fully represented in this guards extending beyond the side, would
class of vessels, than in freighting or be subject to a greater elevation on one
sailing ships consequently, more inside, and depression on the other, at
;
formation of a tangible nature may be the extreme breadth of the guard, with
obtained. No two sailing ships have the same angle of inclination as an-
ever been built, about the same length other boat of the same breadth, and
and depth, with ten feet of difference having no guards. This is quite clear,
in their breadth, or at least we have but were the boat itself built as wide
never heard of so great a difference ;
as the guards, the case would be quite
but although this wholesale experiment different. We have extended our re-
is compara- marks farther than we otherwise should
practical stability, or the
tive rolling qualities of wide and nar- have done, but for the discrepancy that
row ships, has settled this vexed ques- exists between theory and practice, on
tion, and solved the problem of pro- this particular point. Scientific men
portionate dimensions with regard to have been led into a fatal error in their
this important quality in their perform- efforts to show from theory the advan-
ance, yet the author would not stop tages narrow ships possess in practical
here, but take higher ground, and as- stability their mistake arises from their
;
sert, that ships may be built so long ignorance of the intimate relation be-
and so wide that the motion of the sea tween shape and the oscillating motion
will not be felt ; in other words, that of vessels.
they will neither roll nor pitch. We Commander Fishbourne, of the Royal
are aware, of the assumption, that in Navy, in a course of lectures before the
the oscillating motion of a wide ship, United Service Institution, in 1846, la-
the gunwale or side rises higher on bored to establish in theory that which
the windward, and falls lower on the the whole commercial world has, to the
leeward side, than in a narrow ship present time, failed to prove by prac-
;
but is it not equally clear that there is tice, in relation to the cause of trans-
the same amount of buoyancy on the verse oscillatory motion in vessels at
lee as on the windward side and hence sea. This officer, evidently a man of
\
it follows, that there is as much power science, makes his theorems appear
exerted to resist the tendency to incli- quite plausible to the casual observer,
nation to the leeward, as there is to w ho has not considered that the ground-
108 MARINE AND NAVAL AK CHIT E C T U li K
work of his theory is based on compa- of flotation. It must be quite appa-

risons drawn from sailing-vessels, sub- rent to the thinking-man, that although
ject to a number of contingent circum- the former vessel required ballast to

stances which meet him at every stage bring her down to her bearings, in con-
of advancement, and which have not sequence of her having less breadth at
been brought into the account, either the light than at the load-line of flo-
of which at once thwarts his path so tation, yet, as her breadth increased
completely as to obstruct his farther faster than the draught of water in-
progress. He takes it for granted, that creased, her stability must of necessity
because vessels having a good degree increase in the same ratio and far-
;
of dead-rise, are generally wide, and as ther, that all efforts to incline such a
a consequence, have great inequality vessel from the erect position, must
in the half area of the two lines of raise the centre of gravity like a clock
flotation —the windward and the lee- pendulum, from its lowest position and ;
ward lines— it must follow, that their this resistance to inclination is greater
motions are uneasy; and because such in such shape than in any other, when
shaped vessels require ballast, in con- the vessel is loaded, and less when light;
sequence of the centre of gravity be- whereas, the vessel with a hard bilge,
ing high, their practical stability is thus long floor transversely, a plumb side,
reduced, and their inclination to roll and having the same amount of dis-
greatly increased : but in the same sen- placement, with less breadth, will be
tence of his lecture he adds, that great stifler than the other, when light, and
stability prevents rolling. There is, less so when and the reasons
loaded ;
doubtless, not a practical ship-builder, are obvious, the fullness below when
having had any amount of experience, light furnishes a sufficiency of area to
who does not know, that a vessel with an sustain the topside ; but when this
increasing breadth above the light-line broad base is depressed by cargo to the
of flotation, and proportionately narrow loaded depth, at every inclination, how-
near the base, is stifter, or has more ever small, the efforts to trip the ves-
stability when immersed to the load- sel are manifest, and the ship rolls un-
line of flotation, than another vessel til the influence of the centre of gra-
having the same principal dimensions, vity, in its ascent, counterbalances the
with an increased amount of buoyancy extra buoyancy, and she is again
at the base, and proportionately less at brought back not only to the erect po-
the surface of the water, or at the line sition, but beyond it, when the same
freak is performed on the other side. the centre of gravity and the centre of
While the vessel is at rest and upright, displacement, and the shape determines
all is well, because the centre of gravity to a very great extent that distance. A
and the centre of buoyancy are in a ver- ship that has an easy bilge, with four or
tical line, and the one directly operates five degrees of rise to her floor, and the
on the other ; but at the least inclina- from the keel

flat perfectly straight,
tion the influence is lost, and each cen- outward, with a good breadth of beam,
tral point has a separate interest to the extent of which is at the load-line
attend to. The operation is the same of flotation, will roll but little, and her
as with a man in the water, who would roll will be easy and regular. In Fig.
venture to place a bladder under his 15 will be found one of Commander
feet; it is evident, that while he kept Fishbourne's diagrams, by which he il-
himself erect, he would have a suffi- lustrates the action of the sea when
ciency of buoyancy to keep his head ships are thrown upon their beam-ends.
above water, but let his feet incline When passing up the face of the wave,
either way, and it would be impossible the ship has to pass through an enor-
to maintain an equilibrium, for the very mous arch before she arrives perpen-
reason that he had too much buoyancy dicular to the other face of the wave,
at the base, and too little at the line of as from one to two, or from three to
flotation ; but let him extend his arms, four, suddenly the momentum is so
;
and hold a bladder in each hand, and great, that unless a vessel has a good
he can maintain the erect position. breadth, or a good degree of stability,
Why? because he has a greater propor- she is apt to lose her equilibrium, and
tion of buoyancy at the surface, or at fall over and it is somewhat surpris-
;
the line of flotation, than at the base. ing that he should, under such circum-
Upon this hypothesis the reason is quite stances, repudiate breadth. But we
manifest, why the steam-ship Georgia need not leave the mechanical world
should than other ships of her to find absurdities men whose obser-
roll less ;
class, with ten feet more beam and vation should have led them to a tangi-
:
upon no other terms will theory and ble basis upon subjects of so much mo-
practice agree to assist each other in ment to the mechanical and
commer-
the demonstration of truth. cial interests with which they are im-
The stability of a ship does not de- mediately connected, are found adhe-
pend upon the altitude of the cent re of which have no basis in
ring to opinions
gravity, but upon the distance between philosophy or experience and adhere ;
1]0 MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
to those opinions with an astonishing back having a broad surface against
degree of tenacity, being able to give the stem, but by spreading the fasten-
no hotter reasons for their opinions ing we add strength and security; and
than because it is so , or public opinion every ship's stem should be sided larger
so recognizes it, and it must be so. at the head than the siding size of the
We deem it unnecessary to pursue keel, and this applies equally well to the
this subject farther at this stage of the stern-post; and some builders carry out
work, but shall continue to fortify our improvement, by making the post
this
position with tangible demonstrations larger at the head than at the keel the ;
from the several descriptions of vessels advantages are at onee apparent, if we

that may be found in the work. We consider the post as it is now placed,
shall again resume the making of a outside of the ship, requiring more
model, and pursue the work to its com- support than it can possibly receive,
pletion. The advantages of having tlie apart from the advantage of obtaining
stern-post inside rather than outside of a large rudder-stock, without material-
a ship, having been shown, we weakening the post, as well as fur-
will ly
next make an effort to exhibit the ad- nishing a more firm basis on the dead-
vantages of having the stem inside, or wood and transoms. The rake of the
at least enough to enable us to beard stern demands notice. No rule should
it off in the direction of all the lines be laid down as an invariable oik; for ra-
below water, not so much from the king the stern of a ship twenty-five de- ;
danger of having it started from its grees from a vertical line, or from a line
socket, (as the stern-post sometimes perpendicular to the base, is enough in
is,) but in consequence of the im- any case for all practical purposes the ;
pression it makes in entering the starting point, or the base of the stern,
water, which is of some moment in is the transom or cross-seam, when
any description of vessel. This we are we have no transom, and the whole
aware cannot well be accomplished of this important appendage to the
without making the siding size of the ship, —
which has for ages perplexed
stem larger from the base upward, and pleased the mechanical world,
which should be done, whether the sug- will then rest upon this boundary line.
gested improvement takes place or not, Hence the importance of first defining
the cutwater should have a firm basis • its limits. The cross-seam derives its
and when thus supported is doubly name from the ending of the diago-
secure, not only in consequence of the nal and sectional lines on this line or
MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. Ill
seam, where all the planks of the bottom cross-seam, particularly at the quarter,
which come within its limits terminate, made by ship-builders, which is equally
and are met by planks running horizon- groundless were the quarter eased at
;
tal, and denominated the counter. Its the usual termination of the quarter-
proper altitude has not been defined by upper wale would lose its pro-
piece, the
ship-builders themselves. It has been minent features, by being twisted under
almost a universal practice to allow a the quarter. We are disposed meet to
counter broad enough at an angle of prejudice at every turn, or we would
about twenty-five to twenty-eight de- not have noticed this objection. It
grees from a horizontal line, to cover would scarcely seem possible that me-
the rudder with a strake of from five to chanics could be found in this aê that
six inches wide, upon which the arch- would adhere in practice to what their
board is based, at an angle of about forty judgment and experience condemned,
degrees from a horizontal line. The because habit had made it appear less
width of this, in some degree, depends objectionable. We have already given
upon the size of the ship, and upon the a definition of beauty, which we think
taste of the builder; the .usual width cannot be controverted. The last ob-
will come within from twelve to fifteen jection may be easily removed, by hav-
inches, and above this the stern is pro- ing no projection to the wale ; and any
jected. The continued practice of vessel is better without the projection
forming cabin-windows immediately un- than with it. A flush side is least apt
der the deck-beams, and above the arch- to get marred, and the ship is equally
board, has kept the cross-seam below as strong one or more colored strakes
:
its proper place ;but in many instan- may be run by the seam, which should
ces, where the upper-deck does not ex- be quite as fair as though there was a
tend aft, and the stern having false lights, projection. Before concluding our re-
or round ones, the arch-board might be marks on the stern, as defined by the
and as a consequence, the cross- model, we would add, that life and zest
raised,
seam would follow, and we thus would are imparted to the stern of vessels by
be enabled to effectually relieve the raking them more at the quarter, and
ship of those cumbrous buttocks that less at the centre, than builders usually
are the immediate cause of the weather- do ; and to the objections that may,
helm, by creating inequality in the in- and doubtless will be raised, viz., that
clined lines of flotation. There how- the stern is not so strong, and that it is
is,
ever, another objection to raising the more expensive, as the twist compels
them narrower plank than they discover new principles in modelling

to use
now do; we, in reply, first, as to the which he never thought of. and which,
strength —
the stern is stronger than the perhaps, never would have been brought
present mode, because it would rake to bear upon modelling vessels, without
less at the centre than they now do similar aid. Fig. 16 shows three modes
: 1 no one will have the hardihood to of putting models together that will ex-
1 1 < 1
say that a great rake does not diminish hibit the manner and direction in which I
the strength of the stern. But with the resistance to motion is met on ves-
regard to the strongest manner of sels and while we may be able to ob-
;
building sterns, we think we shall be tain the tables for the loft, from a mo-
able to show, in its proper place, that del thus put together, we may also im-
the present mode of building sterns is prove our judgment in filling the eye,
not only less strong, but more expensive before we become so completely famili-
than another that has been introduced. arized with a certain shape from which
In answer to the second objection to a we cannot depart. It will be found,
twisting stern on account of the plank- by a strict inquiry into the various
ing, we may remark, that by covering opinions of those who model vessels,
the stern with wide plank, we are com- that there is very little originality of
pelled to line or sheath it, — which opinion with regard to shape ; what
causes it to rot sooner than it would is often termed experience, is rarely
were it exposed to the air ; the wide more than hereditary notions, handed
plank on the and the down from father to son and if the
stern shrinks, ;
scams become open, which cannot be young man dare to form opinions from
caulked without marring the stern. his own observation, which conflict
With those general observations we with those of his sire, he is but too
will leave this part of the ship, and fur- often branded as an addle-pated enthu-
nish some other general rules for the siast, or a reckless adventurer upon the
young beginner, in making models. ocean of fame. When we say there is
While we adhere to the practice of but little originality in modelling, we
determining by the eye the proper mean, in general terms, or compara-
shape for vessels, the beginner, or the tively so; for while in this, as in no
inexperienced mechanic, will find it to other branch of mechanism, every per-
his advantage to put his model together son has formed an opinion of the re-
with reference to more than one set of quisite qualities vessels should possess,
lines ; by doing this he will be able to few, indeed, have based those opinions
independent of any expression from rection of the pressure at the stem and
others. We have said, in a former stern-post, is at right-angles with the
chapter, that shape in ships is as dis- middle line, or parallel to the horizon ;
tinctly traceable to the builder as linea- we recede from those points, or

but as
ments are in the human face hence move aft from the stem, and forward
;
the importance of looking well to this from the post, the direction of the
matter, before we are trammeled with pressure is found to be at right-angles
a shape from which we cannot depart, with the first line, numbering from the
even though we may be convinced of middle line. As we advance still farther
error. towards the centre of the ship, we find
The diagram, No. of Fig. 16, re- the direction to be perpendicular to the
1,
ferred to, exhibits the greatest trans- second line we still progress in our ;
verse section of a vessel. The bound- advances toward the centre, and the
ary lines are, the middle line, the shape third line furnishes the same results as
of the frame, and a horizontal line the former ; the fourth answers a like
meeting the two former at the lower purpose: those lines are but an approxi-
side of the plank-sheer ; the load-line is mation to the direction of those forces,
a proportionate distance, and the lines as it is evident that nothing more could
below the load-line are so arranged be given in advance, as the model, we
that the direction of the forces are must remember, is not yet made. In
very nearly represented ; the lines run- dressing the materials for a model of
ning from the middle and pointing this description, we must bring all the
line,
downward, are an approximation to stuff to a parallel width, which will

what are recognized as diagonal lines, bring all the pieces the same distance
and show nearly in the direction of the from the middle line, and from the base-
plank on the bottom but they repre- line at each end
;
it will be discovered ;
sent something on the model of more that No. 1 also forms, by the intersect-
importance ; they approximate the di- ing points, parallels to the line of flota-
rection of the rotary motion of the tion, or water-lines. The materials, or
molecules, of which the fluid is com- pieces, should be alternately of differ-

posed—the lines varying from the verti- ent colors, as shown in the diagram.
cal,or middle line, as we recede from the No. 2 exhibits another mode of putting
centre — and exhibit the direction of the models together for instruction; and as
pressure at different parts of the bot- the water-line, or the parallel to the
tom of the ship ; for example, the di- line of flotation, can liardly be dispensed
15
Ill MARINE AND NAVAL A R C H I T E CTI RE.
with at fust,we might find it an ad- is found there will be a break. The
vantage to make twin models, or both middle line, it will readily be perceived,
sides of the ship, adopting for one side must be kept true, and a perfectly fair
the mode represented No. 1, and on
in plane, and square from the water-lines
the other side that of No. 2: No. 3 from which to bevel: thus, by dressing
will also he found to elucidate the right- our pieces to the bevel, and alternately
angled pressure principle, while at the sliding the layers up and down, we ob-
same time it shows the favorite paral- tain the change in color, which exhibits
lels to the line of flotation ; the man- lines running in different directions,
ner of putting together is less compli- and which are contracted and expand-
cated than it would at first appear. ed in length on the model, when in its
No. 1 must be put together in layers, rotundity, as the lines are more or less
as there are no parallels, but the lay- acute; and thus the inexperienced be-
ers for Nos. 2 and 3 may be dressed come accustomed
measure angles to
out in tin; usual manner, and glued to- of resistance by he eye. No. 3 is quite as t
gether with the different colors, alter- easily constructed upon the same princi-
nately, until we have a sufficient bulk ciple, and will show the diagonal line,
to complete the model, or at least by running lines in the direction of
double the half-breadth then, by com- the points of the diamonds; and No. 2
;
mencing below, as No. 2, for example, will also exhibit the lines that illustrate
taking the bevel of the diagonal from the the direction of the pressure, by run-
middle line, and dressing a piece to the ning other lines, also intersecting the
same, as shown in the figure, which will points, and the middle of the diamonds.
contain two colors, the same bevel re- No. 1 will, in the same manner, show
versed will answer for the second piece, the form of the water-lines. Although
that bevelling as much standing as the we have assumed, that the tables may
first does under hence it will at once be taken from models made in this
;
be perceived, that it is only necess;n\ manner, we having done the same, yet
to slip the second layer up or down, it is attended with more difficulty. The
until the opposite colors meet, and still author's principal design in introducing
the line is continued, if the materials and recommending them in the work,
are of equal or exact thickness and was to enable mechanics, who depend
;
without this is attended to we shall fail upon the eye alone for a guide, in mo-
to accomplish our purpose, for at every delling have a perspective
vessels, to
line where the discrepancy in thickness chart before them, and thus enabling
them to take the helm, and think and the after-end, and are prevented from
act for themselves, having first learned properly balancing the ends of our
the laws of resistance, their nature, in- model, or end to the
adapting one
fluence and extent, or in other words, other hence it will appear quite mani-
;
the equilibrium of fluids, which covers fest, that if the model were made upon
the whole ground-work of resistance. a smaller scale, we could see the whole
In making models many persons and more readily discover the
sup- at once,
pose that it is necessary to have them inequalities of one end when compared
made upon a large scale, and that by with the other but the principal ob- ;
so doing they are better able to see all jection to models made upon a small
the discrepancies more readily than if scale remains yet to be examined, viz.,
the scale adopted were smaller this is that we cannot as readily discover de-
;
a great mistake, and for the reason, fects, they being smaller than they
that the larger the scale the less one would be on a larger model this is :
can see of the model at a glance, or true, if we measure both models by the
without turning the head ; if we desire same scale, but apply the appropriate
to grasp the whole length of a ship scale to each model, and we shall find
with the eye, at one glance, without the full place of an inch on the one, is
turning the head, we find it necessary readily discovered to be an equal amount
to retire at a distance of perhaps ninety on the other. It requires some practice
or one hundred feet, or until the angle before we shall become sufficiently ac-
from the extremes of length, to the curate to work altogether from a very
eye, forms sixty degrees —
as this is small scale but after having been able
;
about all the eye can grasp with effect to determine what we want from the
at once. If we now apply this angle model, by the small scale, we shall,
from the eye, to the model made upon doubtless, adhere to it, and we will find
a three-eighths scale of a large ship, we no more difficulty in working from an
will find that we are too far off to dis- eighth, or the tenth of an inch, than
cover all the small defects, or from three-eighths, or the half-inch

all the
unfair spots upon its surface, and if we scale. We must not forget, however,
draw nearer to the model, we must turn that the model must be perfectly fair,
the head, and can only see part of the not only on all the lines, but in every
model at once; and when this is the direction ; and if the lines do not fur-
case we lose part of the effect made by nish sufficient proof of the quality of
the bow, for example, while looking at our work, in this particular, we should
applv battens in other directions, trans- faster than the other ; so with the ship,
versely, diagonally, and in we may have good dimensions, or the
vertically,
every other direction in which they ship maybe all we require, as to size, but
may be applied no matter what the the bulk of the size may. like the shoes,
;
shape may be, it should be fair, per- be in the wrong place, and she will be
fectly so : and if it is not so, it is little uneasy in her motions, —a dull sailer,
better than a failure, however good the and hard on her spars and rigging, sub-
shape may appear to be. ject to more repairs than other vessels.
It is to be regretted that so many me- There are some mechanics that will
chanics regard the model of a ship as a very readily assent to the truth of the
mere block of wood, likethe casual obser- leading feature in the science of Ship-
ver who looks upon the marble in the building, viz., the equilibrium offluids;
quarry, without being able to discover but talk with them about modelling-
the statue of the philosopher or the ships and they will deny its truth,
statesman. With such a glance me- they will tell us how much harder the
chanics will water presses below than at the snr-
never be able to rend the
veil that seems to hide nature's laws face, —
what is the result of this increa-
from their careless vision. But the sed pressure, at great depths, upon deep-
man in whose mind's eye the surplus sea leads, can-buoys, bottles hermetri-
of the material itself melts away before cally sealed, Sec, and adopt various me-
his eager gaze, and leaves the ship in thods to explain away the equilibrium
her identity, standing out in drastic of fluids. We have found men pre-
contrast with the work of him who senting claims to a knowledge of the
works only with his hands, we say it science of Ship-building, and ship-
is he alone whobe able to approxi- builders themselves, in the ranks of
will
mate that degree of perfection only at- such as disclaim experiments of a tan-
tainable through the medium of mathe- gible nature, under their own observa-
matical demonstrations. Hundreds of tion, the results of which cannot mis-
ships are modelled with but little regard lead them, to follow the vague and in-
to shape, like shoes made upon a last, definite theories of others. That water
the size determining their utility rather equilibriates in its own bulk is a truth
than the shape, and who that has worn
must not be questioned by any
that
them does not know, that unless the man who expects successfully to com-
sole is the shape of the foot they will pete in building ships. It is not our
be uneasy, and wear away on one side province to follow theorists, and give
reasons which they themselves have not less depth in ships, on account of the
done, for this extraordinary pressure at increased pressure on a heavy draught
great depths. There can, however, be of water, we have given a second expo-
little doubt that the water in itself is sition. The increased pressure arises
of greater density at great depths than not from the draught of water, but
near the surface. We shall not pause from the bulk of water displaced, (we
to inquirehow far below the surface the now allude to the ship at rest,) the ad-
boundary line maybe found; it is enough dition of depth increases the weight of
for our purpose to know, that far below the ship faster than a proportionate in-
any depth immediately connected with crease of breadth ; hence it follows, the
navigating the ocean, the fluid presses ship displaces more water, by making
everyway alike, and more proof is re- her deeper, than by adding a proportion-
if
quired in addition to what we already ate breadth and it will be at once per-
;
have, let the incredulous man make a ceived, that the deep, narrow ship, is
box of any dimensions he may find working to a great disadvantage, carry-
most convenient, or best calculated to ing less, and of herself weighing more,
settle the question but let it be the or having more resistance and less pro-
;
same size at the top as at the bottom, pulsory power, or unable to bear an
make it tight, and set it afloat mark equal amount, which is the same in ef-
;
its water-line, and put in ballast enough fect. We have shown, that steamers
to settle it one foot, the weight of which should draw less water than sailing ves-
must bo known continue to load the sels, not on account of the supposed in-
;
box until within the last foot, and he creasing pressure, with an increase of
will find that the same amount of depth, but because of the increased ne-
weight is required to displace the last cessity of an upright position, the very
foot that the first foot required and reason why many builders advocate
;
this is the case within the range of all narrow steamers, the same reasons ap-
commercial operations if we make ply equally to sailing ships' breadth,

;
the box thirty feet deep (which will adds stability in both cases. Another
cover the draught of water of any ship- error demands a share of our attention
of-the-line) we shall find that the re- while the subject of making models is
sults are the same. We have already under consideration. It is almost uni-
given an exposition of this subject, but versally believed that the angle of resis-
lestany of our readers should suppose tance is at the surface of the fluid, or
that we advocated more breadth and at the lines of flotation ; how far, or to
what extent, this is the case, the read- line, or the section line. There is an-
er be able to judge by referring to
may other subject connected with model
Plate 2, the angle of resistance may making, that demands a share of our
there be seen to differ widely from that attention. Ship-builders usually make
of the line of flotation, with the sheer their models with a straight base-line,
and half-breadth plans ; and we have but lay the keel with a sag of several
set apart a portion of a subsequent inches. To the practice of laving the
chapter for an exposition of this sub- keel with a sweep we do not object ; so
ject ; Ave shall not follow it from objecting we advocate a prac-
farther than far
to point out the line thus delineating tice of still more, but we would have
the angle of the resistance on the mo- the model made just as the ship is re-
del from which it was taken. It will quired. The practice of making a
be seen in the sheer-plan, running model, and altering it on the floor of

from stem above the load-line, the mould loft, exhibits a lack some-
the
extending aft and intersecting the sixth where, either that the builder does not
water-line at /. from thence to its low- know what he wants, or that his mind
est plaee at the centre of gravity, cannot grasp the ship as unit. It is ;i
where it is found intersecting the se- quite apparent, even to the casual ob-
cond water-line in its course aft it server, that no man can discover imper-
;
rises toward the surface, and again in- fections in form on the floor, as well as
tersects the sixth water-line, between on the model hence the importance ;
frames 27 and 28, and ends above the of making the model just as we want
plank-sheer on the stern. It may again the ship. The fore part, or the for-
be traced in the half-breadth plan, as ward end of the keel, should be raised
seen in the dotted line of the fore-body, from a straight base-line, more than any
or section 1 of Plate 2 ; this line, it will other part ; the reason of this is, that it
be observed, exhibits the angle of resis- must sustain more weight than any
tance on that model. It does not follow other part of the ship, in proportion to
that it takes the same direction in the the buoyancy, and the keel is soon found
sheer-plan of all models, or of any two, to be lower forward than elsewhere, un-
(unless they are alike ;) sufficient, it less kept up when built. But this is not
doubtless will be, for the present, to all ; the ship is worked easier by having
say, that it is the resultant of the right- the base-line curved. Some persons
angled pressure, which is not shown have supposed, sweep need ex-
that the
either by the water-line, the diagonal tend only to the bottom of the keel,
having the rabbet straight, or nearly so; to make alterations from the first de-
this can be of but little advantage, as it sign, we cannot tell where they will
leaves the flat of the floor very nearly stop one change leads to another, and
;
straight, which a great detriment to the alterations from the first plan keep
is
the speed of the vessel, while it is no ad- pace with the progress of the vessel,
vantage in any respect. If the model is and when finished, sometimes one finds
afac simile of the ship, we can work by that by endeavoring to please every-
the sirmarks for our sheer, and see at a body, that he has pleased nobody, not
glance exactly what we have. There even himself.
need be no occasion for setting the Those remarks apply to the internal
sheer of a ship in the usual manner, arrangement, as well as to the shape
with a rope; if she is like the model, of the ship, and if we progress with
and the necessary amount of care is our work, to any considerable extent,
taken in laying down, moulding, fra- before making all the arrangements, we
ming and regulating, the sheer may at begin before we are ready, and time
once be set by the sirmarks. These and money may be saved by attending
remarks not only apply to the sheer, to this, no matter how short the time
but to all parts of the vessel. We may be in which the vessel is to be
should know what we want before we built. The only way to drive work
begin to make the model, and having successfully on a ship is to begin at the
began we should not stop short of satisfy- model one day spent there is worth a
;
ing ourselves and we may rest assured, week on the ship, and although we do
;
that if we cannot accomplish our pur- not always carry it out, yet we readily
pose on the model, we cannot on the assent to the truth of the adage — that
floor, or on the ship, however much we Time is Money.
may desire so to do. When we begin
CHAPTER IV.
Taking off Tables — Their Distribution on the Floor — —

Sheer Plan Sheering in General — Its Intimate
Connexion with the appearance of Vessels.
After having completed our model, mine its necessity. This operation will
the first consideration is to determine extend the whole length of the model,
the distance between the moulding and must be first made on the plane
edges of the frames, giving the great- representing the middle-line or centre
est transverse section, or® frame, a per- of the vessel. After having made these
manent location, or the starting point divisions measuring by the
correctly,
for future operations. Before this ques- same scale upon which the model is
tion can be settled, we must determine made, we may square them across the
the siding size of the timber composing water-lines, from the base-line to rail or
the frames of the ship, and the thick- upper sheer, these being the fourth
ness of the chock that separates the frames midships, and are usually called
faces of the timbers, having reference the spawl-frames. It is now necessary
to the finish of the ship. If she is in- to square them across the model to the
tended for passengers, with lights in the outside on each successive sheer and
side, the chock should be smaller, in water-line piece, and we may sepa-
order that the light may come between model for this purpose after
rate the ;
the frames. The distribution of the which we can proceed to take off the
timber should be as nearly equalized as dimensions for the floor, as in the fol-
possible, both for strength and durabi- lowing tables, the lower water-line being
and having arranged the timbering numbered one, and those above in-
lity,
room, we may mark every fourth frame creasing as we ascend or approach the
from the ®, both forward and aft, un- inscribed line of flotation at the sur-
til we approach the ends, when every face of the water. The first parts of
other frame alternately should be also the tables required are those pertain-
marked, and if deemed necessary, every ing to the sheer plan, and exhibiting
frame may be marked near the ends of lengths and heights.
the model circumstances must deter-
; We may now see to the mould-loft.
TABLES OF PLATE 3.
Names of Frames. 1st Height 2d Height 3 W. Line 4 W. Line 5 W. L ine W.

6 Line IstBre'dth 2.1 Iire'Jth
It in. 8th ft. in. 8th ft. 111.8th: ft. in.8ths ft. tn.Slhs ft. in.8ths in.Slhs in.sths
Stem 6 3 15 2 II
ft. in. si l,s ft. ft.
p ... 6 14 7 ti
10 4 7 4
D .. 1 4 14 5 11 4 3 7 5
B ... 8 11 1 4 1 10 1 6 3 3 3 5 6 6
1 .. 313 8 4 5 7 4 9 10 4 10 1 (I 3
5 . .
7 4 13 6 40 10 2 10 3 Oil 6 3 11 3 7
9 .. 10 5 12 4 4 2 3 13 4 1 13 4 4 3 8 6 8 7
13 .. 4 2 II 9 9 7 4,14 10 0,14 1 6 7 6 10 2 16 9 6
17 ... 10 11 3 5 6 2 15 3 6 15 10 6 10 6 16 8 6
21 .
6 4 10 10 10 10 7 7 16
.
11 8 5 6 2 16 7 7
25 ... 2 6 Ml 6 3 11 10 2 5 1 5 16 11 2 10 7 -3 16 7 2
29 ... U 7 10 4 1 4 8 6 6|l6 11 11 4 8 16 6
}or33 1 10 2 4 8 4 7 II 8 4 16 6
37 ... 11 6 10 1 6 9 4 5 6 9 9 8 2 16 4
41 III 2 11 8 2 n 3 8 16
45 10 3 7 9 9 6 15 11
49 1 2 10 4 1 1 6 2 15 9
53 2 5 10 5 6 4 15 8
57 5 4 10 8 7 11 ti 7 15 6
61 9 10 4 4 9 8 4 2 3
65 1 11 2 6 4 9 6 8 10
69 5 2 11 6 9 10 4 9 li 6
Cross seam on 3
Rail on slern.
Rake of st'm Cm fr'm 1 5 6 7 10 9 9 10 10 7 4 11 4 2 12 9 5 6
Rake of post Pm fr'm *
69 on base 7 inches *
7 4 9 7 4
REMARKS. — Rise of Stem on Frame 1, 4 inches; Water Lines 2 feet apart.
TABLES OF PLATE 5.
_ r-*t~
VJA
If we have not floor-surface sufficient to

arrangement, and proceed with the
lay the ship down her whole length, work. We now have the several wa-
which is rarely the case, (however desi- ter-lines and the fourth frames in the
rable to those who are unaccustomed fore and after-body, as marked on the
to the operations of the loft,) but have model.
length enough to accomplish our pur- The frames may now
be marked, as
pose by dividing her into two sections, in Plate 3, or as is the usual custom,
we should be satisfied, as it is quite which is to number the after-body, and
enough length. First, strike a base-line naming those of the fore-body in al-
on one side of the floor, the length of phabetical order. When this course is
the loft, and above this line the water- adopted, we should have the arrange-
lines may be set off. Having- proceed- ment as follows : ®
D, H, M, Q, &c.
ed thus far, we will next inquire how It is sometimes thought best to leave
much length is J out of the alphabet, when
required from the follows. K
frame to the front of the cutwater, as This arrangement avoids the liability
the mould-loft is the place to lay down to transpose I for J, when framing.
the head, as well as the ship itself. We It will be remembered that the line
should have length enough to extend we have denominated the base-line, is
four frames at least into the after-body, also the middle-line, or the centre of
but eight would be preferable. When the vessel, and that it is the base-line
sufficient lap cannot be obtained, we for both bodies of the ship, the fore and
may allow no room for the head, but the after-body ; but it is quite evident,
let the stem take a position at the end that to have the alphabet marked as the
of the loft ; the fourth frames may be example just shown, in the usual place,
set off on base-line and squared up. If which is below the base, would shut out
the ® frame is about the centre of the the numbers of the after-body, or if
ship, and we have a sufficiency of they were also marked there, it must
length for the head, and from thence be quite apparent that there would be
to the frame, we will have the liability to mistakes. In order to avoid
length, or the distance the head pro- this, we may number or letter the
jects for lap, which may extend to five fore-body, above the sheer lines. For
or six frames, and will in such cases be example, suppose that we have every
found sufficient. fourth frame lined on the floor, and
We will assume, in the case before that our loft is but long enough for a
us, that the loft is long enough for such lap of four frames, we begin the after-
16
body at D or 29, from which to ® will be the tables of Plate 5, after having ex
t he lap. We then have 4,8, 12, 16,20, hausted the Roman alphabet. We have
24, &c, up to 36; or, as in Plate 3, ® assumed, in the arrangement now com-
37, 41, 45, 49, 53, 57, 61, 65, 69. In menced on the floor, that the two bo-
the fore-body we have ®
where 40, or dies on load-line are of equal length,
where 73, (in Plate 3, Section 2,) would or nearly so, as in Plate 3 heme, it —
be in the after-body, which makes pro- will be quite apparent, that if we have
vision lor the lap of 4 frames; as D, or room to append the head, that the fore-
29, are found in both bodies: the stern body requires more length of loft than
would project nearly, or quite the dis- the after-body, and to balance the bo-
tance beyond 36 that the fourth frames dies, we have given all the lap to the
are apart. It then follows, if 40 and after-body.
® would be the same frame, assuming Wehave been thus particular in
Plate 3 to have been lettered forward, describing arrangements, lest the read-
instead of numbered, 36 and D would er, who may not be familiar with the
also be the same frame 32 and H ;
operations of the loft, should get con-
would also be the same frame. This fused, and lose the force of our expo-
arrangement is precisely the same as sitions. There is no difficulty in laying
in Plate 3, down the vessel entire, even though it

with this exception, that
in the latter the numbers begin for- may require three lengths, as in Plate
ward, at the foremost square-frame, and 2, before making moulds, and at the
continue aft ; the few frames forward same time have free and ready access
may be marked in alphabetical order. to every part of the operation, provided
This arrangement, or that shown in the arrangements are clear and com-
Plate 2, or the present course, as al- prehensive in our minds. When our
ready described, may be adopted, with floor is too short to lay the vessel down
equal success ; it makes no difference in two lengths, we have only to so ar-
which, provided we continue in force range the three sections, that each
throughout the method we first adopt. fourth frame will represent three frames,
When the vessel and there are one of each section, and numbering the
is long,
more frames in the fore-body than let- after-section at the base-line, the mid-
ters in the alphabet, we recommend the dle section at load-line, and the for-
method adopted on the ocean steamer, of ward section above the rail, or at the
taking up the small Italic alphabet, as side of the loft, [t has been quite com-
in Section 1 of Plate 2, or as shown in mon, where floor-room has been insuffi-
cient for the operation in one or two driven in their haste to give their as-
lengths, to lay down one section of the sent to what they know to be wrong.
vessel, and make the moulds, before These discrepancies, to a man of taste,
laying off the second. This may be are like a night-mare, brooding over
necessary where we are in great haste, his mind, and mirroring and expanding
but seldom attended with any real them before him.
it is
advantage. True, we get some moulds Where the model made by the
is eye,
a few days sooner, but our supply is and dependent upon the same on the
suddenly cut and we are waiting for
off, floor of the loft, the vessel should be all
a second ; whereas, had we continued laid down, or at least the lines should
the operation of laying-off, at the time be proven in their whole length, before
the moulds came from the second sec- any moulds are made. That vessels
tion, we should have received them from can be laid down on a floor the size
the first, and they would have been of the body plan, does not admit of a
continuous. But this is not all ; ves- doubt, but it requires more time, and
sels are found to be more difficult to is more liable to error but when we
;
regulate, and are not as fair when thus leave the eye, and make an exchange
laid down, for the following reasons : for a system of proportions that can be
First, should there be any discrepancy carried out by calculations, we are less
in one of the lines, we do not know dependent upon the second section for
which frame to charge with the fault, proof of the first, or upon the third for
unless we have another section at hand. proof of the second.
Supposing that after the first section is If our floor should not be sufficiently
laid down, and the moulds made, we wide to lay down the vessel in her
discover in sweeping in the frames of whole depth, we may divide the depth
the second section, that one or more into two sections ; the boundary lines
lines must be altered to make the frame of the lower section should insuch case
fair ; but we cannot alter without ex- be the base and load-line, and of the
tending the same beyond the lap into upper section the base may be regard-
the first section hence we see, that ed as the load-line, and the sheer-lines
;
it is in this manner we often take what above. Having our arrangements

we do not want, or woidd not have, if made to the best advantage for eluci-
we could go over the work again ; but dating the operations on the floor, we
this cannot be done, as the timber is shall now proceed to take oft* the
perhaps all worked, and thus men are heights, as obtained from the model, on
every fourth frame above the load-line, We now have the sheer-plan of both
and to set oil* the stem and stern-post bodies, that of the after-body extend-
as measured on the water and sheering from the stern at the centre, to
lines, from a particular frame designated frame 29, or frame 1), showing lit* t
for tin; purpose, as in the tables of Plates heights of all the frames between those
3 and 4. Those lines at opposite ends points, at the several sheers, and all the
of the loft, form the longitudinal boun- water-lines running parallel to the base,
dary-line of the ship —
the line repre- at their respective heights, and termi-
senting the stem is the inside, or aft side nating successively above each other,
of the same, and whether we adopt the on the inside of the stern-post.
proposed improvement or not, of hav- The same remark, made of the stem,
ing the stem inside the ship, it does not as to its being inside or outside of the
alter the lines on the floor. This line ship, as they now are, applies to the
extends from the rail to its intersection stern-post also. As the sheer plan
with the base-line, which should have shows lengths and heights only, the af-
some rise at or near its intersection ter-body, by previous arrangement, is
with the stein; hence it is quite clear, numbered below the base-line. The
that the margin-line, or line showing the fore-body is likewise represented in the
inside of the stem, is but a continuation same base-line, water-lines, and frames,
of the base-line, although bearing ano- the water-lines being parallel to the base,
ther name, beyond a certain point. and the distance between the frames
This also applies to the stern-post, as being equally spaced. We have the
high as the cross-seam, so that in truth same frames in the fore-body that are
the base-line extends from the rail to shown in the after-body, and may be
the cross-seam. numbered or lettered, as before stated,
We are thus particular in defining on the floor above the sheer-lines.
this boundary-line, on account of the Having given the boundary-line of
ending of lines, a part of the operation the sheer plan, a word of instruction
that is usually so perplexing to begin- may not be out of place in relation to
ners. From the cross-seam we may sweeping in the sheer of the two bodies.
now extend the counter archboard and We should remember, that the round
stern, remembering that the part of the edge of the batten is the best to look at in
stern shown in this line is at the cen- fairing the sheer, or other lines on the
tre, and consequently the longest pari, floor, and they should lay on their flat,
or that farthest aft. the edge to the spots. We may place

the battens to one or all from the cross-seam, or the margin-

the sheers, at
the same time ; if, however, the sheers line, as it is called by many, to the head
taper, one at a time is quite sufficient of the stem, or to the lower side of the
when they are parallel, they may all be plank sheer, known as first height in
regulated at the same time to advantage. Plate 3, and the space between these
The sheer of the after-body should be lines is to be filled with the end of the
swept first in this instance, because the plank, on the stem and post, and with
lap is appended to this plan, and after the edges of plank on the keel.
regulating the sheers of this body, and The forward-line on the stem, the
marking them on the floor, we may lower-line on the keel, and the after-
take the heights at and 29, as in line on the post, represent the wood
Plate 3, Section 2, or on ® and D, ac- ends on the post and stem, and the
cording as the arrangement is made in garboard seam on the keel but the ;
numbering or lettering the fore-body. direction from this seam inward, or aft
Those heights are to remain unaltered from the stem, forward from the post,
when and upward from the keel, remains yet
regulating the sheer of the fore-
body, and although the sheer of the to be defined. It is important that this
two bodies will be found to cross each part of the work should be clearly de-
other, and are thus kept apart, there scribed and understood, inasmuch as it
will be no cause for difficulty in tra- has been considered a complex problem,
cing them. We may next set off the in practical operations, mostly on ac-
thickness of the plank below the base- count of the constant change that
line, at the termination of the straight takes place in the bevel of the rabbet.
rabbet on the keel forward ; square We may draw the sweeps for the ends
from the same, and continue to do so, of the water and sheer-lines, before or
at intervals, on the stein, its entire after setting off the half breadths on
length to the head, measured square their respective frames. We will, in
from the line representing the inside of the case before us, proceed to end the
the stem. This operation will be re- lines in the half-breadth plan, com-
quired on the stern-post likewise, and mencing with those on the stem. In
measured square from the inside of the order to render the ending of water-
post. and comprehensive, we shall
lines clear
It will be discovered that wer£ the divest the matter entirely of every ves-
rabbet-line extended along the keel, that tige of the hereditary notions that have
we should have two continuous lines hung around this subject for so many
126 MA I! 1 NE AND .NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
years. We
have shown that the line tion with the side-line, or the termina-
showing the end of the model on the tion for the inside of the plank with
how and post, in its continuation, also that of the outside.
represented the base-line, or top of the This is wholly unnecessary all the ;
keel. knowledge the pupil requires in the loft

It will be necessary to set off above upon this subject, is enough to enable
the base-line, in the sheer plan, which him to mark the spot where the water
is also the middle-line in the half- or sheer-lines, in their rotundity, cross
breadth plan, half the size of the stem the side-line on the inside of the plank.
and stern-post those lines need ex- It is plain that the outside corner of the
;
tend no further than the rake of the stein on the model, is the inside of the
stem and stern-post requires, and will plank, and this represents the inner cor-
represent the siding size of those im- ner of the rabbet. It is also plain that we
portant parts of the ship. Should the cannot have the wood ends on the out-
stem be larger at the head than the side of the plank of the same sweep or
size of the keel, which is highly ne- shape as the inside of the stem, if we
cessary, half of that difference will be adhere to this inside or corner line for
shown in the opening between this line, the ending of all the lines, unless we
which is and the cut an unfair rabbet, and subject the
called the side-line,
middle-line. The same remark is butts in some parts to a strain in caulk-
equally applicable to the stern-post, and ing that would be likely to start them.
its size, when determined, can be shown But this is not all the shape would :
—
in the same manner by the space be- be of less consequence than the dan-
tween the middle-line and this side-line. ger to be apprehended from the oakum
This method is applicable to the pre- following the seam that divides the stem
sent mode of adjusting the stem and from the apron, and instead of caulk-
post outside of the ship, with the ex- ing the butts of the plank, the stem and
ception of the thickness of the plank, the apron would be subjected to an un-
which always extends beyond this boun- necessary strain, while the butt would
dary-line, forward on the stein, down- remain uncaulked.
ward on the keel, and aft on the stern- To obviate this, and still bring the
post. This simple problem has been lines to their proper place, it is only
rendered abstruse, in consequence of necessary to square this corner or mar-
writers having confounded the final gin-line, out to the side-line, which
termination of lines with their intersec- is done by squaring down the water
and sheer-lines from their intersection sequent upon the rake of the stem.
with the line showing the inside of the It is evident that the water-lines in the
stem and stern-post to the side-line sheer-plan, if extended to the forward
;
those spots marked, we may

being edge of the rabbet, would show an in-
take a pair of compasses and set them creasing length on each line, as we de-
to the thickness of the plank at the scend toward the keel, while the rab-
rabbet, (which should be less than on bet remained the same size, the whole
the other parts of the ship, as we shall length of the stem, when measured
show.) We may now apply one leg" of square from the margin, and in conse-
the compasses to this spot, and the quence of the increasing rake of the
other in the side-line forward, turning stem as we descend, a rabbet that is
on the last leg and sweeping inward, only three inches on the square, may
thus marking on the floor a quarter be found to measure a foot on the wa-
circle in the direction of the line, as ter-line.
shown in Plate 4. Some persons may Now,

appear quite manifest,
it will
suppose, that because the rabbet is that if the outer edge of the rabbet
swept on the stem, that this outside were squared down to the side-line, and
line should be squared down but this the thickness of the plank swept in
;
error will appear quite manifest, if the square, either from this point or from
individual who is thus revolving the the size of the rabbet aft of this point,
subject in his mind, will take a model the ending would not compare with the
in his hand and examine the subject, half-breadths, as taken off the frames,
after reading our remarks upon this and as a consequence, would be unlike
particular part of the operation. the model. Thus we discover that the
In those expositions we have as- margin of the stem is the fixed point
sumed the dead wood to be of the for the intersection of the sweep with
same thickness as that of the stem, and the side-liue, the centre of which sweep
the bearding-line will vary proportion- is as far forward as the size of the rab-
ately as the dead wood is when measured square on the
thicker or bet,
thinner than the keel. The impor- stem the circle once obtained, we have
;
tance will at once appear of making the ending of the line, as it matters not
the stem, stern-post and dead woods, how sharp or how full the vessel may
the same as laid oft' on the floor be, the line intersects the circumference
in thickness. There is an apparent of this circle, and thus provision is
discrepancy in thus ending lines, con- made for the plank, which will be in-
variable, whileour compasses, or the do not keep pace with the middle, or
sweep they make, remains unaltered. more bulky parts. It is necessary to
The bearding-line is a second rabbet- forward the bow and stern of the ves-
line formed by the lines showing the sel as fast as possible, in order to keep
inside of the plank, in their intersec- them in the same state of advancement
tion with the side-line. with other parts of the ship, for the
It will be remembered, that in our following reasons: — there is a great
expositions of the manner of ending amount of work
done within a to be
lines, the line swept in, forward of the small compass, and as a consequence,
margin-line, for the inside of the stem, but few hands can work to advantage
is the boundary-line for the outside of hence, the necessity of obtaining the
the plank, consequently the groove, or required shape, dimensions, and moulds
rabbet, commences here and cuts in- pertaining to those parts, as early as
ward, square from the line in its rotun- practicable.
dity, until it reaches the required depth Many builders in Europe, and some
of the rabbet, when it takes the course in the United States, make a dead wood
of the line and emerges at the side-line mould for both ends of the ship. This
on tlie inside of the plank, as shown in is altogether unnecessary — the stem
Plate 4. This line is mould being all that is required the
necessary to de- —
termine the moulding size of the dead size of which is of no farther conse-
wood, both forward and aft, in the quence than to be of sufficient size to
sheer-plan, as the cants terminate their embrace the rabbet, bearding and base-
moulding and bevelling edges at this lines.
line —
hence, it must follow, that to Naval Architects have confused the
render the heels of the cants secure, minds of their readers, by making
the dead wood must reach a sufficient many more lines than is absolutely ne-
size, or depth, to cover their heels cessary, in laying oft" on the floor, while
that come against the dead wood. maritime enterprise leads to the short-
Those remarks apply equally well to est, or most direct course, to arrive at
both ends of the ship, and this part of the same end. European works upon
the operation will be required before even those of latest dates,
this subject,
the ship is all laid oft" on the floor, al- confound this whole subject with a de-
though many defer this part of the scription of an inner and an outer rab-
work until a later period, and the con- bet, evidently following the directions
sequence is, that the ends of the ship laid down in the musty folios of the past.
The mechanic who would undertake those terminations, from the model, or
no other draught, as shown in Plate 3, Sections
to follow those directions, with
instructions than there found, will find 1 and 2. Having distributed the half-
himself perplexed and confused, but breadths of the water-lines, we may
not instructed. What we have already proceed to place the battens to the
said in substance, we now repeat in so spots on the several frames. It is de-
many words we need recognize but
: sirable to regulate all the water-lines at
two lines on the floor as immediately the same time, or to have all the bat-
connected with the rabbet —the first is tens required for this purpose on the
the inside of the stem or post, and base- floor at thesame time, as one line de-
line, which we have for distinction termines, to some extent, the correct-
called the margin the second is the ness of the other.
; The variations,
bearding-line, which is the forward however, will be inconsiderable, if pro-
part of the rabbet on the dead wood aft, per care is taken in preparing the ta-
and the after part of the rabbet, on the bles from the model the battens will ;
dead wood forward ; the outside of the come together at their ending, but they
plank need not be shown on the floor. may lay one above the other until re-
When wedetermine to put the stem gulated.
and the stern-post inside of the ship, Some builders, while regulating the
for reasons given on page 102, and il- half-breadth plan, select a convenient
lustrated in Fig. 14, we need not end part of the floor, and lay oft' the trans-
the lines, or form the rabbet, until after verse sections of the ship at the same
we have distributed the tables or half- time. Those sections exhibit another
breadths, on their respective frames in view of the vessel, and fall within each
the half-breadth plan ; we may set off other, showing the shape of every
both bodies before sweeping either, re- square frame at its moulding-edge, or
membering to sweep in that body at the inside of the plank; it is usually
first, which has the lap appended to called the body-plan, like that of Sec-
it. When we adopt the internal tion 4 of Plate 2, or that of Plate 5,
stern-post, we may square down the from the tables of the same. The half-
margin-line from the sheer to the half-. breadth one way, and the entire depth
breadth plan, at the several water and of the ship the other, is necessary to
sheer-lines. We may obtain a set- lay down the fore or after-body. This
ting-off on those spots, thus squared plan is bounded by a middle-line, which
down, by taking half the thickness at represents the centre of the stern-post
17
130 M A R I N F. A X D NAVA L A R CHITECTUI! I..
for the after-body, and requires a base The heights of the sheer-line must
and water-lines the same as the sheer- be taken from the floor, measuring from
plan, and it is important that the wa- the load-line to each height on its re-
ter-lines should be spaced the same as spective frame in the after-body; they
in the sheer-plan, else we may find dis- should be taken on a small
batten,
crepancies which we would hardly be and transferred to both sides of the

willing to accredit here ; and in all our after-body plan. This being done, lines
measurements on the floor, we shonld

j
may be stricken across the half-body
remember that there no room for plan, representing the height of every
is
the common expression, that is near fourth frame, and numbered to cor-
efioiifrh. respond with the sheer-plan. If we
There is a large surplus about every have battens enough, (and we never
ship-yard, without carrying it from the lose by having a good supply,) we may
mould-loft with the moulds and bevel- run in the sheer-lines in the half-
lings the winding of the timber, sup- breadth, and then we

;
•
prepared to
posed to be sided fair, the large quan- sweep the fourth-fram in the body-
tity that is not sided, and the bad be- plan. The battens may row be placed
velling of the frame, in addition to con- by the spots, as taken fr i the tables,
tingent circumstances, growing out of making the variations U correspond

ignorance and carelessness, will afford with those of the half-breadth. . The
the careful man abundant reason, when heights in the sheer-plan are colled
the ship is raised, to say, that with all breadths in the half-bit dth and body-
his care, she is not as near the mark as plans.
he expected she would be. We now have the whole after-body

When this method is adopted, the of the ship spread out be ore us in three
same tables may be worked from for this separate^plans, and it ma readily be
plan, that have been used for the half- perceived that the one sh Id corres-
breadth plan. The line showing half pond with the other, and as we have
the size of the keel and post, in the the spots taken from the same tables
naif-breadth, must be set oft' from the in both bodies, or plans, whatever va-
middle-line, the same in both plans at riation we make in one body must be
;
the base-line the space must be half of made in the other. Thus the longitu-
the size of the keel, and at the cross- dinal planes are expanded to the full
seam, half that of the post at that size of the ship, as seen by the water-
height, as in Plate 5. lines, (as they are commonly called,)
A
or the battens showing those lines, and ward, and within a few feet of the post
the shape of the frames are also shown, aft. It is assumed that the keel is of
as in Plate 5. It must be remember- parallel thickness, consequently but one
ed not only that the breadths at every sweep is necessary for the ending all
water-line and sheer-line must agree the square frames in the after-body.
in both plans, but that the lines must We now have spots for- the battens
be fair, as well as the frames should; in the body-plan, on all the lines from
there be a wide departure from a spot the rail to the rabbet, on the keel, and
made or measured from the tables, we the battens must end on the sweep made
should go baek to the model, and fer- for the rabbet ; and if we are particular
ret out the discrepancy. If our model we will discover that as we go aft the
is fair, and we are as particular as we frames rise with regularity on the side-
should be,. the variation from the spots line above the base, and those risings
would not exr ed one quarter of an furnish the settings off" for the continu-
inch on any kit of the tables thus ation of the bearding-line below the
taken from ti, model. first water-line, both forward and aft,
The end' v * of the frames in the and will be found to agree as far as the
body-plan is 'recisely the same as that frames may extend.
of the half-! eadth; the compasses are Our remarks in relation to the ex-
set to the thickness of the plank, and tent of the square-frames do not affect
one leg placed in the corner where the our present arrangements in the ending
base and side' mes cross each other. of the frames to prove the lines
-
and ;
The second leg is placed on the side- although we have designated the space
line below, arid a quarter circle swept allotted for the cants in Plate 3, Sec-
from the b Mine inward, the com- tions 1 and 2, yet we have continued
*
passes tinmng on the lower leg be- the square-frames, as shown by the
low the b e-line. It will be remem- dotted lines, to the extremities of the
bered that the rabbet swept on the ship ; consequently, those frames, al-
stem and stern-post was somewhat less though not intended to delineate the
than the actual thickness of the plank shape of moulds, are taken off the mo-
;
but we are now on the bottom of the del, and set off on the floor in the
ship, or on the side of the keel the same manner in which other square
:
rabbet here may be swept to the full frames are they end on the sweep ;
thickness of the plank, and extend the also, in like; manner, and their intersec-
whole length of the straight rabbet for- tion with the side-line furnishes the
distance from that point to the base- the body-plan, and are both fair, they
line, which is also the distance on the are correct, and may be marked with
same frame from the base to the beard- a thin piece of white chalk, in the half-
ing-line. By thus ending the frames breadth plan ; and we may here re-
on the sweep, we retain an equalized mark, that some care is requisite in

rabbet, and a straight garboard seam, marking the lines as well as correcting
if we choose to adopt it. Where the them. As soon as the lines are mark-
keel tapers in thickness, which is some- ed the battens should be released from
times the case in smaller vessels, we their curved position, on account of
require a new side-line for every frame their tendency to retain part of the
coming over the tapered part, as it is curve or lose their elasticity; and while
plain that the side-line showing the upon this subject we will add, that the
side of the keel, or the sides of the stem battens should never remain from one
and stern-posts respectively, must be day until the next tacked to any con-
directly over, or at the part it repre- siderable curve or line, if we expect to
sents. This remark applies also to use them for a similar purpose a second
a rise of the stem and keel the <£> time.
;
frame being the lowest, it follows that We may now proceed in the same
the base-line and rabbet-sweeps must manner with the water-lines, marking
rise as we advance either forward or them within a few feet of their ends,
aft. We shall give a and after removing the battens, taking
fuller exposition
of this part of the operation when we a shorter batten and carrying out each
shall have advanced as far as the cants, line to its proper termination, or to the
with which, at present, we have nothing sweep belonging to said line and in ;
to do. accordance with our determination in

We will now renew the work :
—the relation to the parallel or tapered stern-
battens, we will assume, are tacked to post, siding ways, the frames may also
the frames in the body-plan, and to the be marked in the body-plan tempora-
water and sheer-lines in the half- rily. We may now determine the size
breadth-plan ; the heights have been required for the stern-post, assuming it
swept in the sheer-plan, and if the ho- to be placed inside- of the ship — we
rizontal lines in the body-plan have
have the ending of the water-lines, and
been taken correctly, and the breadths, along for several feet forward of those
as shown by the battens in the half- endings, we may place a batten to the
breadth plan, correspond with those of thickness of the plank from the line,
MM
and parallel to the same, marking the tance above load-line, with that of the
line, and proceeding to the next, and base below the load-line hence, we —
continue until all the water-lines are shall at once discover, that to make the
thus circumscribed by an outside line, post on the aft edge, about the same
the space between equalling the thick- size as the siding size of the keel, will
ness of the plank, or the depth the rab- be a near approximation to the pro-
bet on the post is designed to be. portionate dimensions.
Having extended this operation as The cross-seam being nearer the
high as the load-line of flotation, we load-line than the base, or the space
may now inquire the size of the post being shorter between the load-line and
on the after-edge. If we follow the cross-seam, than between the load-line
leadings of the keel, we would have
and base-line, it follows that the post
it
the same size as the keel, but as it is would not be as much larger at the
the usual custom to taper the after-end cross-seam, than at load-line, as it was
of the keel, we may follow the prac- smaller than load-line at the base.
tice of the age, when nothing will be It will be quite manifest, that the
lost by so doing. moulding side of the post outside of the
We shall now find it necessary to rabbet, will be determined by the thick-
assume such dimensions for the aft ness of the post on the after-edge ; and
edge of the post as correspond with in order to harmonize those parts, we
those before us, and with the dictates should first determine how much face
of our judgment, half of which may of post we require between the wood-
be set off and lined aft of the margin- and next, how
ends and the aft edge ;
line of the post. This opening, or space, much the post will side by measuring
shows half of the stern-post on the af- the piece of which it is to be made,
ter side, and the lines may be brought the largest part of which is about the
to agree, if there should be variations load-line, and at the edge of the rabbet.
between the load-line and the base-line, If we find the post is not large enough
as the size of the post mainly deter- to work by those dimensions, we may
is
riiined by the ending of the same. line the rabbet farther aft, and the edge
The amount we may deem it neces- of the post also farther aft. This, of
sary to reduce the post below the size course, reduces the size of the post
of the keel, at the base-line, will also above water, and at its surface, and as
determine the increased size of the post a consequence, the siding size of the
above that of the keel, an equal dis- rudder; but we must remember that
we require but little more than half plan, making it to correspond with the
and some eases not half) the rud-
in alterations in the half-breadth ; to do
der that we require under the present this, it will be necessary to determine
practice. the size of post forward of the rabbet.
It is not important that the bearding These dimensions are not arbitrary :
of the post should continue to follow that is to say —the post need not ot
the angle of the lines above the load- necessity come to any definite distance
line of flotation ; it may gradually fall from the rabbet, or to any positive an-
into the parallel siding above, or be gle of rake ; if the post will work large.
ear ried up by the same angle as that make it what it will work —the more
at load-line. We should bear in mind, of post we have, the less of other tim-
that as we require much less exposed ber will be required as dead wood to
siding surface to the post at the head, cover the heels of the cants, and the
than at the heel, the strain arising from additional size also renders the post
the caulking being in another direc- still more secure. That part of the
tion, and not wholly dependent upon stern-post inside of the rabbet may be
the same means for support, (the fast- sided to the size of the keel, in which
ening through the post aiding mate- case there would be no alteration re-
rially.) we need take no more than is quired, from the former arrangement
necessary by carrying the edge of in defining the bearding-line, as the

;
the rabbet aft, at the head and forward, dead wood would be sided to the same
at the heel a smaller piece of timber size ; but should we taper the inner
make the post.
will part of the post, by making it larger at
Having arranged the ending of the
head than at the heel, the dead
the
lines for the post, we may now carry wood would require to be of the same
any alterations that may have been dimensions, not only at the joint where
made in consequence of the change, to the post and dead wood meet, but the
the body-plan, and if the alterations same sizes must be continued parallel
continue to make a fair frame with a to the base-line that is to say what ; —
new ending for the keel, if required, the size of the fore-side of the post is,
we may regard four feet above the base-line, that must

the half-breadth and
body plans of the after-body as having be the size of the after dead wood, its
passed through the first proof test of whole length four feet above base, and
their correctness, and we may now re- so of any other height.
gulate the bearding-line in the sheer- When the post and dead wood taper,
the half thickness must be taken at plan in addition to, or without the out-
every water-line in the following man- side size of the post in the body-plan,
ner first, by striking diminishing-lines as in Plate 5. This side-line, it will be
:
the length of the post, the space be- seen, is not parallel to the middle-line,
tween them being half its siding size on but shows the size of the post at dif-
the forward edge. This may be shown ferent heights hence it is plain, that
;
on the aft side of the post; the line no matter where a frame may termi-
showing the half size of the aft edge nate or intersect the side-line, it at once
will also form one of the lines, and the shows not only a correct ending for the
other will come abaft the first; the water frame, but the correct side-line for the
lines crossing those lines at their pro- heels of the square frames or cants, as
per heights, will show the half thick- the case may be. We next come to
ness at those which must be the ending of the sheer-lines of the af-
points,
set oft" from the middle-line, and lined ter-body we have already shown that
;
parallel to the middle-line for a side- the line representing the stern in the
line. Where those new side-lines cross sheer-plan, is at the centre ; hence it
their respective water-lines in the half- is plain that the lines do not end there.
breadth, there is found the spot for the Few ship-builders have direct reference
bearding-line in the and to the model when building the stern of
sheer-plan ;
those spots or crossings may be squared a ship, or that part of the stern above
up to their respective water-lines, when the main transom they may make the ;
the bearding-line may be swept in by centre of the stern to correspond with

those spots. But another alteration is the model, and this is about all they ;
consequent upon a tapered dead wood in general have moulds of a few of the
:
at theending of the frames on the dead prominent parts of the stern, and make
wood their heels rise successively above all shaped ships in other respects tend
each other; hence it is plain that the to this shape, or to these moulds.
farther aft the frame the higher it ends, The same remarks will apply to the
and the higher the frame ends on the head, and this is doubtless the principal
dead wood, the thicker the dead wood reason why so small a portion of the
is found to be, and consequently this stern finds a place among the illustra-
extra thickness must be taken off the tions on the floor. We cannot discover
frame. But this apparent difficulty is any reasons why the model of a ship will
at once reconciled, by showing the half not delineate at least the shape of the
size of the inside of the post in the body- stern, as well as the rake of the same,
at the centre only. done by applying the stock of a square
If Ave will take
the trouble to shape the stern on the to the middle-line, and the tongue
model to please our fancy, or il* we across the model, the; edge of which is
prefer the beaten track of our neighbor, held to the section-line, and the distance
we may show either, upon the floor, measured from the edge of the square
with the same degree of exactness that to the centre of the stern on the mid-
characterizes any other part of the dle-line, by the same scale upon which
ship. First, divide the stern of the the model is made these distances
;
model, or the after-body-plan, into near- must be set off in the sheer-plan, and
ly equal parts from the middle-line, and on the same sheer-line on which they
strike lines from the © frame in the Merc taken, and in the following man-
body-plan to the rail of the same, paral- ner apply the rule on the sheer-line,
:
lel to the middle-line, as in Plate 5 ; and mark successively the distances

these lines are called section-lines, and from the centre of the stern to each
arc usually extended no higher than section-line forward of the centre; the
the cross-seam ; we may now set a outside corner must be also taken in
gauge to the size by the scale repre- the same manner. The process of
sented on the floor, from the middle- taking off those stern-sections is alike
line to the first of these lines called the on every sheer-line, as also that of the
first section-line ; gauge-mark corner, as represented in Plate 3, Sec-
run this
on the stern of the model, and the section 2 it must be remembered that —
ond and third sections in like manner this only applies to what is called a
these gauge-marks need not extend be- square-stern vessel. Thus we discover,
low the cross-seam on the model any that not only the round of the stern
;
other marks will answer as well as may be shown, but the twist may be
those, and the reasons for recommend- also shown, and by running in other
ing them were that they were more ea- extra sheer-lines, extending a few
sily made, and more likely to be correct frames forward, we may not only show
than the course commonly pursued, the true sweep of any part of the stern,
particularly if the stern has any con- but the shape of the corner-counter
siderable round and twist. Assuming timber. To determine the shape of the
the model to be separated, we may now cross-seam, we may take the height
take the distance within a square, of from load-line on the model to the cross-
the first, second and third section-lines, seain on the several section-lines, and
on the upper sheer-piece this may be set them oft* in the sheer-plan we may
; ;
also apply a square to the cross-seam rail, it may be two

well to run in one or
from the middle-line, to discover whether more section-lines at the parts where
the after-side is at right angles with the the spots are required, and obtain
middle-line at the several sections if breadths and heights in the same man-
;
it is square from the middle-line at all ner as before. We may find a ready
the sections, the spots already made mode of arriving at the most difficult
will rise ahove each other as much as parts of the operation by extending the
the cross-seam rises at the respective gauge-marks representing the section-

section-lines, as shown in the body-plan, lines forward on each sheer-piece we ;
Plate 5. We may also strike those may then measure the distance from
parallel lines called sections in the any one of the frames to the edge of
half-breadth plan, making- the spaces the sheer-piece on the section-line, and
to correspond with those of the body- apply the measurement to the same
plan, being also the same section-lines section, and from the same frame from
which can be seen in the three plans, which it was taken in the half-breadth
viz. :sheer, half-breadth, and body- plan those spots squared up to the
;
plan. sheer-plan will furnish additional data

Having now the section-lines shown in proving* the section-lines, as they are
on the stern, their intersection with the usually taken from the body-plan and
cross-seam may be squared down to applied to the sheer-plan, as may be
the half-breadth plan, and the corner seen in Plate 5, by taking the height
of the stern, which is the ending of the on the section-line from the base to
sheer-lines, and may be swept in, as seen the successive frames, as they rise above
in Plate 4 ; this line will show the shape each other this may be done by the
;
of the corner or margin-line on the application of a batten? with one edge

rake of the stern, and we may obtain applied to the section-line, and the
the vertical cross-seam-line by squaring square end at the base, when the sev-
the margin-line down from the sheer- eral frames be marked on the edge
may
line across the half-breadth, and take of the batten, and the batten then ear-
the breadths and heights as we would ned and applied suc-
to the sheer-plan,
in running in a square frame in the cessively to the frames, and the spots
body-plan, where it may be shown. marked on its proper frame; this being
Should there be any difficulty found in done, a batten may be tacked to the
securing spots on the corner to cany spots, and the line marked on the floor.
the sweep from the cross-seam to the If the cross-seam, which is usually called
18
13S MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
the hack or after-side of the transom, the sheer-plan, and the heights trans-
be square from the middle-line transferred to the body-plan, from which
versely, (which is readily ascertained half-breadths may be taken and set off
by applying a square to the model,) as in the half-breadth-plan, crossing as
far out as the section-lines extend, the many frames as may be necessary to
ending of those lines as far as the regulate any particular part of the
cross-seam is found to be square, will quarter, buttock, or corner of the stern :
be at and on the same point at the but if proper attention is paid to the-
base of the counter when the stern is distribution of lines when making mo-
of the usual form ; but as we have dels, this will rarely be required, as no"
shown in Plate 4, they should extend part of the model is unapproachable
to the rail, and define the round of the when separated, if the lines have been
stern also. When the cross-seam leaves properly distributed. Section-lines an-
the square or right-angled-line from the swer other purposes than the regula-
middle-line running forward, and we ting of the round of the stern, as we
have no sheer-line at that height, we shall show in its proper place they ;
may strike a perpendicular line square are important in laying down and bev-
from the base-line to the rail-height, elling the transoms, proving, cants,
and then take measurements from the &c.
model, by first applying a square with We have doubtless remained suffi
the stock in a longitudinal direction on ciently long on the after-body to elu-
the middle-line, to obtain its round for- cidate the manner of transferring its
ward at the several sections, and next shape to the floor, and of subjecting it
with the stock of the square in a ver- to a first proof through the aid of the
tical direction, to obtain its rise above body-plan. We shall not pursue the
a level or horizontal line ; the round course of many builders in carrying this
forward may be set off from this new body through a second proof, and com-
perpendicular at the section on which mence making moulds before laying off
itwas taken in the half-breadth plan. the fore-body as a collateral proof; we
This method differs only from the one believe, also, that diagonal lines can be
before described, in that of measuring struck in both bodies to better advantage
from aft in the latter case, and from than in one alone, and as they determine
forward in the former. The latter can not only the correctness of the work,
be adopted when the former cannot. but the bevelling spots, and to some
Temporary sheer-lines may be run in extent, the length of the timbers, we ?
deem it most proper to expand the any considerable extent, it is

alter to
whole ship, and carry the fore-body best to extend a part of the variations
through the same operations the after- to the lap, and in doing so, we may ap-
body has undergone, before commen- ply a batten to those frames found on
cing the second proof with diagonal the lap in the after-body ; this will as-
lines. We have already shown, that sist us in the adjustment the heights ;
the same frames represent both bodies, must also be taken from the sheer-plan
and having completed the sheer-plan in the same manner as directed in tin;
in the fore-body, shall at once proceed after-body, and set up as taken from
to laying off a half-body-plan, and to load-line in the body-plan level lines ;
sweeping in the water and sheer-lines, being stricken across the plan on which
which are supposed to have been al- the respective breadths must be set
ready set off in the half-breadth-plan off; the battens in the body-plan being-
in the same manner as in the after-body; tacked to correspond with the halt-
the half-body-plan will also be projected breadth-plan, and both being fair; the
on the floor in the same manner as that alteration on the lap making a fair
of the after-body, and the battens tack- frame in the body-plan of the after-body,
ed to the lines in both the half-breadth we may venture to mark in the lines
and body-plan as before. It will be re- with white chalk as before, and remove
membered, the lap must be taken from the battens. Section-lines may be run
the lines of the after-body ; that is, in the fore-body in the same manner as
the widths of the frames 29 and <S> must in the after-body ; but they are not
be taken from the half-breadth, (where often found to be necessary in the fore-
the frames numbered below the body, and are not always marked on
are
base-line,) and set off 29 on its proper the floor they may, however, be con-
;
frame aft, which is 69, as in Plate 3, and tinued the entire length of the ship at
® would come on frame 73 were that their location, as we have shown, from
;
frame struck in the half-breadth-plan, the taffrel-rail, as in Plate 4, to the

we shall now be able to determine main-rail forward. It will be observed
whether the two bodies agree. If the that the heights rise in regular succes-
lap can remain without any material sion in the body-plan, and if a small
departure from the spots taken from batten were applied to the several spots
tin; tables, it is best to make the fore- showing the breadths and heights, it
body agree, or to adjust the fore-body would form a fair curve, as in Section
to the lap; but if in so doing, we must 4, Plate 2, or as in Plate 5. This may
140 MARTNE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
be done in both body-plans, but should for the purpose of endeavoring to eluci-
be done with great care, as the regu- date the subject of sheering vessels more
larity depend fully than we have yet done. By many
of the sheer or sir marks
in some measure upon the accuracy of the shape of the sheer of a ship is
the curve this course may be pursued thought to be of little consequence, so

;
on all the sheers and the ending, or long as there are no irregularities; in
the heights of each sheer on the side- other words, if it is only fair, it is quite
line in the sheer-plan, will be the height enough.
on the side-line in the body-plan for- By close attention to this matter for
ward the sheers aft above the cross-
;
years, we can come to but one conclu-
seam must be taken dh the corner of sion, viz.: That in addition to that of
the stern, and not on the centre. Hav- the strength of vessels, very much de-
ing swept in those sheers, we have not pends upon the sheer for appearance.
only the height of every fourth frame, The very best modelled vessel may
but we have the height of every frame, be made to appear like a mere hulk by
as all the frames cross those sheer-lines, the manner of setting the sheer. It is
and as a consequence, the point of in- a Aery common practice to set the sev-
tersection is not only the height of the eral sheers parallel to each other, by
sheer on that frame,which means the vessel is made to bear
but the half-
breadth also of the frame. Where dis- an aspect of sameness that is every
crepancies are found to exist in proving where repudiated by men of taste
those heights, which it is not necessary again, we find the sheer of ships regu-
to do, always be found that there lated on the principle of an inverted
it will
has been carelessness somewhere ; in arch by either of those modes we

;
setting off the heights of the sheer in make the vessel loom up to her full
the body-plan, each sheer-line should be size. One of the great secrets in build-
set off independent of the other, and ing vessels is to make a large vessel
all from the same point, then, in case look small; it is a rare quality, possessed
there should be a mistake in one height. by few, and is the only index furnished
the remaining sheers would not be like- good proportions, and
by nature to
ly to have the same error. wherever found,is at once recognized

Having now expanded the vessel by even the back-woodsman if he has
from the model to its full size on the studied nature's mechanism. There is
floor, and lined up all the frames from something impressive in the appearance
base-line to rail, we will leave the floor of vessels to the man who can burst
the bands of prejudice, and launch out his prejudices ; but having been more
on the ocean of nature ; his first im- or less fortunate (time alone can de-
pressions are strong-, and very generally termine which) in occupying a position
correct, he will discover something- from which we could test the utility of
wrong, but may be unable to tell what many of the prominent features of the
it is, he looks at her shape, she tapers present time in ship-building, we have
at both ends ; the strakes of plank like- spread our banner to the breeze bear-
wise taper ; the spars grow smaller
ing our motto of fitness for the pur-
at
the extremities; in a word, he inquires pose, and proportion to effect the same.
in his own mind, has not this been the One of the grand objects originally in
governing principle in the construc- sheering vessels was to gain an addi-
tion of this stupendous fabric ? The im- tional amount of strength, by transfer-
pression still lingers that there must be ring to some extent the weight of the
a discrepancy, or why the impression ? ends on the middle of the vessel ; but it
He still looks with eager gaze, when he was found, that by giving the ship sheer
finally discovers that every part of the enough to accomplish we made her
this,
ship shows a proportionate reduction inconvenient for those who managed

at the extremities —but those openings her, unless the decks had less sheer
between the mouldings —
the secret is than the outside of the ship. The ta-
out he may be no mechanic, and, as
; pered sheer relieves us from this diffi-
a matter of course, will not express culty the sheer of the wale docs not
;
an opinion, professing to know little deck; and what

affect the sheer of the
about the art. We are too apt as me- would be gained from a rank sheer
chanics to look at our work with a above would be but little, inasmuch as
prejudiced eye, and consequently are the top-sides are usually of lighter ma-
wholly unprepared to judge of its quali- on account of the reduction of
terials,
ties. We would not dare to touch this weight above the centre of gravity,
subject had we not resolved to cut to which is Avorthy of consideration. We
the line, regardless of the ill-deserved may give the wale all the sheer we de-
censures we may bring upon us by in- on the plank-sheer
sire, and reduce it
terfering to what we want the deck to have,

with many of the hereditary
notions of the aire in the art of build- the deck, however, need follow the out-
ing ships. We have often realized this side sheer no farther than the fore-
truth, that it were less hazardous to mast. This practice is very generally
disturb the person of an individual, than adhered to in New York, and with good
results ; by so doing, we are enabled tained, so far as the sheer is concerned,

for
to obtain forecastle room without going by making the line quicker at the bow.
between decks; in addition to which, and less so at the stern. There is in
we may bring the hawse-holes lower, sheering, as in other things on a ship,
which is also an advantage ; the deck- a certain curve adapted to a certain
line may be straightened sufficient- shape of vessel ; this is only another
ly, and yet retain a sheer from the name for proportions. The object in
hawse-holes aft, provided the bow compel them by the
is building ships is to
deeper than the stern, which is an im- application of power to move forward :
portant qualification in sea-going ves- and is it not perfectly clear that every
sels. By this arrangement we are also effort in appearance, as well as in other
enabled to have a top-gallant forecastle things, should tend forward ] and can
below the rail, and find a sufficient safe- this be accomplished by sheering ships
guard above in the chocks, that answers by the curvature of the circle ? The re-
a two-fold purpose —
to prevent the loss sponse must come from every unpre-
of men, and serve as warping-chocks as judiced mechanic in the negative. It
tiir as required, which is much

more to build a ship to appear
seldom costs no
abaft the windlass. We mean by a ta- to be doing what she is really designed
pered-slieer, one that when measured to do, than otherwise; a ship may have
vertically from another sheer, either a very considerable amount of sheer.
above or below, measures less at the and yet not look crooked, provided she
—
ends than midships when at the same is kept low aft. The practice has been
time on the flare of the bow
adhered to every where, until recently
the open-
ing will often measure more than mid- in Europe and America, of making the
ships; but again, we may have the largest frame the lowest one, or the ®
taper, and still retain a heavy sluggish frame the lowest part of the sheer the ;
appearance. There is more life neces- sheer at the stern should not be much
sary to the appearance of the bow, than higher than its lowest part to impart
is required aft ; hence it is quite mani- this zest so important to the appear-
fest, that we must
depart from the seg- ance of ships. The wall-sided floating
ment of the circle to obtain it. This warehouse requires a very different
lively appearance that we sometimes shaped sheer from the ship of thirteen
see, which makes a vessel look as though knots by the wind. We repeat the as-
she would move without the applica- sertion that there is a peculiar shape
tion of propelling power, is only ob- of curvature adapted to the sheer of
every description of vessel, and its shape first ship the effort is concentrated at
isadmired or rejected almost at the first the cat-head, while on the second it is
glance in the mind of the observer, and transferred to the stem. If the ship
indeed, it is so designed by the builder, first described should have the rise of
when he makes mouldings, and colors the sheer extended beyond the cat-head,
them to attract the eye of the observer ;
or at the termination of the straight,
and with a sheer adapted to the form across the bow, the whole bow will have
of the ship, although a mere box, as it the appearance of foiling or sagging off.
regards shape, will be quite a passable This termination on the other would
ship in appearance. have the opposite effect; the bow at
We have said that there should be a the stem would appear, as in fact it
sheer adopted that would suit the ves- would be, below the other sections of
sel we mean by this just what we say, the sheer. The subject will perhaps
;
as much as if we had said that a coat appear more clear, if we were to bend a
should be fitted to the body of the man batten from the fore-edge of the knight-
who wear it. Let two ships be
is to head along the heads of the timbers at
built by the same dimensions, length, the lower side of the rail, as for aft as
breadth, and depth midships, with the the forward part of the fore-chains,
same difference in the depth of the where it may be secured the fore-end ;
—
bow and stern the one longitudinally may now be released, and carried out
straight-sided, carrying her length on until it comes in line with the side, or
the side-line almost as far as the cen- in line with its after-end ; with the bat-
tre — in other Avoids, let her length be ten remaining in that position, we shall
nearly as great along the side as at discover, that to raise the sheer the
the centre, thus making a bow nearly whole length of the batten in the same
straight across from cat-head to cat- ratio that it is raised aft of the luff of
head —the second may have an easy the bow, would be to lift the sheer above
side-line, and increase in length on every the effort of the bow, and deprive it
foot of the side-line to its extremity of the aid of the sheer in centreing
will it not appear manifest, that the the effort there. The most casual ob-
same curvature on those two ships will server will at once see its effect : it
not only appear to differ, but will differ may be seen on many eastern vessels
widely ; the end of the seems of smaller size brigs and schooners.
first ship —
to be at the cat-head, while the second These vessels are often built by men
is several feet farther forward. On the who are not in possession of the many
advantages arising' from an apprentice- ocean or river steamer, as in Section 1

ship, and consequently their vessels ex- of Plate 2. Thus we discover, that
hibit a lack in many of the prominent what in the one case would be perfect-
features which characterize American ly absurd, in smother will be not only
vessels generally. The whole frater- admissible, but requisite.
nity of New-England ship-builders have To sum up all that may be necessary
suffered loss in their reputation in con- for us to add upon the subject of sheer-
sequence. The reasons for adopting ing, we may subjoin the following :
this mode of sheering, is doubtless to The whole expression of the sheer

avoid the sni in planking and in the must be concentrated in a single point.
bulwarks ; such vessels are an eye-sore The head is the representative of this
to men of taste on the easy bow expression
; but if the tapering spaces be- ;
this continued rise to the extremity ap- tween the wale and plank-sheer, and
pears ludicrous, how much more so bulwarks between the plank-sheer and
would appear on the ship just de- rail, have a tendency to draw all the
it
scribed It will be at once discovered power of effort to this point, and as a

!
that she might be considered a second consequence, the effect is to make her
edition of the Dutch Galliot, or not appear like a thing of life.
much ahead of the Chinese Junk ; It may not be out of place to con-
hence it is plain that a medium should sidersome of the most important dis-
be observed ; the sheer we set on a turbing forces which have a tendency
vessel of the same dimensions as the to cause a departure from the shape
galliot, would make her appear still shown in the sheer-plan of a ship ; a
worse to us than she now does — that part of those forces are inherent in the
kind of vessel requiring more sheer in form of the ship : others are brought
proportion to the length than a vessel into action when the ship is in motion.
having easier lines. But although the In the first chapter, it has been ex-
same ratio of rise that characterizes plained, that when the ship is at rest on
the sheer from the fore-chains to the still water, the total weight of the ves-
luff of the bow, may not be continued sel is equal to the upward pressure of
to the extremity on the full bow, nor the water, but it docs not necessarily
yet only in part on the bow of more follow, that theweight of every portion
regular curve on the rail and plank- of the vessel shall be equal to the up-
sheer, as Section 1 of Plate 3, it may ward pressure of that portion of water
be carried fully out on the very sharp which is immediately beneath it. On
the contrary, the shape of the vessel is ward section of almost all description
such, that these weights and pressures of vessels ; the additional amount of
arc very unequal, which will appear if sheer is also an important advantage,
we suppose a ship to be divided into and an additional aid to prevent a de-
sections of equal length by vertical bulk- parture from the form when built.
heads. Assuming the mean of the The careful observer will discover,
lengths between the load and base-lines that this departure from the original
as the length for division ; we will also shape commences
an early period in at
assume these bulk-heads to be water- the ship's history much earlier than —
tight, and the sections to be to a line the casual observer had imagined. We
of flotation equivalent to their weight need not wait until a large heavy ship is
it will be found that the forward and launched before we can discover a de-
after sections draw more water than parture from the original shape; unless
those sections nearer the centre, which particular care is taken to place the
affords the most conclusive proof that keel-blocks closer together forward and
the ends of the ship are dependent upon aft, or the ends of the keel are raised
the middle for support. The bow must above a straight or fair line, we shall
of necessity sustain the greater portion find our ship is (what is technically
of this over-hanging weight. Assum- hogged before she is launched.
called)
ing the two bodies to be of equal buoy- The author has seen more than one
ancy, each side of the longitudinal cen- ship thus hogged. The moment of
tre, (which may be adopted with ad- launching, however, is the period when
vantage on the most burthensome ves- the disturbing forces commence opera-
sels,) the weight of the bow-sprit, ting oii every portion of the hull.
anchors, and often a large portion of It. must be remembered that these
the chains, in addition' to increased forces are in almost constant activity

weight of the foremast, yards, rigging, to destroy the connection between the
&c, over those of the mizzeri, requires several parts of the structure and ;
extra strength in this section to prevent whatever working may be produced by

the ship from hogging and when these their operation, tends very materially
;
extra means are neglected, the ship is to increase their effect, because an in-
found to have lost her original shape at creased momentum is acquired in their
this extremity. The extra depth for- action on each other.
ward is well calculated to counteract
this hogging tendency found in the for-
19
14(5 MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
CHAPTER V.
Parallels to the —
Line of Flotation, commonly called Water-Lines Their Effect in modelling —Half-Breadth
— —
Plan Body Plan Operations on the Floor in Laying Off.
Having, by our expositions from the much moment, before we arc? prepared
model, carried our readers to the dis- to judge correctly of the shape when
tribution of the water-lines upon the spread out on a plane.
floor, more properly called parallels to The favorite water-line does not fur-
the line of flotation, as shown in, first, nish a reliable shape, as is too generally
the sheer-plan second, in the half-

;
supposed. Scientific men both in Eu-
breadth-plan ; and third, in the body- rope and America have erred in as-
plan, we shall next show the manner suming that the parallel to the line of
of doing the same upon paper. The flotation was the actual line of resist-
draught, all hough obsolete in Marine ance. This mistake has not been
Architecture throughout the United confined to theorists. Practical ship-
States, is yet adhered to by Naval builders for many years have to a very
Architects in both the old and new great extent regarded this as an axiom
worlds. Before entering upon an ex- in the great problem of resistance; but
position of this part of construction, it the commercial world, for the first time
is necessary that we should give some
in its history, has an exhibition of the
practical illustrations, which may be advantages of scientific and practical

found useful in furnishing data for the knowledge, when operating by different
formation of the vessel upon a plane means, (each without the knowledge
;
as the draught furnishes the beginner of the other,) and arriving at nearly
with no index by which to determine the same results by taking opposite
the shape of the vessel, as a conse- courses. The theorists of England
quence, he is quite in the dark as to have discovered something they sup-
the form in its rotundity, although the pose to be tangible in relation to the
draught be before him. Thus it will formations of parallels, as adequate to
be perceived that it is necessary to have the diminution of resistance on both
some experience in a matter of so ends of the vessel in other words, they ;
have assumed, that were the several form of the wave of translation, and also
lines of flotation formed in accordance show the relative heights that a parti-
with the formation of the wave, from cle is raised to as each successive ;
which they have assumed the propriety part of the wave passes a given point.
of calling it the wave-principle — The wave of oscillation is thus propa-
name not unworthy of its distinguish- gated : if a body be moved fastthrough
ed author, Mr. Russell —who claims the water, there will be left behind it a
tohave discovered and experimented partial vacuum, which will be filled
upon it, and which may be defined as a principally with the water from beneath
mode of construction, taking its name by the removal of the part of the pres-
from the phenomena which takes place sure at the surface, while that at the
in the water, and which are called surface will be so only by force of the
waves. water around, or the contiguous par-
Its adherents assume that it may
which force is much less tin;
be ticles, ;
fairly expected, that he who most near- water then, which is immediately above
ly imitated those perfect operations of that which is forced into the vacant
nature, would also most nearly ap- space, will fall, and the consequence
proach to that perfection which is will be, that an undulatory or oscillating
manifested in them. There are vari- motion will be produced this motion ;
ous orders of these waves only two of has been denominated a wave of oscil-
;
which, however, act a prominent part lation, and is that motion formed astern
in what is recognized as the wave- or behind a vessel when she moves
principle of construction. The first is ahead. The length of this wave, as of
the wave of translation the charac- — that of translation, depends on the ve-
teristic of which is, that it takes up any locity of its propagation, which also
light body or particle, lifts' it gradual- depends on the velocity of the moving
ly to a certain height, and as gradu- body. The water being divergent, or
ally lowers it having carried or tending to various parts from Che bow,
again ;
kept the body or particle above the it follows, that if the acceleration of it
level, from whence it was taken the were continued by an increase of pow-
entire length of the wave, it stops while er on the vessel, it would be found that
the wave moves on —
like as in a field at the termination of the bow, or at the
of grain, the wheat remains in the aft-side of the luff of the bow. there
ground, but the waving moves across would be a partial vacuum formed, the
the field. Fig. 1, Plate 6, will exhibit the vessel would settle down and draw
more water, the resistance would at these curves, is as follows: the length
the same time be increased, and as a of the fore-body as compared with that
consequence, there would be a loss of of the after-body, is as three to two ;
power. Such, however, is not the case therefore the whole length of the curve
aft ; from the after-body is divided into five equal parts, and
as the water
is convergent, or tends to one point, it three allotted to the fore-body. A cir-
may be accelerated up to the stern-post cle whose diameter is equal to the half-
with advantage for the greater its breadth of the vessel on any line of flo-
;
velocity there, the greater will be its tation, (as it seems to be intended for
reaction, which will be favorable to all the water-lines,) is described with
the progress of the vessel, and have a its circumference intersecting the mid-
tendency to give her an onward thrust dle-line at the junction of the fore and
rather than have a retarding influence, after-body, as in Fig. 1 its circumfe- ;
caused by the vertical motion which rence is divided into sixteen equal parts,
may be seen following many vessels as and the middle or straight-line running
now built. through the centre of the vessel, is di-
These waves are found to vary in vided into eight equal parts. We have
length in the ratio of their velocity as now eight spots on each half of the cir-
tabulated, which may be found by re- cle, and the same number on each end
ference to any work on the theory of or side of the centre of the circle, w liich
waves so that when the velocity at also shows the greatest transverse sec-
;
which a vessel shall be driven is deter- tion square up these spots on the
;
mined, the length of the bow will be middle-line from the same, and strike
the length of the wave in the table lines parallel to the same, extending
which corresponds to this velocity. from each division of the circle to its
The length of the wave of translation, corresponding division on the middle-
as compared with the wave of oscilla- line, the lines it will be discovered con-
tion, is as two to three, but as only tinue to grow shorter as we advance
half of the wave of oscillation is taken, outward; the points where the paral-
and the whole of the wave of transla- lels cross the perpendicular, are those
tion, so the length of the fore-body as through which a line being drawn will
compared with the length of the form the wave-line curve the curve of
after- ;
body, is as three to two. Fig. I, Plate all or any water-line of any description
6, is a theoretic wave-curve of a water- of vessel may be formed in the same
line. The genesis, or formation of manner. Fig. 1, however, may only
represent the form for the extremities gravity, — all of which contributes to
of the vessel ; the middle may be con- economize power and facilitate quick-
tinued with a more gentle curve to any ness of turning. It may be well to ob-
length. serve that theory and practice here
The advantages of the wave-bow are agree. To substantiate the truth of
set forth, assumption that in- the latter clause of the fore<join° re-
in the
stead of accumulating the water at the mark, viz., that by removing the great-
stem, where its effect is to give greater est transverse section farther aft, and
support to the ends, and as a conse- relieving the bow of its irregular full-
quence less to the sides of the vessel ness under the cat-head, we facilitate
tending also to decrease the practical the obedience to the helm, provided the
stability. accumulates the water at bow is also relieved of the press of sail,
It
the sides, and takes it away from the by arranging the masts a proportionate
centre ; the effect of which is to in- distance farther aft. Public opinion,
crease the and however, is not yet prepared for so
practical stability
weatherliness, while the old form, by great an innovation into the stereo-
accumulating the water close to the typed practices of the age, and of course
stem, carries (with the wind a-beam) repudiates any statement to that effect,
the resultant, or the effect of the com- notwithstanding backed by tangible de-
pound force of the water much farther monstrations, that ought to settle the
forward, and therefore requires to have matter in an unprejudiced mind.
the centre of propulsion, or the effort The adherents to the wave-principle
of all the sail farther forward, to coun- also give reasons for advocating the
teract its evil effect, as we have shown wave-bow, by examining the subject
in Plate 1 again requires a larger in a manner divested of that bias which
; this
bowsprit, and the foremast farther for- usually characterizes the analytical ex-
ward, which, by increasing the angle of positions of the propagators of a new
pitch, is injurious to the ship in several system.
ways. Another prominent feature in Suppose, as we have shown, Fig. 2,
the wave-principle is, that by bringing Plate 6, to represent the plan of a
this accumulation aft, the centre of horizontal section of one side of a bow :
resistance of the water and the cen- it will be seen that it is divided by lines
tre of propulsion, or of the sails, are perpendicularly to the keel, and square
brought more nearly into the same ver- from the middle-line into equal portions,
tical line or plane with the centre of and that those perpendiculars are drawn
from the middle-line to the outline of cipally on the first section, because the
the bow, at which intersection another velocities imparted by the sections are
line is drawn from thence to the next less in proportion, as they are more dis-
perpendicular, and parallel to the mid- tant from No. 1 so that the difficulty ;
dle-line, and so of all the rest. When of escape for the water from any sec-
motion is given to the vessel in the dition is increased by the accumulation,
rection of her keel and ahead, each which arises from the difficulty of es-
section being alike in length, it im- cape for the water from the following
will
part to the water it —

comes in contact sections 4, 5, 6 and so on as may be; —
with, an equal velocity in that direction; therefore the accumulation on 1 will
but not only so, each section will im- be in proportion to the velocity it im-
part to the water a velocity in a direc- parts, together with the difficulty of
tion perpendicular to this, or at right escape for the water arising from the
angles with it, and different in degree, form of the other sections ; and when
but in the same ratio as their respec- the velocity of the vessel is great, this
tive breadths differ. As the velocity accumulation will take place to a great-
in the first direction, or in the direction er extent, and cannot be confined to
of the keel, is the same in amount for the surface ; for if the lower parts of
each section, (they being- all of a length the bow are similarly formed, a like
fore and aft,) it may be disregarded process will go on, differing only in
;
but when we consider the consequence degree therefore it must be perfectly

;
of the difference of velocities imparted clear, that the water from Section 1
to the water, because of their difference cannot flow out by passing over the
of breadth, this velocity is very different water from No. 2, leaving that water,
in degree, as is evident from the fact, and the water of the following sections,
that before the water on Section 1 can and be acted upon, each by
to act on,
move its own length astern, and permit its own section for the whole column ;
the vessel to move the same distance of Section 1, including each portion of
ahead, it must push the water out to a, that column, would have to rise above
that 2 may advance a like space after each portion of the column of Section
:
having pushed the water out only the 2, which is impossible; instead of which,
distance 2 and 3 by the smaller dis- when the vessel is going fast, a stream
b,
tance 3 c, and so of the remaining sec- flows outward from Section 1, with
tions, the consequence of this will be a velocity in proportion to the accu-
seen in an accumulation of water prin- mulation, which will be the greatest
c T\
bi_ —X^
\ u -
(all other things being equal) when the follows, that the passage of the water
breadth of Section 1 is greatest, or when outward from the first section will be
the form is fullest at that part ; and the most resisted, and an accumulation
effect of this current will be to inter- will take place, though not to that de-
cept and prevent the pressure of the gree that it will before a vessel having
water on the after-parts of the bow a convex bow ; for although the water
which would take place were it not for at No. 1 is nearest the bow, yet it must
this current. follow that of all the sections farther
The prominent whose columns are equally hard to
objections have thus aft
been given by the wave-principle ad- remove hence the reason why the
;
herents to the round bow, both at and water rises higher at this section than
below the line of flotation, from which on any other, when the vessel is mov-
we may readily perceive that (assuming ing fast through the water ; and it will
the theory to be a correct one) a kind be observed that the bow, like No. 3,
of false or water-bow is found around continues to impart an equal velocity
the full irregular bow, which serves as at its termination, to that imparted at
a regulating medium to adjust thecommencement of the bow.
diffi- the
culties in shape, at the expense of speed Having given the objections to the
and other important qualities. But convex and straight bow, we will pro-
their objections are no less feasible to ceed to describe the comparative ad-
the straight bow, which is deemed more vantages of the wave-bow ; first, by
favorable to speed and performance. stating the object desired to be effected
Suppose the bow to be straight, as by the bow of the ship, which is to dis-
in Fig. 3, Plate 6, from each section place the water sufficiently to admit of
of this bow, the water would receive the passage of the ship, and to do this
an equal velocity but as the ship is
; with the least possible expenditure of
moving ahead, the water cannot pass power. It has been seen, that if the
off, particularly if she is moving fast bow be convex, as in Fig. 2, Plate 6,
and in proportion to the speed there the motion will be imparted too quick-
will be an accumulation at 7, and greatly, the water will be accumulated at
er at 6, and still greater at 1, because the stern, and the evils already shown
the accumulation at any one section will arise; or if it be formed as Fig. 3,
prevents the outward passage of the the motion will not be imparted gradu-
water from immediately before it, ally, and therefore a rise will take place
and throughout afterwards hence it ; close forward, only in a less degree.

Hence it follows, that the form which influence upon most of the properties
will impart the velocity gradually, (for of the ship.
the more gradual the motion the less The principles wc have laid down
power will he required and for the formation of vessels, are not
to effect it,)
allow it to subside gradually, must be entirely new in the old world, although
the best. It will to seen by Fig. 4, that quite new in the United States. Ri-
the velocity imparted by each section valry has given an impetus to improve-
is greater than that imparted by the ments in Europe that must set aside
one before it up to the centre of the the musty folios of the past behind the
bow, where it gradually becomes less curtains of oblivious drapery. The
and less to the termination of the same; British Association have upset the old
at the stem there Avill be no accumu- rules, and are now daring not only to
lation, and at the after-end there will build vessels with hollow lines, but to
be no deficiency, and that form will place the greatest transverse section
occasion the phenomena called a wave ;
abaft the longitudinal centre of the ves-
for though the action of the bow is to sel. The following proportions which
move the water horizontally, yet as its were regarded with favor both in Eng-
outward motion from the bow of the land and the United States, are now
vessel is met and resisted by the water being partially reversed —the placing
farther out, it can only escape by ri- the greatest transverse section two-
sing above the surface and of course ; fifths of the length from the bow, is
the amount of rise will be in proportion now being placed aft of the centre of
to the outward communicated. length. As a precursor to those im-
velocity
This is least at the two extremities of provements, it is but a few years ago
the bow, and most at the centre be- since a daring adventurer took the re-
tween the stem and its after termina- sponsibility of breaking the law of pre-
tion therefore the result will be a cedent, and without consulting his ri-
;
gradual rise from the stem toward the vals in the art, placed the dead-flat
centre, and a gradual subsidence from frame at the longitudinal centre of the
the centre toward the after termina- vessel. The subsequent action of the
tion of the bow, or in other words, a British Association, under the direction
icavc. This will not only be effected of Mr. J. S. Russell, have led to very
with the least consumption of power, important results. A committee was
but the better position of the accumu- appointed, whose researches and in-
lation will have marked a favorable quiries have established, by a series of
experiments, not upon the smooth sur- will, without doubt, prove equally, if
face of a mill-pond, but upon the ocean, not more, successful, because it strikes
a set of very curious facts. The old- at the root of the matter. While the
fashioned principle was, that the water- theories of the old world only skim the
lines should be nearly straight, and that surface, the experiments in this coun-
there should never be a hollow line, ex- try have been based upon the right-
cept a little in the run of the ship, but angled pressure, or the equilibrium of
most certainly be none fluids. It will be found, that by obtain-
that there should
—
forward all the lines on the bow re- ing the shape of the bow of a ship from
quiring to be convex —
and whenever the model at right-angles from its sur-
any bold experimenter would refuse to face, we shall discover that this line is
allow public opinion to think for him much fuller than the inscribed line of
in this matter, or in that of placing the flotation ; and that to reduce its full-
dead-flat frame farther aft, his success ness to that of straight, or nearly so, we
was set down as an exception, and not make the line of flotation hollow this ;
as the rule. may be seen by referring to the dotted

Mr. Russell claims for himself in line shown in the half-breadth plan of
Europe, as having discovered the pro- Plate 2, Sec. 1 : it will be discovered, that
per shape for the water-lines, which he although the load water-line is straight,
distinguishes from others by naming it the line of resistance is quite round,
the wave-principle. Experiments in but not sufficiently round to generate
the United States have fully established a wave at a speed of seventeen miles
the practicability of placing the great- per hour. cannot be expected that
It
est transverse section as far aft as the freighting-vessels should be adapted to
longitudinal centre of any vessel. It high speed, but they may be built to
is somewhat surprising that the same carry all they now do in a much short-
difficulties in determining appropriate er time.
shapes should have been found to exist In relation to the wave-principle we
by different means. While adhering will only remark, that the principle is
to the parallel, or to the inscribed line an approximation to nature's standard,

of flotation, and endeavoring to system- but the manner of application is de-
from fective
ize the principle of forming vessels the motions of the water
;
the form of this line, as shown at the around the vessel are deceptive the ;
surface, in England, another method large amount of hollow aft at the sur-
was adopted in the United States, that face is wrong, which is evident from
20
the fact, that would require more in practical operations in the United
it
rudder to steer such vessel than one States. Not so, however, in the theory
having less hollow. In general terms, of ship-building ; this insidious foe is
we may also add, that the action of the feeding on the very vitals of scientific
fluid around the bow and sides of the knowledge, having never relinquished
vessel, would perhaps lead the casual its claim to the hereditary distinct ions
observer to conclude, that the revolu- in the old world, from whence it has
tions were horizontal and parallel to been transplanted to the new, and its
the surface on all parts. The practice poison distilled and diffused as widely
itself would have a tendency to mislead as our commercial interests have ex-
the public mind, and beget and nour- tended. Few minds possess that ex-
ish that subtle foe to all improvement, cretive power necessary to throw off
prejudice, which, from its very nature, the cumbrous mass, and not only as-
is contagions ; it lurks among the laby- sert, but maintain an equilibrium of
rinths of thought ; it flashes like the thought and action.

electric spark with every glance of the We have found it necessary to show
eye ; it may be seen at the fountain of in a former chapter some of the bane-
knowledge, mingling its insipid proper- ful effects of drawing hereditary dis-
ties with every draught bane of — this tinctive lines of scientific knowledge
all progress in ship-building has been but being about to penetrate these il-
borne down in the ship-yard by the lusive dreams by the light of truth, w<
commingling influence of interchange. deemed it due to our readers to sho>
The young operative mechanic finds, with what rapid strides this herculean
that public opinion to the contrary, monarch has marched over the whoh
notwithstanding, he may know as much area of the commercial world. Its in-
about putting work together at twenty- sidious poison has been diffused not
five years of age, (even though his only throughout the ship-yard, in it:
father might not have been a ship- every department, but upon the ocean,
builder,) as another who may have lived in the counting-house, and at tin
fifty and whose ancestors were domestic hearth around the fire-side
years,
ship-builders from time immemorial. thus the thinking man will plainly set
The desire of the builders to make that the milk of knowledge lias been
monev, has fostered this laudable ainbi- curdled at the fountain. The man
tion, and hereditary knowledge has who professes to know nothing of the
lost much of its attractive charm peculiar properties of models, will show
MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. 1-55
his attachment for the same form of builder of Portsmouth, England, having
water-line as his friend, and with an had more than fifty years' experience ;
extension of knowledge he will often and last, though not least, America, as
endeavor to fortify his mind, not with far as she has adopted it, has had
arguments in their defence, but witli abundant success, as we shall hereafter
the prejudices of his friends. We have show.
known many whose general impres- We have said that the resistance
sions would have been correct, provi- met by the moving ship was not in the
ded the first impressions had been di- direction of the inscribed line of flota-
rected into a proper channel but hav- tion we will not descend below the
; ;
ing taken the wrong bias, are led into surface until we have endeavored to
the prevailing notions. show this above water. Has not the
It is not against prejudice indiscrimi- man who has witnessed the action of
nately that we wage war ; we believe the wave against the bow of a vessel
that a certain amount is necessary, and noticed that it was thrown off at right
would have little confidence in the me- angles ? Does not our every day expe-
chanic's excelling that had none ; but rience teach us this, that if a bow has
it is that amount that prevents the ship- a great amount of flare, the water falls
wright from thinking for himself; it is proportionately nearer the vessel than
the man. who does not set a proper from a bow that flares less 7 Just so
estimate upon his own thoughts, and is with the stern from the ship ;
that lias
unable to shake off the bias that other flat buttocks, the water will fall at right
people's opinions have made upon him, angles from the same; the shape of
the scales of whose mind are not pro- the bow immediately below and at the
perly balanced, having a weight always surface,detcrminesthe form of the wave

in one side. The positions laid down generated ; the surface is the starting
are not the deductions of theorists, but point for every particle of fluid set in
the result of tangible demonstrationsmotion around the vessel its course is ;
both in Europe and America. Theory determined by the shape of the im-
and practice agree in the old world, mersed part of the hull hence is ;
il
that the greatest transverse section plain that the direction differs materi-
should be farther aft. This adjustment ally from that of the parallel to the line
has been practised by the Spaniards, of flotation. It is a truth known to
recommended France by scientific every man thai water moves over a

in
men, and approved by at least one perfect plane with the same facility in
one direction as in another, while the It is just so with the water ; and this
pressure is equal ; hence it is quite is what we mean when we say the di-
apparent, that the turning of the mole- tion of the resistance is not parallel to
cules of the fluid be in a direction the lines of flotation, but at right angles
Avill
in which the least resistance is encoun- with the adjacent parts this applies :
tered. We
may suppose a vessel to be to every part of the immersed portion
supported entirely by musket-balls of of the vessel. These remarks are de-
less malleable material than lead a signed principally for those who leave
; let
cavity be formed that will permit a ves- the model, and suppose they can make
sel to float ; it may be of the form of the improvements on the floor, or on the
greatest transverse section ; the balls draught. It requires but a moment's
may be placed under the vessel, as- reflection to satisfy the thinking-man,
suming the transverse section of the that when we exchange rotundity in
cavity to be exactly the size of the balls perspective, for delineations by section-
larger than the vessel if the slip, al planes, we mistake the shadow for
;
box or dock containing the vessel were the substance. It is impossible to mark
of the same form and size transversely any discrepancy in form only from
at each end, it is quite plain that the analogy on the floor; true, by distri-
vessel would rest only on the frame, buting the battens on both bodies, we
which is quite enough for our purpose ;
prove our work, but to determine shape
the vessel may now be grounded on with any considerable degree of cer-
the balls, by removing or letting off tainty, is out of the question. Then
the water. We now have a row of is scarce a builder who has not his o\v
balls across the cavity containing the peculiar notions in relation to the pro-
vessel, under the keel on its sides, and per form for those parallel planes om ;
from the garboard-seam to the load- decries hollow lines on both ends of tin
line the vessel may now be moved vessel
; another has no objection t( ;
forward, and let our readers watch in the hollow on one end while a thin ;
their imagination the direction of the will advocate the same on both ends:
—
motion of the balls of those under the thus the young mechanic is led to sup-
keel, the axis will be horizontal, while pose, that by following his employer. <»i
those on the sides of the keel will have some successful builder, he has dis-
a vertical axis ; the balls under the bot- covered the universal alcahest for all
tom will again differ from those sus- the mysteries beneath the surface of
taining the keel, having a diagonal axis. the fluid.
We endeavor to analyze the re- mand. It is not our purpose to pur-

will
sults of this assumption. Were the sue a similar course. Were we thus
rotary motion of the particles as as- disposed, we should doubtless find a
sumed by the adherence to the parallel bewildering discrepancy that exists in
for the water-line, we would find that the proportions of different ships
the axis of every molecule operated on which would leave our readers still
by the moving vessel, would be vertical more in the dark.
—a consequence that even the casual We
have already given proportions
observer would repudiate. We can by for the principal dimensions of freight-
no stretch of the imagination admit of ing-ships in the United States. In Eng-
such direction. It at once destroys the land the depth has been set down as
equilibrium of fluids, and annuls every being proportionate, when it equals
law government of the same. from five-ninths to two-thirds of the
for the
—
The man who models a vessel possess- breadth the length at four times the
ing those views in relation to the pa- breadth — but for speed, Euler found
rallel to the line of flotation, cannot by experiment, that six feet of length
entertain correct views of the first im- for one of breadth, was better than a
pressions made upon the fluid by the less proportion. Exceptions to those
moving vessel. It would be well for rules must be made, according to cir-
him to make his model by lines running cumstances.
as near at right angles with the exterior Having determined the principal di-
surface of the greatest transverse sec- mensions, we may now commence the
tion as may be, and at the proper dis- draught, which will be found to consist
tance, for determining the required of three principal plans, called the sheer,
shape. and the body-plan
the half-breadth,
Assuming that enough has been said they are usually drawn in as many
in this chapter upon the shape, Ave separate places on the paper, which
shall now proceed to delineate the man- should be stretched on a board pre-
ner of constructing the draught with- pared for the purpose. Although the
out the model. It has been the prac- draught consists of three plans, but two
tice of foreign authors to furnish the only are necessary to determine the
dimensions of different ships, and at the form of the ship; the third may be de-
same time make such expositions upon duced from the other two.
their various qualifications, as the exi- The usual arrangement, and the one
gencies of the case may seem to de- With which the eye has become familiar,
is that ofdrawing the sheer-plan on Begin with the sheer-plan, showing a

the upper i>;irt of the sheet, while, im- broad side view ofthc ship, and in which
mediately below, the half-breadth plan the lengths and heights of all the lines
is drawn, and the body-plan is drawn are shown. The perpendiculars may
either ahead or astern, when the paper be erected upon the base-line, and
is sufficiently large but when this is should extend from the margin-line for-
;
not the ease, sometimes projected ward at the stem, and on the load-line
it is
on the middle of the sheer-plan. Be- of flotation to the margin-line on the

ginning with the profile or sheer-plan post, at the same altitude ; the base-
above, we must leave ample room be- line represents the upper edge of the
low for the half-breadth plan, which keel, as has been fully shown in the
an ill require more spaee than the actual last chapter. From the base we may
halt-width of the ship. We shall find square up a line representing the dead-
ii convenient to first secure the paper flat frame, determining first upon its
on the board by gluing the edges down ;

proper location; this we recommend
after having wet the wrong side of the to be about the centre of the space
paper, one quarter of an inch of gluing between the perpendiculars in freight-
surface around the edge of the paper, ing or sailing ships, for the obvious rea-
is sufficient ; it should be partially dried son that the custom has prevailed al-
with a warm iron, in order that it may most universally of trimming ships by
be perfectly so before the paper shrinks the stern, which brings the dead-flat
much, as the contracting power is very frame of the ship (having a long fore
great, and would tear up the vx\grs and aft floor) farther aft on the bottom
unless the glue was quite dry. The than the builder designed that it should
right side of drawing-paper is the must be quite apparent)
be ; hence it
smooth side, or the side from which that if the dead-flat frame were placed
the maker's name can be read from farther aft, and the ship trimmed near-
left to right. The edge of the board ly upon an even keel, the frame would
should be straight, and at right angles nominally be in the same place. Upon
with the ends ; we shall find this to be this point (in this place) it may only be
quite essential in working with the T necessary to say, that inasmuch as it is
square ; the use of which materially almost universally admitted that the
facilitates the work in marking straight centre of gravity of the ship should be
parallel lines to the base of the board, near the longitudinal centre — an admis-
or lines al right angles with the base. sion which puts a quietus on every argu-
ment against. having the greatest trans- plank-sheer, is above the deck-line, the
verse section in the same place —
we depth of the water-way, which varies
may now prepare the halt-breadth plan, from twelve to fifteen inches. The
by drawing a line parallel to the top of depth of hold is taken from the top
the keel, and at the same time parallel of the beam in the main hatch to the
to the edge of the board; run down the top of the ceiling alongside of the keel-
perpendiculars to this new line, which son from this we may be able to de-
;
is the middle-line, showing the longitu- termine the required depth of the dead-
dinal and transverse centre of the ship ; flat frame, and the proper location for
these lines, as all subsequent ones, until the load-line, for which see page 43.
our readers are notified, should be Should we determine to have a projec-
marked with pencil only ; the dead-flat tion at the top of the wale, we should
may also be continued down upon the width of the strings,
to the at once fix
middle-line. Our next course should be or those narrow strakes immediately
to prepare a body-plan, which is de- below the plank-sheer, and above the
signed to show the moulding shape, or wale; thus we are furnished with those
edge of all the frames, this plan is made sheer-lines —the wale, or first height,
to conform with the breadth and depth the lower side of the plank-sheer, or
of the ship at the dead-flat frame, from second height, and the lower side of
the base-line or top of the keel, to the the rail, or third height. It will be re-
lower side of the rail. After having its membered, that when the distance of
boundary line, we may mark in the <3> those lines from the base, or from load-
frame, assuming that it represents the line is measured, they are heights; but
lowest part of the bottom from the base- when measured to the middle-line, or
line outward also assuming it to be horizontally, they are breadths.
; We
the widest frame in the ship, it is not make this remark, lest we may not be
uncommon to have several frames by distinctly understood, as this mode of
the same moulds this, however, is no mtVning sheer-lines is perhaps not gen-
;
advantage, even though the ship may erally known even in the private yards.
be designed for burden only ; from In Europe, the lower or first sheer-line
this frame we may determine the loca- is called the height of breadth, top-
tion of the several sheer and deck-lines, height, and rail-breadth, but the course
by setting up their heights above base, we have adopted is readily understood.
remembering that the line showing We may now set up those heights on
the top height or the lower side of the the dead-flat frame in the sheer-plan.
160 MUUNE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
and having first swept in the margin- become obsolete we may adopt either;
line, or inside of the stem, cutting the the cross-seam may for the present be
perpendicular at load-line, and in its located in its usual place its height :
continuance intersecting the base as far must be determined to some extent by

aft as the forward square-frame, (for circumstances ; but the higher we
reasons shown on page 118,) thence to are able to get it, the better shape we
the stern-post, the inside of which also may obtain. The difficulties in loca-
cuts the rabbet at the load-line, and from ting the ordinary cross-seam high are,
a point near its head, projecting the first, we are deprived of light between
counter and stern, or the line repre- decks, by crowding up the cabin win-
senting the centre of the same. We them in range of the
dows ; this brings
may here remark that the point from deck-beams. Custom has made it a law
which the counter from (and we know of no other) that there
projects
the post, is called the cross- seam, must be counter enough to cover the
from the division which here takes rudder, and something to spare it has ;
place between the bottom-plank which also determined that there must be an
end here, and the plank above which arch-board, and that the cabin win-
seam here, and end on the quarters. dows must come above the arch-board.
This division, however, applies to the The second objection (which is not an
sterns of ships as they have been built objection in reality) is, that the wale
but we cannot suppose that the prac- must twist under at the after-end if the
tice will be long continued when its de- cross-seam is high, as in Plate 5. With
fects become generally known. This these remarks we leave the subject,
line of division referred to is, and must allowing our readers to place it where
necessarily continue to be, the weakest they please.
part of the stern. It requires but a We may now hang the sheer-lines
glance to discover that this is not only at the several heights on the dead-flat
a division in the plank, but that it ex- frame, and ending for the present on
tends to the timbers which are dove- the stern, and on the margin-line for-
tailed into the transom ; and it must ward, which should be continued as
be also apparent, that it is either ne- high as the rail is designed to be. Our
cessary that the plank from the bottom remarks upon sheering in the last chap-
should extend as high as the upper edge ter will apply here equally well; we
of the counter, thus covering the weak- will only add, that the amount of sheer
er part, or that the stern-frame should is a matter of taste ; one quarter of an
wmvmt
mm*
mmm\
mm p
i"
|§ii
IBin
in
lUll
lata
&::*'.
inch to the foot at the wale, and one- next divide the length into vertical
eighth at the rail for a large ship, can spaces, after determining the timbering-
he distributed to look well. Assuming room we require, or the distance we
that the sheer-lines have been disposed resolve to have the frames apart ; the
of, we may now divide that part of fourth frames may now be set off on
the sheer-plan into parallel and equal the base-line each side of the dead-flat
spaces between the base and load-line ;
frame — this arrangement may extend
the lower space should be than the entire length of the sheer-plan, but
less
those above, becaase of the advantage may not be marked with ink beyond
obtained in having a line near the base the forward and after square-frame ;
of the bilge, or its lower part these these square-frames are so called, be-
;
lines extend from the margin-line for- cause they not only stand square across
ward to the same on the post, and may the ship, but have a floor-timber at-
be marked in with ink they are usu- tached to them across the keel; as floors
;
ally called water-lines ; the base-line cannot be connected with cant frames,
may also be marked in with ink ; also they are carried no farther than the
the stern, counter, margin of post, and square- frames extend. The practice
stem, as high as the bow-sprit. It may of canting frames from a transverse
be well to add, that the ink used for line across the keel, is found to econo-
mechanical drawings is India ink, and mize timber very much, this being the
should be mixed by being rubbed on the principal reason why it was adopted in
finger after dipping one end in clear this country some fifty years ago the
;
soft water ; but a few drops only are round of the bow and buttocks in-
necessary to mix at one time, and should creases the bevel of the timbers, and as
be kept entirely free from dust. One a consequence, renders it necessary to
of the great secrets in drawing a hand- have larger timber to make the same
some draught with even or smooth lines, futtock than the cant frame would
will be found in that of having the ink require ; the frame being canted, the
pure, and cleaning out the pen before futtock may be made of a smaller sized
laying it down ; the insides of the pen piece. But this is not all; the fastening
must be entirely free from any con- is distributed to much better advantage
gealed ink, or it will noton cant, than on square-frames, even
work to the
satisfaction of a man of taste. of a tolerably sharp vessel. There are
We now have all the longitudinal exceptions however to this, found on
lines we require at present, and may the bow of a very sharp steamer or
21
steamboat. About the usual propor- this because the great mass of iiie-
tionate space allotted for cants may be chanics are unwilling to step aside from
seen in Plate 3 or Plate 7. No deter- the beaten-track, even though nothing
minate space however for the cants could possibly be lost by it. It makes
—
can possibly apply to all vessels the no difference which side of the body-
shape of the vessel must furnish the plan the fore or after-body may be
builder with all that his judgment may placed; if, however, the stem is to the
require — after having set off the fourth right in the sheer-plan, it shows the
frames parallel to the dead-flat, which starboard side of the ship, so also the
should be exactly square from the base, fore-body on the right of the body-plan
or perpendicular to that line and ; shows the starboard side it : is the
not only this frame, but all the lines same aft. We may now take off the
representing frames in the sheer-plan, half-breadth of the on the

load-line
should be at right angles with the base dead-flat frame from the body-plan, and
and middle-lines. One of the simplest set off the same in the half-breadth
modes of raising a perpendicular may plan — likewise the half-breadth of
be seen in Plate and may be thus de- the several sheer-lines at their cor-
7,
scribed —a base of six feet, perpendicu- responding heights in the body-plan

lar of eight feet, and a hypotenuse of may also be transferred to the half-
ten feet, all measured by the scale upon breadth plan this should not be ;
which the draught is drawn, or all by done with the dividers, but with a nar-
the same scale : the frames should now row slip of paper, as all other trans-
be named 121 ferred measurements should be taken.
as described on pages
and 122, and the heights taken on The dividers are useful in their place,
every fourth frame above the load-line, but their points should not be inserted
then transferred to the body-plan, as into the draught the beauty of a —
shown on Plate 7, and described on draught is gone when it is riddled with
page 130. It will be remembered, that holes, which may be easily avoided, and
we have the full dead-flat frame swept no time lost by using the slip of paper
in on both sides one side of this plan in their stead.
;
belongs to each body: it is usual to The side-line next demands a share

place the fore-body on the right, as in of our attention. This line represents
Plate 7 —
this indicating the draught the side of the keel, stem, and stern-post,
to he what is called a starboard or and should extend in the half-breadth
right-handed draught. We only name plan from the head of the stem as far
aft as its intersection with the base- terms to show why we have began here
line — (we mean by the head of the stem) to form the half-breadth plan, and we
— in perpendicular line with its head, will farther add, that to those who have
and in the same manner with regard to familiarized the eye to the water, or
its intersection with the base ; likewise parallel to the line of flotation, this
aft, the side-line should extend from mode of
will doubtless be the readiest
the head of the post, or from cross-seam obtaining a form that will please them
to the base-line, that is to say —
if the in its rotundity. What we have; al-
post has three feet of rake from a per- ready said, and may hereafter say with
pendicular line, the length of the side- regard to shape, will doubtless be all
line should also extend three feet. Seehave undertaken in

sufficient. We
page 126 and Plate 4. The side-lines these expositions on drawing a draught
must only be marked in pencil line. We to show the manner, and not the mat-
may now square down the intersections ter, and further, that we may more
of the water and sheer-lines with the certainly make subjects plain that have
margin-line from the sheer-plan to the not been, we are persuaded, that by
half-breadth plan, marking a spot on having the model, the floor of the
the side-line for each water and sheer- and the draught, we shall be able
loft,
line, both forward and aft. We may to accomplish our object. Hence it
now determine the form of the load- will not be expected that improvements
line, having- its breadth on the dead- will be introduced in the draught when
flat determined, and its ending- partially formed by the eye alone this is not —
so, and may spread out half of the the field for improvement neither are ;
moulding-size of the ship on this line. we willing to encumber the pages of

We have already shown that this line this work with a description of the
is the inscribed line of flotation, and its many futile efforts at designing the
shape, or rather a shape that will suit bodies of ships by mechanical methods,
us, is doubtless determined sooner or which have in former times been sub-
more readily at this part of the ship, stituted for correct principles : these
than at any other. At the first sight methods may be found in the musty
of a ship afloat, (when near enough,) the folios of the past, where 4
it is best that
eye seems involuntarily to run along- the they should remain.

water-line, and our mind is often soon Such methods of endeavoring to
made up with regard to the form below compensate for the absence of more
water. We are speaking in general correct principles, on which to found
J 64 MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
the design of a ship, were supposed to system introduced by Chapman, and
be rendered necessary, whenever the cannot suppose that its distinguished
vessel to be built was of too large a inventor designed its introduction to
size to admit of being conveniently put supplant the more rigorous application
up by the aid of the eye alone and of philosophical principles, as some
;
consequently, almost every merchant- modern authors would seem to infer.

builder of the old world is in posses- We have been led to this conclusion
sion of some such empirical system, from the fact that its principles arc
to enable him to form a design for a based on analogy or comparison, de-
ship whether the ship built after the termining nothing tangible in relation
;
design so formed possessed good or bad to its adaptation to laws governing the
qualities, did not generally enter into element the vessel is designed to navi-
the consideration farther thanthe crude gate, and that to enable the practition-
ideas of the projector may have guided er to make use of this method, he must
him in forming it. We say crude ideas, acquire a knowledge of the higher
because the builder whose judgment is branches of mathematics, to calculate
sound enough to enable him to arrange the exponents, as it is a system of ex-
facts and classify observations, whose ponential formulas, determined from
experience has been of sufficient ex- the areas, first of transverse and next
tent to have furnished him with an of longitudinal sections.
array of truths, from which to deduce It must appear obvious to the think-
principles, abandon all such at-
will ing-man, that any method having for a
tempts as futile, and will pursue the basis the determination of the form of
study of the art in the manner in which the transverse sections from sectional
it can alone be studied to certain ad- areas, and from which to base the form
vantage, that is as an inductive science, of the longitudinal sections, must be
and depend on his fit-
his success will indeed crude. What has the peculiar
ness for the task. The mechanical shape of any form in a ship to do with
methods alluded to, may be found in determining anything more than the
different English and French works stability, or to prevent her from rolling?
on Naval Architecture Steel, Mur-— But the parabolic system does not even
ray, Bouguer, La Pere, Fournier, M. determine this point and it may be
;
de Pahni, and others, some of which safely said that no system is worthy of
have been copied by Inter authors. consideration that has for a basis sec-
We have examined the parabolic tional lines at right angles with the
course of the vessel when performing thin, close-grained wood ; but lines on
her evolutions upon the trackless dee}), any part of the draught may now be
as we will show in the following chapter. readily swept in by the use of weights
We have given some of our reasons and battens, which are held to any re-
for determining what shape we require quired form by the point of a wire in-
from the half-breadth plan, and* may serted into the end of the weight, and
also add, that no man who takes his bent down to the lower surface of the
eye for an index to shape in its rotun- same, within the thickness of drawing-
dity, can possibly tell either in convey- paper of its This precaution is
base.
able expositions to others, or portray to necessary, for in case the weight should
his own mind what form his vessel will slip off the batten, the paper would
be from the transverse sections. It receive no damage from the point, it

was for the purpose of showing what being too short to reach the paper.
the half-breadth plan really is, that we The battens may be made of steel,
have departed from the course pursued cedar, or ebony —the latter is best
by our predecessors, who have inva- holly is good for battens. The weights
riably began with their expositions on may be of lead or cast iron, with a hole
the body-plan, and drawn all their de- cast in the heaviest end, into which a
ductions from the same. We, however, plug of wood may be inserted, and af-
have only shown the greatest transverse terwards a wire driven into the plug,
section as a boundary-line for regula- then the end brought to a point, and
ting practical stability and determining bent down the required distance one ;
heights at the several sheer-lines ; from dozen weights are enough to draw the
thisframe we find a boundary-line for draught of any sized vessel. We have
the extreme breadth of all the lines in found those we use to be second to
the half-breadth plan and having the none that we have seen they weigh
;
;
load-line swept in with pencil, we may 3\ pounds, measure 7 inches in length,
proceed to form the rail at its lower are l{ inches of parallel width, by 2
side,having already the settings-off for inches deep ; the hinder end is thin,
the midship-frame and the ends one : while the bulk of weight is brought
or two other water-lines may also be near the end into which the wire is in-
penciled in the same manner. There serted. The sides of the forward end
was a time when this was a tedious may be rounded off, that two points
process, inasmuch as it required a may be brought near together. The
mould for every line, made of some very shape is a matter of taste to some ex-
1G6 MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
tent. The hole should he oblong-, and taken off from the frames on the body-
be cast in the weight, inasmuch as the plan, and transferred tothe half-breadth,
shape and roughness of the hole will the after-end running out fair, aft of
hold the plug firmly, which a drilled the last frame taken oft". The lower
hole cannot do. Having temporarily side of plank-sheer or second-breadth,
swept in one or two lines below the may also be transferred to the half-
load-line, we may take off" every fourth breadth in the same manner, the after-
frame midship, as before directed, upon end running out fair aft of the last
a slip of paper, beginning on either side frame. Should there be a discrepancy,
of the dead-flat frame, and continuing it may be regulated by altering the
to the bow or stern, near which we frames so as to correspond, by being
may omit hut one, taking every second fair on both bodies. When the sheer-
frame : the half-breadth being taken lines, or breadths, load-line, and two or
from the middle-line on the frame to be more water-lines, are formed both to
shown in the body-plan to the inscribed correspond with what we have deter-
line, represented both in the sheer and mined to be the proper form, we may
body-plan. Having thus taken off all venture to run in the remaining water-
the half-breadths of any one line, we
and regulate the fourth and in-
lines,
may transfer them to the body-plan, termediate frames to correspond wit I
and after performing the same evolu- the same. Should we require a givei
tions with the load-line and rail, we amount of displacement, it will be ne-
may bend the batten to the spots, pro- cessary to determine what amount the
vided a fair frame may be obtained by present shape will furnish before we
following the spots ; if either of the proceed farther. It will be remember-
lines below the load-line should be found ed, that the calculation need extend no
to vary, we may note the discrepancy, and if. after
higher than the load-line ;
and try another frame ; should the same the calculations have been made, we
error be discovered, we may transfer fall short, or overrun the required dis-
the variation to the half-breadth, and placement, we must make such altera-
again place the batten to the spots thus tions in the form as will furnish the
altered.Those frames when found to required amount. It will be seen that
compare in both bodies, may be mark- neither of the modes shown in the first
ed in with pencil — the line showing the chapter will apply to the draught — thei
form of the vessel at the wale, or the are designed for the model only.
line called first-breadth, may now be I
Hence it is plain, that we must obtaii
the areas of all the water-lines, if we frame at those two settings-off each side
would determine the exact amount of of the dead-flat. If the settings-off
water displaced but this is seldom should not come on a frame, or assu-
;
necessary, unless the vessel to be built ming that they come between the frames
be a steamer, or a river-boat of very already swept in, then, after marking
light draught of water for all ordinary the two frames at the settings-off in
;
purposes, it is quite sufficient to deter- each body, we may proceed to take

mine the area of say five of the frames them off the half-breadth, and transfer
from the body-plan, between the base them to the body-plan, from which the
and load-line, one of which should be areas may be taken after which, the ;
the dead-flat frame add the five areas formula may be thus let L be the
; —
together, and divide by five, which will length between the perpendiculars ; A
give the mean area of the whole. The 1 the area of the forward section ; A2
manner of determining the location of of the second section ; A 3 that of ® ;
such frames as should be selected, may A 4 that of the next section aft of dead-
be as follows : and
divide both the fore flat ;and A 5 the after section. Then
after-body between the dead-flat frame let A 1 = 218 square feet; A 2=4S2
and the perpendiculars into three equal square feet A 3=532 square feet
; ;
parts — this of course makes four set- A 4=480 square feet; A 5=220
tings-off", one of which is the dead-flat, square feet; and H=15 feet, the dis-
—
and another the stem or post the other tance between base and load-line; L =
two those required mark in the sheer 175, the length between the perpen-
;
and half-breadth plans a temporary diculars; add the areas together thus:
Al=21S+A2=4S2+A3=532+A4==4S0+A5=227=1931-r5:=3SGxl75=G7550-35==1930 tons.
To which we may add one-eighteenth exact displacement, but this will enable
of the same for the plank, keel, stem whether we have

us to determine
and post. This is no doubt as near as enough displacement and if we have ;
we can arrive to the exact displace- too much or too little we can contract
ment from the draught, without enter- or expand, as our circumstances may
ing into the entire calculation. It is require, but we will follow this formula
true, that we were to divide the into another shape, and reduce this
if to
length into a greater number of parts, capacity let the plank be added ;
and take the mean of a larger number

1930 + X = 3037 tons.
of sections, we should arrive nearer the
From this four-ninths must be deduct- ance is once manifest of knowing

at
ed for the weight of the ship we then how

;
to determine not only the displace-
have Tons. ment but the stability of vessels. Thus

2037 -|= 1133 tons,
we see, that in the draught we arc con-
the capacity of the ship. Again, we sidering, spread out on the board before
may perhaps be able to learn something us, Ave can determine nothing in rela-
from the rule laid down on page 45, tion to the stability; although we may
when applied to a body-plan, have good dimensions for the same, yet
filled out
as Plate 5. Taking the dimensions the shape may be such as to counteract
of this plate from the tables, we have all that we may have gained by good
length of keel 100 feet, and of load-line dimensions. Assuming that the dis-
116 feet, area of dead-flat 272 square placement and stability is what we re-
feet. The formula may be thus quire, we may proceed, after running in
Length
Length between
pcrpendic.
Mean
length,
Area of all the parallel or water-lines in the half-
keel, dead-flat Tons.
100+116=2164-2=L0Sx272=2937G-^47=625 breadth plan, to striking lines parallel
The actual displacement is 620 tons. to the middle or side-line in the body-
Thus the reader will discover, as we plan, as shown in Plate 5. The line
have before remarked on page 45, that next to the middle-line will be num-
no invariable rule can be given which bered 1, and the numbers will in-
will either furnish the displacement or crease as we advance outward towan
capacity with any considerable degree the side. The distance from one t(
of accuracy. The divisor that will ap- the other, or the space between them,
ply on all vessels of nearly the same should be regulated by the water-lines
shape, will not apply to the vessel in the sheer-plan ; that is to say, the
shown on Plate 5, as will be seen by re- water-lines in the sheer-plan show tin
ferring to page 45. The highest num- distance these vertical lines are spaced
ber there given for merchant ships is apart in the body-plan. The same ar-
46; this applies to sharp ships of the rangement may extend to the half-
usual form. This vessel, as will be breadth plan, showing the lines paral-
perceived, has a low centre of effort, lel to the middle-line, and at right an-
consequent upon her being narrow, and gles with the frames they arc usualh ;
having an easy bilge. It will be re- called section-lines. The reason for
membered also, that vessels having a spacing them thus is, that when we
low centre of effort, have but little sta- lay down we
a ship, find it advanta-
bility, without ballast. The import- geous to have no more lines than is ab-
solutely necessary ; and by making use partially interferes, although the line
of the water-lines for section-lines, we will finally end on the taffrail, as in Plate
avoid the necessity of having other 4. We have said that the aft-end of
lines. These lines are shown in the the batten should be carried out fair,
three plans — sheer, half-breadth, and aft of the last frame in the after-body,
body -plans, but principally required provided at the same time, the first sec-
in the sheer-plan. Their utility willend on the
tion-line by so doing will
be discovered by referring to Plate cross-seam and if we adhere to the ;
4. The shape of those lines is obtain- old method of having the cross-seam
ed from the body-plan by taking the level, and the transom square from the
distance on a slip of paper from the middle-line on the back, the sections
base-line to each frame on the first will all end in the corner. Those
section-line mark also against each
; lines, it will be readily perceived, repre-
spot, the number of the frame to which sent vertical planes running lengthwise
it belongs; after taking off all the frames through the ship parallel to the middle-
on the line on which we begin, we may line. The half-breadth and body-plan
apply the height to each frame in the may be regulated with a very consid-
sheer-plan, between the dead-flat and erable degree of accuracy by those
the post in the after-body, and between lines.
the stem and dead-flat in the fore-body. It will be seen, by referring to Plate
After we have completed the settings- 5, that the first height or the wale, al-
off, we may apply the batten to the though ending on the cross-seam, does
spots the after-end running out fair, not end in the corner as in Plate 4.
;
the end of the batten forward will ter- And we will here remark, that Plate 4
minate on a spot found, by squaring shows the same line on a plane that
up the intersection of the same line Plate 5 shows on the ship, and this is
(from the half-breadth plan) with the reason why so little pains is taken
the rail of the same —the sheer-plan from the sirmarks,
to regulate the sheer
already showing the height of the instead of running a rope around a
end, when the distance forward is de- ship, as is usually done. The same dis-
termined, or as by crepancy exists forward, but the de-

shown in Plate 5,
tin ending on the curve showing the parture is not so great on the bow.
1
height of the rail. The same arrange- The careful observer will see. that al-
ment docs not answer the purpose aft, though the opening between the first
inasmuch as the projection of the stern and second sheer-lines on dead-flat in
22
Plate 5, are 3 feet S inches apart, and in with ink ; this may be done by add-
on the cross-scam line measured in the ing the thickness of the plank (which
-
same mamicr. are only 1 foot 11 inches should always be somewhat less on the
apart, showing an actual taper of 1 foot ends than midships) to the cross-seam
9 inches, yet the opening is actually line ; then level out a line to this thick-
largest aft when measured hy the eye. ness from the inside at the sheer-line
Again, be seen that in the sheer- to the outside of the plank, and mitre
it will
plan of Plate 4, the opening between a line showing the seam into the tim-
the first and second sheer-lines taper bers its intersection will be the proper ;
enough to be readily discovered, yet height on the cross-seam line for the
when the eye drops down to the half- wale or first height. The discrepanc
breadth plan we discover that the wale at the second height is not so great, in
on the ship cannot run around to the consequence of there being much less
stern-post, although it does on the twist the same provision will have
;
draught. Hence it is plain that the the same effect. The same operation
draught and the ship do not agree ; and should extend to several frames for-
the question at once arises, why ward of the cross-seam, and on the bow
is this
discrepancy ? It will appear quite in like manner. Whatever the flare

plain, that the thickness of the plank of the bow in the thickness of the
midships neither elevates or depresses plank drops the sheer, the line should
the sheer, though the plank may be six be raised that amount before inking in
inches in thickness, while at the end the sheer-lines in the draught their —
the flare and twist causes the outer ending on the stern has not yet been
edge of the plank to drop below the determined. We may see in Plate 4
inner edge and the edge next to the

;
the section-lines continued above the
timbers should range above as much as cross-seam to the taffrail, the round of
is lost by the thickness of the plank the stern showing those nearest the
projecting in a diagonal direction, else outside to be forward of those nearest
;t
the outside of the plank will range be- the centre. This course is not gene-
low the original design. But this is not rally pursued either on the draught or
all although the model and draught on the floor. Again, in Plate 5 wi
;
show the ship as she should appear may seethe section-lines ending on the
when the plank is on, it is evident that cross-seam line, leaving the space above
the additional height required should a blank, or as the ship is found to be
be added before marking the sheer-lines after the frames are all raised.
We have already shown that the breadth may be continued across the
sheer-lines may end temporarily on the stern, as in the half-breadth plan of
centre counter-timber we may deter- Plate 4 and its intersection squared
; ;
mine the amount of round, or how up to the sheer-plan. The corner of

much higher the taffrail should be at the stern may now be shown by draw-
the centre than at the side of the ship ;
ing- a line touching the two spots al-
this being done, and the number of ready furnished, and continuing as low
inches set up square from the sheer- as the upper edge of the arch-board
line, we may run up the centre counter- from this point it may be continued
timber to the required height ; this down, out of wind with the centre of
point may now be squared down to the the stern, or the same proportionate
middle-line of half-breadth plan, and the amount of twist may be continued and
round thwart-ship, or across the stern, obtained by running in a temporary
may then be also determined and sheer-line, or to remain if deemed ne-
;
where the sheer-line showing the rail cessary. If the cross-seam has any
-
in the half-breadth plan crosses the line rise, as in Plate 3, 4 and 5, the outer
for the round of the stern, that point section-line, as in Plate 4, will give a
may be squared up to the sheer-plan, spot for the quarter and another sec- ;
and is the ending of the third breadth tion-line may be run in, which will fur-
in the sheer-plan, or the corner of the nish all the spots that we may require.
stern at the rail. It is not necessary It is not necessary to show how to run
that the and second breadths should in an additional sheer or section-line
first ;
terminate in any line across the stern. the same course must be pursed with
The arch-board may be set off on the all lines of the same denomination,
centre counter-timber, and its round whether temporary or permanent and ;
determined in the same manner as that having been shown, it is not necessary
of the rail, by squaring the centre down to repeat the operation what lines w e ;
to the half-breadth,and giving it the may have found necessary to run across
same or more round than the rail. If the stern, between the arch-board and
the stern has no twist, and the arch- rail, will not be required for permanent
board has the same round as the rail, use, and must not be inked. The stern
the lines on the stern in the half-breadth for the present requires no nunc lines
should be parallel to the line showing running across, either in the half-
the taffrail; on the contrary, the breadth or sheer-plan, than the rail,
if,
stern has more or less twist, the second arch-board, and cross-seam. The cabin
windows may be shown in the half- be somewhat different; on the latter

breadth plan, also in the body plan. the diagonals are not required for proof
We mav before proceeding farther,bend lines, although sometimes used ; but in
a batten at the heads of the frames, cut- the operations on the floor, the arrange-
ting the exact crossing of the frame ment is made as soon as the water-
with its own leveled height, stricken lines are proven, for by arranging the
across the body plan ; —one end of angles of the diagonals in the body plan
this line in the fore-body is at the to suit the length of timber the builder
height of the dead-flat frame, and the may have, the butts are arranged so
other at the height of the margin-line that the shape of the timbers may not
in the sheer-plan, set up in the body This operation
be very difficult to find.
as taken from the sheer-plan. In the requires some considerable degree of
after-body the line begins at the same skill to regulate the various crooks, that
height as in the fore-body, viz., the there may be no timbers that cannot be
dead-flat frame, and continues cutting obtained, be the shape of the vessel
the heads of the frames until it reaches what may.
it We have not designed
the cross-seam height, from whence it the draught to exhibit anything more
crosses the stern and ends on the mid- than the manner of performing the
dle-line, at the height of the centre of operation, of showing the effect of a
the taffrail, as in Section 4 of Plate 2, tapered sheer, and of arranging the sev-
and as shown on the stern in the sheer- eral plans on one entire plane; where-
plan, Plate 4. We may next proceed as the operations of the floor by sec-
to strike in the intermediate frames, tions, showing the ship in two or three
both in the and half-breadth lengths, could not (it
sheer was presumed) be
plans, and take off and sweep them in as easily understood without this con-
the body plan. It may be fairly as- necting link nor was it designed to ;
sumed that the draught is proven put in all the lines belonging to any one
;
although there are more lines yet re- section of the ship, throughout the en-
quired to complete it in all the plans, tire work, for the evident reason that
yet the water and section-lines agree- we have not undertaken to exhibit pic-
ing with the frames, and each making tures, but to illustrate not only princi-
fair lines, there can be little doubt but ples, but the manner of working by
that the lines will prove in every part them; hence it is evident, that the
if sufficiently near each other. The fewer the number of lines beyond what
operation on the draught requires to is necessary to show that for which the
engraving is designed, the more easily and although this line on cither side
understood. only determines the course of the fluid
Having shown the effect of shape, at the surface, it is an index to the
first, from the model in its rotundity, shape, both above and below this in-
and following this by expositions on clined line of flotation. Those who
the floor, in sections adapted to the will take the trouble to compare this
length and again inclined form of water-line with that of
of the mould-loft,
showing the general outline of the sev- any of the European packet-ships out
eral plans on the draught, from which of this port, will find that there is much
we shall now deduce some leading prin- less difference than can be found among
ciples that should govern all construc- freighting-ships, subject of course to
tors of vessels designed to navigate the exceptions, which are very rare.
ocean, it will be discovered, that on Plate It must be apparent to the thinking-
7 we have shown the form of the in-
man, that with a difference in the form
scribed line of flotation the draught of the weather and lee-lines of flotation,
above would delineate when immersed as in Plate 7, the ship will carry a
to her load-line, and careened fifteen weather-helm. Seamen find that the
degrees from the upright or position of water acts with more force on the rud-
rest the two sides being marked, it will der of a ship about half way between
;
readily be discovered that there is a the greatest immersed line of flotation

material difference in their form at the and the base-line, than it does on other
ends, although of equal breadth mid- parts ; and the reason will appear ob-
ships. Though we have never seen vious, for it is only at that part of the
this plan appended to a draught, it does rudder that the lee-lines of the ship
not follow that it should not be. The form a suitable conductor to the rudder
builder or constructor who does not with the least disturbance. The whirl-
know what is the shape of the careening impulse imparted to the globular
ed line of flotation of the ship he is particles of fluid, show that they can-
about to build, does not know as much not be restored to their buoyancy by
about her steering qualities as he sup- any sudden change of direction. When
poses, however well he may be satisfied the ship is careened about fifteen de-
in his own mind of her performances grees from the upright position, it al-
in this particular. It will be seen that ters the course of the water at the sur-
the lee-line of flotation is fuller both face of the anterior as well as that of
forward and aft than the weather-line, the posterior part of the ship, and when
thus inclined, the distance on the line vessel to the wind; the surface on the
of Hotation from the greatest trans- leeward side of the keel being the
verse section to the rudder being much greatest, it follows that the pressure
shorter on the windward than on the against the lee-side is also the greatest,
leeward side, it follows as a conse- and to be relieved, the bow seeks an
quence, that the water comes directly equilibrium by inclining to the wind-
to the rudder on the windward side in ward side, where there is less resist-
a steady current, while on the leeward ance.Careening a ship of the ordi-
side it acts precisely as it does in the nary model has the same effect upon
river where the current or tide sweeps the steering qualities, that it would have
by the end of a pier with great force, to move the stern-post aside one, two,
while below the pier, and between its or three feet from the centre of the
end and the shore, the current and terminating all the lines
is setting- vessel,
up, or in an opposite direction; the there, and then sailing her in an up-
consequence is, that the cavity between right position. Why is it that we do
the quarter and the rudder is filled up not perceive any difference in the scud-
from below on the lee-side. We have ding-ship, or that she does not require
measured some fine ships in other re- the helm on one side more than the
spects, sailing out of this and other other? The reason is at hand the —
ports of the United States, that had pressure on the two sides of the rudder
eight feet of difference under the quar- is equal. Hence the reason why mari-
ter in their weather and lee-lines of ners complain of vessels steering bad
flotation. before the wind they veer from their
;
must be apparent that the pres-

It course until they receive the wind from
sure consequent upon the current the quarter ; this causes them to ca-
(formed by the moving ship) on the two and as soon as an inclination
reen,
sides of the rudder, being unequal when takes place, the water ceases to act
the helm is midships, the lee-bow being with the same amount of force on the
also the fullest, which tends to push it leeward side, and acts with increased
around to windward, when the ship is force on the windward side conse- ;
brought to the wind, and to avoid thisthe quently she is steady for the moment,
helmsman must keep his helm up until but as soon, as the helmsman brings
the two forces are equal, when the ship her to her course, she perforins the
is again on her course. The effect of same freaks again.
this inequality on the bow is to bring a We might point our readers to ships
in different parts of the United States, the water is and all that
longitudinal,
calling many by name, upon which can pertain to the development of the
these deformities would be found, but best form for speed, burthen, or per-
it is not the province of marine archi- formance, must be shown by this plan ;
tects to depreciate the value of any not only the several sheer and water
man's property by pointing out its de- or parallel-lines, whether showing the
fects in a work of reference like this vessel upright or inclined, but the diago-
naval architects can do so with the nal-lines are also shown in their rotun-
utmost propriety, inasmuch as an ex- dity and from no other plan can we
;
hibition of the defects of government form a just conception of the actual

vessels injures no one. The shape of shape of the vessel when on a plane.
the ship shown in the draught, Plate 7, and not lifted up by the laws of geo-
is such, that the two lines of flotation metrical perspective. However im-
would cause the ship to steer remarka- portant the half-breadth plan may be,
bly easy, and with less of the weather- the body plan is not entirely destitute
helm than is commonly met with in of claims upon our attention. Al-
sailing-ships, although the first water- though no just conception can be form-
line is somewhat fuller than is usual ed of the shape of the vessel from this
;
and if a model were made by this plan, yet it cannot be dispensed with,
draught, a majority of builders would while the present method of construct-
tell us that she would not steer ; and ing vessels meets with popular favor.
when public opinion is prepared to look The actual form of all the transverse
naked truths in the face, it will be found sections may be shown in this plan,
that the very shape that has been repu- and the bevellings of the timbers may
diated on account of bad steering, is also be obtained. The body plan of the
the shape above all others that steers draught, shown in Plate 7, represents
the best. the frames falling within each other,
It will be observed, from what has as they would appear to the eye of an
been shown, that it is the half-breadth observer were he to take a position

plan that delineates the form of vessels astern of the ship, his eye in line with
in all the variety of positions that may the keel transversely, and with the load-
be requisite for adapting them to all the line vertically. Assuming the after-
varied circumstances to which sea- body from on the larboard side to be
going vessels in particular are subject. left out, this view would show the star-
The direction of the vessel through board quarter and the larboard bow :
or if the eye of the observer were loca- less at the ends of the ship than in the
ted forward, with the starboard bow centre, or have the throats of the floors
taken down, the result would be the higher forward and than at dead- aft
same. flat and inasmuch as there can be no

;
Having carried the draught through prominent objection to the longitudinal

a second proof, we will leave it for the hollow to the throats of the floors,
present, and again resume our position while there are objections to reducing
in the mould-loft. We left the floor at the scantling size of the timbers before
page 140 to illustrate the true princi- we pass the floors or square-framesj
ples of sheering vessels, which could (after which it may be reduced to ad-
not be done satisfactorily without the vantage.) With this arrangement it
aid of the draught, from which some follows that the floors are deeper in the
other important principles have also throat at the forward and after square-
been deduced and now before enter-
; frame than at dead-flat, which surplus
ing upon the delineation of a second size is not required for strength ; and,
proof on the floor, we will add all that as it is required above and not below
will be necessary upon a subject once becomes apparent that we
al- it at
ready broached. Having shown on add strength and security by taking he t
page 128 that the dead woods both for- surplus size from the breech of the
ward and aft should be of sufficient floors over that of the dead-flat from
height to cover the heels of the cants, below, and filling up the space with
we will first take up the subject of seat- keel or dead wood : consequently the
ing the floors. Having shown what
showing this rise or additional size
line
the bearding-line is, and how it is ob- of keel would be parallel to the throats
tained, we shall find that by cutting in- of the floor, and as the floor may be let
side of the side-line to obtain the thick- down by cutting the wood out of the
ness of the plank, we cause not only floor or the keel, we prefer cutting
the bearding-line to rise above the base, the floor, and are not alone in this par-
but throats of the floor-timbers also to ticular. This line has been called the
rise higher above the base, in order that cutting-down-line, and its height above
we may obtain the same scantling size the base must be known from the loft
for the heel of the first futtock when before the keel can be finished. The
measured square from the moulding first questions in obtaining it are these
edge of the timbers. Hence it is plain — what is the throating of the floors at
that we must either have the scantling dead-flat .' and what will the same
scantling- at the heel of the first fnttock the line for the throating of the floors,
on dead-flat give for throating at the we should have reference to the keelson,
forward and after floor? See Plate 8. and not get so much hang to the line that
Making a spot at each of the three we will be unable to get a keelson piece
frames above the base in the sheer-plan, that will set down, as the keelson should
and one in the middle of the fore and run out and form part of the dead wood,
after-body, thus we have five spots and what additional dead wood we may
showing the height of the throats of the require, may be placed above the keel-
floor, to which a batten may be ap- son. It is seldoYn however that more
plied and made fair, continuing out fair is necessary forward than a large stem-
-
to the stem and post ; we may now son or knee, and if the stem has a
run another parallel to this, cutting- the very considerable rake, straight timber
base at dead-flat, and extending from will answer every purpose, and be
the fore-side of the forward floor to the equally as strong, if so arranged as to
aft-side of the after floor :this line re- cause both ends to have the same bevel,
presents the seats of the floors, and may and we may fill up to any required
be formed on the keel, or placed on the height in the same manner.
keel in an additional piece. In running
89
CHAPTER VI.
Diagonal Lines — Their Use —Mathematical Demonstrations Modelling by Diagonal and

in Water-Lines,
discovered by the Author— Their Superiority over the Present Mode.
Iii Europe it has been the practice world at least, that a form of construc-
to make use of two kinds of water- tion requiring a very considerable dif-
lines, not only on the draught, but on ference in the draught of water is no
the floor of the loft —the one parallel advantage to the performing qualities
to the base-line, the other parallel to of such vessel ; hence the reason why
the inscribed line of flotation. This we find the vessels of more modern
practice has been coeval with that of build drawing nearly an equal draught
so forming the bodies of vessels as to of water. Even the far-famed Balti-
cause them to draw more water, or to more clippers, some of which drew
swim deeper aft than forward As a sixteen feet of water aft, and eight feet
consequence, the form of any two lon- forward, are brought within from one
gitudinal lines that had the same two feet of difference in the draught
alti- to
tude midships, differed in proportion to of water of the two ends and the ;
the difference of the draught of water time is at hand when inches will be
at the two ends of the vessel and if a substituted for feet in this particular.
;
displacement equivalent to the weight Thus we perceive that two sets of

of the vessel were obtained below a line water-lines are no longer rendered ne-
parallel to the base, (while the vessel cessary, either on the draught or on
was leaner than forward of the lon- the floor. Diagonal lines have been
aft
gitudinal centre,) it was found that the designed to answer a three-fold pur-
inscribed line of flotation —
was not shown pose First, to show the boundaries
on the draught. If the vessel drew of oblique planes passing through the
more water aft than forward, the line ship longitudinally, and meeting the
of flotation was fuller aft, and easier middle-line its entire length, parallel to
forward than the water-line shown on the base-line. Their second use has
the draught. Experience, however, been found in the aid furnished in ar-
has taught mechanics in one-half of the ranging the lengths of the timbers form-
MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. 17S
lug the frame of the ship and the nals when taken off" in the direction in
;
third particular in which they have which the line run in the body plan ;
been found useful, is for proving the and this mode is to some extent yet in
and for
water-lines, bevelling spots, or use. It may answer the purpose very
convenient and suitable localities for well where a sufficiency of floor room
applying the bevels. can be obtained, but cannot be adopt-
The position of the diagonal lines in ed where floor room is limited, as in
the body plan where they are first this city, and in most private ship-yards.
drawn, is not, however, arbitrary, be- It was from the diagonals swept in this
cause it has reference to two consid- manner that the bevels were obtained
erations in particular —
the length of the from the half-breadth plan before it
timbers, and their shape. It formerly was discovered that they might be taken
was the custom, and is still, to some with more accuracy from the body plan.
extent, to place the ribbands by those The lines were taken off according to
lines, but experience has shown that it the old method, by taking the distances
is not absolutely necessary although from the. middle-line in the body plan
;
the ribband would be more likely to fit (in the direction of the diagonals) to the
the timbers upon a diagonal line than frame about to be transferred, and set-
elsewhere, because of its being at the ting off the distance thus taken on the
identical spot where the body was same frame in the half-breadth plan.
proved, and where the bevel was ap- This, as it will be readily perceived,
plied, and so far as this goes, it is the causes the lines to extend further out
most suitable place but if the neces-
;
from the middle-line in the half-breadth
sary pains were taken in proving and than any of the lines taken off horizon-
fairing the bodies on the floor, and an tally, particularly those in the vicinity
equal amount of care taken in mould- of the bilge of the vessel. For the end-
ing and bevelling the timber, it would ing of those lines when taken in the
make little difference angular direction, the height must be

where the rib-
bands were placed for regulating and taken from the base-line in the body
keeping the ship to her proper place plan to the intersection of the diagonal
when raised. Plate 9 will illustrate with the side-line; let this height be
the manner of arranging the diagonals transferred to the sheer-plan, and mark-
in the body plan. It was formerly the ed on the bearding-line, and from
custom both in draughting and in lay- thence squared down to the middle-
ing down vessels to expand the diago- line of the half-breadth plan, and set-
ISO MAIIINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
ting off the thickness of the plank in- edge to the diagonal line to be taken oft'
ward from the side-line in the body in the body plan, keeping one end to
plan, as shown by the dotted line in the middle-line, and then marking spots
Plate 9. The height of the point at on the batten at the crossing of the
which the diagonal crosses this dotted several frames; when the frames are
line, must also be taken, and set up on all taken oft' on one line in the same
the margin-line of the stem or post, body, they are set off in the hall-breadth
(provided the line we are now ending in the same manner as water-lines are.
does not come above the head of the In the draught, they are shown also in
post,) from whence it must be squared the sheer-plan, for which purpose they
down with the former to the middle- are taken off in the body plan perpen-
line of the half-breadth take the dis- dicularly from the base to the crossing
;
tance from the middle-line of the body of the frame and diagonal, and set up
plan in the direction of the diagonal to in the same manner in the sheer-plan
the dotted line, (which shows the thick- on the corresponding frames upon
ness of the plank.) and set this off from which they were taken from the body
the middle-line of the half-breadth upon plan.
the forward spot just squared down and This method is still practised in
marked a in the half-breadth, and the Europe, but has long since been re-
distance from the middle to the side- pudiated in the ship-yards of the United
line in the direction of the diagonal States; and there are ships built that
set this distance from the middle-
oft' when regulated on the floor or on the
line of the half-breadth on the after spot stocks exhibit as few discrepancies as
marked b. It will be discovered, that those of the Old World. We say that
this operation makes the stem and neither the expanded diagonal in the
plank appear thicker than they really half-breadth, or the horizontal represen-
are; but when
remembered that tation in the sheer-plan, are absolutely
it is
any piece of timber measures more on required on the floor of the loft to fair
the angle than on a square, the won- the body of a ship and we have laid ;
der will cease. The diagonals we have down vessels without using even diago-
been ending are taken off and applied nals, and the vessels when raised ex-
in the same direction in which they frame as could be de-
hibited as fair a
are seen in the body plan. The lines sired. These, however, are exceptions
are taken off from the body plan by to the general rule, and will only apply
taking a thin batten and applying one to very sharp vessels or steamboats ;
and when such course is adopted, great leg placed on the side-line, we may
care must betaken proof sweep a quarter circle with the first
in the first
with the water-lines. The present leg, and on this circle the diagonal will
mode (and doubtless the very best) of end. Under some circumstances it
proving the body by diagonal lines, af- may be found necessary to seek another
ter having been first made fair, and proof to the work; in such case we have
proved by water-lines, is to take all the only to take off the heights at which
settings-offfrom the body plan horizon- the diagonals cross the frames, which
tally from the middle-line to the cross- are taken from the base-line in a ver-
ing of the frame by the diagonal, as tical or perpendicular direction, and set
shown in Plate 9; that is to say —begin off in the sheer-plan ; the endings are
with dead-flat, taking one from the body plan, and are
diagonal, also taken
and rise as the diagonal rises, keeping found in the same manner, by taking
the batten horizontal or parallel to the the height from the base-line to the
water-line, and when all the frames, or crossing of the side-line by the diago-
all the fourth frames, are taken off on This height applied to the sheer-
nal.
the batten from one body, transfer them plan, and marked on the bearding-line,
to the half-breadth in the same man- furnishes all the ending required, inas-
ner that a water-line is set off: the end- much as the direction of the line will
ing of diagonals when taken off hori- show the height of its final termination
zontally differs from the ending of those on the margin-line and when the di-
;
taken off to their full size. The height agonal lines are swept into the ex-
at which the diagonal crosses the side- panded size in the half-breadth, we may
line in the body plan is carried to the adopt this last method of ending them,
sheer-plan, and a spot marked on the and if there should be any difference,
margin-line ; this being squared down take the ending that carries the line
to the half-breadth on the side-line fur- farthest in that is to say let the; —
nishes us with a spot from which we height be taken on the side-line in the
proceed in the same manner as if end- body, and applied to the bearding-line
ing a water-line, by setting off the thick- in the sheer-plan, thus showing a spot
ness of the plank on the compasses, on the bearding-line in the sheer-plan
and placing one leg of the compasses the same height as the crossing of the
on the spot just made, and the other side-line by the diagonal in the hod\
toward the end of the ship at which plan. Having swept in the diagonal
we may be working resting on the list in the sheer-plan a- in Plate 9. the
;
end running fair across the spot on line above the cross-scam in the body
the hoarding, and continuing to the plan as high as the middle-line on the
margin-line, then square down these draught, as shown by the dotted line in
two body plan of Plate 9.
spots to the middle-line of the half- Take the dis-
breadth; take also the distance from tance square from the middle-line from
the middle-line of the body plan to the where the diagonal cuts the cross-seam,
side-line in the direction of the same and set it off in the half-breadth plan
diagonal on which Ave are at work ;
square from the middle-line through ;
apply this distance on the outer spot, the spots thus obtained, strike lines
or the one squared down from the square from the middle-line then take ;
margin-line take now the thickness the distance on the diagonal in the body
;
of the plank in the direction of the plan from the middle-line to the cross-
same diagonal as shown in the body seam, and set off from the middle-line
plan ;open the compasses to this di- in the half-breadth on its respective
agonal thickness, and place one leg on line already squared up: the spot thus '
the spot squared down from the mar- made is the end of the diagonal. This
gin-line, and the other toward the end striking a line square up from the spot
of the vessel, (on the same side-line, or pre-supposes the cross-seam to depart
the same distance from the middle-line,) from a perpendicular to the middle-line,
and resting on the last leg, sweep either forward or aft. When the di-
a half circle inward, the diagonal will agonals are swept in horizontally, as
end on and cross the spot
this circle, already described, those ending on the
squared down from the bearding-line, cross-seam are found by taking the dis-
'
if the work is done properly. tance from the middle-line in the body
We have now shown the several plan to the crossing of the diagonal,
methods of ending the diagonals, wheth- square from the middle-line, and ap-
er swung off in the diagonal direction, plying this distance in the half-breadth
or taken off as they now very gen- on the cross-seam in the same manner ;
erally are, in direction, and for the ending in the sheer-plan of

a horizontal
and ended as water-lines, and shall those lines, we have but to refer to the
next show how they are ended on the ending of section-lines on the cross-
cross-seam when they come above the seam, simply by taking the height from
—
head of the stern-post First if the the body plan, at which the diagonals
:
diagonals are to be swept in as swung intersect the cross-seam, and setting up

off, they should be continued in pencil- the same in the sheer-plan, which will
also furnish an additional proof spot for nal line is found to be useful, not only
sweeping in the cross-seam in the sheer- as a proof line, and for the better dis-
plan. Diagonal lines taken off in this tribution of the sirmarks, but it aids in
manner are called horizontal ribbands the planking of a ship. By following
;
they are far superior to the extended the sirmarks we are enabled to make a
mode tor all practical purposes, and we proper distribution of surface, and re-
are unable to discover the reason why duce
opening in due proportion,
the
they are not universally adopted in before we may have proceeded far
Europe. enough to make a division of the same.
In laying down a ship there are cer- It must not, however, be supposed
tain points that will serve as an index that the form of a ship is consequent
to test the accuracy of the work these upon the form or direction of any par-
;
may be found in the harmony that will ticular line or set of lines ; on the con-
prevail (if the work is properly done) trary, it matters not what is the direc-
between the diagonals and the breadths. tion of the lines that exhibit the form of
It is quite common for the breadth and the vessel: they can run in any direc-
diagonal in the body plan to cross the tion the builder may choose to direct.
frame at the same point. Care should Hence the reason why we have shown
be taken to see that they cross at the other directions, as in Fig. 16, in order
same point in the half-breadth, or ferret that the eye may not become so com-
out a reason why. We may safely as- pletely wedded to one form of line
sume that the ship is (which brings a particular shape) that
fairly proved on
the floor, if the diagonals agree with we cannot depart from it. We have
the water-lines and as it will be ne- no desire to break down the rules and
;
cessary to run in section-lines for some usages universally recognized in this
distance from the ends, particularly the seemingly complicated art. It is only
stern, to obtain the bevelling of the aaainst their trammeling influence that
transoms, we fairly conclude that there we raise our voice. It will appear
has been a sufficiency of proofs to in- quite clear that there is danger when
ship-builders themselves tell us, that
sure the fairness and accuracy of the
work ; and having stricken in all the their eye circumscribed by a certain
is
intermediate frames across the body shape. How important then that the
and sheer-plans, we may regard the young mechanic should be entirely free
work as having been subjected to a from these iron bands of habit When !
second proof on the floor. The diago- studying tin; laws of motion and utility,
1S4 MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
experience is vastly important we ad- rightful owner, every improvement in
mit, but there are a thousand things the form of vessels is common property.
about a ship, from the false keel to the Shape in vessels cannot be secured by
truck, and from the end of the flying patent laws hence the propriety of ;
jib-boom to that of the spanker-boom, the fostering influence of Government

that the most experienced have never to sustain improvements.
been able to give a why or a wherefore; The mechanic may spend the flower
and we deem the time well spent by. of his youth he may waste the vigor
;
the young man who will stop to think of manhood, in maturing (from expe-
and inquire before he makes sail at rience as well as from the laws of com-
random, and steers in the wake of his mercial science) the synthetical com-
predecessors. position of the perfect ship he makes ;
It has been assumed by judicious known his improvements the world is ;
American writers upon the subject of benefited, and he dies forgotten, as a

building ships, that were the science to dream. Hence we infer that it ought
make no farther progress than it has not to be expected that the science of
already attained, it is evident that it is building this stupendous fabric should
keep pace with other improvements of
so far perfect as to be available for,
and capable of, being made to keep this improving age, without the assist-
pace with the wants of mankind. We, ance of the fostering care of the Gov-
however, dissent from those elevated ernment; but strange to tell, notwith-
views, although apparently on the eve standing the many millions of dollars
of a most important era. It requires spent in building Government vessels,
but a removal of the frowning influ- Marine Architecture is at the present

ence engendered by the indifference time in advance of Naval Architecture.
manifested by the Government of the We have been led to offer the above
United States to the advancement of considerations before entering upon
commercial science, to convince the the disquisition of a subject, for the in-
world that the science of building ships troduction of which we have set apart
is yet in its infancy. Individual efforts a portion of this chapter.
to improve the shape of vessels for It has been the object of numerous
commercial purposes can only be sus- men of science (who have devoted the
tained by national efforts. Unlike other whole or a portion of their attention to
improvements, that can be patented, the various problems embraced in the
and the advantages secured to the theory of ships) to define, either by the
MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. 1S5
aid of mathematical demonstration, or sertion, that proportion is to the scien-

by experimental induction, the various tific Ship-builder what the fulcrum is
properties of* a ship, from which we to the lever, or the axle to the pulley
may fairly conclude that few of its ab- — it is the basis of all science in me-
stract principlesremain uninvestigated. chanism. The man of observation
Efforts, however, have not ceased to has but to look around him, and he
bring something tangible from the sci- will discover that nature's beauty con-
ence of numbers that shall, to some sists in proportion it is universally;
extent, set experience aside, by placing diffused through all her works, from
it in theback ground. An idea has the glow-worm that lights his path, to
prevailed in the mechanical world, that the rain-bow that spans the heavens.
scientific knowledge was reserved for The absence of this all-important quali-
the comprehension of minds of more ty has wrecked the fairest prospects of
than an ordinary calibre. We appre- many an artizan. This is a shoal laid
hend this to be a great mistake the down in no mechanical chart; and upon
;
term science may be applied to any no branch connected with the construc-
branch of knowledge that may be made tion of this ponderous fabric, is the
the subject of investigation, with a mechanic more at loss.
view to discover its first principles, as It must be admitted by all who will
distinguished from art. A science is a take the trouble to think, that a ship
body of truths, the common principles is actually stronger than another when,
of which are supposed to be known upon a trial of strength, the would
first
and separated, so that the individual break in every part at the same time,
truths, even though some or all may be while the second would be found much
clear in themselves, have a guarantee stronger in some parts than in others,
tliat they could have been discovered even though all the parts of the first
and known, either with certainty, or example were adapted or proportionate

with such probability as the subject to the weaker parts of the second exam-
admits of, by other means than their ple. This, to many, may appear most
own evidence. In most restricted absurd. There are some even in the
its
sense, it is but the ability to give a why mechanical world, who suppose that if
and a wherefore for our daily practice, a vessel, or a particular part of a ves-
or, as lias been already observed, pro- sel, looks heavy, that it must of neces-
portion, to effect the object designed be stronger than another having

sity
and we hesitate not to venture the as- less of the large, heavy appearance.
24
This error has proved fatal to thou- all our expositions, be left to determine
sands in the mechanical world but we its form from his judgment or experi-
;
stop not here. Proportion is equally ence and the forms we shall furnish
;
as well applied to the science of num- in connection with a description of

bers as to mechanics; and it should not their appropriate qualities, some of
be forgotten that the science of build- which have been already described,
ing- ships embraces the science of num- will be all that will be required. Hav-
bers or proportion, which in geometry ing the form of the greatest transverse
or arithmetic is and the form of the diagonal in
the similitude or equali- section,
ty of ratios. There are several de- the direction we have shown, our next
nominations of proportional quantities business is to determine the form of
in this science only one of which, the remaining parts of the immersed
:
however, stands connected from these.

with the portion
subject claiming a place in this chap- We are aware that some persons
ter, viz., direct proportion. Plate 10 have strenuously contended that the
furnishes an exposition of the manner entire ship may be formed by calcula-
of determining the form of all the lines tions, but we are content with blending
of a vessel below water. After having practice with theory, as a restrictive
first settled upon the form of the first barrier against encroachments. That
frame, or the dead-flat frame, and next a ship may be formed entirely from
upon a diagonal line that will be found calculations, or by the use of figures,
to show the largest space between the does not admit of a doubt in our own
frames, as in Plate 10. The direction minds but what is to be gained by
;
of this line would, in a majority of departing from what we have proved

cases, be found to range from the mid- to be available, is a question that has
dle of the bilge to the cross-seam at the not been answered. We may deter-
middle-line. We may now determine mine the entire ship's form by theo-
upon the form of this line in its ex- rems; take the parabolic curve, and
tended direction, after having swept in we have in it the form of the diagonal
the dead-flat frame. It will be quite line, of which we have spoken take ;
unnecessary to descant upon the pro- Mr. Russell's wave-line, and we have
per form for this frame. As there are the form of the water-lines mathema-
such a variety of conflicting circum- tically determined and again, we may ;
stances, that each in its turn demand find an hundred ways of sweeping in
our attention, the reader would, after the dead-flat frame. These modes have
been resorted to in the Old World for we say that

any it will adapt itself to
centuries, and what has been the re- form, not because it is adapted to the
sult ? Vessels built under the old sys- form we have shown, but because we
tem in Europe are far from being the have made the application to a variety
easiest vessels in their of forms, and have found no discre-
motions. It
cannot be denied that American ships, pancy. say, then, that any form of We
(their principal dimensions being- con- diagonal can be successfully applied to
sidered,) are the easiest ships afloat. this system. Having the form of the
With an almost universal low centre dead-flat frame in the body-plan, and
of effort, they are the wonder and ad- the diagonal carried as before stated,
miration of the commercial through the centre of the bilge to the
whole
world. It requires no mathematical cross-seam, (the direction, however, is
demonstration to prove that the mid- not arbitrary,) we may next take the
ship section should be straight from the half-breadths from the half-breadth
keel outward, beyond the quarter plan of this diagonal and whatever
line,
narrow distance they

breadth, to give stability to a fall within each other on
ship. It requires no second demon- this diagonal in the body-plan, a spot
stration of the same kind to convince may be made ; this diagonal line may
us that the wall-sided ship will roll far- be taken swung oft", or taken horizon-
ther than the vertically round-sided tal, but as the first half-breadth is taken,
ship, other things being equal ; hence so all the remaining ones should be ;
the reason why we are unwilling to -

that is to say, if after we have the line
change our anchorage, when we know in the body-plan showing its direction,
we have good holding bottom for we measure the half-breadth of the
another that we know less about, and dead-flat frame from the point where
this too merely for the sake of change. this line terminates, to the middle-line
The system we are about introducing horizontally. We must also set oft' in
carries with it indelible proofs of its the half-breadth plan this half-breadth,
utility and perfect adaptation to all as the starting point for sweeping in the
classes of vessels, and while it provides diagonal. It will be necessary that we
for the bottom, it is applicable to any should divide the halt- breadth and
desired form above water. In Plate sheer-plans into the spaces for the
10 we have taken the topsides of one frames, (as this system contemplates
of the packet-ships, and it will be seen the shape, and not the stations of the
that they blend harmoniously. Hence frames,) and having done so, we next
lake off those half-breadths and apply we wanted a different formed ship, we
them in the same manner as we took could have obtained it by altering the
off the dead-flat successively above each ratio ; that is to say, if we desired to
other in both body-plans; and although make her sharper below the first diago-
the diagonals in both bodies end at the nal swept in, we have but to call the
same point on the and are diagonal showing a ratio of 75 parts to
middle-line,
equi-distant on the dead-flat frame from 80, and we increase the spaces between
the middle-line, it does not follow that the frames at that diagonal, or cause
the form of the diagonal in the half- them to fall in faster; on the other
breadth plan is alike in both bodies. hand, we wanted to make the ship
if
We may remark here, that if the set- fuller, we have but to make the 75
tings off on the diagonal are horizon- parts pass current for 70, and we have
tal, the line in the body-plan need ex- our desire ; the spaces between the
tend no farther than the last frame, or frames in the body-plan growing small-
the last setting off, but if taken swung er, it follows that the ship is fuller on
off, it should extend to the middle-line. that particular line ; but again, we may
It is presumed that the openings on this accomplish the same end by changing
diagonal line in the body-plan are to be the location of the diagonal, while its
the largest that can be found on the ratio remained the same. Thus we see
bottom, and being so,may be regarded that a system of proportion is at once
as unit or 100. We may now exercise established —based upon the proper
our judgment in arranging diagonals, formation of the greatest transverse
both above and below this line this, section; and if we are so disposed, we
;
however, is only a temporary arrange- may carry the system to the rail, in-
ment, until we determine the propor- stead of stopping at the load-line of
tion the diagonal bears, not that it will flotation, and perhaps there would
not apply equally well anywhere, as scarce be a discrepancy found, in the
far as the shape is concerned, but we example given in Plate 10. The most
shall And it much more convenient to important feature in this system, is its
calculate example, 75 or SO per simplicity; it is adapted to the wauls

; for
cent, than 81| and this is why we of all, and perfectly comprehensible to
;
would so arrange the diagonals that an the least discerning mind. We admit
even ratio may be obtained. In Plate that a small share of experience is re-
10 we have assumed the ratios to be quisite to determine the form, but we
what they are there shown to be had should be quite unwilling to set prac-
;
tice aside and substitute particular construction, they assume

altogether,
theory in its room but to the opera- mysticism, and would appear wise by
;
tive mechanic this method of modelling saying nothing. Certainly from no

vessels will at once commend itself as such men are we to hope for improve-
being adapted to his wants. It stops ments in a science pregnant with diffi-
not here; it is not enough to say that it culties, to surmount which seems to
will give us a form for the ship, or other exceed the force of the human under-
vessel, but we may add, that it will standing."

regulate any form, without materially But let us look for the advancement
altering the shape, unless the shape to of Naval Architecture to those who
which it is applied be distorted by dis- unite the theory with the practice
proportions ; it is applicable to any di- who are patient observers of the physi-
mension, and tenders its aid as a uni- cal facts which experience brings to
versal alkahest for many of the ma- their view, and have sufficient science
rine architectural blunders for which to account for these, either by laws,
the present age has become notorious. long established, or if not, to endeavor
In reviewing the many and difficult to discover new ones. For what is
questions involved in an effort to eluci- theory in its legitimate sense but a law
date the philosophical principles in- or system of laws, established and con-
volved with the building of ships, we firmed by a series of well-conducted ex-
are forcibly led to exclaim with a dis- may, perhaps, be al-
periments? We
tinguished writer on Naval Architec- lowed to add, that theory and practice
ture— " To whom are we to look for combined constitute Art, or with
improvements in the construction of Shakspeare exclaim, that " Art itself
ships? Is it to the men who may
Nature," and qualify the former in
is
bring forward some geometrical or me- the language of Pope " Art is but —
chanical series of curved lines for a Nature better understood."
ship's body, deduced from one or more In our expositions of the system we
curves ? for this many
have introduced in this chapter, it will
has been times
done, and may be performed by the be understood that the diagonals (or
mere dabbler in the art, or to those angular lines) have no connection with
who, regardless of any rules, build the middle line the line running —
ships by what they call the eye for through the bilge which we
! have
there are many of these and when valued as 1, or unit, may take its de-
;
either are asked for reasons for any parture from the side-line in the body-
plan, because we cannot determine the marked 100 to be 10 inches, we now
form of the entire line in its rotundity want to know what it should be on the
without the connection, but after this line marked 75. We obtain it in the
line is determined in its relative form, following manner
inches Inchon inches inches
the connection may cease; by this IflOO: 10 : : 75: ?.\ or 75x 0-HtOO=7j
I
method the labors of the loft may be The openings may be thus regulated
materially abridged, and the work per- (it matters not how small or how large
formed with an equal amount of ex- they may be) with precision. This
actness. system of proportions is not however
In the application of this system to confined exclusively to this arrange-
the topsides of the vessel, we may adopt ment. In all questions assuming an
the straight, or sheer-line, and the pro- algebraic form, it is absolutely neces-
portions will apply equally well. We we should assume propor-
sary that
may, however, find it necessary to de- tions upon which we can base our
part from those proportions above calculations, and from which we may
water, particularly on the anterior part, arrive at inevitable results. If we as-
or on the flare of thebow, which beauti- sume the dead-flat frame to be of such
fies and adorns this part of the structure. form as we desire, and the load water-
When this is the case, it will only formed in accordance with

be line to be
necessary to lake the lower sheer-line our judgment, the remaining parts be-
for unity, and proportion the sheer-lines low are readily determined, and the
above in their proper ratios. In ap- spots tints obtained will prove the sur-
plying this method to the loft, we have passing accuracy of numbers for me-
but to regulate unity in the half-breadth chanical (when properly
operations
as taken from the draft, and transfer- handled.) If we assume the body-plan
ring it to unity represented in the angu- of a ship to be divided between the base
lar line in the body-plan. After hav- and load-line into six equal or unequal
ing swept in the dead-flat frame, we parts, as we please, the lines being hori-
shall be able to sweep in every frame zontal and parallel to each other, and
with precision. Supposing any two the load-line shown in three plans,
frames to be a given distance apart on viz., the sheer, half-breadth, and body-
the line marked 100, and we require plan ; in the former and the latter it .will
the distance on the next line above or show but a straight line, while in the
below the line for example marked 75 ;
half-breadth plan it exhibits the form
and assuming the space on the line in its rotundity. The load-line being
PL. 10
the widest part of the bottom, we set feet; on the third, 12.46 feet; on the
against it 1000 or unit, which is 1. second, 11.58 feet ; and on the first,
Suppose, as is the case, the half- 9. S3 feet. These half-breadths are re-
breadth of ® frame to be 13 feet on the spectively represented as follows —the
load-line, 12.S9 on the fifth water-line, sixth or load-line, unit 1 or 1000, which
12.75 on the fourth water-line, 12.46 is the same thing ; the fifth is to the
on the third water-line, 11.58 on the sixth as .993 is to 1000. Hence it fol-
second water-line, and 9.83 on the first lows that the half-breadth of dead-flat
water-line now it will appear quite on the fifth water-line is nine hundred
;
manifest, that those several breadths and ninety-three thousandths of that of

are units, or whole parts, this being the the load-line, as is recognized by the
widest frame in the ship, and as the above expression. So also with the
lines below grow narrower on all the fourth water-line that is to the load- :
frames, or have less breadth successive- hundred and eightv-one isline as nine
ly as we descend, it follows that the to one thousand, and also expressed as
lower half-breadths of the dead-flat above .981. The third water-line half-
frame are of necessity fractional parts breadth is likewise expressed in the
of the unit. We will now give the half- —
same manner twelve feet five inches
breadths of the dead-flat frame, on and a half equals .958 of thirteen feet.
the several water-lines, first in feet and The second water-line half-breadth be-
inches, then in feet and decimal parts, ing eleven feet seven inches, is equiva-
and third in decimal parts of the unit. lent to .891 thousandths of thirteen
First —the load or sixth water-line feet, or the half-breadth of the sixth
equals 13 feet ; fifth water-line, 12 feet water-line. In like manner the first
10 and three quarter inches ; the fourth water-line bears a ratio of .756 thou-
water-line, 12 feet 9 inches ; the third sandths of the load-line, or of thirteen
water-line, 12 feet 5 and a half inches; feet.
the second water-line, 11 feet 7 inches ; We have thus given the ratios of the
the first water-line, 9 feet 10 inches. greatest transverse section, from which
It will be observed that there being no it follows that the half-breadths of every
inches appended to the half-breadth of frame (according to this system) bears
the dead-flat on the load-line, the ex- the same ratio to its own half-breadth
pression is alike, in both eases 13 feet on the load-line, that the dead-flat does.
the half-breadth on the fifth water-line We
denominate the load of flo-
shall
is 12.S9 feet; on the fourth, 12.75 tation unit, or 1000, on every frame:
and assuming that the greatest trans- we shall be able to determine the en-
verse section and the load-line are tire shape of the bottom in the manner
about right, we have the intermediate already shown: and to illustrate the
immersed space to furnish by calcula- principle more fully, we will take
tion. Having determined the breadth another example. It will be remem-
at the several water-lines on the dead- bered that when we supposed the half-
flat frame, it is necessary that we pro- breadth of frame 20, we did so because
ceed to obtain the breadths on the sev- we had not given the proportions, or
eral frames, or fourth frames, at the the actual half-breadths of the load-line
load-line and having set
of flotation ;
-
on every frame; and we had not given
down their breadth in feet and inches, those half-breadths for the obvious rea-
or feet and fractional parts, which half- son that it would tend to confuse
breadths, it will be remembered, are rather than instruct, to impart a second
each in themselves a unit, because the series of proportions before the first was
several frames are wider, or have their fairly digested, or properly understood.
greatest breadth at the load-line of flo- Hence the reason of adopting the pres-
tation, we have the half-breadth of the ent course ; but this cannot alter the
dead-flat, which is 13 feet. And we results; it makes no difference whether
will assume the half-breadth of any the half-breadth of frame 20 is 8 feet,
frame (say frame 20) to be 8 feet on or any other number of feet, the pro-
the load-line we now want to find the portion will hold good with any num-
;
half-breadth of frame 20 on the five ber.

water-lines below the load-line we We will now take an example on the
;
have already found that the fifth water- fourth water-line with another frame.
line was .993 of the sixth at dead-flat, Supposing frame 12 to have 9 feet 4
we then have the following formula to inches for its half-breadth at load-line,
determine the half-breadth of frame 20 required the half-breadth of the same
—
on the fifth water-line As 1000 13 frame on the fourth water-line, we then
:
feet .993
: : 12 feet 10 inches three have but to reduce the 9 feet 4 to
:
quarters and nearly one sixteenth, or if inches, also the 13 feet, the half-breadth
the extreme breadth on the dead-flat of frame, when we have the formula
is what is the half-breadth
thirteen feet, in the following shape
inches incite*
of frame 20 on the fifth water-line 1 1000: 112 : : .981 : l&Si,
Supposing that of frame 20 to be 8 or 9 feet and I of an inch. In this lat-
feet on the load, or sixth water-line, ter example, we have found that the
first term remains the same as in the proportion gives £& nearly, or 8 feet 1
first example, while the second has al- inch and a half nearly. The second
tered but it must not be forgotten that water-line on the dead-flat frame is to
;
the breadth on load-line is a unit on breadth on load-line as .S91 is to one

every frame, and this being placed as thousand; and if we assume the half-
the first term, must not be otherwise breadth of any frame on that line to be
represented. The second term being any breadth we please, say 7 feet 9,
the actual breadth expressed in feet and we shall again find the same
and inches, or in and decimal parts, proportionate results
feet 1000 7.7-5 : : :
it follows that the third term will be .891: 6%, the result is 6 feet 10
the ratio the half-breadth of dead-flat inches and nearly seven-eighths. The
frame on load-line bears to the same first water-line being .756, furnishes all
frame on the water-line, upon which the spots that will be necessary to
the breadth is to be determined. The complete the first series of proportions ;
last example can also be expressed as and it may be well here to remark, that
follows the calculations, if made with care, will

found to furnish the spots much
feet
1000 : 9.83
9.33 : : .9S1 9S
be
the result is the same. more exact than any man can deter-
We will follow those examples mine them by the ordinary mode of
: hrough the first series. The half- taking off tables and fairing on the
breadth of another frame on the third floor. No man, we care not how care-
water-line will in like manner be de- ful he may be, can even approximate
termined. We will assume its half- the accuracy that this system furnishes,
breadth to be 8 feet 7 inches and one- and we speak on this wise in reference
eighth at load-line, and we require the to all the calculation pertaining to a
half-breadth at There are, however, a variety

the third water-line ;
ship.
we will for convenience call the frame of ways to determine the body of a ship,
14 the half-breadth is expressed thus
;
as we have already shown and per- : ;
8.59 —
as we shall find by referring to haps it would not be out of place to de-
page 3 —we then have, feet feet
lineate other methods. Before doing
1000 : S.59 : : .95S S.12 so, it may also be necessary to add, that
which last or third term those several modes are applicable to

is the ratio
the dead-flat frame on third water- the draft more particularly, and could
line bears to the same frame on the not be applied directly to the ordinary
load-line; hence it follows that the water-line model, unless the lines of
25
the bottom were first obtained and ap- not familiar with the draft, would
plied to the model, for the purpose of find that time could be saved in making
projecting the topsides, which method ihemselves familiar with shape on the
may be worthy of consideration, for plane. Indeed we may not be confined
two reasons. inasmuch as it is to the manner of determining the pro-
First,
very generally conceded that no man's portions from the body-plan, only in
eye can penetrate the mysterious laby- the manner we have shown from the
rinths of nature, without assistance diagonals. We may divide the body
procured by a knowledge of her laws, in the usual manner, at regular inter-
as may be inferred from what has been vals, by diagonal lines ; not, however,
already shown, that the man who mo- by paying direct reference to the
dels a vessel without this knowledge, length of the timbers, as is the case on
won hi do well to take the draft as a the floor of the mould-loft, but by ar-
chart,and carry out some one of the ranging the lines in such a manner as
systems that we have and will exhibit equalize, or nearly so, the spaces above
;
and having familiarized his eye with the first diagonal, both on the middle-
shape on the plane, then make the ap- line and on the dead-flat frame. We
plication in its rotundity on the model, may then, in a manner we have before
carrying up the topsides to shown, sweep in the dead-flat frame
suit his
taste, or the peculiarities belonging to and the diagonal running through the
the business in which she may be en- bilge (which, as also shown, represents
gaged. The second reason is found in unit) and proportion, those above and
the fact, that the diagonal line is not below finding the ratio each bears to the
shown on the water-line model, al- first, and marking them respectively
though approximates nearer to the according to their value, (those who
it
actual direction of the molecules of the are at all familiar with per-centagc,
fluid, when propulsion is applied for must readily understand it ;) but it
overcoming inertia ; and if the model does not follow that the line we have
were made in a manner we have de- denominated unk or 100, should be
scribed in Fig. 16, showing the water- actually the longest. Assuming the one
line and the diagonal, would then be above were 10 per cent, longer, it
it
almost impossible to make the applica- would be only necessary to mark the
tion on the model direct to say the line 110, and we have the ratio; awd
;
least, it would be attended with many having this, we may sweep in any di-
difficulties whereas many who are agonal we please the ratio must regu-
; ;
late the shape : we have the frame

after flotation ; and on those. assumed water-
and the longitudinal line, we shall be lines take the half-breadths, the same
able to obtain a fair and a proportioned as we would were we laying down a
bottom. In this manner we may also water-line model, or laying down the
practice drawing with great advantage, water-lines, which in fact we would be.
and we shall be able to advance beyond In this operation it would be necessary
our former conception. It must not, to draw the sheer-plan on the draft,
however, be supposed that the draft else the ending of the lines could not be
alone will furnish us with a correct obtained. Hence it would be neces-
idea of shape in its rotundity this sary to apply the draft to the model
;
would be requiring too much: but in this particular also, or we could not
with the draft and model united, we accomplish our purpose and having ;
may have all that we require. With carried our model as high as the load-
the model alone, we are dependent line in strict conformity with the
upon the eye, and must of necessity be draft, we could finish the part above
thus dependent, unless we draw the water in unison with the dictates of our
draft, and make moulds from it that experience. It might be found neces-
can be applied in the manner and at sary, in order to make the application
the place at which they were made. in the latter case, to transfer the set-
This would seem to be the most indi- tings-off to the half-breadth plan also.
rect manner of accomplishing our pur- In the mode of proportions by water-
pose. It would be more readily ac- lines we may determine even more than
complished by carrying out the pro- the actual formation of lines these ;
portions on the draft, and then taking proportions will furnish the actual dis-
off the water-lines, as shown, or spaced placement of the ship at any line of flo-
on the model, and from these lines make tation, after having first determined the
the model or perhaps we should be actual area and capacity of one sec-
;
more definite by describing the process tion. To illustrate this wc will as-
differently. Assuming the body-plan sume the water-lines to be two feet
to be already swept in by the diagonal apart, and that a temporary line be
lines, (it matters not for our present pur- drawn longitudinally parallel to load-
pose whether they are swept in the line in the sheer-plan, or transversely
half-breadth,) we may now divide the parallel to load-line in the body-plan.

body-plan into sections parallel to theone foot down, and half way distant to
base-line, as high a? the load-line of the water-line below let the same be ;
19G MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
done with each section, so that the with which every school-hoy may be
water-lines in the body-plan have be- familiar, yet many may not readily know
tween them a temporary water-line how to test the truth of the statement,
equi-distant from each. We will now or be able to tell positively when the
assume the area of the upper line thus sum is properly stated.
temporarily drawn to be 110 square It is a property of proportional num-
feet ; by 2 furnishes the bers derived directly from the defini-
this multiplied
solid contents of the half-section, or of tion, that the product of the first and
the space contained in the first two feet fourth terms is equal to the product of
below the load-line. The ratio of the the second and third. Hence it fol-
second section may be 75 parts of the lows that when three terms of a pro-
first ; we then have a formula like the portion are given, the fourth can be
following — If 100 parts give 220 cubic found. This is the basis of all ques-
feet, what 75 parts give ?
will The tions in the rule of three. The fore-
result furnishes 165 cubic feet. We going remarks apply exclusively to

may pursue the same course with those geometrical proportion, or when the
below, by first converting the area into proportion consistsin the equality of
cubic feet, and then by the rule of di- ratios.
rect proportion we may find the solid The method of proportioning by

contents ; and this rule will be found water-lines is somewhat objectionable,
to approximate the former system of for two reasons — First, it furnishes
proportion by diagonal lines, if we will continuation of the bilge to the ex-
but mark as before the temporary tremities, in due proportion, it is true,
water-lines and find the proportion which may seem to be a plausible
one area bears to the other. In this theory to many, yet it has objection-
case it is but an approximation near able features that will be rendered quite
enough, however, for very many pur- apparent to the discerning mind upon
poses for which an approximation only due reflection. The bilge, however
might be required. In determining the necessary at the middle of the ship to
body or the capacity of a vessel by this sustain the leverage of the masts and
method of proportions, it is important sails in propelling the ship onward, or
that the question should be stated pro- to maintain practical stability when
perly, else we may be subjected to very without cargo and in a state of rest,
great errors. Although those problems must be regarded as detrimental to

are but simple sums in the rule of three. speed, when viewed as a restorative oi
the posterior part of a ship. The sud- and this quality has the same effect
den and irregular change of course upon the practical stability of vessels
the fluid takes in its passage aft cre- that a short floor transversely would
ates a re-action, that serves as a regu- have. Proportions by water-lines,
lating medium ; the consequence is, however, would equalize the weather
that a portion of the fluid is constantly and lee-lines of flotation, and furnish a
performing the office of and false stern, very burdensome vessel. It must be
serves as a regulator or conductor to remembered that each water-line and

convey the contiguous columns to their frame would bear an impress of those
wonted equilibrium. This property from which the calculation is made.
does not contribute to increase the This is not the case with ratios by di-
disturbance on the bow, but does very agonals ; we may obtain what shape
materially increase the resistance on we desire through this channel, and
the after end of a ship. The second without exceptions we are not tram-
reason that may be assigned for repu- meled when we start right. If we want
diating the proportional water-line is a fast or full vessel, we can obtain suita-
its tendency to diminish the practical ble shape for either, and there appears
stability. The thinking-man has but to be but a single objection to tin; in-
to reflect that the greater the buoyancy troduction of this system of modelling
near or at the extremities of the ship, vessels, (apart from the controlling in-
the less stable the ship. Buoyancy fluence of prejudice ;) this objection is
located here to any considerable ex- found in the fact that we all want to
tent has a very deleterious effect on see the end at the beginning, or to have
the stability of vessels, even when the the whole shape before us from the
vessel is light, or without cargo. Not commencement of our labors. This
so with a distribution of the buoyancy wish is gratified in the use of the
at the bilge near the centre ; when model, and cannot be in the use of the
light, she covers a broad surface, which draft,notwithstanding they are. or may
sustains her in an upright position, but be used in connection with each other;
when buoyancy is concentrated at the but this is not all, there are some who
end below an undue proportion, build vessels, and even some who build
in
the vessel must of necessity careen or ships, and are styled ship-builders, who
incline easily when light. cannot draw a draft. Hence any sys-
AVe have already shown the effect tem, however feasible, that requires the
of having a short floor transversely, use of the pen, will be repudiated.
19S MARTNE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
There are sonic problems connected already stated in relation to resistance ;
with building ships upon scientific prin- it would seem, however, that very many
cannot be determined apart of those who are so fond of spinning
ciples, that
from the draft and again, on the other fine theories, know somewhat less than
;
hand there are others that require the they should about the element they
model for their solution, as we have would teach the world to navigate.
partially shown, and unless a unison That inertia forms a great bulk of the
takes place, the progress of this science actual resistance, no one will deny ;
must of necessity be slow. Experi- but what analogy exists between the
ence in this particular enables us to resistance encountered by a body pro-
speak confidently, knowing as we do pelled through air, and the same body
that the discovery of this system of ra- immersed in water, and wholly
partially
tios was consequent upon the use of the sustained by its buoyant and non-elas-
draft ; —
we practised and taught First, tic power? We ask this question in
proportions by water-lines as connected all candor, believing that those persons
by the ratios from the middle-line, and who would embark in an expedition
subsequently discovered that diagonals for the attainment of high speed, either
might be used with still greater success ;
in steam or sailing vessels, would do
but to those who will not depart from well to look to this distinction in the
their dependence upon the eye, we say circumstances of the two bodies thus
the model has no equal in delineating differently supported the one by an —
shape in its rotundity. But there are elastic, the other by a non-elastic fluid.
still other modes it is said for determin- Again, water is composed of round
ing the proper plan for vessels of all molecules, to perform the office of roll-
descriptions, the most prominent of ers, which are set in motion on the very
which we shall notice. smallest application of power, and the
Plate 11 describes the path of the vessel moves in the direction that pow-
planet we inhabit in its trackless evo- er is applied. We say that the cir-
lutionsaround the sun. The path as cumstances are so entirely different be-
thus delineated is assumed by more tween two bodies the one submerged —
than one theorist to be the form, and in air, the other partly submerged in
the only form, that will successfully both air and water, that nothing tan-
compete with all others in attaining a gible can be drawn from the earth's
high degree of speed. It will not be path that will furnish a shape for the
necessary to reiterate what we have posterior part of the vessel intended to

navigate the ocean ; the aerial naviga- same. Notwithstanding they readily
tor may, but the marine navigator acknowledge this truth, we see them
cannot : not because we have said so, delineating the shape by diagrams of
but because experience has demonstra- the proper form for the parallels to the
ted the truth of what we have said. line of flotation. Practical knowledge
The inertia which forms the great bulk has determined one point in relation to
of the resistance to be overcome would the proper formation of vessels for
forever lock every vessel to its native speed, to which theory must yield it ;
shore, were it not for this essential is, that the current formed by the mov-
difference that exists between the two ing vessel should be as little as possible
elements, air and water. The mole- on the anterior part of the vessel. To
cules of water are like myriads of me- accomplish this we require an easy bow,
tallic balls, polished and frictionless. which cannot be obtained without
The number applied is in exact pro- length. This point is conceded on all
portion to the weight to be sustained —
hands sage, sire and school-boy will
and as there must of necessity be clash- admit this, and the theorist himself will
ing where so many rollers are set in not deny its truth. Let this be set
motion at the same time, (unless the down as an axiom, and what inevitably
shape be a perfect one,) we may safely follows ? Why, another truth, equally
conclude this clashing to be friction, in as clear, that the current should be in-
connection with the irregularities in creased on all and on every portion of
the surface of the vessel, and the fibres the posterior part to the greatest possi-
that protrude from timber of any and ble extent consistent with nature's law
every kind, which also materially im- for fillino- a vacuum in the shortest
pede the progress of vessels. By the possible time. Is it not plain, that if
clashing of the molecules we mean would reduce the minus pressure

the Ave
many different directions they are re- on the stern of a ship, we must increase
quired to move, consequent upon the the current? and the less time required
deformities in shape. But there is one for a molecule to pass from the greatest
fact above all others which theorists transverse section to the rudder, the
seem to lose sight of when marking out smaller will be the amount of minus
a course for practical men. They en- pressure consequent upon the revolu-
tirely forget that the pressure is at tions of that molecule and farther, if ;
right angles,and consequently the di- they are required to move a certain dis-
rection of the molecule must be tin; tance in a given time, their motion
200 MARINE AND NAVAL All C HIT E T I' |{ E .
must be uniform. We would next in- in strict conformity to the earth's path,
quire of the theorist whether the earth's as the theory contemplates the same
path furnishes flic line that is best cal- shape on both ends ofthe vessel. We
culated to accomplish this? and whe- have assumed the following dimen-
ther the operation would be precisely sions —length 170 feet; breadth '57
the same on the posterior part, if a ball feet 4 inches; and applied the hall-
were projected in air or water ? If the breadths in the following manner, by
molecules ofthe water were elastic. like dividing them into 12S equal parts
air, would they not be flattened by the on the dead-flat frame. The distance
compression consequent upon the appli- from that point to the bow may be di-
cation of power in forcing a body on- vided into 16 equal parts, at each of
ward and if so, would they be as well
? which the following would be the half-
adapted to filling up the measure of their breadths, commencing at the forward
usefulness on the posterior part ? and perpendicular, which will be found to
would not the increase of current on require 1 part, and its half-breadth
the posterior part rather be calculated would equal *$* The next would re-
to retard than to increase their pro- quire 4 parts, and woidd equal '^. The
gress, when thus flattened by the col- next would call for 9 parts, equal to
lision These questions theorists should 3i; 16 parts would be the half-breadth
?
fe
i
be able to answer from theory alone, ofthe next, equal to 2*33; the next. 25
before venturing to define or determine =to 3*&, 36 follows= 5^, 49=^, 64
aq 1 in
the shape of vessels designed for navi- =
>~f\ /-VQ
feet
9.335
feet
'"=11.525 ^=13.425 ^"^=15.025
feet -t fei I
H*
gating the ocean. Experiments upon =
1G.335
feet
O
1 1
AA»=i7.3S,
s.os5
fcet
1O
l.£J::= I
1
^Bci 1 OT
1 ^«=18.52j
the ocean by practical men have solved 12S or ® s',!g. Thus =

we have given
1
those problems beyond question or cavil. the half-breadths at each one of the
We frankly admit that there are many sixteen settings-off.
questions yet to be determined, that It is assumed by the projectors of
have not been disposed of by practical this scheme for modelling vessels, that
men, and perhaps will not be for ages inasmuch as inertia forms all the re-
but we say that the earth's path does sistance that is worthy of notice, it fol-
not furnish a shape adapted to high lows that resistance may be measured
speed. Mr. Russell's wave principle on any vessel built in accordance with
approximates much nearer. In Plate the provisions of this theory but we ;
11 we have given an illustration ofthe have seen nothing in theory or prac-

form of each end of the line of* flotat ion tice to furnish data ofthe resistance, or
the power required to overcome it. or more favorable for its adherents than
By this system the inertia of the cur- those in general use. 170 feet on load-
rent on the bow, must of necessity be line, or between perpendiculars, is sel-
equal to that of the stern —a result not dom connected with a beam of 37 feet
sustained by experience. Much de- 4 inches. Ships (with few exceptions)

pends upon the application of the pro- have a less proportion of beam, which
pelling power, the leverage, &c. Mo- would extend the breach or discrepan-
tion in vessels may be regarded to some cy still farther into this theory ; or
extent as analogous to the law of mo- would operate more favorable
while it
tion in mechanics. An increase of for the bow, it would operate less fa-
speed is at the expense of power but vorable on the stern.
; It will require
the diminution of power is much more but a moment's reflection to discover,

rapid on sea than on land. that if the two ends of a vessel are re-
Wehave shown on Plate 11a form quired to be alike in shape for speed,
much better adapted to the purposes the fluid should be alike circumstanced
of speed for the after end of a ship on the two ends. No one will, we are
than that we have already described persuaded, call in question this dogma ;
and having had some little experience and if true, is it not equally true that
in forming shape for high speed, we the fluid is not alike in condition on the
hesitate not to say that the latter-form- two ends? Will any one doubt that
ed line of flotation will allow the water the water is more disturbed on the after
to close up the cavity with more force end, or after having passed the great-
than the former shape, and not only so, est transverse section, than at the for-
but the equilibriations, which must of ward perpendicular ? We think this
necessity take place on the after end, position is also to be maintained.
are more rapid. The formation of this Then it is equally clear, that if the
line accords with the theory in one water is more disturbed on the pos-
particular only. The divisions are terior than on the anterior part, it is
made in the same manner, but the pro- also less buoyant, and if there is less
portions are not correct. We have buoyancy in the water on the after
applied whole breadths at the same set- end, there should be more buoyancy in
tings-off that we applied half-breadths the vessel; if not, what is the result I
in the former case. The proportion- why, at high speed the vessel settles by
ate dimensions assumed for the practi- the stern| and draws more water alt
cal application of the theory, are better than when at rest. Here we see that
2<i
universal law of motion carried out carry must as much or more, they
fully. An increase of speed is at the have a different shape and if we would ;
expense of power, and this is true both maintain our supremacy in this particu-
with regard to the vessel and the water. lar, we must adopt such measures as
As the water becomes less buoyant, its will secure those advantages to our-
current must be increased, in order selves that nature has placed within
that we may maintain the same amount our reach. Talk about the full after
of buoyancy and although about the end to a ship for speed, and the ship-
;
same amount of resistance is encoun- builder stands aghast his thirty years' ;
tered by the application of an equal experience repudiates the idea the ;
amount of power, yet the speed is the captain cries out, " preposterous ! she
regulator; and were we to admit that won't steer:" this is the watch-word
the same amount of power applied on that is passed along, and finds a re-
two vessels would create an equal sponse throughout the ship-yard and
amount of resistance on the bow, it throughout the ship. From those two
would not follow that the speed would channels emanate what may emphati-
be alike in both vessels ;
termed the inertia of public
and the vessel cally be
that had attained the greatest speed opinion with regard to the proper for-
might have had the fullest bow and the mation of vessels. How essential then
best after end for restoring the water it is that our ship-builders and ship-
.o its former equilibriated state.
l
Many masters should be scientific as well as
neu of experience, and even ship-build- practical men. We cordially agree
ers, think that it cannot be, that we are that their views are correct as to the
familiar with the results of experience shape for moderate speed but let it ;
in this country, else we would not ad- be remembered, that the commercial
vocate the full after end. It is for world are not content at moving at the
this very reason that we are found same pace they did some thirty years
where we are on this, as on many other ago. 9 knots by the wind will not do
points connected with building ships. for the middle of the nineteenth cen-
If our ships are required to sail no tury. Neither will the same shape
faster than they did thirty years ago, answer for high speed that we have
then we say the fore end the fullest, or made for amore moderate speed. We
the full bow and the lean after end ;
mean the same proportions in shape ;
l»iit if our freighting ships are-expected that is to say, if 20 per cent, of buoy-
to sail faster, and at the same time ancy is taken off the fore-body to in-
crease the speed, it does not follow that and causing them
by counteracting it,
20 per cent, of the buoyancy should to set by the head and we have known ;
also be removed from the after bodv. reputed fast sailers of the old form to
Many, however, are ignorant of what be 3 feet by the head when under a
kind of fullness we mean, when we whereas the same ship
say press of sail ;
that for high speed vessels should be when relieved from the leverage of sail,
fuller aft. It is well known by many would be 1 foot by the stern. Hence
ship-builders, that on many of our sharp we say this discrepancy is rarely dis-
vessels the water rushes to the surface covered but under some circum- ;
from below before it reaches the rud- stances it is to be seen when the effect
der. The consequence is, that the of the leverage is directly abeam, and
vessel settles she is not sustained long the ship is fully up to her speed.
; In
enough. If the vessel was so formed steam-vessels it is often seen, although
belowas to conduct the retiring columns the shaft is high above the centre of
farther aft, she would not settle the buoyancy, which (unless the discrepan-
;
water would be conducted with more cy were of some magnitude) would

force to the rudder, which, so far from tend to elevate the stern and depress
making her steer worse, would cause the bow.
her to steermuch better so much so, — In endeavoring to tinfpld the discre-
that in many cases one-half of the rud- pancies of one of the most plausible
der would accomplish all we could de- theories yet advanced for the formation
sire ; for it is plain even to a prejudiced of vessels ; and in showing the extent
mind, that when a vessel is very sen- of this inertia of public opinion in this
sitive at the helm, she has too much branch of mechanical skill, we are not
rudder ; but this advantage would be disposed to take aught from the well-
seen and felt earned reputation of American ship-
more particularly in scud-
ding, when the rudders of most vessels builders, who have done much to im-
seem at times to be powerless. This prove the complexion of American
tendency to settle aft in vessels as now commerce but we do say, that were ;
found, when forced to a speed beyond scientific knowledge as universally dif-
that to which they are adapted, is rare- fused among them as it should be, ship-
ly seen, for this reason — sailing vessels building would no longer be regarded
are more or less, under all circum- as a dark, mysterious, and half-de-
stances, affected in their trim by the veloped system, but as the most brilliant,
leverage which conceals this tendency harmonious, and beautiful of all sys-
terns, rising like new Cijthera from extension of their fame than the orbit
the enchanted wave. We should not of a few leagues from the spot that gave
so often hear the direful tidings that them
and from the palmiest
birth ;
are now wafted on almost every breeze, days of the Syracusan philosopher to
of the wreck of that surge-beaten bark the middle of the nineteenth century,
having been swallowed up amid the not one single theorist has accomplish-
mountain-crested billows of that dark ed anything worthy of the name,
abyss ! that heart-rending news would without practical knowledge. In more
not so often break upon our ear, that modern times, we have an illustration
our friend or kindred has found a wind- given by Colonel Mark Beaufoy, in a
ing-sheet beneath that dark blue wave. series of experiments from the year
The silent foot-fall of time has thrust 1793 to 179S, upon the solid of least
us across the thresh hold of an era in resistance the results of which have
;
which the car of lightning mounts been of no value to the science of

its frictionless wheels, and is spurred building ships and although the ;
onward by commercial enterprise. amount of labor attendant or conse-

Every other subject within the grasp of quent on such a series of experiments
thought has contributed its quota to- can scarcely be conceived, yet a more
ward the onward progress of commer- uninteresting scientific work of near
cial science but that of ship-building. 700 pages, was perhaps never published
The pages of this chapter have been in the English language, having not
thus far devoted entirely to shape ; we the most remote connection with that
deem it branch of commercial science which
necessary to follow other theo-
ries of the present time, inasmuch as exhibits either natural or mechanical
it will doubtless be admitted that there philosophy in building ships. In those
can be no progress without a know- experiments the solids have scarcely
ledge of the past, it is equally apparent the least analogy to the form of ves-
that we must know all that is worth sels, and were submerged six feet be-
knowing of the present. neath the surface of the water but ;
From the days of Archimedes to the however destitute this volume may be
present there never has been a time of practical utility, there is another of
when the world was not indebted to much smaller dimensions that seems to
some zealous adventurer in this branch demand a passing notice not that we ;
of commercial science. Many, how- consider ourselves in the light of re-

ever, have lived and died with no wider viewers of works upon the science of
ship-building, but because we have un- larly pertain to shape. The Captain
dertaken to connect science with prac- inducts his readers into the merits of
tice in building ships, and as a conse- this new system of building ships, that
quence find it very essential to know has cost him twenty years' labor, by
what has been done before we can de- pointing to the rapid and gigantic
termine what may be done and it ; strides made in the science of astrono-
would have been well if the letter to my, and its application to nautical pur-
the author, found on page 93, could poses, aided by the discovery of the
have been published centuries ago ; mariner's compass, and the iron sinews
doubtless many would have been dis- of the steam-engine for the purposes of
suaded from wasting time, talent, and propulsion. In fact man may almost
money, in fruitless efforts to set the be said tohave overcome wind and
world aright by beginning at the wrong tide in traversing the deep; but with
end, by substituting theory for practice. all these improvements in navigation
We should have been content to have and propulsion, there are still over-
ended this chapter without entering whelming dangers, numberless evils
upon an analysis of the most promi- and inconsistencies to which all ves-
nent features of a patent ship, a model sels are exposed and subjected the ;
of which was exhibited in London in truth of which he tells us is sadly illus-

1849, by Captain Zerman, a naval trated by the shipwrecks which are so
officer of thirty-six years' experience. frequent. Indeed, Captain Zerman
On examining the details of this patent himself refuses to enter into a detailed
ship, we were involuntarily led to ex- description of the evilsand dangers
claim — knowledge wfcre commensu- which surround the
if mariner on the
rate with experience, and experience sea, consequent upon the manner in
with age, the present generation would which vessels are and have been con-
be wise indeed It cannot be regarded structed, from the earliest dawnings of
!
as a digression from the legitimate sub- civilized life down to the perfection of
jects set apart for this chapter to fol- modern times; they, by Captain Zer-
low Captain Zerman through the mys- man's history, have been constructed
terious labyrinth of inconsistencies with upon the same fundamental principle,
which the pamphlet explaining the the basis of which has been a keel.
principles and setting forth the advan- From time immemorial the keel has
tages of this patent ship abounds, and been deemed as necessary for a ship,
shall notice such parts as more particu- as a spine for the human frame but ;
the author of this stupendous (mis-) additional expenses in loading and un-
improvement in building ships, tells the loading entails the necessity of taking
;
commercial world that the keel is the in ballast and throwing it away, which
great source of most, if not all, the evils incurs a great loss of time and money,
attending the navigation of the seas. and is often attended with the greatest
But we will allow this inventor to speak difficulty which ballast, moreover, is
;
for himself. Says he, it is obvious that unproductive dead-weight, and dimin-
a ship constructed with a keel takes ishes the capacity for cargo ; increases
an enormous draught proportionately the bulk of water to be displaced, and
to her tonage and notwithstanding as a consequence the resistance to be
;
her depth of keel, she has no natural overcome and to the above may be ;
or intrinsic stability, since she cannot added the difficulty of manoeuvre, the
go out of the harbor without either short average durability of the ship,
ballast or a proper cargo. This ballast cost of construction, the high rate of
<>ives her an artificial or extrinsic sta- insurance, which is proportionate to
bility,and from these two defects (enor- the risks and dangers of navigation.
mous draught and extrinsic stability) Since, then, (the Captain adds,) the
naturally and inevitably follow all the keel is the source of so many of the
evils, difficulties, and dangers of the dangers a ship has to encounter on her
present system of ship-building- and voyage through the seas, how is it that
navigation. He thenproceedstofurnish no one has ever thought of preventing
the catalogue the continual rolling and
: the effects by removing the cause ?
pitching, which shakes the whole frame, Thus we discover the result of theory
and tends to weaken it, and in con- without practical knowledge. The
tinuous storms causes leakage, which author of this discovery after twenty
may tend to loss the drifting of the year's labor in endeavoring to over-
;
ship with head winds, when she can come the many almost insurmounta-
only advance by tacking or veering, ble difficulties, has discovered that if
which renders her voyage much longer, one keel is the cause of so many dis-
and is sometimes driven ashore, two keels would remove

or asters, that
upon rocks; the necessity of deep the difficulty entirely. We remember

water for ships of largo, and even for never to have read of any scheme for
those of small tonage, which increases navigating the air, much less the
Oct
the danger, and from ocean, so completely baseless as this
prevents her :
navigating numberless rivers; creates and did not the patent and description
bear date of 1849, we certainly should at all ? But we are told that the roll-
not have given the present or the two ing and pitching causes leakage, and
last centuries credit for this discovery. tends to weaken the vessel. To this
The Captain carefully avoids propor- we and pitching
reply, that the rolling
tions, like most theorists they allow would affect a vessel in two parts much
;
the builder the privilege of doing that more than in one, because the ship
which they cannot do. If theory can de- would roll and pitch much less were
scribe the form, why cannot theory fur- she of the same dimensions as another
nish the dimensions? Had the Captain divided. All things else being equal,
furnished his own dimensions, he would (we mean with the inboard side of each
have exploded his own theory for it section perfectly straight,) with regard
;
must be apparent to the least discerning to ballast, we find no difficulty in this

mind, that if any vessel were cut into particular in a single ship, if they have
two parts longitudinally through the beam enough. No freighting vessel
centre of the keel, and those parts need carry ballast if she has a propor-
separated a proportionate distance, and tionate amount of beam, unless she is
planked up vertically as high as the freighting impressed cotton, or very
load-line of flotation, and then both light goods but how the vessel be-
;
parts united above as one vessel, we comes more capacious by cutting a

say it must be apparent, that were the groove through the centre, and letting
ship in one part as wide as she is de- the water take the place of what would
signed to be in two, she would perforin otherwise be vessel, we cannot tell
very differently. But will any me- nor do we believe the Captain himself
chanic believe that the ship without the would undertake the task he only :
keel would draw less water in two tells us that it is so, and leaves us to
parts, more particularly after the guess how. But again, we are at a
weight of bulk-heads and the bracings loss to know how the resistance is to
and necessary appendages for strength be diminished with all the resistance
;
have been added? In a word, can a of the two sides, and added to this that
heavy ship displace less water than one of those vertical parallel planes on the
less heavy? But we are told that the inboard sides, we should say. if called
double vessel would have the bottoms upon for an opinion, that the resistance
perfectly flat and may we not inquire would be increased at least one-third,
:
if many of our finest ships have but inasmuch as the resistance on planes
little rise to the floor, and some none is absolute as well as lateral. That a
ship would very materially lessen the than the double boat formerly used on
lee-way in the aggregate, constructed our ferries, but long since repudiated,
in this manner, we are unwilling to ad- although the construction consisted of
mit, notwithstanding a plane is present- two entire bottoms, but this method is
ed the entire length of the vessel, and two half-bottoms,
but for the reasons
the full extent of the draught of water already named.
in depth. Her increased resistance, It has been almost invariably the
in connection with her sluggish move- case, that when persons introduce new
ments when in stays, would, without systems of construction for ships, they
doubt, more than counterbalance any are content with exhibiting all the
thing gained by the increased lateral prominent parts of the contemplated
resistance. There are two other points improvements, but the details of con-
to which the Captain has also called struction are often left discretionary
the attention of the commercial world, with the builders. Just so with Cap-
the first of which is the great durabili- tain Zerman's patent ship; he never
ty of such vessels but having made followed up the consequences in detail
;
the announcement, he leaves us to de- of such manner of construction, and

termine in what particulars the great leaves the constructor to perfect his
durability consists, not being careful to outline or design. The world is left to
enlighten the world upon this point guess their way in more than one par-
and if left to determine for ourselves, ticular. That there should be a cavity
we unhesitatingly should decide that where the keel is at present, they are
vessels thus constructed would not be made fully aware; and of its advan-
even as durable as under the present tages they are not kept in ignorance.
system. But the last particular is that But the reader must come to the sage
of avoiding many dangers —they are, conclusion from the captain's own ver-
however, not specified and we are sion, that no sophistry
; that can make
again left to feel our way without a right which common sense pronounces
light. That such constructed vessels wrong and that less than half of the
;
would not be liable to more of the nu- thirty-six years of the Captain's expe-
merous consequent upon naviga- rience spent in private maritime en-
evils
ting the ocean, few persons qualified terprise, would have taught him the
for deciding we are persuaded would futility of his projected design. Few
readily assent. This mode of construc- men have been successful in improving
tion is decidedly more objectionable the form of vessels, except those who
have become familiar with all the de- tent, determine thisand with refer-
;
tails of practice. As it has been well- ence to the location and form of the
observed, the man is but poorly qualified greatest transverse section, in addition
to judge of modelswho cannot make to what we have already advanced
one, and the same may be said of the upon this subject, we will only add, that
draft. Hence the importance of be- the speed must regulate its location,
coming- familiar with the ground-work and to some extent its form. If we
of science before embarking- on its bois- desire to attain the highest speed at-
terous tide. tainable, whether by the power of wind
The system we have contemplated or steam, the greatest transverse sec-
in this chapter under the head of pro- tion should be aft of the centre of
portions conies as a regulator ; it does length on the load-line, in which case
not arbitrarily demand one form for all the bow should be relieved of the top
vessels, nor yet the abandonment of the hamper as much as possible ; the
fundamental principles of construction. leverage should be regulated to corres-
With regard to shape, we say the par- pond, else the change would prove de-
ticular object or trade for which the trimental rather than advantageous.
vessel is designed should, to some ex-
CHAPTER VII.
The Author's Discovery in obtaining the Centre of Expansion — importance

Its to a Proper Distribution nf
the materials for strength — Continued expositions on tbe floor.
In the old world it has been the prac- per shape, assumed that the expansion
tice to expand vessels from a base-line plan furnished the actual shape : and
assumed to be straight, and from which as a consequence would select his plank
all the exterior plans would be project- in accordance with the amount of sni
ed. The entire exterior surface was furnished by the expansion plan and :
not only projected, but the form and after having been chagrined time after
length of the plank were also shown in time by this deceptive map of the ex-
their proper places and appropriate panded vessel, the plan at length
lengths and it is supposed to be fairly
; has been very generally abandoned in
assumed, that the proper shape as well this country at least of its usefulness, ;
as length was actually shown on this however, there can be but little ques-
plan of expansion, and referred to in tion, if properly and reliably made.
planking for the length and sometimes It will appear quite apparent to the
for the shape of the plank.This prac- discerning mechanic, that coidd the
tice in the United States has been con- ship be flattened out to a perfect plane,
fined chiefly if not exclusively to the it would not furnish a straight base-
several Navy Yards, where a board pre- line. Let us suppose the model show-
pared for the purpose would exhibit ing half the vessel in miniature were
only the arrangement of the butts of placed on a plane with the middle-line
the plank on the outside of the ship. next to the plane ; and for our present
The practice of exhibiting the shape or purpose the model may be assumed to
sni having grown obsolete to some ex- be made of some material that may
tent, in consequence of the many readily be brought to a flat surface by
failures to exhibit the actual form of the application of pressure ; when thus
the vessel in her expanded or extended flattened out, we may see the actual
position, the mechanic, whose busi- form of all and every plank on the ex-
ness it is to line the plank to its pro- terior part of the ship. This is vastly
important to the young mechanic, in- dilating every particular, relative to the
asmuch as he may aspire to the position quantity of strength, or its proper distri-
of leader in this part of the construc- bution, as well as to the form of the
tion of the ship, and should have his ship. The utility of this knowledge
eye familiarized with the actual shape upon mature reflection we think will
.of the plank, or the shape required he- not be questioned. With respect to
fore he can line it to its proper form. the frame of a ship, it must be apparent
'The time was when it was supposed to that a good degree of skill is necessary
be impossible to line a plank by the eye, to the proper disposition of the timber
particularly the fore and after woods. of which the frame is composed ; the
It was deemed actually necessary to' variety of curves ; the different lengths ;
take a spiling from the bow or stern to the diminished scantling at the extremi-
obtain the proper shape ; but in the ties, as well as at the rail ; all contri-
order of improvements that day has bute to make the subject one of im-
passed, and the practice has grown ob- portance and of interest to the me-
solete. Mechanics no longer think of chanic. This subject has never been
taking a spiling for a plank, unless in made minds of
sufficiently clear to the
some very peculiar part of the ship, the young and inexperienced hence ;
where there may be a poor chance of the necessity of pausing to inquire what
working it to its berth, and only under has been done in order that we may
some such circumstances is the prac- know what may be done. The
tice adhered to of spiling for any plank strength of our vessels is a subject
on a ship, the garboard, fore and after worthy of our notice, more particular-
woods excepted. ly when it may be obtained without
To give in addition to the actual additional cost. It will not be neces-
shape of the plank, the proper shift of sary to enlarge on their importance.
butts in planking, and of their distri- It has been the custom to determine
bution in the frame, or of the timber of the scantling and arrange the butts of
Which the frame composed, may per- the frame, or the number of timbers
is
haps be thought superfluous by some, composing the frame of a ship or other

but as it pertains to the systematical vessel, upon the floor of the loft. The
construction of this stupendous fabric, dead-flat frame being the one usually
we think the time well spent by the selected for this purpose, a batten being
y oung mechanic in endeavoring to be- bent to the shape of
the frame, and
come familiar with the means of cal- the size of the scantling set off toward
the centre at the head of the frame, There is still another exception to
and likewise the size at the side of the this general rule when we determine
keel, a batten then bent with those to cover the vessel with plank of more
is
boundaries at the head and keel, the than usual thickness. We may in such
intermediate space being determined cases be safe in departing from those
by the But we apprehend proportions; the usual proportion for
builder.
this to be a loose and indefinite mode the head of the frame, or at the plank-
of determining the size of the frame- sheer, and one which we should our-
by the scantling size we mean the selves adopt, would be one-third of the
moulding size of the frame from the size at the keel and if the vessel be an
;
keel to the head of the frames. The t)cean steam-vessel, a smaller ratio may
dimensions at the keel, or the depth on be adopted, on account of the extra
the keel, should in all cases be some- size at the keel. Our reasons for re-
thing more than the siding of the keel. ducing the scantling when the thick-
in steamships the difference should be ness of the plank is increased, are, that
greater than in on ac- the strength of the vessel is increased
sailing ships,
count of the application of power in faster by increasing the thickness of the
opposite directions that is to say, if plank inside and out, or inside only,
;
the keel of a steamship were sided 18 than by adding to the scantling of the
inches, the depth of the floors should frame and one of two methods of re-
;
not be less than 20 inches whereas ducing the frame may and should be
;
the keel of a sailing ship, requiring a adopted when we determine to add

siding size of 16 inches, should have a materially to the thickness of the plank,
depth of 17 to 17g inches in the throats either to spread the. frames farther
of the floors, or the depth on the top apart, or reduce the scantling size.
of t he keel. These proportions will ap- It may be supposed that a reduction of
ply to smaller vessels, and may be con- the siding size of the frame would have
sidered sufficiently heavy, unless the the same effect, which to some extent
vessel be a centre-board vessel, in which is true; the weight would be reduced,
case the proportion will not apply. which is a secondary consideration
Where draught of water is of when strength is to be gained.
light By re-
great consequence in smaller vessels ducing the siding size of the frame, we
than ships and brigs, we may perhaps bring the fastening closer together than
he quite safe in reducing the size some- it should be ; besides this, there are
w hat below the proportion given. more grains of the timber cut off with
MAUJNE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. 213
an equal amount of fastening than a vessel, which it is readily conceded

would have been with a smaller scant- is a great addition to the strength; the
ling ; consequently more of the strength extra thickness, however, in the out-
of the timber is lost, and it also follows side plank, is the most advantageous on
that less remains. To make this part account of the caulking, which by in-
more clear, suppose the top timber for creasing the surface of oakum in the
example to be sided 10 inches, and seams, renders the increased thickness
moulded 9 inches at a certain place, of somewhat more service. But again,
we bore an inch auger hole through we would make a still greater reduc-
it thwartships, is it not clear that one- tion in the scantling size, and also re-
tenth of the strength is gone? whereas duce the siding size of the lower flit-
had the scantling size been 8 and the tocks at the ends of the ship; this is
siding size 11 inches, we shall discover rendered necessary, it will be at once
that we should have had more strength perceived, for two reasons : first, we
left, although the hole for the fastening shall have much more timber than in
was the same in size. In the first ex- other parts of the ship —a difficulty
ample we had 10x9 inches, which gave which, without this precaution, we can-
us 90 square inches of transverse area, not avoid, inasmuch as the contraction
and it would require 10 of the 1 inch consequent upon the shape of the ends
holes to cut off the timber, while in the of the vessel leaves less room for the
second example we have 11x8, which distribution of timber below, while

gives 2 square inches and above we have more room than we re-
less area,
yet it requires 11 holes of the same quire and if the siding size of the
;
size as before to cut the timber off. timber in the futtocks of the cauls
Thus it may fairly be assumed that were to remain as in other parts of the
upon this score alone it with but a single timber below,
is decidedly ship,
preferable to have more siding size and both forward and aft, it would be a
less scantling size. But there is much better arrangement than at pres-
another reason why we prefer more ent, and our ships would be stronger
size in the siding and less in the scant- and last much longer than they now
ling — the thicker the planks are, the do at those parts, particularly those
more longitudinal strength we obtain, built of white oak at the extremities.
inasmuch as an inch added to the thick- But there is still another feature to this
ness of the inside plank, or to the out- question that has not been shown: there
side plank, is almost equal to sheathing are two timbers in each frame that ex-
tend from the keel to the head of the they otherwise would yield ; besides
frame, with joints or butts at regular this, it must be quite apparent that the
intervals. must be quite clear, that ends are the strongest parts of the ves-
It
at those butts the frame has but a sin- sel. Tinder any circumstances, when
gle limber as it regards strength; that the usual mode of construction is adopt-
is to say, one timber of the frame deadwoods are a source of great
ed, the
being cut off here, the frame is only strength to the part of the ship in which
equal to the strength of a single tim- they are located. It will also be re-
ber; hence the importance of having membered, that the proportionate

as few of those weak parts to the frame, amount of cargo is small that the ends
and of keeping those places as far apart will contain, when this increased
as possible, longitudinally as well as and again, that
strength is considered ;
vertically. But it may have been sup- the leverage of the masts and rigging
posed, that although the in and out are not even proportionately sustained
fastening would seem to call for a re- here, so that we need have no fears in
duced scantling, and an increased sid- relation to the strength of the ends;
ing size to the frame, yet when the and still another reason exists for di-
frame-bolts are brought into the ac- minishing the scantling at the ends of
count, the advantages would not seem the vessel the plank is usually dimin- —
to be so great. To this question we ished in thickness at the ends of the
apply the same answer as to the form- ship, and if it is not, it should be, inas-
er, viz. : the increased thickness of the much as an equal thickness of plank
plank will more than make up the de- with that of other parts of the ship,
ficiency but we have told our readers cuts too deep a rabbet, which exposes
;
that the ship would be stronger with the fastening in the stem and stern-post,
less timber : this, although seemingly or makes it necessary to place all the
paradoxical, is nevertheless true. It is fastening in the centre of the stem and

a truism that is at which does not add strength in
once recognized by post,
every mechanic —
that to increase the proportion to the number of bolts con-
bulk of materials beyond what is ne- tained, unless properly distributed; and
cessary to increase the strength, rather it should be an invariable practice to
weakens the ship than otherwise, inas- make the rabbet of less depth on the
much stem and stern-post and dead-woods
as the increased strength ope-
rates against the weaker parts, and than on the keel not because the keel ;
causes those parts to yield more than does not require as much support for
the floors and spread for the fastening the plank at the ends should also be
as the stem and post, but because the thinner ; they should be diminished at
rabbet on the keel cuts but little com- the end to the thickness shown by the
pared with the ends. On the keel, par- depth of the rabbet, and tapered as far
ticularly along midships, the angle of from the end as is required to make
dead-rise (on freighting ships particu- the thickness a fair taper.
larly) differs but little from that of Having shown the relative propor-
square with the side of the keel, or of tion that should exist between the head
right angles ; make
and heel of the frames, or the scant-
consequently to a
square seam, we require but the differ- ling size at those points, and also
ence between the angle of rise and thrown the builder upon his resources
square, or of right angles, in the thick- in relation to the siding size of the keel,
ness of the plank as the depth of the (not however without first telling him
rabbet ; but on the stem and post the that the depth should be considered as
case is quite different : the rabbet cuts bavin" some relative connection with
-
more and consequently

transversely, the siding size,) and believing that we
deeper, leaving less wood between the do him a service by thus leaving the
two rabbets transversely hence the ; matter with him, seeing there are a
importance of reducing the rabbets on variety of. circumstances that would
the ends of the vessel and on sharp ; require a departure from any propor-
vessels it is also necessary to increasemight be given, we next
tions that
the siding size of the keel, in conse- come to the manner of determining the
quence of the increased depth of the size between the head and heel of the
rabbet the siding size of the keel frame, or the scantling between those
;
should be with the builder a matter points.

that his own judgment or experience It has been a practice in some parts
should determine. cannot be sup-
It of Europe to sweep in the dead-flat
posed that every matter of this nature frame upon the floor of the loft, and
is determinable by rule as no propor- ; strike up the middle-line in the body-
tion of the dimensions of the ship would plan, from which the scantling size at
be safe to adhere to as a standard. the head is set off at its proper height,
We have said that the scantling as shown in Plate 12. The size be-
should be smaller, and the rabbets less in" also set off below, a line is stricken
deep at the ends, because they were on the floor from spot to spot, and the
the strongest parts of the ship but space between those lines shows the
;
216 MARINE AND NAVAL TECTURE,
scantling size of the frame, and mould on all the other or the
is ob- dead-flat
tained as follows the middle-line is remaining moulds in the same body at

:
divided into a convenient number of the place where the diagonal crosses
spaces, and the frame is likewise the moulding or outer edge of the
divided into a like number of equal mould. The diagonals need not inter-
parts, and lines being drawn from one fere with others that may be on the
to the other, or from the middle-line at floor for bevelling spots, if it is thought
the upper spot to the frame on the up- that they are likely to they may be ;
per spot, furnishes the place where the marked with pencil to distinguish them,
size is to be taken at the middle-line as the diagonals for the bevels and for
and applied to the frame. This method arranging the butts are usually shown
is adopted in the United States when with white chalk.
any method is adhered to, which is not Having shown the appropriate
always the case. We may, by the method of arranging the size of the
adoption of this mode, regulate the material for strength longitudinally,
scantling size as we please, with this and in part diagonally, we may find it
exception: it does not provide for a to our advantage to inquire what can
reduction at the extremities, which is be done to strengthen the ship's frame,
its most objectionable feature that and, as a consequence, the whole fabric
;
however may be remedied by making vertically. We have already shown

the diagonal lines curved instead of that the ship is but single-timbered in
straight lines, as shown by the dotted the direction of the diagonals, and by
line in Plate 12, which may be so ar- which the length of the timbers are de-
ranged as not to affect the square body, termined, while from that point to the
and apply only to the cants. If we re- next butt, the ship is double-timbered;
quire a larger scantling size between and this arrangement is continued
the head and heel, we may drop the throughout the entire ship. Thus it
inboard end of the diagonal, or we may is plain that at regular intervals there
extend the diminishing line higher, and are weaker places than those above or
aoain divide the length on the middle- immediately below. Various measures
line, keeping the head and heel the have been adopted, both in the old and
same as before. After having deter- new. world, to remedy this manifest
mined the scantling size, the lines defect but thus far the projectors
;
may remain on the floor, and the sizes have only partially accomplished their
may be marked to correspond with purpose. A great variety of expedi
ents have adopted in Europe, seen a range of butts at the upper

been
none of which have found favor in edge of the bilge strakes of a ship, or
universally obviating this manifest de- at the upper cdê of the water-ways
fect in the present system. between decks and at the ends of the
It will hanging knees, which has a tendency
require but a glance at this
subject by the thinking-man to enable to weaken the ship hence the truth ;
him to discover that the plank runs of what we have already said in sub-
nearly in the direction of the diagonals stance, that something more than the
outside and often inside of the ship ;
materials are requisite to the formation
hence it must be equally apparent, that of a strong ship. This is one of the
at every range of butts the strength of principal reasons why ships often work
the ship is less than it might be with at sea, but do not show it when in port.
the same material, were it but every Those butts and seams all in vertical
third or fourth frame that displayed a range, and running in the same direc-
range of butts in the same direction tion, operate like hinges on a door
: ;
and at the same place that a seam in the ship may go and come in this man-
the outside and inside plank is shown, it ner for a length of lime, until she hap-
would be deemed of less consequence, pens to be grounded on the beach, and
but this range of butts is found on then the story is soon told.. If a ship-
every frame at the same place. It owner should think the picture loo
is
true that measures are sometimes highly colored, let him adopt a course
adopted to bring the butts of the top- we shall propose on a ship that has a
sides under the hanging knee, or in a range of butts in the frame of his ship,
position in which they are supported at or near the upper edge of the lower
by other means than that furnished by deck water-ways. He may think her
the plank but below the decks and
; a strong ship, but him put in a set
let
han<> in" knees there is no extrinsic of standing knees between decks, load
support beyond what is furnished by his ship and send her to sea, and more
the bilge strakes, which are, as they than likely the first gale of wind will
should always be, the thickest planks break half of those knees, and it is very
in the because the bilge is the reasonable that it should.

ship, The ship is
weakest part of the ship, and cannot made very strong above and below this
(without extra means are adopted) be weak part, and the strain of the masts
as strong as other parts of the struc and rigging operate in direct line from
ture; and we have not unfrequently |
the channels through the lower deck
28
partners to the bilge, and, as a conse- reason, which is simply because it is
quence, on any and every weak part not to their interest to do so. If a fut-
between those points. tock will work a few inches longer than
It may not seem quite clear to all the sirmark, the moulder would of
that the bilge should be denominated on the best timber,
course save it
the weakest part of the frame. In re- whether it were head or heel whereas ;
ply to the inquiry why? we would say. it is well known both to the moulder
that any and every structure can be and the framer that it will not do to
made stronger with the same amount depart a great distance from the place
of materials in the form of a plane, than for the butt, (unless two timbers can he
when the frame or structure has no obtained in one.) if they do. the scarf
determinate form ; not only so, but the is made too short, either above or be-
side of a ship is strengthened by the low : thus it is plain that in the main
decks very much. This support the the departure is only the exception,
bilge cannot have ; but again, the bilge But the bilge of a
and not the rule.
has not only the strain consequent upon ship seldom receives this advantage :
its own weight, and the pressure within the timber being crooked, is hard to
of cargo, and without of water, which find, and, as a consequence, a butt is
are seldom well balanced, but in addi- made in the hardest part of the crook:
tion to this, it has the variable strain this of course relieves the moulder, but
of both the side and bottom at the diminishes the strength of the bilge.
same time to withstand, from which The casual observer cannot, we
we may reasonably infer that Ave are inasmuch as the
think, but admit, that
not far from the truth when we say that bilge is the connecting link between the
the bilge of a ship, having the butts of vertical and the horizontal plane, that
the frame arranged as they usually are, it requires a greater degree of strength
is not as strong as other parts of the than other parts of the ship, whereas
ship by from 10 to 20 per cent. The it has less. A variety of means have
harder the bilge, the weaker it is, and been proposed, some of which have
the reverse is equally true. been adopted, but up to the present
We readily admit that many build- time nothing has been presented that
ers do not confine their butts to the will so effectually remedy the evil, as
diagonals, or do not cut off* the timbers an equalized gradation of the
that of
by the diagonal lines ; but while we butts throughout tin; ship, and increas-
admit this fact, we must also state the ing the siding size of the timbers of
MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE i'19
the bilge; but even with this additional in the following manner from the mo-
strength the bilge strakes should be del: plane up two battens thin enough
heavier than other parts of the ceil- to bend around the model longitudi-
ing. nally anywhere, and as wide a,s good :i
must appear evident, that a pro- rule-staff should be by the scale upon
It
per gradation of butts can only be ob- which the model is made, say S or 10
tained from the expansion plan, and inches; both edges being perfectly
the question at once arises, how shall straight, apply one around the model
this be obtained, inasmuch as every at the upper part of the bilge in the
Naval Architect has thus far failed in direction a diagonal line usually runs ;
obtaining the actual shape of the ves- apply it fair, without an inclination
sel in her expanded state ? Although either up or down having secured it, ;
more than a single effort has been made, apply the second with its lower vA>j;(>
the reason, and doubtless the only rea- at the upper edge of the first, as near
son, why European Architects have as may be without its coaking off from
failed to accomplish their purpose, is the bottom, or having any set edgewise;
attributable to their ignorance of the they may not seam at their first posi-
model. It is this alone that can fur- tion, as indeed it is not likely that they
nish two curves same line, and
in the will. We shall be able, however, to
exhibit both at the same time. determine which direction they are
in
It willappear obvious, that an expand- required to move, in order to secure a

ed ship, bounded by a curved line both seam or a joint of the two edges by ;
below and above, must have a straight thus moving them we shall rind a po-
line somewhere, and that this straight sition in which they will form a joint
line would be the proper starting point of their edges, and at the same time tit
wherever found; as all parts would the bottom or side of the model ; when
commence expanding from this line, it that plane is found, we have; the base
is also evident that this line is precisely of the expansion plan, viz., a straight
the same one way when expanded that line. It is true, that all Architects ex-
it was when in its rotundity hence we pand from a straight line: hut they
;
infer that it will furnish correct data take it for granted, that because the
for the extension of all parts. We have base is a straight line in its rotundity,
shown the
' line in Plate 2 in the sheer- it must of necessity he on a plane.
plan, andone section of the hall- We find the straight base, and from its
in
breadth plan, and it may be obtained proper location, project the design:
220 M\IMNK AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
hence the difference lies just hen may now be brought to intersecl the
they place the base at the edge of the girth spots, and the crossing will be
design, we near the centre. Having the correct spot for the expanded line
marked the upper edge of the lower on the; frame it represents. The ex-
staff, or the lower edge of the upper panded shape of every line may be ob-
one, we may mark the exact station of tained in the same manner and all ;
every frame on the edge of the staff, the frames may marked, and
also be
(their stations having previously been will be required to complete the plan.
marked across the outside ofthe model.) The endings of every line will also be
In applying those stations to llie draft, necessary, and may be swept by the
it will be discovered, that the dead-Hat spots at both ends of the plan. We
frame must be squared from the straight shall find that the ends aft form a cu-
line, inasmuch as every other will vary rious line; and in order to complete
more or less from square as the frame the plan, we may find it necessary to
is more or less distant frOm this frame. run in one or more lines in the buttock
We may now girl the O frame in the after the lines are all swept in, the
body-plan, by applying a batten, and sheer-lines with ink (and all the water-
marking every water-line below and lines with pencil which are not re-
above; also ihe sheer-lines. The quired) after tin; frames are regulated
rail being the upper boundary, and the and swept in with ink also. We may
base or side-line the lowerboundary remove the water-lines with India rub-
line, the girt of every fourth frame may ber, and proceed first to tin? arrange-
be obtained in thesame manner; the ment of tin; butts of the frame, having
spots should be marked parallel to the the whole side of the ship before us
base of expansion, for the following the lower edge of the draft being the
reasons when we have spoiled all the side of the keel, and its upper edge the
:
lines on every fourth frame, we may rail. It may now be plainly discovered
apply a batten to each water and sheer- that the floors should be the starting
line in the hall-breadth plan, marking and that if we determine the
point,
the station of all the fourth frames on length ofthe floor to be invariable, we
the batten while thus bent ; we may return to the present system: but sup-
then apply the batten to the expansion pose we determine to have 5 feet scarf
plan, keeping the dead-flat spot on the to the frame, or 5 feet from one butt on
batten at the line representing that the frame to the next above or below,
frame. All the marks on the batten and that e\er\ fifth frame shall be the
usual length, or say midships 10 feet, of every timber that has a landing or a
arm and cut by a hue running as the place on the keel. This would he as
diagonal showing floor head runs in it should, and every ship that gets
Plate 9; and suppose 0,E, K, and so on ashore and loses her keel, more firmly
were cut to this line: A, 15 inches establishes the truth of our statement
below B, 30 inches below
; C, 45 and we will add, that any mechanic
;
inches D, 60 inches, or 5 feet below

; may but examine the socket or seat
;
E will come to the diagonal. Now D from whence a keel has been taken,
being 60 inches, or 5 feet shorter on and we are persuaded that he will think
one side, may be 5 feet longer on the as we do in this particular. By ex-
other side of the ship, and it will be tending every first futtock across the
readily perceived that the floors are keel, we not oidy distribute the fasten-
easier obtained ; it will also be discov- ing, which adds to tin; strength of the
ered that the second futtocks would floors, but make a floor of the fust
follow the same arrangement, and would futtocks ; by this arrangement the
not be .confined to a certain shape as length of the first futtock is increased
they now are. The fourth futtock 7 or 8 inches on the keel alternately,
would also follow in like manner, and
and next from the
first from one side
with like advantages so of the top- opposite side.
; The head of the first
timber or half top-timber but we see futtock may have the same length of
;
no reasons why this arrangement should scarf as before, above the floor head. ;is
be confined exclusively to the floor determined upon below, viz., 5 feel ;
head. The first futtocks may be ad- and as we shortened the floor of frame
justed in the same manner, (and with A 15 inches, we likewise shorten the
this exception) the dead-flat may be first futtock 15 inches on A 30 on l> ;
framed as they now are that frame or ;

45 on C and 60 on D. It m;i\ he ar-
;
any other frame should not butt on the gued that this arrangement makes a
keel, for the following reason —the large shorter first futtock; to this objection
bulk of timber in vertical line over the we say that it is so, but on one side
throats of the floors, in addition to the only at the same time ; and though tin;
keel below, requires more fastening first futtocks may be shorter than they
surface than obtained from the pres- usually are, it matters not
is lor while ;
ent mode of construction. By extend- we are dispensing with some of the

ing the Hist futtock to the side of the surplus strength between the keel and
keel, we virtually make a floor timber first futtock-heads, we do so in order
to add the amount thus taken to the new, lest it should cost something;
bilge, which requires even more than hence, as we have had occasion to re-
other parts of the ship to render that mark, almost every improvement is op-
part equally secure with other parts of posed but that of price for building,
the hull. and the owner is not less al fault the :
It is a difficult matter to convince cheapest is the best with him: so long
the casual observer that all parts of the as his ship will insure for A No. 1 lit-
ship should be equally strong, or have is satisfied, (if we may be allowed to

strength in proportion to the stress that judge from his acts;) he had rather
each part maintains, else rupture to spend 5000 dollars in extra exterior
some extent is likely to ensue but the show to attract and dazzle the eyes of
;
gradation of butts extends to the second passengers, than to spend half the
futtocks in like manner, and furnishes noiint in obtaining an extraordinary

the moulder with an opportunity of ' strong ship, and in the end the cheap-
moulding timber that could scarcely be est. But again, those two are not the
worked into the frame but for this im- only parties at fault; the underwriters
provement. The like may be said of are censurable to some extent in not
the third and fourth futtocks and the ; selecting men to superintend their in-
extension of this systematic mode of terest in these matters, who are .me-
distribution is not prejudicial to any chanics of the first grade. Sea cap-
part of the entire frame ; and while we tains are not the most suitable men to
repeat that it will furnish a new mode superintend the construction of a ship,
of security to the ship with the same (themselves to the contrary notwith-
weight of materials, and the same if not standing,) however well qualified for the
less cost, also that we would be less spars, rigging, and outfits and we ;
dependent upon certain crooks for par- think we are right in this matter when
ticular limbers, than But we say the insurers have been the
at present.
this is not all: there is no timber (as far losers in consequence of this arranger
as shape is concerned) but would work ment. But Ave have said that this
into a ship's frame. But it may be method will cost no more than the
asked, why has not this been discovered present arrangement of the butts;
before ? we say because vessels have the making of the moulds of a ship
not been expanded is the reason and would perhaps require from 2 to 3
;
the second reason may be found in the days' work more the moulder would;
fact, that builders repudiate any thing at first be compelled to move more
cautiously; but working out the frames we may now proceed to divide tin 1
en-
and putting them together it is quite tire surface into strakes of proper
evident would cost no more; as to the width; the sheer-lines will furnish data
raising and regulating of which, we above, and we must not depart from
shall treat in its proper place. They them, inasmuch as they furnish the
will costno more, we are quite well actual shape edgewise of the plank or
persuaded but all that has been spent
;
strakes, that shows the sheer; retain-
by the builder in the loft, and the time ing the form, we may make such divi-
of the moulder, will be amply repaid in sions of width as we please. The bot-
the facility of obtaining timber to suit tom may also be divided into strakes:
his moulds. We have been consider- remembering that although there is no
ing the relative value in dollars and difficulty in bending lie batten on the
cents, but gold dwindles into insignifi- paper to any division we may make,
cance when the better security of hu- yet it is vastly important that we so
man life is to be the result. bottom that the
divide the plank may
Our readers will readilybe able to be obtained as near the required shape
conceive the advantages of this ar- as may be, and at the same time work
rangement of the butts, if they will on the ship easily and although the ;
compare the present manner of ar- young beginner would perhaps hesitate
ranging the butts of the outside plank. to take the responsibility of lining the
Let alternately every other strake butt plank of a ship, he has now an oppor-
upon the same frame from the floor tunity not only of planking a ship, hut
heads to the rail, and there will be no if he goes wrong, he may recover his
difficulty in settling the question at lost ground without damage, inasmuch
once, that much of the strength of the as he may make all his marks below
present arrangement would be lost. the wale with pencil, until he is satisfied
The advantages are apparent, when that he i^ right, and then he can mark
we consider that the system makes no them in There arc several
with ink.
requisition on the room for stowage important things that must not he for-
unlike the English system of riders, gotten in arranging the strakes we ;
that made such heavy drafts on the must remember that the smallest girth
room for cargo, it is presented to the presented is perhaps some 20 to W feel
world depending on its own merits. and the

forward of the stern-post,
But the expansion plan stops not here: largest space to be covered is on the
having adjusted the butts of the frame, post and cross-seam. Hence it will
224 M VRIXE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
appear obvious that the plank should be come straight, it should not be round
narrow on the Conner and wide on the The wood ends forward on the steii
latter part. But again; plank should differ very materially both in the re
not be wide above water, and to required width and shape. First, the
move the difficulty, we may butt two much smaller forward than
opening is
after-woods to a midship plank, which aft; and while we avoid the sni aft on
will enable us to get up on the stern- the upper edge, we cannot avoid for- it
post, and even on the transom, with ward, although it may be reduced very
the after-woods, while the butts of the much. The upper wale has a very
midship plank will be below water. considerable sni or round on the upper
Indeed the opening should be less if edge ; this, however, is diminished as
possible immediately on coming on the we come down, and the manner of doing
transom than it is 10 or 20 feet for- it is, by making the forward end of the
ward, else the plank will be widest on wale narrower. This method of put-
the after end, which will appear dis- ting on the wales is not general ; in
pr< (portioned, inasmuch as the wales very many places ships are built (in
are tapered, or are narrower on the this particular) as of old, with the wale
after end than farther forward and, ; as wide at each end of the ship as in
as a consequence, other strakes should the centre. A tapered wale is an ad-
correspond, or the discrepancy is at vantage, not only in appearance, but in
once apparent ; not only so, but to look reality, inasmuch as the less we bend
well, the wood ends on the cross-seam the plank edgewise, the fewer grains
should measure less on the bevel of the are cut off in working out the plank
butt than they do farther forward on to the shape required, and, as a conse-
the square, else they will appear to be quence, more strength is retained in
the wrong end aft ; not only so, but the plank when in its place on the ship.
the sni will be a derangement in the There is a deceptive appearance con-
appearance ; the upper edge of the nected with the shape of the plank on
after-woods on the transom should not bow of a vessel in particular. The
the
be round, else the buttock will want eye may be in a position from which
the appearance of symmetry, inasmuch the shape of the plank edgewise may
as the strakes coming from below have appear straight, when in fact the plank
a hollow upper edge, and the strakes in 40 feet of length from the wood ends
above should also be hollow but al- ; may have from 3 to 4 feet of crook ;
though it may be entirely lost and be- that is to say, that it would require a
straight plank 3 to 4 feet wide in ad- generally done by contract,) to avoid

dition to the width of the plank when
edge crook as far as is consistent
this
finished, to furnish the actual shape with the shape of the vessel first, be- ;
when on the vessel. The casual ob- cause the ship is stronger; second, be-
server would suppose from the actual cause it saves plank; and thirdly, be-
shape shown on the expansion plan, cause it saves labor in putting on the
that there —
must be some mistake about plank the full ship has more of the
the plan, inasmuch as the sheer ap- sni than one having less buoyancy.
pears to be nearly straight.^ Many perhaps be well enough to line
It will
men who may be regarded as good the upper edge of the lower strakes
mechanics have been thus deceived. hollow, else before we are aware of it
This crook edgewise is what is usually wye shall have the edge round, in con-
termed sni, and is consequent upon the sequence of the twist. Were we to
twist of the plank, and the higher up line the lower edge of the garboard
on the bow we ascend, the more we strake to the exact spiling, and the
have of the twist, consequent upon the upper edge straight, we shall rind that
increased flare ; thus the philosophy the strake above would require to be
once appear of making the plank quite hollow on the lower edge.
will at The
narrower as we ascend toward the rail, secret of this crook or sni is thus de-
—
where we have the most bend edgewise, fined the forward end of the plank on
and of making them wider as we de- the stem rises perpendicularly its whole
scend, where the plank can be worked width ; the bottom may be supposed
out to their actual shape. There are to be flat, or without dead rise ; the
many ships that have so much flare to after end of the plank, although double
their bow immediately under the rail, the width of the forward end, does not
that the bulwarks could not be put on rise, while in the middle of the length
smoothly more than 31 inches wide, the of the plank, it has raised more than a
bend edgewise is so great. This will mean between the two ends : this, with
be shown by the expansion plan —as all the necessary information lor plank-
we descend, the twist diminishes, and, ing a ship, is furnished by the expan-
as a consequence, the sni decreases. sion plan. True, the liner requires
Hence we discover that it is not only judgment ; for example, lie should make
advantageous to the ship, but to the his strakes narrower on the bilge than
builder and the men who plank on the Hat of the bottom, because of
the
ship, (this part of the work being very the loss in the scantling size of the
29
?2G MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
frame, by making the bilge straight however paradoxical it may appear, it
the width of the plunk. is nevertheless true, that this line may
The foregoing remarks will doubt- not be straight in the bodv-plan, or on
less be inasmuch as the plane expanded.
quite siiffieient,
the plan before the pupil will explain It will be remembered that we have
itself. After dividing the entire plan shown the smallest girth to be from 20
into st rakes, we may arrange the butts to 30 feet forward of the post.
;
This
not, however, for the arbitrary confine- would seem to have a depressing influ-
ment of the butts on the ship, but to ence oil the base in the body-plan.
familiarize our eye with the best ar- Again, the largest girth is found at the
rangement and we should approxi- post, which tends to elevate the line in
;
mate as near as the plank will allow, the body- plan. The fore-body like-
as the plank sometimes determines for wise has some peculiarities we dis- ;
us where the butt shall be. We are cover the line starting at the same al-
well persuaded that the apprentice titude on the ® frame of the fore-body,
could spend his time profitably in learn- and the frames shortening faster than
ing to draw an expansion plan of a ship, they do aft, the line is somewhat de-
and we would scarce hesitate to say, pressed for a time; at length the Hare
that the mechanic would find it to his of the bow causes an elevation in the
advantage to improve in that of which upper boundary line, and when we
he knew but little about, on this ex- reach the side-line on the stem we find
panded plane; few men could be per- a much shorter girth, and, consequent-
suaded of the actual form of a ship ly, a depressed ending. Thus we see,
spread out in this manner. It does that buoyancy concentrated in any
not necessarily follow that the straight part of the ship may have an influence,
line for expansion should be straight in and this is as it should be. When this
the body-plan unless straight on the departure from the straight line takes
plane. In Section 4 of Plate 2 we place in the body-plan, and, as a conse-
have shown the expansion base-line to quence, in the expansion plan, shows it
be a curved line and it would have

; that the line from which we expand
been difficult to understand why this the vessel was not a perfectly straight
should be so, inasmuch as the base is line in the direction in which it was
straight, and runs near the same direc- taken. This is the case with Section
tion as the ordinary diagonal, which is 4 of Plate 2 the line was swept on ;
always straight in the body-plan. But the model by the edge of the rule stall',
and without reference to its being ex- a vessel from that set forth on the draft
actly straight, being only particular to or model, inasmuch as an alteration of
obtain a true spiling. Hence it was the scale, unless strictly proportional,
only necessary to determine thean equivalent to a departure from

ex- is
tent of the curve; and this obtained the the shape. For example, we double
base of expansion was furnished. But the scale, and the result is, that the
the method already shown of obtaining vessel is eight times as large so that ;
this base by two staffs is preferable to it will be readily discovered, that if we

that of using one staff first from above would double the size of the vessel, we
and next from below. must not resort to this means of en-
The expansion plan will not only be larging ; neither will it answer our pur-
found useful as an auxiliary in the dispose to decrease the size of the vessel
tribution of the material for strength ;
in the same manner. If a vessel half
but we may be able more readily to de- the size of another is required, it is not
termine the surface for the purchase enough that we re-number the scale by
of copper or sheathing, which is not regarding that as 1 foot which was be-
unworthy of notice. Having furnish- fore regarded as 2 feet; this again would
ed all the information necessary to pro- make the vessel but one-eighth of the
ject an expansion plan, or to spread a size. Hence
must be quite apparent it
ship out on a plane, we shall next en- to the discerning mind, that if we would
deavor to show the method of enlarg- increase or diminish, whether in a great-
ing and contracting models, that is to er or less degree, we musl adopt some
say : if system that can be relied on for all
the model or form pleases us,
in what manner or how shall we en- sizes, be the enlargement or the con-
large or reduce the vessel, and yet re- traction what it may. It should be ap-
tain the same shape through a system plicable,, indeed equally so, to the spars,
of proportions? This knowledge will or any and every part of the vessel, or
often be found useful to such as would any other structure. It is as we have
imitate the form delineated in a larger shown, the key-stone of mechanism

or smaller vessel; the principle upon Nature's Vatic Mecum. It is to the
which size accommodates shape is mechanic a universal dissolvent. Va-
strictly proportional, and is founded on rious methods have been given the me-
the principles of similar triangles ; it is chanical world for increasing or re-
a source of inconvenience to those who ducing in exact proportion every part
would increase or diminish the size of of a body or of a ship; but the exam-
pie we have furnished in Plate 13, the altitude of the load-line of flotation
seems to us to be the one best adapted above the base-line; and it may not be
to the wants, or to the orbitual career out of place hereto remark, that in all
of this branch of the mechanical world, measurements of heights taken in this
which, while it is correct, it is easy of country, where the point from which
application, when the draft of a ves- we measure is not specified, either the
sel is reduced as a load-line, or the top of the keel, which
to be enlarged or
draft, only the process is entirely dif- is usually denominated base-line, should
ferent from that of enlargement or re- be understood.
duction of the same for building pur- In England, and in most parts of
poses. For example, if a draft is drawn Europe, the lower side of the rabbet is
upon a scale known as an eighth of the the starting point a most inappro- —
inch, and we wish to draw another or priate place for imparting instruction
copy that draft, we find it necessary to to pupils. Having once determined
—
have two scales the one correspond- the relations of length, breadth, and
ing with, or by which the first draft depth to each other, and at which they
was drawn, the other corresponding are to be brought out if to be enlarged,
with that to be drawn —
and by mea- we may find the length of tlje model
suring distances on the small draft with by the scale upon which it was made,
the small scale, and applying the same likewise its breadth and depth by the
to the large draft with the large scale, same scale. We will now suppose
we may increase the draft to any size the ship by the model and scale to be
we please but this has not increased 160 feet long, 37 feet beam, and 20
;
the size of the vessel if built by the feet deep ; the load-line being 15 feet
draft and we may build a vessel by above base line, we want to enlarge
;
each draft, and they would both be of the ship to ISO feet long, and yet re-
the same size, although one draft might tain the identical shape after being en-
be double the size of the other. When larged, that we had before we will ;
the vessel itself is to be enlarged or re- first determine the principal dimen-
duced from the same model, it is neces- sions by figures, not because it is ac-
sary to find the exact relation in the tually necessary to pursue this course,
example that the length, breadth, and but because it will doubtless be made
depth bear to each other, and at which more clear by analogizing the two
they are to be brought out or we may, modes.
; We have the formula in the
instead of taking the whole depth, take following shape:
mini
S$Sfl
9 .*./ z
?".
I 2,vf ••
length beura length beam

160 : 37 : : ISO : 41.63 to prove our former expositions, we
Again will assume the same principal dimen-
length depth length depth
161) 20 : : ISO : 22.5 sions as before, viz.: 160x37x20 feet
Again we have for the altitude of the deep let the distance between a A be
;
load-line 160 feet, and the distance between a

length feet length feet
160 : 15 :: 180 : 16.88 b 37 feet likewise the distance be-
;
The result is, that the ship of 160 feet tween a c 20 feet, and the distance
long, 37 feet beam, and 20 feet hold, between a d 180 feet, the required
is enlarged by this increase to 180 feet length. We thus perceive that a is
long, 41 feet 7^ inches wide, and 22 the stern of the ship in both cases ; the
feet 6 inches hold, the load-line 16 feet ship turning on this point, A is the
I0g inches above the base-line. Thus bow of the ship before enlarged, and d
we discover, that though the principal afterward, b being distant from «, the
dimensions were increased scarcely 12 breadth of the vessel must of necessity
per cent., the actual tonnage has gained be 37 feet distant ; so with c, that hav-
30 per cent., for we discover the ton- ing a locality of 20 feet, the depth of
nage by the former dimensions to be hold from a represents the depth.
1246 tons, while that of the increased We will now suppose the scale by
dimensions amounts to 1774 tons. Al- which the draft or model to be en-
though this method of enlarging and larged is designed to be the one-six-
reducing bodies is in consonance with teenth of an inch; then we have, as
the principles of geometry, yet it would in Plate 13, the length, breadth and
be a tedious and almost discouraging depth shown upon this scale ; from A
task to reduce or enlarge a ship by drop a line square from the first, far
calculations. We shall present another meet another line running enough to
mode, as shown in Plate 13, as adapt- direct from a, distant from a ISO feet,
ing itself not only to ships, but to all which by the same scale is the distance
descriptions of vessels. Assuming a A required, or the length desired let a ;
the length of a ship to be enlarged second and third line be dropped from
a b will also be assumed to be the b the breadth, and c the depth, far
breadth, and a c the depth of the same enough to intersect the line last drawn,
vessel we will next assume a d to be the result will be that we are furnished
;
the length required we now want the with the new breadth in e, and the new
;
proportions that will furnish the pro- depth in /, which gives the same
portionate size and shape ; and in order breadth and depth as before, viz.: e 41
feet 7f, f 22 feet 6 inches; but this per scale, and squaring them down to
docs not stop here ; the proportionate the other scale we have the proportion-
breadth and depth of any line on the ate enlargement, whether the measure
ship may be determined. We should ment be length, breadth, or height.
not, however, forget that this scale is We have said that this method for
applicable only to lengths, breadths, or enlarging the draft %ill apply equally
depths; it does not apply to angular to contract the draft or model to small-
lines ; if angular lines are required, let er proportionate dimensions, which we
them be taken from the plan after en- will now endeavor to demonstrate.
larged, or let the angle be given, and We
have seen, that by squaring the
then strike a line in the projected plan length down at the bow, while the stern
below the base of enlargement at a stood fast, we increased the size as
corresponding angle if within 90 de- we descended in a continued ratio.
grees, if without 90 degrees angular Let us reverse the lines, and assume
measurements will not be required; the lower line to be the shortest, which
and indeed they cannot facilitate the it undoubtedly would be, if we squared
work to any considerable extent, inas- from below. Hence it will appear
much as the half or whole breadth manifest, that if we wished to reduce
may be applied from the tables of the the ship from ISO feet long to 160 feet
model to the scale base of the 160 feet long, would only be necessary to form
it
ship ; the breadth or half-breadth being an angle of 90 degrees below, one line
known, square the spot down to the intersecting the upper line in a, and
scale below of the 180 feet ship, and the other in A, the 90 degrees being
we have .all we want. The mode is only another name for a square and ;
simple in principle, and ready in prac- this theorem is equally true of any
tice,and can be applied by any me- other dimensions we may wish con-
chanic who can form a triangle oil a tracted or expanded; and in the ab-
sheet of drawing paper margined with sence of a better rule, it will apply to
a scale on two sides a piece of veneer- ; the enlargement or contraction of the
ing formed into a triangle square will spars of a ship, as we shall show in its
be found useful in squaring down the proper place.
breadths from one scale to the other. The methods used in England, and
It willbe perceived that the same re- indeed other parts of Europe, arc, in
lation is sustained throughout. We our judgment, less simple, but founded
take all measurements first on the up- upon the same fundamental principle"
of similar triangles. That our readers for example, the load-line depth above
may be able to judge for themselves of the base to be 10 and we require feet,
the feasibility of each, we will exhibit 12, we have but to measure 12 feet
one method shown by Mr. Fincham, (starting from the point where a per-
but not as clearly illustrated as it pendicular from the breadth at the
should have been, and will endeavor to dead-flat frame crosses the base-line)
make up the deficiency in our illustra- in the angular direction to load-line,
tion. that is to say open the dividers to 12
:
First find the relation that the length, feet, and placing the first leg at the
breadth and depth bear to each other point shown, and swinging the other
exaetlv. If the size is to be increased, leg from the perpendicular direction to
as in Plate 14, strike in the load water- the angular, until it meets the load-line,
line, as we have shown on page 43 mark the spot, and then draw a line
in the body-plan inasmuch as this from the point shown below to inter-
;
method, as far as heights and breadths sect this point, and continue up until it
are conjcerned, is derived entirely from intersects all the heights leveled out ;
the body-plan, the fourth frames of thus we have a triangle formed, two
which will be quite sufficient to furnish sides only of which are actual measure-
the proportions we require. This is not ments, viz., the perpendicular and the
all,however; there must be another angular; the level lines are only in-
plan from which to determine the pro- tended as connections, or as an index
portionate lengths, and this plan Mr. to refer from the height on one line to
Fincham has given, which is simi- its corresponding height on the other.
lar to that already given, but much It then follows, that increased heights
less clear. Hence it will be seen that are found on this angular line, and ap-
our only expositions will refer to the plied perpendicularly ; but this plan
body-plan. We assume that we applies to heights only another trian-
first ;
have the fourth frames of the body-plan gle must be projected for the breadths,
we wish to enlarge we have also the and is bounded by the middle-line ;it
;
water-lines stricken across the plan the base, and by the point before de-
we next carry out all the water and all signated, viz., the connection of the
the sheer-lines, or their heights, on each breadth-line with the base, and by the
frame ; we then are required to find the line to be obtained; at the intersect ion
third line of the triangle, that will fur- of the frames with the water-lines drop
nish the height we require. Suppose, perpendicular lines, that is, at every
crossing- of the water-line by the frame, their extension below the base-line at
lei si perpendicular fall, that from the right angles with that line : in this
dead-flat on load-line will be but a con- case, the right-angled corner is formed
tinuation of the half-breadth line; a outward, while before it was formed
line now extending from this line to inward. The water-lines are carried
the middle-line at base, and correspond- across the body-plan, and no farther in
ing in length with the breadth we re- a direct line; the intersections of the
quire, furnishes the angular line of this frames with the water-lines are dropped
triangle; and it will be at once per- no lower than the base-line. Hence it
ceived, that at every crossing of the is apparent, that the half-breadth line,
base-line, we have the former actual and the base-line forming the side of the
half-breadth of some frame on a given triangle, has the acute angular con-
water-line, and the angular line shows nection at each end, while each of the
those half-breadths as required, which other two sides of the triangles connect
may be seen by referring to Plate 14. with each other at one termination and
But by Mr. Fincham's rule (if we should form right angles, and at the other con-
apply the well-known adage, viz., that nect with the half-breadth and base-
it is a poor rule,) it icill not work lines respectively. Hence it follows,
both ways. that we have only to find the proper
If we wish to reduce the size or the and depth bear to
relation the breadth
dimensions of a vessel, we must pur- each other and from the outboard cor- ;
sue a different course from that shown ner of the body half-breadth, extend the
in the rule for enlarging. The water- half-breadth of the dead-flat frame an-
lines are carried no farther out than gularly inward ; the line at the same
the half-breadth line, from which line time forms an angle of 90 degrees, with
they shape a different course ; so alsoanother line running in the direction of
with their crossing the frames ; those and terminating at the connection of
points at which they cross extend and base-lines. in the
In like middle
one direction no farther than the base- manner the heights of water and sheer-
line. In the case of enlargement, the lines form a triangle kind of scale on
heights were shown to be at right an- the outside, or halt-breadth line. In
gles with the half-breadth perpendicu- the triangle of heights a parallel line is
lar, not only at the sheer, but at the extended from the half-breadth line to
water-lines. So also with the halt- the side of its diminished grade, on
breadths ; they were shown to be in which all the actual heights may be
seen, as in Plate 14. So also with the cally, or by geometrical rules, in the
half-breadths; they take theirdeparture United States? that is to say, is the
from the base-line, and ran parallel identical shape retained, notwithstand-
with the outer side of the triangle, ing the vessel is enlarged or diminish-
meeting the half-breadth side, in regu- ed? Whatever may yet be done in
lar order. Thus we see that the in- this particular in this country, we can
board side of the lower triangle shows only say that this has not yet been ac-
the half-breadths, and the lower side of complished, as far as our knowledge
the upper triangle shows the several extends. We are well aware that ves-
heights respectively, as shown in Plate sels are enlarged in a variety of ways,
14. The diminished length is obtained but let us inquire how? Is it not often
in the same manner as we have shown by adding to the number of dead-flat
in our own expositions. frames, and making the addition, or

The reader scarce needs a single the part added, at best little better than
word from us on the comparative mer- a box, and then wonder why a good
its of those two methods of enlarging modelled ship does not perform to our
and reducing- drafts or models, retain- entire satisfaction ? We have often
ing at the same time the same identi- heard men express their wonder and
cal shape. If the first method we have surprise at the tardy movements of a
described were adopted, we would not ship having greater length than another
hesitate to make the alteration on the of more lively motion and greater speed,
floor of the mould-loft after the vessel taking it for granted, that length was
was laid down. We, however, can every thing, let the shape be what it
scarcely conceive that such a contin- may.
gency would occur, unless it were de- We say, that when a ship or other
termined to increase or diminish the vessel is to be enlarged or diminished
size of the vessel after she was laid in size, let it be done in a systematic
down. We say, that in such case we manner throughout. There is enough
would not hesitate to enlarge or reduce of piecing and patching on old vessel-,
on the floor in the manner we have de- without commencing in the loft.
scribed, without either making another Many vessels have been spoiled be-
model or drawing a draft. We are tween the time of finishing the model
aware that vessels are often altered and that of making the moulds. There
from the model; but let us inquire is no difference in the operations oj
how ? Are they altered mathemati- enlarging or diminishing on the floor

30
of the loft, or on the draft; in the ment, as though the two models were
former ease, we use the common 12 not designed to be alike in any particu-
inch rule ; in the latter, the scale upon, lar. To take from or add to the length,
or by which the model is made. The breadth, or depth of a vessel after (he
operations are identically the same; building operations have commenced,
whatever and inches on the scale, and expect the same uniform results,
is feet
is the same on the rule and in con- is an anomaly in mechanical science

; ;
cluding the subject of enlargement and yet the practice prevails to a very great
reduction in the size of vessels, we will extent throughout the United States:
add, that it should never be inferred and ship-builders regard, as of little
tli at because the two ends of the ves- consequence, the addition of 10 feet,
sel is like the model, she will perform for example, all in dead-Mats, added to
much the same, though the middle be a ship, that it can make no sensible dif-
altered. We have known ships thus ference. We remember to have heard

built to be the most unwieldy hulks that some expressions of surprise, that two
could well be imagined and yet the vessels did not sail equally fast, steer
;
model, if built by, would have brought equally well, and were unable to carry
forward a fine working ship. It in- an equal amount of sail, when it was
creases the resistance in such man- notorious that they were exactly alike,
ner and ratio, that the builder can de- the one being only 3 or 4 feet longer
termine little in relation to it. The than the other ; it could not be in the
stability, it is true, may
and is verybe, vessels; it must of necessity be in work-
generally increased, and it is taken for ing the vessel. Thus the faults of the
granted that all other good qualities mechanic are packed on the sailor ;
increase in like ratio. Length in ships and sometimes when the mariner is at
and most other kind of vessels, we fault, the mechanic must bear the
readily agree is a most efficient quali- blame. An arrangement like we have
ty but let it go where it belongs let
; ; described very generally comes upon
it be distributed over the entire vessel the builder when he is least prepare
the greatest proportion in the middle, to meet the emergency. The ship is
or yet in the end, will not do; that is often required in four months, and the
to say : that we must not calculate on alterations are seldom thought of be-
the performance model is made, and afterwards
of a vessel thus al- fore the
tered from the original calculations, are made upon the floor with impunity.
without going into the second arrange- AY here the eye determines everything,
the difference cannot be discovered, in- tions along together as near as we

asmuch as it is a kind of guessing ope- could on the model, the floor, and the
ration throughout, —
and we would be draft not, however, by leaving either
quite as likely to go one side of the in a crude state both the draft and —
mark as the other. We are aware the floor delineations were carried
that we stand perhaps quite alone in through the second proof, or were first
this matter of enlarging- at random transferred to the floor from the tables,
;
but we had rather be alone, when con- faired in the rotundity of their longi-
scious of the right, than on the popu- tudinal planes, taken from thence and
lar side, and in the wrong. As we applied to the body-plan, the discrepan-
have doubtless made this subject suf- cies regulated in the body-plan, and the
ficiently clear in the preceding chap- corrections noted on the. floor, and the
ters, no farther expositions are re- water-lines again faired and made to
quired. correspond with the frames of the body-
We left the floor of the loft the sec- plan. This operation constituted the
—
onn time on page 183 having little first proof, and if the necessary care
more to do before entering upon the were taken in the performance of the
important duties of laying off the cants work, the ship woidd come to the rib-
and other important parts of the struc- bands easier than many vessels we have
ture, until the reasons were given for seen that had been carried through the
adopting the independent course we second proof with the aid of diagonals.
have taken in designing, as well as in The draft also was carried through the
laying off ships. It is not enough to several stages of advancement, and we
know how a thing is done, the why is now arc brought to the threshhold of an
often of equal consequence and to inquiry, what yet remains to be done
;
pursue the course others have done, upon the floor, before we are ready to
viz., to go into the loft and not leave it make moulds? We answer, more than
until the whole operation is performed, can be described on the remaining
we should judge would be much the pages of this chapter.
same as though the mechanic who We have carried the lines on the
was laying down the vessel was to con- floor through the usual test of their
tinue his work without reference to accuracy, and we may fairly assume
the vessel itself, either in size, space, that the ship is delineated in her full
or adjustment. size; and doubtless more might be

Having carried the several opera- learned by the casual observer of her
23C> MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE,
real shape from the floor now than at more general; and in order to accom-
any subsequent period, after a more plish this successfully, the spaces be-
copious effusion of lines has taken tween the timbers of adjoining frames,
place. The body has been faired by and those of the same frame, have been
horizontal sections, usually called wa- about equally divided, and the change
ter-lines vertical sections,
; usually has been atttended with beneficial re-
called section or buttock-lines and by sults. ;As a general rule, 'however*
oblique sections, usually called diago- the spaces between the timbers of the
nal lines. The sheer and half-breadth same frame is somewhat less than that
plans have been divided longitudinally between the adjoining frames; but for
into equal spaces the entire length of this inequality in room or space, we
the ship ; a section or part of each ex- are fully persuaded no substantial rea-
tremity has been set apart for the cants son can be assigned, inasmuch as tin;
or half-frames, standing diagonally from and the ventilation of the

fastening
the middle-line the remaining or midship is much better aceommodaU'd,
;
ship portion of the ship's frame will where the room between the timbers
1
stand at right angles with the middle- and the frames are equal, apart from
line, or square across the ship and it the advantage of having the plank more
;
might be supposed that it will only be equally supported. It will readily be

necessary to sweep in the frames with discovered, that to separate the timbers
pencil in the body-plan, and at once as has been described, will be to make
commence making two moulding edges to each frame,
moulds for the
square body. This practice is quite which if the ship has a number of dead-
common, but we will pause and inquire flat frames, would not alter their shape;
into the propriety of adopting it. We but just in proportion as we recede
have shown that a broad surface should from the dead -flat frame, will the
be presented to the timber, for the bet- moulding edges be found to disagree ;
ter distribution of the fastening, even and if we were to move both timbers
though it be at the expense of the of the frame from the station, equally
scantling size of the timber. These rea- divided on the base and middle-line, we
sons apply equally well to the frame should require a new division, or tli.it
composed of two timbers as to the sin- frame to be newly spaced. But the
gle futtock or timber ; but it has been necessity of this may be avoid(>d by al-
found to be advantageous to the ship lowing the floor, second and fourth fut-
to make the distribution of surface still tocks, with the half top-timber, to re-
main, and move the other half of the be at once perceived, reverses the bevels
frame the distance of the opening ; that of all the timbers in the fore-body, which
is to say — let the first futtoek, third makes the operation inconvenient, in-
fultock, and top-timber, be moved jnst asmuch as it subjects the operative to
the amount of the opening; if the the liability to mistakes, in consequence
floors face, or have their moulding-side of his having been accustomed to bev-
toward the dead-flat, both in the fore elling all the timbers of the same de-
and after-body, then the first futtoek nomination within or without the
will require to be moved aft in the fore- square, as the timbers upon which he
i)ody, and forward in the after-body may work may demand; in other
in this case, the first division of spaces words, workmen have been accustom-
should have furnished the dead- flat ed to bevelling all the floors under, and
frame with a larger space between it- all the first futtocks standing this is :
self and A, (or the first frame in the the result of facing all the floors to 0,
fore-body,) inasmuch as the other floors which frame also faces forward, being
have between their faces or moulding- in the after-body, or being usually re-
sides two timbers and two spaces, cognized as belonging to the after-body.
while by making two floors face to- With this arrangement, the face of the
gether, we bring two timbers and three floor is at the place or station at which
spaces into one berth hence it must
; the moulds are designed to be made ;
be quite apparent, that between <2> and whatever variation

and it follows, that
A we require more space on the keel, there may be in consequence of remov-

and, as a consequence, on the floor, bying the first futtoek and the timbers
just the amount of space the frames butting on above, from their proper
are designed to be apart, than that of place, or the place where their
mould-
any of the other square frames. We ing-edge was laid down, must belong
to
does
have known the frames of a ship to be the first futtoek. This variation
arranged equal distances apart, and all not amount to any very considerable
the floors to face forward but the lia-;
amount for pcrphaps 10 or 15 frames
bility to mistakes in bevelling the tim- from the dead-flat, when it becomes
bers is much greater when this and measures should
me- worthy of notice,
the discrepancy.
thod is adopted, for the following rea- be taken for removing
son — the floors in the fore-body bevel It is quite common
to make but one
for the entire square body

standing, while those of the after-body set of moulds
bevel under. This arrangement, it will of a ship ; that is to say — that the first
futtock mould is made by the line laid ry, with its face in the same place, and
down for the floor, and several inches the chock reduced, which
size of the
from the place where it properly be- brings the remaining part of the frame
longs: when the spaces are smaller nearer the place at which the mould
between the moulding-edges than be- was made, by just the amount of the
tween the frames, the discrepancy is reduction. Hence it is quite clear,
not as apparent but where they are that if the chock were 4 inches, and
;
equal, it amounts to enough to justify its reduction 2 inches on the floor, the
its removal. We have said that there other part of the frame above would be
was no substantial reason for making removed equal distances from the iiiu»
the spaces between the timbers less than at which the mould was made, inas-
those between the frames; and the only much as the face of the second futtock
reason is found in the desire to avoid would not be in line with the face of
the trouble of laving down the mould- the floor. This method, however,
ing-edge of the first futtock and the does not remove the difficulty it mere- ;
timbers butting upon it, and to save ly gets around it. The only way to
the increase of iron in the extra thick- effectually remove the difference is to
ness of the chocks. Whatever may be sweep in both edges that is to say ;
the thickness of the chock between whatever the thickness of the chocks
the timbers, it will seldom be necessary may be, set that distance oft* both in
to extend the two lines for the mould- the fore and after-body, each side of the
ing-edges to the dead-flat frame if, line representing the joint of the frame
;
however, the ship is quite round lon- on the floor. And now we will give the
gitudinally, we may perceive the varia- reason why the setting-off should take
tion extending to that frame. The cases place both sides, or each side of the
in which would occur, however, joint. It will be remembered that both
this
are rare, or at least they are not com- the fore and after-body are on the floor
mon. one on the other and, as a conse- ;
There is another method often quence, the same straight lines across
adopted, and with abundant success as those bodies are used as, and repre-
far as it goes, to avoid a discrepancy sent frames. It should also be remem-
in the moulding-edges, or to bring the bered that the two bodies face toward
moulding-edge of the departing timber each other, which brings the fore-body
back near its proper place. The floor first futtocks aft of the joint, while the
in this case as before remains stationa- after-body first futtocks are brought
forward of the joints; this of course proceed to take off the line facing the
makes three lines on the floor —the first floor, and at the opposite side of the
for the face of the floor, the second chock, its thickness determining the
and fourth futtocks, while the forward distance. If we take off the after-body
line belongs to the first futtocks of the first, we take the lines forward of the
after-body, likewise those timbers above, centre,and may try some of the frames
viz., the third futtock and top-timber. immediately in the vicinity of the dead-
The lines aft of the joint represent frame.
amounts to
flat If the variation
the first and third futtocks and top- anything, or if space enough is left
timber joints of the fore-body. The between the lines to distinguish them
frames may now be taken off on the apart, we may take them off with
original joint of the frame, or the mid- care from the half-breadth, and apply
dle-line of the three, which represents them in the body-plan, but remember-
the floor, second and fourth futtocks, ing to mark or distinguish them by a
and being taken from the half-breadth different color ; that is to say — if the
plan, may be applied and swept in the first line were blue, or a lead-pencil
square body-plan of each body with line, let this be a red chalk line, and
pencil or red chalk, on account of the made with an equal amount of care,
liability to lose the lines if of white as fine and as clear as may be when
;
chalk, there being so much trampling the after-body is swept in the man-
on the lines in making the moulds as ner described, we may proceed to the
to render it necessary to have the lines fore-body in the same manner, but with
marked with an enduring mark; this this exception — in the after-body we
precaution is, however, not necessary took off the line forward of the original
for all parts of the work. Great care joint, but in the fore-body we take off
should be taken to get the batten per- the line aft of the middle or line show-
fectly fair, and to mark it the same, ing the station of the floor ; in other
with a fine and distinct line ; this part respects the operations are the same,
of the work being done, we have
and require an equal amount of care.
the
lines for the floor-mould in both bodies, It will doubtless be at once discovered,
likewise the second futtock, fourth fut- that the moulds should not all be made
tock and half top-timber. We have by either of those lines the former is ;
in this example taken the middle-line designed, as we have stated, for the
for both bodies; that is, for both the floor, second futtocks. fourth futtocks,
fore and after-body. We may now and all the timbers that butt on the
floor-side of the frame. As -we have the order of Framing changed on the
is
also stated, this practice is rarely ad- floor frames: the timber boxing in or
hered to the entire length of the square across is the floor or short timber,
body, and to avoid the eost or trouble that is to say, short on each side : bill
of doing this, the ehocks are often made on these box frames, the timber box-
thinner than they would otherwise be. ing into the dead-wood is the long tim-
With the arrangement as we have de- ber, or first futtock ; and this is the
scribed in the distribution of timber, the same as the cants. But although llii>
ship is not only actually stronger, but arrangement is quite common, we can
nearer the shape she was designed to discover no good reason for the change:
be. when there has been carelessness in tin
We have thus carried our readers loft, and an equal amount in framing,
through the operations of the floor in perhaps the change is an advantage.
relation to the square body of the ship, in consequence of the liability to diffi-
or those frames that have floors ap- culty with the heel against the side of
pended to them, and stand at right an- the dead-wood, when the frame goes
gles with the keel. It is sometimes up with both heel timbers on in such ;
the case, however, that it is not neces- cases the short timber is left oft", and
sary to commence the canting of the put up afterwards. Another reason,
frames, and yet the frame has so much however, is usually assigned, which is
rise that ; —
we cannot obtain floors this this that the frame is rendered strong-
may be known before the cants are er by boxing in the longer timber this ;
laid down, and the arrangements made we regard as a mooted point, and shall
accordingly. Such are called box leave its settlement in the mind of the
frames, and would be framed and boxed, builder, being satisfied in our own mind
or morticed into the dead-wood at their that it is of no material consequence,
heels, in the same manner whether the long or the short timber
as the cants,
but still stand thwartship, or at right is boxed into the dead-wood. This
angles with the keel. These frames may should be remembered, that the timber
be, and are sometimes found on each that stands fast on the floor of the loft.
end of the ship at the same time, or on is the floor-side of the frame, remain-
both ends of the same ship although ing stationary, while the first futtock
;
box frames are properly square frames, side of the frame moved the thickness
yet they may with propriety be classed of the chock ; on the box francs we
among the cants, for these reasons may box in which we please. These
frames are equally as strong as cant the square body-plan on the floor of the
frames, and sufficiently so for their lo- mould-loft, believing that the subject
has been made clear to every discern-
cation, if properly fastened to the dead-
woods at their heels. There are sel- ing mechanical mind. In taking off
dom more than two of these frames at the frames from the half-breadth to
each end of the ship, and only where apply and sweep in the body-plan,
to,
little cant is required to fill the open- we should work by the diagonal lines,
ing above. The heels of the timbers inasmuch as they come nearer at right
of these frames end at the bearding- angles with the shape of the frame,
line, and have no connection with the even though taken off horizontally,
line showing the seats of the floor, as and the nearer square, measurements
seen in Plate 8. are taken, the more likely to be cor-
We have but one other exposition rect.
to give in this . liapter in relation to
31
CHAPTER VIII.
Cants by Water Lines — Cants by Diagonals— Square Stern, witbout stern frame — Its Advantages —Stern
Frame — Instruction Building them —Making Moulds.
for
We have shown in a previous chap- plan. Our remarks on expansion may

ter that the square frames do not ex- be referred to with advantage to the
tend the entire length of the vessel un- reader, even though he may have built
less she is very sharp, like some of the ships. The distribution of the timber .
steamboats running
running on the Hudson on the ends of the ship, is a matter of
River ; we have shown the reason some moment, both with respect to
also
for adopting the system of cant frames economy and strength.
in this country some fifty years ago The disposition of cant timbers or
and although we invited the reader to frames may be familiarly illustrated by
follow us in taking off the tables from the swinging of a door upon its hinges,
the square frames extending the entire Avith this exception : the door is con-
length of the ship, yet we had no in- hanging upon an immoveable
tinually
tention of making moulds by the frames axis, while each cant has its own axis.
swept on the floor to the entire ex- Assuming a door to be open to an an-
tremity of the ship hence the reason gle of 90 degrees, which is square from
;
of our setting apart a space at each the partition upon which it is hung,
end of the ship for cant frames, as shown while in this position it represents a
on Plate 3, and on Plate 7. The judg- square frame, the line of partition re-
ment of the builder must determine the presenting the keel. Let the quadrant
number of cant frames required, and or quarter circle formed by the outer
the angle of obliquity they form with edge of the door be divided into as
the middle -line, or side of the keel. many parts as there are cants ; now
This obliquity must increase as we ap- close the door to the first division, and
proach the extremities, and still meet we have the angle the door forms with
the varying form of the ship. that part of the partition to which the
The disposition of these frames may door is hung, that the first cant does
be seen in Plate 16, in the half-breadth with the keel from forward. The same
may be and every other one ing the heel six or eight inches out-
said of any
of those divisions when we have the side of the hinges open the door as at
; ;
stern frame in the ship, we do not cant first to 90 degrees from the partition
as far, but when we have a round or or square mark a line on the floor ;
square stern, without stern frame, we nearly parallel with the partition, that
cant the whole number of degrees the is to say let the widest part be at the—
quadrant or quarter circle contains. edge of the door when open, and taper
Many persons have thought that the as the side of a ship would taper, to-
canting of frames must of necessity ward a line squared out from the edge
swing them from a perpendicular line of the door when shut. We may di-
on the dead-wood now suppose we vide the sill of the door into as many
;
examine and find that the door was parts as the circle has been, when we
plumb on both edges, or at the hinges, have the whole mystery of cant frames
and at edge upon which the lock is illustrated. We discover that the door,
placed, we now mark a parallel line although it will fill out from the hinges
eight inches from the hinges toward to the circle at any angle, yet we may
the- outer edge; let us open and shut shift the axis to any of the settings-off
the door, trying the line on the same, corresponding to those of the circle,
in the different parts of the circle, we and we shall see that the edge of the
shall find that in any position we may door will not reach the line represent-
find the door, the line will still be ing the side of the ship. Hence it is
plumb. Now it is just so with regard plain, that although the ship is grow-
to the keel ; although the axis of the ing narrower the farther aft we go,
cant is any given yet the frames require to be longer, on
at the centre, yet at
distance from the centre the cant on account of the increased cant, that is
the dead-wood is square, while the to say the canting increases their—
dead-wood or its sides are plumb and length faster than the diminishing of the
;
if they are not plumb, they should be. side shortens them, which would be the
Hence we say emphatically, that all case were they square frames.
cants should be square from the base- The wonder we think must cease
line but we may illustrate something when the subject is fully considered in
;
more by the door. We have seen that the manner we have described. Eu-
all lines that ropean authors have confused lie sub-
are parallel to the axis t
are plumb; but now let us mark out ject of cants or canting frames by con-
the form of a frame on the door end- necting so many lines with the process
of instruction. The mystery of cant straight lines; they may also be seen
frames is not as great as their exposi- in the sheer-plan, but are not neCesr
tions would seem to indicate, (judging some more than or-
sarily so, unless in
from the number of lines made use of dinary cases. We may show their shape
or employed in the operation.) They in the body-plan, or we may make a
first endeavor to show us how to lay cant plan on a separate part of the floor,
off cants by what they term level lines, as shown in the draft, Plate 7. It is
or lines running parallel to the base- seldom, however, that this is rendered
line and again, by a second set of lines necessary, inasmuch as the body-plan
;
they term water-lines, as though all is sufficiently large to keep the cant
linos, whether running parallel to the within the square frame under ordinary
keel or to the surface, were not water- circumstances, or when we have a stern
lines. We would like to know what frame. Hence we discover that it is
need there is to make a distinction in more convenient to use the square body
lines that should be exactly alike, par- when we can. In cases where we de-
un- termine to have no stern frame, and
ticularly in illustrating this subject,
less it be to confuse the mind of the yet have a square stern, we would re-
reader. We have endeavored to divest commend a separate plan for the cants,
the subject of everything that is not as shown on the draff, Plate 7. It
absolutely necessary to illustrate the must be remembered, that in laying off
matter fully. the cant frames, the side line, although

It is true we will show the manner seemingly a fictitious line, is really the
of laying off the cants, both by water- size of the keel in the direction in which
lines and by diagonals, but this is ne- it is shown ; and that we require a dif-
cessary, inasmuch as vessels may be ferent side line for every cant. Thus
built without the use of diagonals, al- we perceive that we have no connec-
though a valuable acquisition in the tion with the original side line used for
loft for the purpose of proving frames ; the square frame, inasmuch as we
and again, in have shown by the similitude of the
the third series of lines
we shall show the advantages of laying door, that although the side tapers as
off cants, by the section or buttock- we approach the stern, the frames con-
lines, as they are sometimes called. tinue to extend farther out as we con-
As we have before said, we must dis- tinue to cant them more. It is even
'
pose of the cants first in the half- so with the side line, in one particular,
breadth plan, where they are seen as at least ; the exception may be found in
the parallel thickness of the keel. The around, cause the lines to rise on the
ending of a cant is somewhat analo- frame, in order that their proper height
gous to the ending a diagonal line may be obtained. The sheer-lines are
swung off as we have shown ; the va- found to be higher on the cants than
riation is found in the direction, or the on the square frames on both ends of
angle upon which the keel is measured ;
the ship, inasmuch as the bow and stern
and although some of the cants may are both higher than their respective
extend outside the square frames, it square frames the consequence of ;
should not surprise the inquirer. this rise makes it necessary to square
The practice of drawing drafts and up from the half-breadth plan the cross-
of building ships with a drag-line in ing of the cant on every sheer-line re-
Europe, has seemed to envelop the spectively; in other words, in the half-
subject of cant frames in mystery, or breadth plan, where the cant crosses the
at least the subject has been made first breadth ; take the distance of that
much darker to the mind of the learner spot from the last square frame, and
than it would otherwise have been ; carry that distance up to the sheer-
we mean by the dragline greater plan, and mark on the first height the
draught of water aft than forward, the same distance, so of every other cant
consequence of which is, that the load- and sheer-line ; the crossing being no-
line is not parallel to the base-line, and ted in the sheer-plan, the heights may
the water-lines form a curved line in be taken on the respective cant frames,
the body-plan, and, consequently, the and carried to the body-plan, and be-
lines on the cants alter their heights ing lined across as in the case of square
;
which adds to the complexity of the sub- frames, the body-plan is prepared for
ject. This practice has been abandoned he half-breadths. In drawing the dra ft
t
in the United States, or at least in the it is usual to square up the crossing of

general sense, and, as a consequence, the water-lines to the sheer-plan, that
the lines are found to be parallel to the is to say —the spot where the cant
base-line. In view of this arrangement, frame in the half-breadth crosses the
it must be quite clear, that in swinging water-line is squared up to the same
the cant around from the position of a line in the sheer-plan, where its cross-
square frame, the lines neither rise or ing is also marked; the crossing of the
fall, that is —
the water-lines on the bow side line by ihe cant is also squared up
do not find a lower place on the frame, to the sheer-plan, and marked on the
neither do the after cants, when swun# bearding line; a batten applied to
these several spots will show the square tances from the centre or side-line.
view of the cant frame this line, how- To this objection we answer, that it
;
ever, is seldom required in its full length would be an easy matter to mark a
on the floor of the mould loft, although parallel or plumb line on the mould at
it not unfrequently occurs that some the sirmarks, and we have all we re-
one or more of the spots are required quire the advantage of such an ar-
;
for the purposes of proof, &c. rangement to the ship would be more
We have shown the manner of than an equivalent for the trouble.
striking in the cants in the half-breadth, In a former chapter we have shown
that the openings be regulated on the top- another manner of disposing of the sur-
side, or on the first breadth, and that plus timber below on the cant frames,
there be sufficient room for the heels by substituting a single timber for the
against the dead-wood. If the ship be frame. This would be much better than
full, we are apt to crowd so many cants the present method ; but in either case,
in, that the heels require to be tapered, the chocks between the timbers of the
whereas had the ship been sharper, we frame should not be dispensed with,
might have had a sufficiency of room. and we may make the chocks to taper
It would be better to have room enough or parallel as we please. If we adopt
for the heels to be kept apart, even the chock, we must line their thickness
though we had to put in more timber in the half-breadth plan, and proceed in
above. It is even more essential that the same manner to take them off that
cant frames should be kept apart by we did the square frames. When we
the introduction of chocks than square took off the half-breadths in the square
frames. It is quite recently that chocks body, we applied the batten on the line
have been introduced between the showing the frame we do the same in
;
moulding edges of cant frames, although this case, by applying the end of the
it has been practised in Europe, but not batten to the middle -line : the batten
to any considerable extent but we ; extending along the line showing the
say, that the chocks should be thicker moulding edge or joint of the frame
at the head than at the heel of the spotting on the batten, the line we de-
frame, making the distribution more sire to take off; this is applied to the
equal. It may be objected to, on the body-plan in precisely the same man
ground that a tapered chock would be ner that a square frame would be.
difficult to fit, inasmuch as the thick- This operation must be performed on
ness is only parallel at parallel dis- each side of the chock, and the frames
may be swept in with pencil and red sarily so, unless we so determine, as we
chalk, to distinguish them as in the ex- shall show in the proper place ; we
ample of the square frames. will add, however, that it is not a cant
In arranging the cants in the half- frame, but belongs to the stern frame,
breadth plan, there are two things to although its location must be shown
be considered, both in the forward and before we can arrange the cants that ;
after-body, in addition to the ordinary is —

if we determine upon the usual size
size of openings ; and although the and mode of building it. Thus much
subject we are about to introduce has for the interruption on the stern or
found its way into separate chapters after-end of the ship.
and articles by cotemporary writers The remainder of our remarks were
upon this subject, yet we believe it re- reserved for the bow of the ship, al-
quires a notice in this place, inasmuch though the forward cant in the fore-
as it is immediately connected with the body is not confined in the maimer the
division of the cants in the half-breadth fashion piece is in the after-body, yet
plan. For example, the stern frame it has a connection that worthy of is
is immediately connected with the our notice, inasmuch as the opening

cants, inasmuch as the after cant tim- on the rail may lead us to suppose that
ber forms the boundary line of the stern we may equalize the division between
frame, and is commonly known by the the frames. This need not be done.
name of fashion piece ; the moulding- There are other timbers that have a
edge of this timber defines the length place in, and form a part of the bow,
of all and if we adopt the heels of which are cut off by the
the transoms ;
the prevailing custom of canting the side of the forward cant hence it must ;
frames but little, the fashion piece not be inferred that the cants are de-
would have a place on the side of the signed to fill the entire space unoccu-
ship, as also the end of the main tran- pied by the square frames ; the knight-
som, some few inches of which is heads and hause-pieccs heeling against
usually shown on the first breadth, or the forward cant, admonishes us that
about half of its size on the end. With a portion may be reserved to advan-
these remarks before him, we think the tage for those timbers, a detailed ac-
pupil will be better qualified for divid- count of which will be found in this
ing the half-breadth of the after-body. chapter. With these distributive re-
We have said that the fashion piece marks relative to the cants, we proceed
was a single timber ; it is not neces- without delay to the continuation of
the taking off process. It is assumed with the joint of the frame ; the size
that the lines are rendered perfectly of the timber is then set off from the
fair before we
begin to take off the joint each way, both forward and aft,
cants, having been proved by the water, and the half-breadths taken off a sec-
diagonal, and section-lines, in connec- ond and third time, and applied in the
tion with the continued square frames body-plan; that is to say —
from this
that were extended to the extremities. square line the batten is applied on
Hence it only remains to take off the each of the last two lines representing
cant frames, or their distances on the the bevelling edges of the timber. It
cant from the middle-line to the re- follows, as a consequence, that one line
spective lines, and set off in the body will come within the moulding-edge,
or cant plan in the same manner as ap- and the other without; we may ex-
or
plied in the square body. press it different — one line will come
In this exposition of the cant frames, and the other forward of the joint;
aft
it may not be necessary to go as fully that is to say —

the one will bevel stand-
into the various modes of obtaining ing and the other under, for this rea-
the bevels of the cants, as in the re- son it will be observed, that this me-
:
marks connected with the cants by di- thod is virtually trying a square across
agonals. In the half-breadth plan the the frame, to see the amount of bevel
practice has become quite prevalent of given by the gathering in of the lines.
setting off the size of the timber each It may be thought by the reader, as it
side of the joint or moulding-edge, as has been often expressed by the in-
shown in Plate 15. In this case, to the quirer, why not apply the square in the
line showing the joint of the frame half-breadth plan, and avoid all, or a
when there is no chock, (as we have portion of this work, by taking the
said chocks in the cant frames are difference from a square within or with-
of recent date in the United States,) out, and applying the same to the bevel-
a square is applied to this line showing ling board, so many lines might be saved,
the joint in the half-breadth, the stock and thus the liability to mistakes pre-
with the line, and extending to the vented ? We have often listened, or at
intersection with the middle-line. At least more than once, to questions like
this junction the tongue of the square the foregoing; and if the reader will be
is first one way and then the other, or quiet, w e will tell him in a few words
r
first up and afterwards down this, of the objections to his proposed plan of
;
course, makes a line at right angles taking off the bevellings.

It is well known to those who have this will be the bevel, as in Plate 15;
worked out a ship's frame, that the only thus it must be apparent, that if the
correct method of applying the bevel spots are carefully made, and as care-
is, that of placing- the stock as near at fully applied, there can be no doubt the
right angles with, or square from the spots will furnish a fair line in the body-
moulding-edge as may be, the tongue plan, and the bevel can be taken off
will then incline neither way and if a anywhere at any spot we please, re-
;
square were applied to the tongue from membering that by this method, as in-
the face of the timber, it would be deed all methods from the body-plan,
found to hang down at right angles when the white chalk line is inside
with the face. It is also well known that the black or red line showing the mould-
if the heel of the stock be turned either ing-edge, the bevel is under, when with-
way, or in either direction, the true out, the bevel is standing, and where
bevel cannot be applied without much they cross each other, there isno bevel,
trouble ; and we may safely say, that the timber is square. We are aware
for general purposes, it is not correct. that we arc departing from the usual
Hence it follows, that the bevel to be course in bevelling cants, before having
taken correctly, and applied equally so, even proved them, but we are also
must be taken square from the mould- aware that the stiff stereotyped custom
ing-edge, and this can only be done in of European Naval Architects, has
the body-plan that is to say
; —
no one prevented the young and inquiring as
set of lines running longitudinally will pirant from holding the thread of rea-
cut all the frames at right angles ; al- soning their pages contain ; hence the
though the diagonals come much near- reason why we have followed up with
est, yet they are not reliable to furnish the bevels, believing that one will as-
the bevels in the manner we have sist to explain the other.
shown, or in the direction of the line. We think enough has been said re-
The lines in the body-plan showing the manner of taking oft' the
lative to the
bevelling edges of the timbers, may, cants by water-lines we may or may ;
and indeed should be swept in with not prove them, as we please: they are
while chalk. Then there need be no not generally taken off by water-lines,
mistakes ; the two inner lines show, the and when they are, they should lie
oik! proved by section-lines; particularly
the moulding, the other bevelling
edge, and whatever the one falls with- the after-cants. We have shown the
in the other, when measured square. manner of squaring up the crossing of
32
the water and sheer-lines by the frames, asmuch as the cross-seam intercepts
and of sweeping the curve by those all intercourse between the section and
spots this is termed the thwartship sheer-lines in the after-body, we need
;
view, or the actual shape presented to no farther proofs above the outer sec-
the eye when abreast the station of tion-line, because the round of the side
the cant on the keel. We have said on the breadths or longitudinally, is so
that it was not necessary sweep small that it can hardly be imagined
to
them in on the floor, and only on the that any discrepancy should exist, it
draft; we may add, that if we would proper care has been taken in the trans-
show the cants as swept by water-lines fer.
in the manner described, and proved It may be fairly assumed that enough
by section-lines, we cannot well dis- has been said in connection with the
pense with those thwartship views in illustrations given, to make the subject
the sheer-plan. The manner of prov- of cant frames by water-lines sufficients
ing the cants by section-lines is not ly clear to the thinking-man ; and we
complicated ; the section-lines have now enter upon the duty of giving ex-
been shown in the sheer-plan in Plate upon another method of de-
positions
4, where they cross the frames, as lineating cant frames upon the floor,
shown in the square view there the and upon the draft, which we think we
;
height must be taken and applied to hazard nothing in assuming to be more

the same frame, and on the same sec- practical. We have already explained
tion-line in the body-plan. The man- the position and angle of cant timbers
ner of running the section-line in the in the three plans, viz., sheer, half-
halt-breadth body and sheer-plans, has breadth, and body-plans. We would

been explained on page 136, and on- here remind the reader of a striking
ward or as we have before remarked, feature, to which we have referred in
;
that if the spots only are necessary, the cant timbers — it is well known that in
line need not be run in to exhibit this square frames if the frame were cut by
cross view in the sheer-plan. We are the line furnished in the sheer-plan and
aware that more on the floor than half-breadth plan, that it would show
lines
is absolutely necessary, is objectiona- the actual shape of the frame, anil yet
ble. We may apply this proof by tak- the line would be a straight line in both
ing the height on every frame, and on plans. This, as we have observed, is
every section-line, and if they agree, not the case with cant frames; they
they are correct, without doubt. In- cannot by any possible means exhibit a
straight line in the sheer-plan. The the batten horizontal, and moving it up
eye, assumed, moves no faster than or down, until the spot we have taken
it is
tin* stations on the side-line would re- from the half-breadth intersects the
quire,which would be 90 degrees, or diagonal, and at the same time the end
square from the keel hence it is plain, of the batten is at the middle-line, mark
;
that although this position would ex- this intersection horizontally across the
hibit a straight line in the square body, diagonal, and several inches outward;
the canting must form a curved line in we then take the batten again to the
the sheer-plan ; and the greater the half-breadth plan, and apply it in the
cant, the more curvature will be shown direction of the cant along the straight
in the sheer-plan. This matter of ex- line showing the frame ; the end of the
hibiting the form of cants on the floor, batten as before at the middle-line,
is rarely attended to ; but on the draft mark the crossing at the same identi-
the principle of canting cannot be fully cal spot on the floor we had before on
explained, unless attended to. Lest by the batten, the only difference being in
dividing of the half-breadth (or that the place of the heel against the mid-
portion set apart for cant frames) into dle-line ; take the batten again to tin;
double sections to admit of chocks be- body-plan, and apply it in the same
tween the timbers, we should confuse place as before. It will be discovered
rather than instruct, we will first lay that the spot on the batten extends
them though the moulding sides farther out-board than before; mark
off as
were to come together. We must first this spot last taken on the line we made
observe the crossing of the diagonal by when here first ; this spot is the actual
the cant we arc about to take oft. It breadth when the cant is in its place.
will be remembered that the diagonal The first breadth taken is the actual
line in the body-plan forms a straight half-breadth of the ship at the station
line ; we must take oft' the cant from of the cant on the side, or square from
the spot where the crossing takes place that point, on a lint! running into the
to the middle-line square, so that the and square with the same.
middle-line,
distance from the place of crossing to The operation we have shown in list be
the middle-line will be shorter than any performed with every diagonal line.
other direction we could possibly find ;
The philosophy of this operation is as
this, as a consequence,' will be square. follows — the diagonal in the body-plan
We will now apply this to the body- takes its starting point from the mid-
plan in the same manner, by holding dle-line; hence it follows, that inas-
much as the stations of cants are square lines. Having shown the manner of
from the base-line in the sheer-plan, it obtaining the form of the moulding-
follows t hat the diagonal must have the edge of the cant frame without the
same application, or bear the same re- chock, we may proceed to delineate
lation to the cants, so that when we the manner of performing the same
apply the diagonal to the cant frame, with the chock.
they are or should be understood as It will be remembered, that in our
being both in line perpendicularly from arrangements for the admission of the
the base-line, and at the proper station chock in the square body, the original
on the side-line, or side of dead-wood. line at which the floor was placed was
Now it must be quite apparent, that permitted to stand or remain unmoved,
as the cant is swung aft on the stern, while the moulding-edge of the first
or forward on the bow, we bring the futtock was removed its proper distance
station of the cant to a part of the ship from the floor. The same or a similar
where the diagonal is higher than if arrangement will apply to the cants ;
the frame was square not only so, the moulding-edge we have laid down
;
but the ship is narrower at this new may remain, and the thickness of the
breadth and we shall discover that the chock may then be set off, inasmuch as
;
farther aft in the after cants we pro- it is the custom to reverse the order of
ceed, the greater will be the difference the cants from which we shall discov- ;
between the two breadths, viz., the er that the line we already have in the
canted and the square breadth. All cant body-plan is the first futtock. The
the diagonals being taken off, we may thickness of the chock may now be
square np the crossing of the sheer- shown by another line being stricken
lines on all the cants up to the sheer- in the half- breadth plan, aft (if in
plan ; transfer the height so obtained the after-body) of the original line
to the middle-line of the body-plan, they may be tapering or parallel, as we

through which point draw a level line. please and the same operation may
;
In the half-breadth plan take the dis- again be performed in transferring the
tance; in the direction of the cant tim- form of this line also to the body-plan.
ber from its intersection with the sheer- These two lines are the moulding-edges
line to the middle-line ; apply this hull- of the cants, and may be distinguished
breadth on the height to which it be- by the color of the marks upon the floor
longs in the body-plan, and continue and upon the moulds. We now want
the same operation on all the sheer- to determine the bevel, inasmuch as (he
bevelling edge of cants, or the amount ber of the same frame at the same sir-
of bevel they require, may and should mark. Now suppose the siding size of
be determined at the same time ; or in the timber to be 10 inches, it must be
other words, one follows the other. In apparent that we could not accomplish
our delineations of the performance of our purpose of obtaining the bevel of
this part of the work by water-lines, both timbers by taking all the bevel of
we squared a line across the joint of the one timber, and reversing this bevel
the frame at its connection with the for the other timber of the same frame
middle-line ; this line extended the sid- and at the same sirmark. Hence it
ing size of the timber, both above and will be observed, that the smaller the
below, or aft and forward. This we distance taken across the line, the near-
described as the custom very generally er will the bevel apply to the opposite
adopted. We our expositions limber of the frame when reversed.
shall in
of this part by diagonals pursue a some- Thus we may observe, that six inches
what different course. At the conflu- may be adopted instead often from the
ence of the joints with the middle-line, moulding-edge, or face side of the tim-
we may square up, but not down, as ber, (and we have applied this method
we have no occasion for crossing the to vessels where even three inches were
middle-line. We may now apply a an abundance,) the smaller the circum-
•
straight ed»e across the timber, or its ference of the curve, the smaller tin-
space on the floor square from the space required for reversing the bevel.
;
joint of the same, or the straight line It will be observed, that this method,
—
showing it selecting the roundest part although far preferable to the one he-
of any of the lines in the end of the fore delineated, in connection with
ship in which we are at work. The cants by water-lines, is only applicable
object of this operation is where there are no chocks, or where
to determine
how far across the frame it would be the chocks are small. The nut hod
safe to take a bevel, in order that the we have referred to is not confined to
same may be reversed and apply equal- water-line cants, but is equally applica-
ly well to both timbers. It is quite ble here. Having found at what dis-
evident, that if the straight ei\ge were tance from the face the bevel may he
carried or applied the whole siding size taken, in order that it may be reversed,
of the timber, and if the bevel this we may strike up a parallel line to the
would furnish were reversed, it would joint line. As we before remarked, the
not be at all adapted to the opposite tim- distance is consequent upon the bevel
when reversed, as the design is that ever the rising of the diagonal as wc
the bevel shall apply equally well to approach the centre may be, it must
both timbers of the frame. If for ex- be noted, and the sirmark raised ac-
ample, the frame upon which we are cordingly. Thus we discover thai each
determining the bevel, be in the after- setting-off as a hall-breadth must be
body, it follows that we are determin- applied to its own sirmark. When wc
ing by the bevel taken from the forward have found a distance that will furnish
timber say six inches from the face ;

not only the bevel of the timber from
that is to say : how much bevel has which it was taken, or for the halt-
the forward timber, provided it was frame to which it belongs, but being
sided but six inches ? This being de- reversed, will apply equally well to the
termined, set the bevel to the amount opposite timber, we may take off as
apply it to the timber, or to its space described, first the rise of the sirmark,
on the floor, which is the same thing which must be carried out level in the
;
ascertain how much it would take off body-plan, then the half-breadth on
the forward or bevelling edge ; reverse this level line ; the bevelling edges may
the bevel, and apply it to the space that be swept in the body-plan with white
would be occupied by the after timber ; chalk; after which, a bevelling-board
and if it woidd require more to be taken may be prepared to the size or width
off the bevelling edge than off the for- we have determined upon, as the given
ward timber, or less, we evidently bevel distance in which the bevel is obtained.
too much or too little on the forward We may remark, that in all probability
timber ; that is to say: six inches is this would in no case be less than two
too much, or not enough. We may and a half inches, or more than six.
thus arrange or adjust the bevel by The larger the vessel, that is, at the
applying the straight edge in several same time full, the nearer we approach
places or parts of the body in which the latter size or number, while on the
we may be at work. other hand, the small full sloop or
It should not be forgotten to apply schooner would not require more than
the batten both ways in taking off the two and a half inches. The principle
bevelling edges from the half-breadth lies just here —the mean of a given dis-
plan, in the same manner that we did tance on the circumference of a barrel-'
the moulding-edge, inasmuch as this hoop will be more than on that of a hogs-
edge, or the assumed six inches requires head-hoop in the same distance. This-
its ov\ n sir mark on the diagonal what- : seems to be paradoxical at the first
glance, inasmuch as the quick curve their proper places, like the draft; they
requires but a small setting-off; and treat all frames alike, keeping them all
yet a vessel still fuller may require less. on a plane; hence it is important that
This is very possible on account of the those discrepancies should be noted and
great difference in the size of the ves- attended to.
sels. On the small vessel the timber Having shown the manner of laying-
may be sided only six inches, while on down the cants by diagonals, and pre-
the large shipmay be sided ten
it inches paring the bevelling-board, we will next
or more. Thus it will be seen, that if notice the manner of taking off the
we took as much for the small vessel, bevelling of the cants. It will be ob-
though even round than the lines served, that we take the bevel from
less
of the large ship, we would have the the after timber of the frame if in the
whole size of the timber. There can fore-cant body-plan, and from the for-
no rule be given that will apply in every ward timber if in the after-cant body.
case the judgment must determine Hence it is quite clear that whether
;
the distance to be taken, let the dis- the bevel be standing or under, it is the
tance be what it may. The be veiling- timber we have described, and is known
board must be of the same width, hav- by the body it is in, whether forward
ing the diagonals and sheer-lines in the or aft; and if it be the forward timber
cant as well as square body-plan ; they of the after-body, and bevels standing
are equally as applicable for sirmarks as they usually do, it then also follows
or bevelling spots, and may be marked that its mate or the opposite timber of
on the moulds, remembering that the the frame bevels under and if we car- ;
mould is to be made to the blue or red ry out the same order in the bevels that
line, and that the spot where the level is usually carried out in the futtocks,
line crosses the moulding-edge is the viz., to reverse them, as we have shown
sirmark to be marked on the mould we may apply the bevel from the left
;
the diagonal is found to be(the distance hand, or what is the same thing, take
between the line levelled out, showing off the opening between the red or blue
the same as it now is,)above its former and white line, and apply it on the right
place caused by swinging the frame of the board, when it is placed square
round from a square, or consequent before us, cither above or below a
upon the frame having been swung square line, as the bevel may demand.
round to its place. Thus the floor we If the white line is without, the bevel
perceive will not regulate the frames to is standing from a square the whole
25G MARINE AND NAVAL ARC H ITE CT D RE.
space between the lines and the same cants, there will be but six bevels un-
amount under: if as much within a der each ofthose heads. The bevel <>f
square, these bevels may be transferred the heel of the timber against the dead-
to a wider board for use in the yard, wood is taken from the hall-breadth
and in this case, it will be readily per- plan by applying the stock of the bevel
ceived, that we require but one board bv the straight showing the cant,
line
in the place of two: the same board while the tongue was applied againsl
that shows standing- bevels when taken the side line, which represents the dead-
wood. If we have tapered chocks, we
1
from the left hand, will show under

bevels when taken from the right. One must see that the bevel is taken from
of the principal advantages of this mode the moulding-edge, because that being
(is the spacing off the body-plan on the face of the timber, is the side on
but a single side, and reversing the which it is applied.
bevel for the opposite timber,) is found The subject of bevelling the cants
in our having but one bevelling board being finished, we may find this an ap-
for the fore-body, and another for the propriate place for giving expositions
after-body; while by the former method of the manner of bevelling the square
of laying down the bevel in the full size body, although most European archi-
of the timber, we require two boards tects defer this important,- but simple
for each cant body another advantage operation, until after the moulds are
;
is found in the fact, that the latter is made. This is evidently wrong ; as it
done and is less liable to is but too apparent that the lines be-
in less time,
mistakes by the workmen. Having but come dim, and we fail to find that
one board with as many sets of bevels sharpness requisite to take the bevels
parceled out as there are diagonals and correctly.
sheer-lines, all named in regular order, It must be quite clear to the discern-
commencing either above or below, ing mind that it is the bevelling of the
with the bevel against the side of the timbers composing the frame of the
dead-wood, and then follows in regular vessel that gives her shape and form,
order 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th diago- without which she must of necessity be
nals, and more if required stamped with a manifest sameness;
; next to
these we have 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th the ends must of necessity be what the
breadths. Under these several heads middle is. But by starting from the
are found all the cant bevels of one body; dead-flat frame, and causing the one
and it is plain, that if there are but six timber to foil without a square, and its
companion of the same frame to fall line square across the board, then take
within, we are enabled to give form or
a thin-edged batten, and from the fore-
shape to the vessel, and expand, con- body plan at every sheer-line and diago-
tract, or continue her in any manner nal line in their regular order, take the
we please. The bevels, as a whole, shortest distance from the forward to

are obtained from different parts of the next adjoining square frame this
the ;
floor, but principally from the body- may be regarded as both the standing
plan, and should be taken in all cases and under bevellings, (assuming that we
before making the moulds, for the rea- are to have but one set of bevels for
sons already shown. In addition to both timbers.) For example, suppose
another fact, viz., that the moulds are the forward square frame be Z the :
of little service without the bevels for distance from Z to Y is the bevel of Z
;
the bevellings of the square body we on any line we may choose to try the
may prepare two copy boards, which opening and the bevel, so with Y the ;
•should be left in the loft they may be distance from that frame to X is the
;
of the usual width, eight or nine inches, bevel ofY, so of the distance from W ;
and long enough to take on all the that frame to is the bevel of X, and X
bevels from the floor from eight to ten this may be continued on to the dead-
;
feet will be quite sufficient the outer flat frame on the same line on which
;
edges of these boards must now be we began that is to say, if we began ;
placed a parallel distance apart, equal with the first diagonal in the fore-body,
to the distance from the joint of one continue with that diagonal and in the
frame to the joint of the next ; same body, until we complete the line
and in
that position they may be battened on we were upon it may not be judicious ;
the ends, and a diagonal brace on the to take off* all the spaces on the batten.
lower side, to prevent vibration. Our before transferring them to the copy-
frame now supposed to be the exact board.
is The manner of applying them
distance between the two outer edges will be found in the following from :
that the floor timbers are placed apart and below the square line across both
from face to face, or what is usually boards, set ofF these graduations of
termed the room and space, which every timber, remembering the bevels
means neither more nor less than the are to be severally named on the board
room between the timbers and the space as the timbers are in the body-plan ;
occupied by the timbers. Commence having the spots on the edge of the
at the head of the board by drawing a board, we may tack a small nail in the
33
25S MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
opposite edge of the opposite board, body, remembering to begin aft. as
and in the square line ; thus it will be the after opening belongs to the after
perceived, that the nail and the marks frame on this board ; also the bevels of
on the edge of the opposite board are the after cants, harpens, and transoms
the whole room and space apart. We should find a place, inasmuch as a Copy
now take a thin straight edge, and of every bevel should be kept until the
holding one edge to the nail on one frame is all worked out. The bevel-
side, and to the first spot below the lings of the seats of the floors may be
square line on the other, we mark with obtained from the sheer-plan, as shown
a sharp pencil across the board on in Plate 8, by applying the stock of the
which the spots were made only ; we bevel against the line showing the face
then drop the straight edge to the next of the floor, and the tongue extending
spot ; the end at the nail remaining along the line representing their seats ;
stationary, until all the bevels belong- those bevels need not go on the copy-
ing to this diagonal are taken off. We board, inasmuch as they are not want-
then square another line across imme- ed
worked out.
after the floors are
Jiately below the bevels of the first di- It was formerly the custom in Eng-
agonal, and commence on the second land, and is still adhered to in some
diagonal in the same manner as the parts of Europe, to take the bevels from
first were taken, giving each set of the half-breadth plan by setting off the
bevels their proper name as we ad- size of the timber each side of the joint
vance the sheer-lines are taken in the of the frame, and taking off the within
;
same manner, all of which follow on in or without a square the bevel gave ;
succession, are marked across the one this practice is not only tedious, but it
board only, and which will complete does not give the correct bevel, inas-
the bevels of the square fore-body. much as the lines, even though diago-
We should have enough space left to nals, do not cut the frames square from
transfer the fore-body cant bevels, bar- their moulding-edges in all cases, nor
pen bevels, and knight-head bevels to can they be so arranged as to accom-
this same board. We may reverse the plish this.
order for the after-body ; that is, the The present practice in England is
nail will come on the side on which as follows : to take the opening be-
the bevels have been applied in the tween the two last square frames for
square line as before, and taken off and the standing bevel, and the intermediate
applied in the same manner as the fore- spaces for the under bevels that is, ;
suppose, as we have assumed, Z to be on one side of the frames of the fore-

the forward square frame, then from and the other board for the
body,
Z to Y would be the standing bevel of bevels of the first and third futtoeks
Z its under bevel, or the under bevels and top-timber of the square frames
;
of Z, would be obtained by finding the of the same body. Hence it is quite

distance to the next square frame for- manifest that four boards would be re-
ward the spot for which must be taken quisite for the square body, inasmuch
;
from the half-breadth plan, inasmuch as two more boards would be required
as the frame is not swept in thus for for the after-body, making four bevel-
;
the standing bevels we take the open- ling-boards for the square body and ;
ings from forward in the fore-body, and we may add, that this is the practice
from aft in the after-body; while for the to some extent in the United States,
under bevellings, we begin at the dead- both of taking off the bevels and of
flat frame, and proceed
and forward, distributing them on the board but
aft ;
talcing the graduations in their regular we think it unnecessary to have more

order, setting off these graduations than two bevelling-boards for the square
for the under, below the square line, body, commencing with the first diago-
and those for the standing bevels above nal, and following on in succession un-
it; from these different spots, lines are til we reach the rail-height be veilings.
drawn to the opposite board, as Ave Thev should be marked on the board
have shown. This of course contem- from the copy-board in the following
plates two sets of bevelling-boards it manner: first, at the head name the
;
is the most correct method that has board, that it may be known then ;
ever yet been adopted. The difference, mark a square line across, just below
however, between the manner we have the name, marking this cluster of bevels
shown is inconsiderable, and would not first diagonal ; from this square line set
compensate for the extra can off downward on the left-hand m\gti of
work, it
only be perceived at the extremities, the board, spots about one-quarter of

and is so small that it is not worthy of an inch apart. AVe now apply the
notice. The two sets of bevelling- bevels in regular succession; tin; square
boards referred would be distinguish- mark will be the ©, and whether in the
to,
ed by being marked for opposite sides fore or after-body, we continue on un-

of the frame; one board for the bevel- til we reach the highest number or let-
lings of the floors, second futtoeks, ter, as tin- ease may be, in the alpha-
fourth futtoeks, and half top-timber bet, or in the numbered square body.
2G0 MARINE ANJ) NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
Thus we have all the bevels of the scarfed and worked out in
together,
square body at the first diagonal to- the form of the bow at one of the sheer-
gether those on the floor side of the lines, extending from the stem or
;
frame are taken from the left hand knight-heads, where they are fastened
and those from the first futtock side across the cants to the square frames
of the frame are taken from the right they are placed with their upper edges
hand. The same may be said of the to the sirmarks on the frames, and their
second and all the remaining diagonals extent on the square frames is usually
and sheer-lines or breadths. three or four frames; their principal
It has been the custom in the Navy use is to regulate the cants, and give
yards to have a bevelling-board,not only them a landing when raised, inasmuch

for the standing bevels and another for as they are not a part and parcel of t lie
the under bevcllings, but one for each ship they are not made very smooth
; ;
class of futtocks, another for the floors, their top-side, however, should be fair
another for the top-timbers, and indeed and out of winde at every cant and
for every change of name in bevels, square frame, in order that the bevel
another board was deemed necessary. may be applied correctly; the moulds
Hence it is not at all difficult to imag- for the harpens are made from the half-
ine that it took a good share of the breadth plan; few large ships have less
time to keep the boards at hand that than three harpens forward, and three
might be required. In some private aft. Of late years the custom has pre-
yards one set of bevelling-boards are vailed of making a harpen at the load-
used, as we have described, for the un- line of flotation, and, as a consequence,
der bevellings, and they are arranged the line has become a sirmark for this
just as we have described another set express purpose, and is usually sawed
for the standing bevels in the same on the corner of one of the timbers
or- in
der. It is seldom the case, however, of the frame in the direction in which
that two set of boards are used, unless it points across the ship, in order that
two sets of bevels are taken. it may be known from other sirmarks
Before leaving the subject of bevel- that are put on for other purposes. It
lings, in connection with the square is optional with the builder at which
body, we endeavor to show the of the sheer-lines besides that of the

will
manner of making and taking the bevel rail that he will place his harpens for-
of the harpens. It will be observed, ward. If the ship has a square stern,
that the harpens are pieces of plank he will require none aft at the rail
there is usually one placed at the first tend quite high up the same at their
breadth aft, and the one below at the heels, notwithstanding their heads may
load-line which is continued around the be farther apart than at other parts of
ship. It is not, however, worked out to the ship ; hence it may be fairly in-
the shape of the ship farther than the ferred that another arrangement is ne-
forward and after-pieces, or until it is cessary to give that security to the bow
extended so far that a ribband may be above water that is required ; the
bent the remaining distance midships. knight-heads and hawse-pieces were
The bevels of the harpens are taken in designed to furnish that security. We
the following manner : have shown in a former chapter that
apply the stock
of the bevel to a level line at the height the dead-wood should be of sufficient
at which the mould is made in the depth or size to cover the heels of the
body-plan. The tongue should then cants, and we will now add, that the
extend downward with the frame, which dead-wood forms a continuous line in
on the bow will give a standing bevel connection with the keelsons, from the
this operation performed on every lower side of the lower transom to the
is
cant frame, and on the square frames lower side of the bow-sprit the piece ;
as far as they extend. It should be of timber, however, that continues the
observed, that the harpen mould should dead-wood from the bow-sprit down to
be made with its hollow edge, or inside the stemson, is called the apron ; this
to the line in the half-breadth, inas- piece of timber is bounded on its for-
much as it extends outside of the mould- ward side by the inside of the stem,
ing-edges of all the frames, and is fast- and when the stem is in two pieces, it
ened to the frames to keep them in is designed to cover the scarf, and ex-
their places. The mould should also tend below that point a sufficient dis-
have the station and direction of all tance to add the necessary strength its ;
the cants and square frames, as far as siding size should be as large as that
it extends, marked on it. of the bow-sprit, or within one or two
We have said that the harpens were inches of that size, when it can be ob-
secured to the knight-heads forward, tained, for several reasons, which shall
this leads us to a consideration of the when this cannot
follow in their place;
location and design of those timbers. be accomplished, we may place a cho
It will be discovered by the attentive on each side to furnish the required
observer, that the forward cants are size 1
; the fore and all size of the apron
close together on the stem, and ex- is determined by what the cants would
measure in the direction of the sides of that the knight-heads are placed, ex-
the apron, added to which should be tending in some cases from its lowest
the thickness of the ceiling. This, it point,(where it is cut off against the
will be observed, would cause the ceil- forward cant) to the rail, and often is
ing to butt against the apron, just as left a foot or more above the rail ; as
the plank outside butts against the stem, a consequence, its sides must stand fore
with this exception, however, there and aft, inasmuch as those of the apron
must be no rabbet. It is seldom that does ; and faying against the apron,
the apron will hold this size, unless the must of necessity stand in line fore
ship is very full, although it should in and aft, and as the scantling of the
all ships be carried down at this size cant timbers, as well as all other parts
as low as the lower deck ; below that of a ship's frame, is set off on a square,
point the clamps and ceiling may ex- and not on the face of the limber, (un-
tend over the after side of the apron, less the timber bevel but little,) it iol-
and butt in the centre and the only ; lows that the . moulding size of the
reason in many cases why the apron knight-heads, or their scantling size 1 ,
does not extend as far aft as we have should also be measured on a square,
said that it should extend, is found in and compare in that particular with
the fact that the scantling size of the the adjacent timbers forming the cant
cants is too large. Our principal rea- frames; from the head of these timbers
son for advocating a larger apron than downward for about two strakes below
the usual size is, that we have
head of the stem, the scantling
discoun- the
tenanced large stems the fore and size above this point should be in-
aft way, believing them to be injurious creased both inside and out, this addi-
to the performance, as well as detri- tion should amount to the thickness of

mental to the ship when a cut-water the plank forming the bulwarks ; the
is to be appended, and a part of what object of this addition is to avoid the
we would take off the stem, we would ending of the plank in the bed of the
add to the apron no mould bow-sprit, by their butting on the mid-
; there is
required for this timber, the stem dle of the knight-head and showing
mould being quite sufficient. The their butts, rather than running across
sides are parallel, and of course stand the timber.
fore and aft the after side is assumed
; It must be quite apparent, that if the
to be square from either of the two apron is sided more than the siding size
sides. It is on the sides of the apron of the stem, that the moulding-edge of
the knight-head must be of different forward cant, which will cut off the
form from that of the inside of the heel of the knight-head whatever the
stem. In order to obtain the form of siding size of the cant timber may be
the moulding-edge of the knight-head, shorter than the cant line would »ive
we must set off in the half-breadth in the half-breadth. We may obtain
plan lines parallel with the side-line this ending of the knight-head in the
representing- the size of this timber, after following manner: set off in the half-
knowing how much it will side there ; breadth, the siding size of the forward
is no objection to its being- sided larger cant timber, and mark it across the
than the frame, inasmuch as it affords same; it then follows that the knight-
room for spreading- the fastening, and head cuts off against this timber; the
for securing the butts. Having deter- intersection of this line with the side
mined upon their thwartship siz*?, we line may now be squared up to the
may show them in the half-breadth in sheer-plan, which will show not only
the manner described. We have said the length of the knight-head, but that
that chocks were objectionable when its heel cuts square from the base; it
the siding size of the apron was not all will be observed that the timber will be
that we could desire ; it is well known shorter if the apron is sided more than
that a large amount of fastening finds the stem, inasmuch as the cant of the
itsway here, and if the holding surface frame inclines it farther forward at the
is made up of several pieces, the fast- head than at the heel, and tends to short-
ening finds its way into those joints en all the timbers that come within the
by splitting off the edge of the chocks, intermediate space. The bevel of the
and holds less than if in one piece. heel is obtained by applying the stock
The sides of the knight-head being thus of the bevel against the side line in the
shown, it will be seen that the mould-: half-breadth plan, the heel of which
ing edge is formed by the lines running must be forward ; we then close the
across their sides ; these crossings of bevel until the tongue ranges out-board
the sheer and water-lines, if squared up and with the side of the cant ; this is
to their corresponding lines in the sheer- the bevel of the heel of the knight-head,
plan, will show the form of the mould- to be applied from the moulding side
ing-edge ; the bevelling-edge is obtain- or face of the timber, the bevel or an-
ed in the same manner ; the lines in gle the other way, having been shown
the half-breadth showing the siding size to be at right angles with the base-line :
of the knight-head, may extend to the the bevels of the outside, or what is
usually termed the back of this timber, the spots at which this line crosses the
are obtained by applying the stock of several water and sheer-lines, mark in
the bevel against the line showing the the line by those spots, and we have
side of the timber* and the tongue out- the ending of the knight-heads in the
board to the line at which the bevel is sheer-plan also this, however, is not ;
required or the bevel may be taken absolutely necessary in the case of

;
by applying a square as in the place of canted knight-heads more than fore and
the bevel, the tongue of which must be aft ones, but it may serve to make the
placed at the intersection of the out- subject more clear by exhibiting it in
board side of knight-head, with the more than one aspect ; the cant of the
lineupon which the bevel is required knight-head may be determined in the
;
then measure the distance from the half-breadth plan, remembering that
square to the moulding-edge of the tjie heeLmust taper, else the head will
knight-head but the most simple, and not come up to the apron
;
this, it will ;
we think the most appropriate way of be observed, would be an objectionable

obtaining the bevels, is to lay down feature, as we have shown, on account
both edges of the timber, and we have of the fastening in thewood-ends of the
the bevel any where, and may take it outside plank; the more cant we have
off bymeasuring the distance the out- the more taper will of necessity be re- ^
board edge falls aft of the moulding-edge quired, unless the bow be quite straight,
in the siding size laid down ; as a con- at least the length of the knight-head ;
sequence, the knight-head bevels under, this renders the operation of laying
just that distance. On very sharp ves- them down precisely the same as that
sels it may be found advantageous to of the tapered chocks in the cants. I
cant the knight-heads, (for the reason,) We may show both edges in the half-
that a smaller piece of timber will make breadth plan with any cant we please ;1
them. The operation of laying down square up the spots at which they in- |
canted knight-heads is very similar to tersect the sheer, horizontal ribbands,
that of those already described and and water-lines in the sheer-plan
; ;
when this method is adopted, we should sweep in the curve those spots furnish,
show in the sheer-plan the form of the and we have their thwartship view in
fore side or bevelling edge of the cant the sheer-plan as though they were
timber, by first marking its size which they virtually are; the
in the cants,
r
hall-breadth plan, forward of the joint shape on the face of canted knight-
of the frame; we may then square up heads is obtained in the same manner
ns a cant is, by taking the distance in be forward, and set to the bearding-
the half-breadth plan from the middle- line ; these bevels should also find a
line on the showing their face to place on the copy as well as the bevel-
line
the crossing of the several sheer and ling-boards for use.
water-lines these settings-off are ap-
; Having concluded our expositions
plied in the body-plan the same as on the knight-heads and hawse pieces,
though they were cants in a word, we shall leave the bow for the present,
;
they are cants in all respects, and should and follow the course marked for this
so be laid down and bevelled, as also chapter on the stern of the ship.
all the hawse timbers that are canted. Few ships are built for commercial
It is seldom, however, that hawse pieces purposes with other than square sterns,
are laid down in private yards it is although it has been taken for granted
;
sufficiently convenient to make tlje that they do not furnish an equal

mould after the ship is raised and regu- amount of strength with those that are
lated from the harpens they can then usually termed round sterns.
; It has
be canted to suit the timber; in arrang- generally been assumed that a stern
ing the hawse pieces and the knight- frame was indispensably connected with
heads, we should have reference to the the square stern for the present we
;
hawse-holes, and not put a long timber will only add, that it does not follow
in the bow to be cut off. It is quite com- that one is consequent upon the other.
mon in England to locate the hawse- In defining the boundary line of the
hole either on the draft or on the floor stern frame, we are not compelled to
;
the bevellings of the heels of the cant- follow the stereotyped dogmas of our
ed hawse piece and knight-head is also English cotemporaries, who have found
obtained as those of the cants their it necessary to have a transom-plan on
;
heels end on the bearding-line, as also a separate part of the floor.
do the heels of the cants; all of which The fashion-piece to which the ends
may be obtained from the sheer-plan, of the transoms are attached, may be
by placing the stock of the bevel in a seen in the half-breadth plan forming a
vertical line with the timber on the single timber inmost cases, and leav-
dead-wood, the heel of the bevel up ;
ing an opening between itself and the
let the tongue of the bevel turn forward after cant, equal to that of those be-
or aft in the direction of the timber tween the cants themselves.
;
Some
that is to say, if the timber be on the judgment may be found necessary in
forward side of the frame, let the tongue striking in the line showing the fashion-
34
piece, inasmuch as the length and done without adding to the difficulty in
breadth of the transoms are thus deter- obtaining transoms that will work to
mined. As the cant frames continue to the size and bevels required. The
cant more as they approach the stern transoms are usually placed in the fol-
;
so also it may he fairly expected that the lowing order the upper or main tran- :
fashion-piece should cant more than som is usually sided from 12 to 16

the cant that is immediately forward inches for ships, one-third of which is
of it. We have said that the end of kept above the cross-seam for a lodg-
the main transom should he seen on ment for the heels of the counter tim-
the side of the ship, or at least a por- bers the remaining parts below are
;
tion of the same; hence it would seem designed for the reception of the wood-
to follow that this boundary line was ends of the plank but inasmuch as a ;
unalterably fixed; we have also said portion is kept above the line demark-
that this matter should be attended to ing the cross-seam, the remaining two
when regulating the cants in the half- thirds are insufficient hence it follows ;
breadth plan allowance for only a sin- that another transom has been added
;
gle timber need be made, although immediately below the main transom ;
another timber is sometimes added be- the lower transoms are usually sided
low the only proper boundary lines of about 10 to 12 inches, in proportion
;
the stern frame are the margin line on to the size of the ship, or to the siding
the post and the joint of the fashion- size of her frame they are usually ;
piece in the fore and aft direction, and placed from 3 to 4 inches apart this :
the top of the main transom, and the course is almost universally adopted
lower side of the lower transom. It for durability; they may generally stand
may seem to be an erroneous view ta- with their faces or top-sides parallel to
ken of the stern frame to exclude the the keel, which, as a consequence, is
stern post, but a moment's reflection horizontal, inasmuch as few ships are
will counteract the influence of that built with a drag line, or much rake to
opinion ; the stern post will have a the post ; hence it will at once be seen
place in its present can be gained by canting the
location, even that little
though there were no stern frame. transoms, as is sometimes done in the

It will be discovered, that however Navy, but for which no good reason
desirable it may be to spring the ends of can be assigned, their be veilings not
the cross-seam, or transom forward, in being materially altered, while a ship
order to ease the quarter, it cannot be has little or no rake to her stern post.
One other remark, and then we shall have been fully proved before the cants
proceed to showing the manner of lay- were swept in,)we might find in the
ing them off. section-lines all that we required. It
The transoms may be regarded as will be seen that those lines running
so many breast hooks placed in the across the transoms and cants, will
frame, instead of placing them across enable us to obtain spots at any part
the inside of the timbers. As the ends we may require the same ; but apart
of the transoms are bounded by the from this, we already have the section-
fashion-piece, it is necessary that the lines on the floor agreeing with the
joint of the fashion-piece should be lines already hence it is only
proved ;
shown in the sheer-plan ; it is seldom, necessary to take off the transoms by

however, done on the floor, but always taking the distance of their intersec-
on the draft their vertical position on tion, from the perpendicular in the
;
the draft shown, running hori- sheer-plan, to the crossing of the edges
is also
zontal until they intersect Avith the of the transoms, as shown in the sheer-
joint of the fashion-piece. We have plan ; let these intersections or cross-
already shown were bounded ings be squared down to their corres-
that they
on the aft side by the margin line their ponding sections in the half-breadth
;
intersections with this line may be plan let also the ends, as shown in
;
squared down to the side line of the the sheer-plan, be squared down to
half-breadth, and. a perpendicular also their intersection with the joint of the
drawn from the back of the main tran- fashion-piece in the halt-breadth plan ;
som or the cross-seam to the same in battens may now be applied to these
the half-breadth plan. The section- spots, and lines swept in, which will
lines have been described and illustra- show the ending as well as the shape
ted in Plate 4. It will be seen that the of the transoms. It will be observed
section-lines come directly across the that the same remark will apply
transoms; they may be adjusted in the to the bevelling edges that we have
half-breadth plan, so as to suit the tran- made in reference to the upper or
soms, and then swept in the sheer-plan moulding side, as transoms should, as
by taking the heights above the base a general rule, be counter-moulded.
of their intersections with the frames The transoms may now be laid out
in the sheer-plan, as shown on page in the body-plan, simply by striking
137 ; and were it necessary to furnish lines across the after-body side of the
a proof for cant frames,(after the lines plan, at the heights as taken from the
26S MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
sheer-plan. The length may then be the square fashion-piece, and the latter
taken square from the middle-line of the canted fashion-piece the former ;
the half-breadth plan to the intersec- line determines the length of the tran-
tion of the moulding-edges of the transoms, the latter the length and shape
soms with the fashion-piece ; or in of the fashion-piece ; and yet both come
other words, take the shortest distance together when in their place ; this
from the middle-line to the intersection operation is designed for the purpose
of the moulding-edge of all the tran- of proving the accuracy of the work ;
soms, with the line showing the mould- if there is no error, they will agree;
ing-edge of the fashion-piece in the Plate 16 is designed to illustrate the
half-breadth; transfer these lengths so stern frame, and the manner of opera-
taken to the body-plan on the same tion forlayingthem down and construct-
transoms on which they were taken a ing the same. It is sometimes the case
;
line cutting those lengths will show the that a second fashion-piece is required,
actual lengths of the transoms, and the to enable us to fdl out to the main or
square fashion-piece, or the fore and first one ; this is generally short, ex-
aft view of the fashion-piece when in tending across three or four of the low-
its place ; the lengths or the settings-off er transoms, and as low as the side line ;
for the fashion-piece, as shown by the when this is required, we have only to
mould, is obtained by measuring in the set off its size aft of the main fashion-
direction of the line showing its siding piece in the half-breadth plan, as high
face in the half- breadth plan ; that is as it is designed to go ; it should cut off
to say, lay the on the middle of one of the transoms;
batten along the line
showing the cant of the fashion-piece, it maybe squared up to the sheer-plan,
the end from which we measure being and from thence taken to the body-
placed at the middle-line then mark plan, or may be taken direct from the
•,
the moulding-edges at the point where half-breadth plan —the results are the
they strike the fashion-piece; take these same in both cases.

settings-off and set off as before in the From the nature of horizontal tran-
body-plan. It will be observed that soms, it will appear evident that they
the last settings-off extend beyond the shown in the three plans,
may be readily
former, and both represent the same two of which show their edges and fore
timber, and are taken from the same and aft width only this arrangement ;
plan ; the difference lies just here : the is doubtless readily understood by the
former is what is very properly termed reader. The subject of stern frames is
not as complicated as would seem to place for fastening the wood-ends, unless
it
be. English architects have thrown they should chance to come on a tran-
around this part of the ship a labyrinth som we may set off in the sheer-plan ;
of mystery that has served to discour- a distance equal to what the builder
age many from daring to grapple with may think necessary, both at the cross-
this seemingly complex part. The seam and at the lower transom, re-
manner which the subject has been membering that as the size fore and
in
treated is in itself enough to discourage aft is increased, the breadth is also in-
the beginner they have assumed, and creased, if it is designed to fill out to
;
even averred, that it is necessary to the moulding-edge of the transoms.

make a transom and then canting The shape of the ship has some con-
plan,
the transoms with the sheer, or one at nection with the size, both fore and
least and again canting the transoms aft, and thwartships if the vessel be
; ;
from a square with the margin line full close aft, this inner post must not
tends to confuse. Now we say that it be as large ; if lean or quite thin aft,
is not necessary to show them on the the size should be increased. The in-
floor on more than one plan, that is the ner post, however, may and should ex-
half-breadth. We have described them tend several inches forward of where
in the sheer and body-plan ; it is only, it would fail to continue the shape of
however, for the draft, nor yet is it ne- the transoms ; this is for the purpose
cessary to sweep in the square fashion- of boxing the transoms into or over
piece on the floor. the inner post, or we may do both ;
We have shown that the line form- that is to say, cut part out of each.
ing the moulding-edge of the transoms We may sum our remarks up into
extended from the margin-line, or in- this, that we may be better understood :
side of the post, to the line showing the first determine the siding size of the
face or mouldino-edge of the fashion- inner post ; set off half its siding size
piece. It must be quite clear that in the half-breadth from the middle-line;
although the line may be continued to the line will of course be a section-line ;
the margin-line, the transoms cannot square up the crossings at the several
extend to the same line, for this rea- transoms to their stations in the sheer-
son were there no other, there would plan apply a batten to these
: ; spots,
be a cavity between the transoms aft and we have the fore and aft size of
against the stern-post ; thus it will at the inner post, without the letting down
once be seen that there would be no allowance ; we not only have the size,
but the mould, or the line to make it allowance may be made for boxing if
by strike a line as much forward of required.

;
would not be expectedIt
this line as we would let the transoms that the post should till the whole cavi-
down, and we require no more the ty, if extending any considerable dis-
;
mould for the inner post should ex- tance forward it will be observed, ;
tend its whole length, which is from the however, that a piece might fill up the
top of the keel to the lower side of the cavity shown, as it is sometimes the ease,
second transom, numbering the main that the transoms do not furnish the
transom, inasmuch as this transom, surplus that the inner post lacks.
and the one below it, come together, Having shown the maimer of at-
they should seat on the post itself ranging the transoms, and of obtaining
when it is placed more inside, and less their form or shape in the several plans,
outside of the ship, for reasons shown we may now show the manner of taking
on page 103. When this method is the bevels of the same. 'The section-
adopted, we require the siding size of line, it will be observed, runs in a par-
the post to be larger, as already shown, allel direction with the middle-line of
and we may show half of its siding size the ship, and must follow that the
it
in the half-breadth, as described in de- bevel must be taken and applied in this
lineating the inner post. If the stern direction, if taken or applied by sec-
and inner post have a taper, oris sided tion-lines hence it must be quite ap-
;
more at the head than at the heel, as parent that it is a somewhat difficult
in all cases it should be, we may square matter to apply the bevel correctly ;
down the heel or the intersection of the for these reasons we would not attempt
margin-line with the base-line take to take the bevel of the transoms from
;
half the size of the post at that point, the sheer-plan, even though the sec-
and set it off' in the half-breadth from tion-lines from which they are formed
the middle-line ;likewise at the head run in directly a square line from their
in the same manner at the cross-seam face it is, however, only square one
;
set off half the size of the post strike way, and to take and apply bevels cor-
;
a line from one to the other. It will rectly, we should take them and apply
be discovered that the crossing of this them square all ways, or very nearly so:
line and the moulding-edges of the but this discrepancy is not confined to
transoms, if squared up to the sheer- the section-line; in the water and diago-
plan, will give spots by which to sweep nal lines will be found the same diffi-
in the seating of the transoms an culty, if it may be so denominated
; ;
hence we say, instead of bevelling the as it is sometimes called, the margin-

transoms, counter mould them, or line, from which the bevels commence
mould them on the lower side the on the back of the main transom, and
;
shape for the mould of the lower side which we have denominated the cross-
is obtained in the same manner as that seam, is generally square from the mid-
of the upper. The ends of all horizontal dle-line when its form is not otherwise
transoms is square : we mean by this defined by the model ; there should be
that the endscoming against the fash- a sheer-line terminating here on models
ion-piece have no bevel, but are cut generally the back of the transom ;
square from the top-side up and down, is left square above the cross-seam ;
and by the end of the mould thwart- the end of +he main transom being
ship; the bevels of the seats of the shown on the side, cuts oft' by the first
transoms are .taken from the inner post, breadth.. If that breadth terminates at
as shown in the sheer-plan ; the stock the cross-seam, and whether it does or
of- the bevel being horizontal, and the not, it is no difficult matter to show
tongue extending down along the line the height of the top of the transom in
of inner post, gives the bevel, as we the body-plan, by a line extending
have before remarked. across several of the cant frames ; let
We cannot attempt to define the these be taken off* square from the mid-
size of the inner post, or of other parts dle-line to their crossing the line just
of the stern frame, the judgment of run in for the top of the transom ; these
the builder must do this. We believe settings-off must now be applied as the
that this is all that should be done; same frames in the half-breadth plan,
the man who has not confidence to fill and a batten applied to the spots, which
up the sizes proportionate to the size show the length of the main tran-
will
of the vessel, is not qualified to build som a mould should be made by this
;
a ship, him know how ever so well. line, and if the back of the transom has
let
The bevels of the main transom may a curve, the mould will show it, but
be taken from the section-lines, or a the principal object in having a mould
mould may be made for the lower side; for the main transom, is to give the
the mould is preferable. The mould- exact length and bevel of the end, fore
ing-edge of the lower side of the main and aft the mould need extend no ;
transom is the same for the top-side of farther than the centre or middle-line.
the one below, so that nothing is lost We have shown the manner of lay-
by the mould. The starting line, or ing down the stern frame, assuming
the ship to have a square stern, but it No

one would be lost in wonder
does not follow that this must necessa- were we to approve of canting the
rily be the case. Ships have been built frames all around the stern of a round
with round sterns, and yet with a stern stern ship. It would be regarded as a
frame, but the instances are rare in- kind of matter of course ; it is a com-
deed, and we do not believe that any mon practice ; but to cant the square
private builder would be thus reckless stern ship all around, would be re-
of the cost of this part of the ship. garded as the scheme of some addle-
There are many who suppose that pated theorist. We are not surprised
the stern frame is as indispensable to when we hear men talk thus, knowing
the ship as the masts. We, however, full well that it is an easy matter to
are not of the number we not only persuade ourselves to the belief of what
;
believe that the transomed stern frame we want to be true, even though the
can be dispensed with in round-stern dictates of common sense pronounce it
ships, but in square sterns also and wrong. We would not be understood to
;
we have yet to learn that the ship say, that we are lending a preference
with a square-stern is not better in to square sterns to our ships we are ;
every respect without a stern frame selecting for no one we are only en- ;
than with one, public opinion to the deavoring to show what may be done,
contrary notwithstanding. That the viz., a square stern without a stern
stern frame is strong, cannot be ques- frame, and with the cant frames
tioned, but the difficulty lies higher, at extending aft of the quarter to the
the connection of the stern above with centre of the stern. It may have been
the stern frame below. In our ex- thought that this arrangement was
positions of the stern frame, we showed more costly, and, consequently, to be
a margin of several inches above the repudiated on this account but this is ;
cross-seam ; the object of this margin not the case. When it is determined
is toconnect the stern to the stern to arrange the cants around the entire
frame, by boxing in the counter timbers. stern, we should have reference in the
We have shown this kind of stern half-breadth to the corner or the part
to be the weakest part of this end of at which the fashion-piece is usually
the ship, in consequence of the man- located, as shown by Plate 17. The
ner of connecting them, and the end- joint of the cant that shows the corner
ing of all the bottom plank at this con- should intersect with the end of the
nection. top height line this would bring one ;
timber of the frame on the stern, and from which we may obtain the
lines
the other on the side of the ship; this cross-seam, on the lines shown in the
arrangement, it will be understood, half-breadth plan, and on those shown
must be made in the half-breadth plan. in the sheer-plan. The first opera-
Aft of this frame, on a small ship of tion then, is to define the boundary
500 to 700 tons, one frame is enough, line of the stern, which is the cross-
iu addition to the centre counter timbers. seam. We do this in the following man-
If a short timber is required above the ner : as we already partially described

cross-seam, it may be put in after the in connection with our remarks on
ship is raised ; but in no case will more Plate 4, on the manner of running in
than two frames be required on the section-lines, for which see page 137,
stern, if properly arranged, as will ap- and onward by thuS squaring up the ;
pear manifest upon reflection, that spots where the section-lines cross the
those frames with chocks between the cants in the half-breadth to the section-
timbers cover considerable surface, lines in the sheer-plan, we have spots
and at, as well as below the cross-seam, for the thwartship view of the cants in
we have all the timber we could desire the sheer-plan ; but if the section-lines
for the durability of the ship ; and it have not been run in the sheer-plan,
should not be forgotten that we only we should run them in at once, as their
require enough above the cross-seam endings determine the cross-seam in

to hold the stern plank sufficiently se- assuming the
the following manner :
cure all beyond this, does more harm cross-seam to be square on the aft side
;
than good. By adding- extra weight, with the middle-line, it then follows
we do not add strength to the ship that all the section-lines that come on
;
and in where there is a half this square part, or as far as it runs

all cases
top-timber required on the frames of square, will end in one place, fore and
the stemi, they should be of cedar, on aft-wise but then again, it does not ;
account of their being- light. After follow that they will end at the same
the cants are arranged in the half- height ; they may rise successively
breadth plan, we may lay off our sec- above each other, and will so rise on a
tion-lines also in the half-breadth plan ;
well-formed stern. We determine, in
it assumed, however, that before this the first place, the rake of the stern in
is
arrangement is made, the ship has been the sheer-plan, both at the centre and
carried through a sufficiency of proofs at the corner; hence it follows, that as
on the floor, to furnish data from the our sheer-lines end on the corner, their
35
ending may be squared down

and the perpendicular view at its
to the plan,
half-breadth on the corner and on the proper rake from the half-breadth plan,
centre of the stern each to their respec- has been made plain and it now only ;
tive places in the half-breadth plan remains for us to furnish the man-
;
and having the shape of the stern form- ner of obtaining the half-breadths
ed in the half-breadth, we have the and perpendicular heights of the stern,
means of regulating the corner in the when seen horizontally in the body-
sheer-plan, by adding another sheer- plan ; this is accomplished by taking
line or section-line running only a short the heights from the sheer on the sev-
distance. It is of more importance to eral section-lines, (which should also be
define the corner of the stern when shown in the body-plan,) and the half-
the cants extend all around than when breadths from the half-breadth plan.
the ship has a stern frame, because Having the cross-seam line, shown in
when the stern frame finds a place in the body-plan, we may be able to regu-
the ship, the corner is determined after late the line showing the corner or
the ship is raised ; this, we
boundary line of the stern, both in the
are per-
suaded, is a universal practice in this sheer and half-breadth plans, to our
country ; in building square stern entire satisfaction, inasmuch as the
merchant ships, it is true, the fashion- ending of all the lines terminate here
piece sometimes runs up to the rail, or partially so at any rate, there is a ;
but this does not show the corner. brake in every line here, or as is a
We have often wondered why our common expression in the ship-yard,
builders did not lay down and take the there is an anchor stock in the lines here
bevels of the corner counter-timber, in- at this boundary line.
asmuch as they possessed the same fa- It must appear manifest that if the
cilities for determining its form and whole quarter were carried out fair
bevels that they did of any other timber with the side and bottom, it only re-
in mains to fix the mark around the quar-
the ship, and no one will question
the superior advantages of this method ter and buttock for cutting oft' the
over the present mode of making the stern, and to obtain this is to obtain
moulds after the ship is raised. We the cross-seam line on the boundary
think the manner of obtaining the form line of the stern (on the inside of the
of the corner of the stern in the dif- plank,) or of the timbers before the
ferent positions —that is to say, the side plank is put on ; hence we have shown
view at its proper rake from the sheer- that the length of the lines is measur-
ed from their ending, and their endings seen them thus spread out before ; but
is shown in the following order: first, it requires but a moment's reflection to
we have the heights and lengths in the discover that the cant frames extend-
sheer-plan, the lengths and half-breadths ing from a position farther forward than
on the rake of the stern from the half- they usually are placed on the dead-
breadth plan, and the horizontal and wood, and in its continuation to the
vertical boundary line defined in the extreme corner of the stern, must over-
body-plan ; thus provided, we are fully reach another cant frame farther for-
prepared to carry out the illustrations ward that cants much less. In short,
in relation to the construction of sec- the shape of the cants on the ship hav-
tion-lines from the cross-seam to the ing no stern frame, are obtained in pre-
rail, as shown in Plate 4 and this cisely the same manner, below and for-
;
may all be accomplished on the floor ward of the cross-seam, as those of the
of the loft, even before we make the ship having a stern frame. It is true,
division for the cants, as we have al- they are divided or spaced differently,
ready shown in our expositions on the but this does not affect the manner of
floor of the mould loft. It must be doing the work on the floor after thus
quite clear that if the longitudinal lines divided or spaced. Ir*the case of the
are all and are proved in their re- stern frame, the fashion-piece is the
fair,
lative fullness or leanness toward each boundary line in the case of the stern ;
other, that nothing remains to be done without transoms, the cross-seam is

but to lay out lines across the ship, or the boundary line. We make this dis-
angularly, and they must of necessity tinction to relieve the mind from the
make fair frames; hence it is also quite confusion consequent upon the con-
apparent, that this is not a proving pro- nection with the stern. When the sub-
cess ; this being already done, it is mere- ject is once fixed on the mind in its
lydetermining the form shown when in simplicity, it is not difficult to connect
a particular position of certain sections. the part above the cross-seam with the
The principal difficulty, if it may be so operation. We have only to add, that if
termed, after having determined the the cants are taken off by diagonals, as
cross-seam, is in the cant frames cross- our former expositions, let them be
in
ing each other when shown on the taken off square first, and carried to
floor ; unusual in the ordinary the body-plan, to obtain the proper
this is
cant frames, and would have a tenden- height of the sirmark, as already ex-
cy to confuse the man who had never plained in this chapter we then take ;
the settings-off on the cant, as also that they may be rendered of much
shown. This operation will furnish us service in determining mooted points,
with the form of the cants as far as the or seemingly difficult problems about
cross-seam and no farther, because the the stern hence it is plain of ships ;
diagonals themselves run no higher from what has been shown, that we
than the cross-seam the same opera- can only rely upon the vertical or lon-
;
tion is performed in obtaining the bevels gitudinal section-line for the settings-
that would be, were there a stern frame; off necessary to continue the cant
both of the bevelling edges of the tim- frames from the cross-seam to the rail.
ber on both sides of the frame are shown The sheer-lines we have shown in con-
in the half-breadth, and the frame again nection with the illustration of Plate
taken off, first square, to obtain the 4,may be continued across the stern, or
height of the sirmark, and then on the may be run in as level lines from the
cant, and applied on that sirmark ; or corner to the centre of the stern, and if
Ave may obtain the bevels as explained, there should not be a sufficient num-
by setting off only a distance equal to ber of sheer-lines to accomplish our
what would allow the reversing the purpose, we may run as many lines
bevel, as also fully explained in this across the stern, as we please, either
chapter, and illustrated in Plate 16. horizontal or raised in the" centre, as
We cannot entertain a doubt but the arch-board or taffrail, but this is or
that our expositions are fully under- may be thought to be more difficult
stood. We will now follow the subject than the level line, and the level line
in its continuance from the cross-seam being all that is requisite, we would re-
to the rail ; this we shall at once dis- commend them when more is required ;
cover cannot be performed by diago- these lines across the stern are shown
nals, nor yet by water-lines, and only in the sheer-plan, the half-breadth plan,
by longitudinal or vertical sections and the body-plan ; if they are levelled
the reason will appear obvious, if we across, they will be seen to be at right
will but reflect that the diagonal ends angles with the section-lines, both in
at the cross-seam ; the water-lines are the sheer and body-plan, but not in the
found only below the cross-seam, and half-breadth.
heretofore the section-lines have ended The reader will observe that we now
at the cross-seam, in Europe and in commence in the body-plan, by taking
this country but we have extended the height from the load-line (lest we
;
them to the rail, in the full assurance should make a mistake if we took tin;
height from the

cross-seam) to this the spots in the sheer-plan by squaring
level line across the stern on any one up the intersection of the sections with
of the section-lines, and apply the height the rail in the half-breadth plan ; we
so taken to the sheer-plan ; we then are thus furnished with three spots for
mark it horizontal or parallel to load- the continuation of the section-line
line from the corner to the centre of from the cross-seam to the rail ; by re-
the stern, which, as will be seen, is a ferring to Plate 4, we shall discover
short distance ; we next take the short- how they will be shown in the sheer-
est distance from a perpendicular line plan. After having the section-lines
raised temporarily at cross-seam to this continued from the cross-seam to the
lineon the centre, and on the corner rail, we are prepared to obtain the form
of the stern, and square those points of that part of each cant coming on
down both to the centre and corner in the stern, as shown in Plate 17. This
the half-breadth plan from these two may be done in the following manner:
;
points we must extend a curved line first, we observe the crossing of the
across the stern, exhibiting the amount cants on the stern by the section-lines
of round the stern would have on a in the half-breadth plan, square the
level line — that is to say, without the spots or crossings up to its correspond-
additional found given by the rise of ing section-line in the sheer-plan ; we
the arch-board or taffrail, it will now
do this at each section-line the cant
be seen that the section-lines cross- may cross hence it is plain, that we :
ing this curved line furnish different are furnished with spots from the cross-
lengths from the cross-seam —
that is seam to the rail. The casual observer
to say, at the centre or first section- may have supposed that the cant on
line, we shall find the line just run across the stern must of necessity be straight
the stern to be farther aft than at the on the stern, running as it does from
crossing of the outer or fourth section- the cross-seam to the rail, but upon
Jine. This will furnish us with data for farther reflection, it will be seen that
the continuation of the section-lines in although these lines extending in direct
the sheer-plan, by thus squaring up line from the dead-wood to the rail
these crossings from the half-breadth across a part of the stern, yet it can-
to the sheer-line continued across the not be straight, inasmuch as the line
stern of the sheer-plan. Having these drawn parallel with the middle-line and
spots furnished, we may proceed in the the stern, is only designed to be straight
same manner with the rail, obtaining on parallel lines; and we may here add
that if the stern be quite round, and which is the forward timber of the
have any considerable twist, it is not after-body, and the after timber of the
straight any where but on the centre. fore-body. Now let it be observed, that
We have given an exposition of the the distance is determined by the build-
manner of running in the moulding- er ; we cannot determine the matter,
edffes of the cants that in their and depends
continua- inasmuch as it is variable,
tion across the stern supplant the stern upon the amount of round the line
frame. If we insert chocks in the cant presents to the cants, and we have
frames, it is only necessary to show shown that the more round, the less
another line in the half-breadth plan, space is required, see Plate 17.
aft of the former line or joint of the We
have something to add in addi-
frame and the same course may be tion to what has been said in relation
;
pursued that we have just finished to the comparative strength of the stern
the form of the centre counter timbers with a stern frame the former requires ;
are seen in the sheer-plan, and their both ribbands and shores to keep it up,
bevel may be obtained from the half- while the latter is sustained with the
breadth plan, by showing the siding and kind of shore that will
size, same size
and squaring up the crossings of the hold any other frame, showing that
section-lines with the bevelling edge to there is intrinsic strength in the frame
the sheer-plan, and we have the dis- itself, which the ordinary counter tim-
tance the bevelling edge falls within ber does not contain in its connection
the moulding-edge, and this distance is with the transom.
the bevel in its siding size ; the bevel- We have alluded in the present chap-
lings of the cants, whether the part on ter to the side or corner counter tim-
the stern, on the quarter, or the buttock ber, and have endeavored to show that
are obtained, as we have shown in the the floor of the loft was the proper
present chapter, either by running in place for delineating its shape and
the bevelling edges of the timbers in bevels,we shall now make an effort to-
the cant plan, or by taking a distance show the manner in which this may be
from the moulding side or face only performed, presuming that there are
commensurate with what would avail many who do not know how to perform
for reversion ; that is to say, the bevels this operation and shape
; for the length
may be obtained by setting off in the of the mould, we have but to refer our
hall-breadth plan from the line show- readers to the half-breadth plan, ex-
ing the face of the standing timber, hibiting the stern in its distended capa-
city from this or by this plan. The in the same manner ; it will also be
mould may be made as shown in Plate observed, that the opening on the side
3, Section 2. If we counter mould between the two lines showing the
the timber, it will be necessary to line corner as the moulding, and the for-
forward of the corner in the sheer-plan ward line as the bevelling edge: in other
its siding size this new line, as a con- words, the opening taken for the bevels,
;
sequence, must of necessity cross the must be taken square from the stern,
sheer-lines in the sheer-plan let these and not in line or parallel with the
;
crossings be squared down to the half- sheer-lines, inasmuch as the bevel must
breadth plan, and noted or spotted on be applied square, and of course should
the same sheer-lines that they crossed be so taken we sometimes have seen
;
above mark in a line by these spots, two moulds made, but we deem it un-
;
and we have the bevelling edge of the necessary, inasmuch as the mould made
corner counter timber the space be- for the corner, can show both the rake
;
tween those two lines, it will be ob- of the stern and counter this is done ;
served, is the bevel without a square, by cutting the main or upper piece of
provided the after side stood across the #ie mould off at the knuckle to the
ship ;hence it is plain, that we have bevel, both up and down and thwart-
not all the bevel we require, inasmuch ship of the counter we then make a;
as the aft side does not stand across mould to the counter, and nail them
the ship and by the inboard edge of together the counter mould lapping
; :
the aft side being farther aft than the over the upper piece; the top of the
outboard edge, the bevel must of ne- transom will show the fore and aft line
cessity be more standing, whence we at by which to cut off the heel by, and
once discover that something more will also furnish the bevels in connec-
must be done we may consummate tion with the mould.
;
the operation by applying a square to There are several ways of obtaining

the middle-line at any of the sheer- both the form and bevels of the corner
lines, and determining how much the counter timber, but we deem it unne-
stern rounds from a square at that cessary to cumber the pages of this
point in one foot from the corner; work with more than a sufficiency
tliis added to the bevel obtained for the upon any subject. A few expositions
side, gives all the bevel we require at upon the subject of building sterns, and
that spot if the stern have a twist, we shall have done with the subject,
;
we may apply the square at each spot believing that we have made the mat-
tcr clear,and within the reach of all time admit of a continuation of the
who will pursue our expositions con- ceiling either to the lower side of the
nectedly. deck beam, or to meet against the dead-
It has been the practice to mould wood or inner post in its continuation
the transoms and fashion-piece larger as high as the head of the stern post.
than the cants, in order, that the ceil- The subject of making moulds de-
ing might butt against the fashion- mands our attention in this chapter,
piece ; this practice in our judgment and although plain in itself considered,
is decidedly wrong. If the stern frame yet in its connection with the distinc-
is of such peculiar construction that it tive lines necessary for the delineations
cannot be ventilated but in this way, of the frames or transverse sections of
by excluding the ceiling, and by adding the ship when chocks are introduced,
extra weight to the stern frame, it had the subject seems to demand more than
better be abandoned. In addition to a passing notice.
this it does not make a There are three kinds of moulds by
finish, and it
must be quite clear to the thinking which a ship's frame may be moulded,
man that the ceiling cannot extend only two of which, however, should
over the stern frame any considerable have any connection with the ship-
distance, inasmuch as the transoms yard those of the denomination we
;
are heavier or larger in the throat than would exclude are very properly called
the scantling size of the cants at the skeleton moulds, and are better adapt-
same altitude and being usually made ed to the live-oak hammocks of the
;
of straight-grained timber, if they should southern sea-board, although (they

be reduced to this scantling size, the have been, and still are,) used in our
strength would be partially lost. Thus Navy yards moulding the frames of
for
we discover that the stern frame is no ships, and such other vessels as are
great things after all. It does not there built.
make the strong or finished job. If an exposition is required of the
The cants around or across the inconvenience of skeleton moulds, we
square stern, we have no hesitation in have but to refer to the floor mould of
recommending as being far preferable, private yards, which is usually made
inasmuch as they equalize the strength, upon this principle. This mould is
and render their immediate locality commonly made in such a manner that
more durable by affording greater fa- it is capable of containing all the floors
cilities for ventilation, and at the same of the fore-body on the one side, and
those of the after-body on the other. and one arm of the floor moulded the ;
It is formed of battens, and divided mould is then reversed, and the oppo-
into two parts, both of which are as- site arm is also moulded. Where the
sumed to be alike, and each part hav- entire set of moulds are of this com-
ing for its boundary line the middle- plexion, and whole moulds, or such as
line as a vertical boundary the base furnish the entire shape are not used,
;
of the mould is represented in the the space between the spots is carried
lower edge of the batten, which is around the timbers by a sweeping bat-
usually just its own width below the ten.
base-line of the body-plan ; must be quite apparent that this
in other It
words, the batten bounding or showing manner of moulding a ship's frame is

the lower side of the mould, has its tedious and expensive, inasmuch as
upper edge to the base-line the out- several moulders are required, even for
;
ward side of the mould has a batten what is generally deemed a small com-
placed with upper edge to the diago- pany of operatives or workmen.
its The
nal, showing the floor heads this bat- kind of moulds commonly used are such
;
ten may extend no higher than is re- as show the shape, scantling size, and
quired for the reception of the sharpest length of the timbers. There are ex-
floor, or it may extend to the middle- ceptions in which the scantling size is
line and form the triangle the two shown bv the marks on the mould, and
;
parts are united by hinges, and may be not by its size in such cases the spots
;
closed when not in use the several showing the size are set off from the
;
diagonal lines and the side lines are moulding edge and swept by the out-
also represented by battens, across side of the mould.
which the rising of the seats for the It may be well to remark in relation
dead-wood are marked. When the to the floor mould, that its base is
mould is opened on a floor timber, the sometimes made to show the shape of
frame to which the floor will mould the floor timber, or its rise above the
(being marked across the battens) is base this mode is preferable, inasmuch
;
transferred to the timber by the edges as it lightens the mould, which is an

of the battens, and the sirmarks also item worthy of consideration to the
marked, when the mould is removed, moulder. The battens across the
and the first futtock mould is applied mould are not confined to the number
to the spots, and the diagonals com- of the diagonals there may be others ;
pared, when the race knife is applied, wherever required to bring the spots a
36
suitable distance apart. moulds as low as the floor heads, and
It will be ob-
served, that inasmuch as the body-plan if the edge of one course of moulds
shows but one side, or one half for thus laid by the line showing the shape
each body, the one half of the mould of the frames in the body-plan be with-
is marked by lines shown in the body- in the other, and the floors face to
plan, and the other half is marked by dead-flat frame, it will make no differ-
the first, because it is plain that both ence which body we may be at work
parts could not be marked from the in, the fore or after-body, the first and
floor without marking the same side of third futtock and top-timber moulds
the mould, and when the mould was will show their edges outside of the
opened to show both arms of the floor, moulds of the other half of the frame,
the marks would be found on the one viz., the second and fourth futtock, in-
half upward, while on the opposite side asmuch as the under bevelling of the
of the mould the marks would be down- floors, second and fourth futtocks will
ward. cause the one set of lines to fall within
It is assumed that the lengths of the the other set, just what they are shown
futtocks have been properly and pre- to be in the thickness of the chocks,
viously arranged, and those lengths re- or the standing beveilings of the first
presented by the diagonals ; as a con- futtock, third futtock, and top-timber

sequence, the only necessity for a would cause the one set of lines to fall
double set of moulds would be to show without the other set, the same as shown
the lengths of the futtocks ; this is in the thickness of the chocks. We have
strictly true when there are no chocks before remarked, that one set of lines
in the frame, or when there is but one may and should be marked with a differ-
line on the floor in the body-plan for ent color, to distinguish them from the
each frame but when (as we have
; other ; 4his distinction should also char-
shown that there should be) there are acterize the moulds. For example,
two lines showing the form of the frame, the first line swept in on the floor
one on each side of the chock, it will being the floor timber, second and
become still more apparent that there fourth futtock, may be marked with
should be two sets of moulds for each lead pencil hence we say that the
;
frame —that is to say, the several floor mould, the second and fourth fut-
moulds belonging to the same frame tock moulds, should be marked at all
when laid on the floor to their proper the sirmarks or diaagonals with lead
places, will show two thicknesses of pencil ; the number or letter of the
MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, 2S3
frame should also be with pencil. On the half-breadth. We may on these

the other hand, the and third fut-
first lines set up the height of these respec-
tocks and top-timbers should be mark- tive sirmarks, and we have the starting
ed with red chalk, both the line on point for laying out the boxing, or as
the floor and the moulds it may be
; they are sometimes called, the gaines
well to observe, the one mould butts the heel of the timber itself must de-
at the middle of the other, and the termine the size of the box for the re-
timbers ofwhe frame are arranged in ception of the same. From what we
the same maimer. The arrangement have shown, Jt will be discovered that
we have alluded to in this chapter, of the moulds are the representatives of
equalizing the strength by equally dis- the timbers, both in length and shape,
tributing the butts, need not alter the and sometimes in size.
present arrangement ; the butts would In some parts of Europe it is the
be taken from the expansion plan, and practice to show the form of a number
marked on their respective frames, and of frames on the same mould by in-
the mouldsmade accordingly ; the cant scribing their shape those lines are
;
moulds are marked in the same man- transferred to the timber by boring
ner where chocks are introduced, and holes in the through the
line and
their ending on the side of the dead- mould these are shown on the face of
;
wood may be determined by making a the timber by a second boring, either

sirmark on the mould at or near the with gimlet or compasses, and then
heel, a given distance above the base- the form is carried around the timber
line, marking the distance on the by the mould but such expedients ;
mould, and then by squaring up on the would cost more than they would come
side of the dead-wood the stations of to in a wooden country like ours.
the cants, as shown on the side line of
CHAPTER IX.
Important Rules in Practical Operations —Directions applicable the successive stages of Advancement
to in
Building — Rules forPlanking— Ceiling— Making Spars, &c.
Ill every art there are certain prac- life or academic grove, but pours the
tices, the principles of which are con- full tide of her magic sun-beams upon
sequent upon the cultivation of opera- the "Teat thorouo-hfares of life on —
tive genius, in connection with the every pathway of humanity, wherever
known laws of geometrical science. human hope gives birth to human
There are many rules, however, in effort. Geometrical science, like the
daily practice that have been trans- tide-wave that circumnavigates the
mitted from sire to son, without a globe in a lunar day, is destined to
knowledge of the principles upon which sweep over the ocean of mind until it
they are based, or of geometrical sci- has found a resting-place on every spot
ence from whence they emanate. Wide- of earth that has been sullied by the
ly different, however, is the radiating foot of man its march is inseparably —
scintillations in the horizon of the fu- connected with that of progress. We
ture, pregnant with the hopeful harbin- are persuaded that no attentive obser-
gers of a golden era yet about to dawn. ver, possessing a reflective mind, can
Above, beneath, and around us we see carelessly canvass the almost startling
the seeds of change —
the germinations changes that have taken place in mo-
of a new life springing into existence. delling ships, as in other things, within
Science no longer secludes herself a very few years. The om-
well nigh
amid the portals of the cloistered cell nipotent prejudices of the Old World
of the solitary monk ; nor among the that have held mechanics stationary
impenetrable labyrinths of Egyptian through the almost interminable lapse
pyramids ; nor yet is she hushed into working a new
of fabulous ages, is
silence by the edicts of Platonic philo- leaven that will engender a spirit so
sophy. Having become a univer- potent and so resistless, as to sweep
sal benefactor, she sheds her mellow- away every vestige of its ancient land-
ing influences on no secluded walk in marks ; and we anticipate the day
Isvv^
ii
MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, 2S5
when customs and habits shall be pleted her first voyage, and is found to
valued, not for their antiquity, but for roll remarkably easy, steer well, and
their use — not for the hoary scalp they sail fast, as some ship-masters have
wear, but for their utility. abundantly proved, who were sailing
We were involuntarily led to the in company. We have made the fol-
foregoing reflections upon witnessing lowing calculations from her lines,
the tide of opposition that seemed to (after adding the thickness of the plank
be setting against any innovation into to her moulding which shows
size,)
the well-known form set down for her weight, capacity, stability, &c.
freighting ships, identified and known Her hull and spars, anchors, cables,
by all like the hat-block or the last upon and tank of 2,000 gallons of water,
which shoes are made. Happily for weighed, when launched, 922 tons
the commercial world, there are some 2,100 pounds. This amount of dis-
who dare think and act for themselves placement is contained within a
in modelling vessels, the number, how- draught of 10 feet lj inches. The
ever, is by far too limited. weight of anchors, cables, water, &c v
Plate 19 exhibits the lines of a ship deducted, leaves 840 tons 1,330 pounds,
designed for the freighting" trade be- for the weight of the ship ; her capacity
tween this and Liverpool
port this between that draught and 19 feet, is
;
ship, built in this city, and known and equal to 1,329 tons 1,640 pounds her ;
registered as the Universe, was launch- registered tonnage is 1,298. She was
ed in March of the present year, and originally designed for a two-decked
while building was visited by the skep- ship, in which case the present plank-
tical and the curious; and it would sheer would have been her rail. The
have been no difficult matter for a lines were taken from the tables after
practised eye to have read from the being proved on the floor the water- ;
observer's glance, the shake of the lines or parallels to the base are fur-
head, or the shrug of the shoulders, nished as shown on the model ; the
that she was set down by both ship- approxima-
sixth water-line being an
builders and masters as a ship that tion to the proper altitude for what is
would be partially, if not wholly, un- properly called the line of construction.
manageable in a word, that fast sail- We may learn the due proportion this
;
ing and good steering, were entirely line should bear to the depth of the
out of the question. The ship was vessel, by referring to page 43 out- ;
finished notwithstanding, and has com- calculations on the stability were made
2S6 MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
from this sixth water-line, it being with- ing vessels ; their cargo or ballast is
in 6 inches of its proper height 18 ; designed to remain permanent, until

feet draught of water would have the termination of the voyage ; in ad-
placed the load-line in its most appro- dition to the fact, the centre of gravity
priate place, if the original design had being below the line of flotation, in-
been carried out and the sixth water-
; creases the stability from which is ob-
line being 17i- feet, we adopted that tained the required leverage of the
line as the boundary for our calcula- masts for propulsion. AVe consider
tions from which to determine the sta- the altitude of the centre of effort in
bility of the ship. It will be perceived the Universe quite low enough for any
by referring to Plates 19 and 20, that sailing vessel, and, indeed, were it 2
the centre of effort (the altitude of feet higher, the ship would be better for
which determines the stability of the the increased altitude. It may be well
ship) is 2 above the sixth water- to observe, that the ship was launched
feet
line, or the constructed line of flotation, without ballast, with her smaller masts
and that the centre of displacement is on end, and yet evinced no signs of in-
10 inches above the third water-line. stability. This is owing to the shape
It may be reasonably inferred, without of her floor transversely, in addi-
entering into the calculation for the tion to keelsons, of which she had
actual centre of gravity of the ship, more than an ordinary share ; they
that the centre of effort is above this operated as ballast, enabling her to
point ; hence we say, that a vessel has maintain her upright position. It
stability if the centre of effort is above seems proper to remark in this place,
the load-line of flotation, unless the that although the calculation for the
vessel be an ocean steamer, or a river centre of effort contemplates not only
steam-boat. This description of vessels the principal dimensions, but the con-
sllbuld be invariable exceptions to the tents in its distribution over the im-
rule, inasmuch as the centre of gravity mersed portion of the hull and as a —
of the engines and boilers is often found —
consequence the shape; so that it will
to be above the line of flotation : thus be at once perceived, that however
we discover that it requires no figures much we may desire to elude the in-
to determine that the centre of effort vestigating scrutiny of figures, we are

must be above the line of flotation, else destined to be subject to their search-
the vessel has no stability, and must be in" «aze. But still there is one particu-
ballasted with coal. Not so with sail- lar in which we may be led into error
by adhering tenaciously to the calcu- ment amounts to 1,929 tons, and her
lation, without reference directly to the capacity to 1,116 tons. The length
form of the greatest transverse section. between the perpendiculars of the 6th
We will refer our readers to Plate 5, water-line, or L=175 feet ; the ex-
from which we shall discover that the treme breadth, or B=37,S6 feet ; these
centre of effort is higher than in the multiplied together — 6625,5 ; the
Universe ; it does not, however, follow area of the 6th water-line, or W=
that the shipwould have more stability: 5537,12; therefore 5537,12-6625,5
indeed, she would have less, in conse- =,835; the exponent of the 6th
quence partly of the high centre of dis- water-line, or W=,S35xLxB. Let
placement in connection with the round the height between the rabbet and 6th
floor transversely, or the small propor- water-line be H=to 15 feet, multiplied
tionate amount of from by LxB=99382,5; divide this into the
flat to the floor
the keel outward in other words, the whole cubical displacement 66998,75
;
long bilge transversely has a tendency represented in D thus, 66998,75, ;
to depreciate the stability. The Uni- 4- 99382*5 =,674, the exponent of the
verse has a very stable transverse sec- cubical displacement, or D=,674 x Lx
tion, and although she is a departure BxH. The centre of gravity of dis-
from the stereotyped form recognized placement is 6,52 feet below the 6th
for freighting ships, yet she is no un- water-line therefore H 15 feet, and ;
=
worthy specimen of the improvements 6,52 the distance of the centre of gravi-
of this improving age. With regard to ty below the 6th water-line 6,52 15 ;
-4-
the spars of this ship, she is lightly =

,435 xH below the 6th water-line.
sparred; and it will be seen, by referring Again, the plank, keel, stem, and post
to Plate 20, that her centre of propul- displace ^ of the whole cubical displace-
sion is but 7 feet 10 inches forward of ment the weight of the ship calcula-
;
the centre of buoyancy, while the lat- ted at I, I are left for the capacity ;
ter point is without doubt farther aft therefore 66998,75 x fx £^39289,4

than in any freighting ship in the Liver- cubic feet ; and as 35,2 cubic feet of
pool trade at this time —
sea water are equal to 1 ton weight,
the displace-
ment of the two bodies being about 39289,4-35,2 1116,1 tons for the =
equal. It will be seen that she weighs capacity of the ship when loaded to the
less than I of the load-line displacement, 6th water-line, or to draught of 17 feet

whether taken 19 feet or the 17i
at the 6 inches.
feet draught, at which her displace- It may not be out of place here to
ass MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
furnish some rules for determining, or her bottom. There is another fact
approximating the additional displace- that should not be forgotten in connec-
ment for the plank on the outside of tion with this subject: the strength of
the immersed part of the vessel. It Jersey oak plank to tin; ordinary yellow
will be remembered that the lines by pine, is as 6 : 5. Hence it is clear that
which a vessel is built show the inside a ship having 5 inch oak wales to be
of the plank ; consequently the thick- equally strong, should have 6 inch pine
ness of the plank must be added in or- wales. In order to determine the re-
der to determine the displacement, quired displacement of a ship to carry
weight, or capacity of the vessel. a given number of tons, first bring the
When planked with oak, an allowance tons the ship is to carry into cubic feet,
of— add to this the weight of the ship, and

For Ships, -jL.
T T or T'g of the
'
displacement may be added. from the product subtract the cubical
For Brigs, T\, ^ or & contents of the planking, keel, stem
" "
For Schooners, T\, T\ or -^
and post now let D' be the displace-
;
For Sloops, T 5 T'T or T'3
'
,
For Tow-Boats, T\, & or T \

" " " ment in cubic feet, planking included ;
Smaller Vessels, T y TV or TV D the cubical contents of the bottom,

If the frame should be of without the plank N the number of
vessel's ;
lighter material than oak, say chestnut, tons the ship is to carry, or the num-
and the bottom planked with pine, the ber of cubic feet contained in the
additional displacement for the plank amount. N=^?=35,2 cubic feet of
may be set down as follows : sea-water contained in a ton, (we, how-
For Ships, £>, j% or /„ ever, will find that 35 feet per ton will,
For Brigs, ¥65-, /„ or T 5
6
under ordinary circumstances, be quite
6 6
For Schooners, -^g , y s or y a
as well adapted to our calculations, in-
For Sloops, 765 T6 or ^ _6_
6 5 ,
For Tow-Boats, ^, or _b_55 ^ asmuch as the river water, though salt,

6 6
For Smaller Vessels, ^ 3 3 or , /ff
.
is less buoyant, and approximates near-
It will be seen that the tables is va- er the latter than the former number.)
riable ; this is consequent upon the If the ship is to be built of oak, D' '-
thickness of the plank, and the distance will equal Nx35,2 ; therefore D'=5X
down below the wales the diminish- 35,2xN the number of cubic feet=the
;
ing strakes may extend for example, whole cubical displacement with the
;
one large ship may be planked with 4^ plank on from this subtract the plank- ;
plank, a second with 4 inch, while ing, say iV, the displacement of the bot-
a third may have but 3 \ inch plank on tom plank excluded, the result will be
MARTNE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. 2S9
D=D'— vD=H=D'o
T 1 D=Hxfx35,2 ish his ship like the original design.
xN cubic Should a greater ca- Hence we say, the taking off the tables
feet.
pacity be required from the same di- should never be neglected, even until
mensions and model, we may elevate the moulds were made, for this reason :
the load water-line, and take the cubi- when we begin to make moulds, we
cal contents of the space contained be- find the floor occupied, besides the
tween the former and the contemplated lines continue to grow dim as we pro-
lines of flotation, remembering' that the gress in making moulds. In taking off
plank should be taken in connection the tables, we should not only take off
with the contemplated increase of the lines from square frames, but we
depth. should take off the angles of the diaeo-
Assuming that enough has been fur- rials from the body-plan, and the an-
nished pertaining to the theory or sci- gles of the cants from the half-breadth
ence of building ships in this chapter, plan, scantling size of the frames, sid-
we shall enter at once upon the legiti- ing size of the stem, keel and post ; in
mate subjects pertaining thereto. We a word, we should take off all that may
have endeavored to bring with us in be required to replace our work on the
our delineations on the floor, all the floor, and then it would be no difficult
operations of the mould loft save one, matter to build a second ship like the
viz., the taking off the ship ; this should first.
never be neglected, but in all cases the Among the first operations towards
tables of the vessel should be taken oft' the construction of a ship, is that of
the floor after the wholework is proven. laying the keel. This is to the ship
From these tables, we can make a model what the back-bone is to the human
exactly like the ship, and what is vastly skeleton. The timber composing the
of more importance in case of fire, keel is usually of white oak some- ;
we may be able from these tables to times, however, a kind of timber called
replace the moulds, even though loft, sweet gum is used for small vessels
model, and moulds were burned. A that are to be iron-fastened, on account
ship-builder would be placed in an of the salutary influence it exerts on
awkward position, if after the frame of iron, which may be driven into it. Iron
his ship was half worked out, his model bolts are preserved from rust in this
and moulds and loft were burned up, and kind of timber ; this timber is in tex-
he had taken no tables from the floor, ture similar to elm, of a reddish color ;
he would find it a difficult matter to fin- it is too soft and flexible for the keel
37
of ships, and will not hold copper bet- the base line
below the top of the
is
t'e'r than oak. Much may be said of keel an amount equal to what the
the size and manner of putting the keel floors are let down ; the nibs may
together ; its siding size may and then be less than three inches ; the
should be determined on the model, or stop-water may then be put in the low-
when transferring the lines to the floor. er corner of the nib, and the butt of
A just medium for the siding size of the nib opened with a cut of the cross-
the keel is found in the size of the floors cut saw, and caulked with rope yarns
in the throat. With regard to the solid from the stop-water up. It should
depth of the keel, the trade and de- be borne in mind that upon the stop-
scription of the vessel must partially water we must depend ; for if the ves-
determine this ; for large ships the sel gets ashore, and is hogged, the
keel cannot be obtained of sufficient caulking fails to keep out the water,
depth in the single log ; in all cases and the stop-water being at the out
where it must of necessity be of edge of the seam, fails to accomplish
little depth, the keelson should be of the purpose for which was designed, it
more than ordinary depth. In pre- inasmuch as the water works in above.
paring the keel when in two depths of We speak understandingly on this part
logs, care should be taken to have the of the operation, having been more
scarphs clear of each other ; and we than once engaged in remedying this
will take occasion here to remark, that evil. No matter how many stop-waters
the prevailing custom of making the are put into the seam of a scarph, the
upper nibs of depth to clear upper one should be in the corner, and
sufficient
the rabbet, is entirely wrong. It is that corner should be at farthest half
very generally supposed that the nib way up the garboard seam of a six
of the scarph cannot be made tight un- inch garboard ; in a word, the whole
less astopwater can be inserted at the scarph should be caulked, and stop-
lower edge of the garboard seam ; this waters put in at intervals. These re-
is quite unnecessary, and not only so, marks on the size of the nib will ap-
but weakens the keel ; even when the ply equally well to the scarph of the
base line is represented in the top of stem. In a large keel where there are
the keel, a three inch nib is all-suffi- a number of scarphs to be cut, it is a
cient, and furnishes more strength than saving of time to make a mould for
a nib of larger size ; when the floors let them ; keel scarphs are usually from
over the keel, and, as a consequence, 5 to 8 feet long, and have what is ,
termed a hook in the middle of their more than the straight one. The stem
length. A custom has prevailed, and with a root to scarph on the keel, we
not without sufficient reason, of having think preferable. The practice is not
the lower side of the keel shod with a universally adhered to as in this city, of
4, 5 or 6 inch plank in short lengths; laying out the scarphs of stern post
the ohject is mainly to protect the main and
and not putting them to- keel,
keel in case the ship gets ashore, in gether before raising. We have seen
which case she may escape farther the keel canted down, and the scarphs
damage than would accrue from the put together of both stem and post,
loss of one or more pieces of the shoe. and the dead-wood mould applied to
The custom has prevailed until within determine the rake, and to make a sure
some few years' of putting on the shoe fit of the scarphs. We say that the
after the floor and keelson bolts were mechanic has but little confidence in
all driven and rivetted, and we know his marks, who cannot lay off both the
of no good reason why the practice scarph of the stem and post, and know
should have been even partially aban- that they will not only fit without a
doned ; it is still adhered to in the second trial, but that the rake will be
Navy. as on the floor. It seems to us that
The keel being about to be laid upon nothing can be more simple ; the base
blocks sufficiently near each other to line runs across the keel or the stem,
prevent sagging between them, we will and is also found on the keel; the frames
refer toour remarks made upon thepro- are also marked on the keel and on the
priety of laying it hence it must be clear that to
with, a sag in its stem ;
whole length, on page 118. While bring the frames to compare in their
the keel is being prepared, the floors proper distances apart, and the base
are being worked out the stem and line to continue in its course from the
;
stern frame are also being put together. keel to the stem, is no difficult matter.
The union of stem and keel takes place We have alluded to the scarph of the
on the top of the keel in ships, but we stern post ; it is comparatively a recent
have seen a number of
and practice to select a piece of timber
brigs
schooners on which the scarph was having a root attached for a stern post
cut on the lower side of the keel in- similar to that of the stem
; the amend- ;
deed, the practice is quite common in ment is a wholesome one. The former
Baltimore. It is adopted to save the practice of mortising the heel of the
expense of a crooked stem, which costs post into the keel, is seldom practised
on ordinary sized vessels. Assuming dead-wood, —the how-

starting point,
the keel-to be on bloeks and set straight ever, must be consequent upon the
transversely, and properly secured with sharpness of the vessel. We have de-
cleets on the cap blocks to prevent its signated a point far enough aft for the
being shifted by any casualty, it will be sharpest vessel. With regard to the
seen by reference to Plate 15, that the top of the keel, it is not absolutely ne-
keel is tapered the siding way at the cessary that it should represent the
forward end ; in other words, the side base line. If we have a surplus of
line brought nearer the centre on timber in the upper log of which the
is
both the stem and keel as they ap- keel is formed, we may strike a base
proach the fore foot or the place of line on the sides of the keel at the pro-
union. The practice is quite common per height, and let the surplus be con-
of continuing the keel and stem the sidered as dead-wood the whole length,
same size in their whole length on all reducing the part over which the floors
description of vessels. are placed to a definite height, say
Having already treated this subject one or two inches, which will be cut
at some length, we need only say, that out of the floors, or we may trim off
if we have tapered the keel on the floor the top of the keel to the base line the
we may transfer the settings-off to the length of space covered by floors or
keel, and bring it to its proper size. square frames. This, however, would
The dead-wood, it will be remembered, be detrimental to the ship, unless we
will be compared with the keel, if we, supply its place with a thin piece of
in laying off the cants, have adhered to dead-wood, which is sometimes done.
the tapered side-line, and we will here The object of this is, that in case the
remark, that inasmuch as there must keel should be entirely carried away
be a side-line taken for every cant, it by the vessel getting on shore or other-
is just as easy to take it off from the wise, then this piece of dead-wood is
tapered side-line as from the parallelsupposed to remain (being in a separ-

one. Our remarks apply particularly ate piece) and prevent the ship from
to sharp vessels in other words, the sinking.
; This is, perhaps, a sufficient
tapered keel is more especially design- reason for taking this course with the
ed for sharp vessels, and applies only top of the keel ; at any rate the floors
to the forward end commencing in the should let over the top of the keel, and
usual vicinity of the forward square the line at which they stop on the
Inline, or at the commencement of the moulding edge, is the base line on the
keel,and in its continuance up the floors across the keel, is of recent ori-
stem and post, is the same identical gin, and is consequent upon the great
line,although custom has called it by difficulty in obtaining first futtocks of
another name. We have given it a name sufficient length, size and crook for
as near as may be to the same ; we ships of the largest class ; both for
have denominated this line in its con- steamers and those intended for freight-
tinuance the margin line. ing This we regard as
purposes.
It is usual and proper to cut the rab- a welcome improvement, inasmuch
bet on the stem and post before raising as it rids the keel of the range of
them this may be extended within a
; butts with which it was covered un-
few feet of the scarphs from above. der the old system.
For the manner of putting these parts But a few words seem to be neces-
together, see the respective articles. sary in relation to the manner of rais-
Assuming the keel to be laid at a de- ing the frames, as being immediately
scent of for a ship f of an inch to the connected with the custom of placing
foot, and the stem and stern frame to the floors in their upright position
be in their place, or raised on the keel, across the keel. The manner we have
and the frames marked on the side of described contemplates a practice that
the keel, as on the floor of the loft the ; has prevailed for many years in this
faces of the floor timbers may also be city, and to which there can be no se-
placed at those stations, remembering rious objection, provided the ship has
that is in the after body, and its face half floors ; we allude to the prevailing
should be forward, while those of the custom of raising the frames from each
fore body should face aft ; as a conse- side of the ship transversely, or in half
quence more space will be required be- frames. When this method is adopted,
tween ® and A, than between other the floors are placed across the keel to
frames, by the thickness of the chock their proper stations, then levelled and
designed to be put between the floor let down ; by this we mean, that they
and first futtock, or the half floor, as are so fitted that each floor is in itself
the case may be. By the half floor not only level, but fits solidon the keel
timber, we- mean a floor timber half before bolting. We have sometimes
the length of the usual seen alternately every other floor bolted
floor, crossing
the keel, and of the same moulding size to the keel with a single bolt, and the
as the regular or full length floor. remaining floors left without bolts un-
This practice of placing two sets of til the keelson was in its plaee ; w e,
however, deem the single bolt insuffi- cessary to put them in their place and
cient to hold the floor timber and keel bolt them. The practice of working
securely together, particularly of cop- the keelsons out a second time in the
per ; there should be a bolt in every wrong; once is enough, but
hold, is it
floor and half floor, (if the vessel has has become a practice so common to
them,) connecting them with the keel half do this part of the work, that
independent of the keelson. It does not it almost invariably requires to be done
follow, however, that all the bolts twice. We mean by this what we say :
should go through the keel, particular- that in the first place the throats of the
ly if the keel is deep ; those connect- floor are inequitable and the keelsons
ing the half floors to the keel need ex- unfair, (although enough labor has been
tend but a short distance into the keel spent to make them correct ;) hence
below, a depth equal to that of the floor itmust be quite clear that the keelsons
itself in the throat. While the floors must be fayed after they are inboard ;
are being bolted, the ribbands may be neither do we mean by our remarks,
run a few inches below the floor-head that the edges only are to fay, as is too
sirmark, and a shore fitted with what is often the case ; and while upon this
termed a bird-bill over the edge of the point, we may add, that it not only costs
ribband to at least every other floor ;
less, but makes a better job to put a
these shores will regulate the entire heavy piece of timber in its place but
floor surface, and are assumed and we will further add, that
to be once ;
sufficiently strong to bear the entire there is no piece of timber that belongs
weight of the frames when raised if to a ship of any considerable size, but
:
not, they should be. The floors being may be made to fit on the first trial.
bolted, their throats may be made fair It is true, that it may not be regarded
(by running lines directly over the sides as cheaper in all cases, but we say (and i
of the keel with a stiff batten ; after understandingly too) that all keelsons,
setting up at intervals the proper depth, dead-woods, riders, breast-hooks, &c,
the keelson being thus prepared) by may, and indeed should, be made to
the adze, may be put in its place, come to their place the first cut. The
either by skids over the side, or by hoist- great secret in accomplishing this is
ing them in at the bow or stern. The using a fair but stiff batten and dub-
keelsons should be arranged and fully bing light ; where it is necessary to
prepared on the ground, and when this make a mould, let the side that is to
is done, as it should be, it is only ne- be applied be made to fit ; mark the
bevelling spots, and take the bevels with influences of rusfuidre than in many
care, and directly square from the face, other parts where iron is used.
'
applying them exactly as taken upon We have shown, in connection with

spots that are out of winde; cut to the the expositions connected with Plate
marks, and the work is performed, time 8, that the keelsons may and should
saved, and much heavy avoided,
form a part of the dead-wood
lifting the ;
which more injurious to operatives height of which is determined by the

is
than the work itself. We will conclude scantling size of the cants at the heel.
these remarks by adding, that if after It may be well to remark here, that the
our first cut the timber does not fit, we practice of putting in the keelsons be-
may rest assured there is carelessness fore raising the ship, has been con-
somewhere, as the foregoing rules have tinued for years, even when the ship
no exceptions. had no half floors, and the heels of all
It is unnecessary to follow the keel- the first futtocks landed on the keel.
sons farther than show them in their We deem it wrong, however long con-
place, as Plate 8 will do. The scarphs tinued, inasmuch as the heels of the
should be kept apart as far as possible, first futtocks must be reduced smaller
and apart from those of the keel than the size of the floor in the throat,
in a word, the best distribution should or they cannot be forced under the
be made for strength in arranging the keelson, and after they are in their
scarphs. If the keelson be in two place they are
and too often fit loose,
depths it should be securely bolted with neither above nor below in a majority ;
through bolts of copper and where of cases the keelsons should be kept
;
the bolts are long, we would recom- out until the ship is raised and when ;
mend two drifts ; the first tier being they are, it usually follows that the
securely fastened, the upper tier may cants are kept behind the square
be principally fastened to the first consequence of the inability
with frames in
iron bolts, reserves being made in the to cut the boxes for their heels, unless
first tier for some copper bolts to go the dead-woods are put in and the
through the whole. Our reasons for keelsons over the floors kept out.
using iron in the upper tier of keelsons, Further remarks upon the dead-woods
may be found in the fact, that and keelsons are unnecessary. It may
iron
bolts are stronger, and being above the be assumed that the square frames are
bilge water that may remain in the being put together, and likewise the
vessel, are not subject to the corrosive after cants, when preparations may be
madq. for raising the frames with futtocks of each frame placed over the
shears. In the meantime the heels of floor ribband in its proper berth. In
the second futtocks are being laid out raising the cants, the heel should be
and cut off to fit the heads of the floors entered in the box, and the chain placed
;
the frames, of course, lying with the frame in which to hook the
on the
second futtock side up, it is necessary tackle, near two-thirds of the length of
to perform the same office to the first the frame from the heel and when up ;
futtock, when the ship has half floors. to its proper height, and the heel in
If proper care is taken, the butts may the boxing, the frame may be shored
be cut exactly, so that scarce a cut from the ground and stay-lathed from
will be necessary after the frames are the stern frame. If the cants have
raised. If the ship is large, the first chocks between the timbers, the heel of
futtocks may, and indeed should be put one of the chocks will form a lodgment
in their place singly, without the rest for the head of the shore if they have ;
of the frame ; this may be done whether no chocks, a hole may be bored through
the ship has half floors or not ; and the timber, and a set bolt inserted in
when it is done, the keelsons may be the same. The shears are moved for-
put in before the frames are raised, with ward and

as the cants are raised,
the utmost propriety, inasmuch as the each frame is shored from the ground
course may be faired over the heels of and stay-lathed from its fellow. If the
the futtocks, and the keelson made to square frames are heavy, and the first
fay solid over the whole. When the futtock appended, it is customary to
first futtocks are thus raised singly, it have a shore in the form of a dog ;
is pre-supposed their heads are cut off that is to say, a spruce spar is prepared
square from a given angle vertically, of suitable length, 10 or 12 feet long,
and the same from the face longitudi- banded at the ends, and a dog-head in-
nally. We may presume that the serted in each end; the points of which
frames are ready for raising; and in or- are made and are driven into one
thin,
der to accomplish this part of the work of the timbers above and the other be-
smoothly, we should commence with low the bilge, sufficiently far to prevent
the after cants, under the heel of each the frame from being racked out of
one of which a cleet should be spiked shape, to which it has a tendency, by
on the dead-wood, and as we shall fol- being subjected to two forces that tend
low on with the square frames, they to brin<r the head and heel of the frame
may be canted up, and the heels of the together —
the heel on the ribband,
and the head under the influence of a stay-lath and cant the frames the ;
the tackle: it is seldom, however, re- cause of the excess of weight is found
quired when the first futtock is not ap- in the descent of the keel upon which
pended to the frame. It is also neces- the frames rest.
sary, when the first futtoeks are raised There is another method of framing
singly, to run a ribband near their and raising, that is deemed by many to
heads, and render it secure by support- be preferable to the manner described.
ing it with suitable shores; the square This operation combines the whole
frames are shored and stay-lathed from frame, and requires a platform some-
the adjoining frame, as the cants. It is what higher than the lower side of the
sometimes the case that the raising of keel, extending the entire length and
the frames is continued without inter- breadth of the vessel. Upon this plat-
ruption to the stein, and the forward form the frames are put together, the
cants are also raised the usual mode, one-half on each side, and the floor in
;
however, is to make a separate job of the centre across the keel after being ;
the forward cants. One reason is, the put together it is raised to make room
shears are found to be troublesome, and for another. The operation is com-
a derrick preferable menced at ® and carried on both for-
; a second rea-
son is, want of room to frame them ward and aft the frames are raised ;
before the square frames are removed, with two pair of shears, one pair on
inasmuch as their shape alters so fast each side, standing fore and aft, with a
that they really appear to be inside out guy from one to the other ; the cants
and the head of the frame requires to are raised in the manner already de-
be placed next to the keel, and a scribed. When the latter method is
heel tackle will be needed to raise the adopted, the cross spawls are put on
heel to its place. The forward cants the frames before raising them. For
are not usually raised until one or more large ships there should be two sets,
tiers of stagingaround the ship, and and they should be put on the frame
is
the harpens put on the bow. It is ne- at the proper heights for putting on
cessary to have one or two diagonal the clamps of the upper and lower
braces either inside or out, spiked on deck, and of sufficient strength to sus-
the square frames to counteract their tain the weight of two or three of the
r
inclination aft, which has been known beams at the same time. J nose spawls
to cause much
mischief by the excess are cut to the proper breadths of the
of weight, causing the frames to split fiames at those heights as taken from
38
298 MARINE A N D N AVA L ARCHITECTURE,
the floor of the loft, and may be al- plumb-line over the centre keelson, from
ternately put on every other frame, first the centre of all the spawl frames.
above and on the next frame below, When thus bound in ribbands, and
or first a spawl for the upper deck, and securely shored with three tier of
the next frame one for the lower deck shores, set up under the ribbands with
staffe. When the frames are raised, a spike to prevent their heels from be-
as first described, the spawls are put on ing moved, the ship it may be pre-
the frames after the wale stage is sumed is fairly regulated, and the ori-
around the ship, and then only on every ginal temporary shores may be taken
fourth frame. Those fourth frames are away without detriment. Among the
regulated first by being regularly spaced first operations tât should be perform-
on the several ribbands, and set up- ed immediately after a ship is raised
right by a plumb-line and regulated, is that of boring a hole

from the centre
of the spawl to the centre of the keel- with an inch and a quarter auger
son the intermediate frames are regu- through all the butts of the entire
;
lated by dividing or spacing the rib- frame the direction of these holes ;
bands, and setting the frames forward should be diagonally from corner to
or aft, and canting as they require; corner of the butt, half out of each
there should be a sufficient number of timber ; that is to say, a hole inserted
ribbands, and of sufficient size to hold at the moulding-edge on the outside
the vessel firmly to her proper shape. should come through at the bevelline-
While the spawls arc being put on, edge on the inside. The object of these
stage being built, &c, the frames may holes is to insert tree-nails that are
be sawed down and bolted. We mean well-seasoned ; they need not, however,
by sawing- down, running a saw in the be driven only where they are about to
butts at the floor, or first futtock heads ;
be covered, either inside or outside.
should they require one or more cuts, The tree-nails should be prepared and
we may have the same guide for this laid by to season ; and as they are
operation that is furnished in framing, wanted, let them be driven as hard as
viz., the sirmarks or diagonals. possible. The object of this operation
A ship may be said to be regulated is which they do in
to obtain strength,
when the stem and stern post are found the cheapest and most effectual man-
to be plumb, and a line extending from ner they do not cost much, and are
;
the centre of one to the centre of the far preferable to any other kind of
other, and at the same time cutting a dowel that can be used, inasmuch as
there is no chance for the work ofthe bow and on the round of the quarter,
frame at the butt more than elsewhere, see our remarks on sheering, page 140,
which is not the case either with the and onward. An idea may be formed
English mode of dowelling the butt, or of the usual manner of arranging the
of scarphing a chock across the butt. clamps, water-ways, bilge strakes, &c,
It may be fairly assumed that the by referring to a longitudinal view of
ship is now ready for the various op- the transverse section of a ship, as
erations of putting' on the wales, clamps shown in Plate 21 ; the clamps of both
for the upper and lower decks, plank decks are being put on, and the beams
sheers, rails, stern —
and head all of are often ready before the ship is regula
which may be carried on at the same ted hence it follows, that as soon as ;
time, with good management. It is two or three strakes of clamps are

seldom, however, that the plank sheers on, squared and planed off, they
and rail are in the same state of ad- may be placed where they belong,
vancement with other parts ; not, how- bolted at the ends into the clamp, and
ever, because it may not be done with the operation commenced of faying
the same precision and despatch that meantime the upper
knees ; in the
it canat any subsequent period. Our re- sheer strake is being put on, and tin;
marks on sheering will aptly apply here; upper edge run fair and left standing,
it is only necessary to determine how inasmuch as it is designed to seam to
the outside shall be finished, whether the lower side of the plank sheer, which
with flush side or with a projection. has more cant outboard than the round
We determine the thickness ofthe out- ofthe beam would give at the end ofthe
side plank by bending a batten around same. The beams are sometimes regu-
the ® frame on the floor set oft" from lated by fairing the lower sides at the
;
the moulding-edge the thickness we re- centre but this will not answer a good ;
quire ;this will determine the height purpose where the beams show any
at which the full thickness of the wales considerable difference between the
are required; and we may run the size of the middle and ends in the
sheer strake in accordance with the moulding size; they will not make a
arrangement thus made it is best, fair line both below and above.
;
The
however, to run the first strake as near usual method is to fair the tops of the
tin; sir marks as maybe. For running beams, and if the lower deck beams
the deck line, setting up for the inside are in first, they may be shored from
of the plank, both on the flare of the the floors along side of the keelson,
and the upper deck beams may be pearance of the deck frame, be an ad-
shored fair from those of the lower vantage to the ship, and an economical
deck, remembering in both cases that distribution of timber, inasmuch as an
the shores should be kept aside from equality of lengths is a saving of tim-
the centre, that there may be no mov- ber.
ing shores to put up stanchions. Thesometimes the case that the
It is
most efficient mode of fairing the tops knees lap one on the other, and are
of the beams, is by a ram line extend- termed, according to their location,
ing the entire length of the ship, and and bosom knees
lodge the lodge :
hauled taught enough to barely touch knee being fayed first, and being on the
the high beams and we will add, that same side of all the beams
; the bosom ;
the ram line is preferable to any other knee being placed on the opposite side
mode of spotting the beams before fair- of the next beam, forming the same
ing oft* their tops; indeed, we have berth. The siding size of the knees
seldom seen ;i fair deck frame made so must be proportionate to the size of the
by the use of the batten, and we know ship and of the deck frame. The knees
of no reason why the centre of the deck of the upper deck of a ship from 1000
frame should not be quite as fair as at to 1,200 tons, should not be less than
the side of the ship. The framing of 6 inches, and those of the lower deck
the deck should be arranged on a board, from 7 to 7\ inches. If the ship have
or a draft should be made on which three decks, the upper deck may be less.
the hatches, mast, partners, &c, should 5 to 5^ inches, which would be heavy
be shown ; there should be system in enough. It is sometimes the case that
the distribution of the fore and aft the beams of all the decks are made
framing between the beams; the spaces larger, and the distance between them
should be so divided that the carlins somewhat increased, and larger knees
that come between the beams may be used when this mode is adopted, the
;
as near of equal lengths as may be ;

knees are abutted in the centre of the
this can only be done by arranging the berth, and a bosom-piece lapped over
fore and aft pieces by curved lines. It both knees,and the bolts driven through
will be seen, that if the divisions are the whole from the outside. It will
made parallel to the centre, the out- be remembered that two sheer strakes
side berths will be variable. The have been run, the first the upper
builder having the least taste will at wale, the second the upper siring, or
once discover that it will add to the ap- the first strake below the plank sheer,
and the space between has been thus the bow, also on the stern of the lower
far left open we will now state the decks, both for the purposes of strength
;
reason why, viz. to drive the bolts in and of making a. landing for the deck
:
the knees of the deck frame through plank and in all the berths on the
;
the timbers, as before stated, from the bow, if the knees are kept down to the
outside. There should be a bolt in each clamp, they should be covered with
timber, and in some cases two the separate pieces to the height of the
;
iron should correspond in calibre to the beams for receiving the deck plank.
siding size of the knee ; I
iron is heavy The fore and aft framing is sometimes
enough for 6 inch knees, and | per let down below the upper surface of
inch for all below 6 inch,

siding sizes the beam; the principal object in this
but knees above 6 inch, should have is to cut less for the reception of the
one-eighth and one-sixteenth added carlin, and, as a consequence, very
;
this would give for an S inch knee nearly the same amount of st length is
t iron, or one inch and one-eighth in obtained with less timber, and, as a
diameter. Copper is in general used matter of course, less weight. The

of smaller size, but we know of no rea- carlins as used in most of our freight-
son why it should be, apart from its ing ships are too deep for their breadth ;
cost. The proportions we have given a carlin 4^ deep by 8 inches broad, is

will hold good for any sized knee be- much better in several respects than
low 10 inch but it should be remem- those of greater depth and less breadth;
;
bered, that bolts over one and a quar- first, the broad carlin is better to butt
ter inches in diameter should be driven a plank on than a narrow carlin ;
with a ram, and as this instrument is again, it cuts less out of the fore and
seldom used, the size of the bolt is re- and likewise out of the knee
aft piece, ;
duced, and the number of bolts in- and in answer to the only objection
creased. Those large knees referred to that can be made, viz., the liability of
are hanging knees for the lower decks, the spike going through, we say, that (J
breast-hooks, &c. inch spikes will hold in yellow pine in a

Having extended our general re- majority of cases until the head of the
marks, as far as we intended, on the spike is drawn through the deck plank,
knees connecting the beams to the and this is all that should be required.
sides of the ship, we may add, that a We
assuming the deck to be
are '$'?
breast-hook is designed to till up from inches thick and plugged this leads ;
the clamp to the top of the beam on us to another consideration if the (» :

inch spikes will hold the plank to the shown that the sheer of the deck was
carlins, will not same spikes hold
the often much less than that of the out-
the plank to the beams ? Thus we are side; hence it follows, that when this
led to the conclusion that only one sized is the case, the water-way cannot ex-
spikes should be used for both beams tend bow, and commonly merges
to the
and carlins, and there is no liability to into a strake of thick plank forward,
mistakes in getting a beam spike into a usually called sperketting. From 14 to
carlin. It may be assumed that the 15 inches is about as deep as the upper
knees are all fayed and fastened ; the deck water-ways are generally made ;
fore and aft pieces all let down ; the those of the lower deck are not con-
combings of the hatches let down
and fined to any breadth or depth, but are
;
here we would add, that the combings commonly made of yellow pine, and
themselves form fore and aft pieces for sometimes are made of three logs one
the reception of the carlins this is above the other, and of diminished
;
done by making them thicker on the thickness above. We deem it quite

part below the beam, and rabbetting unnecessary to follow up in detail all
the part above thebeam ; the carlins the smaller items of those plain jobs
may be let down and made compare that come within the range of every
to
with the beams; and we will add, if man's experience who has worked on
we desire to have a handsome deck be- a ship. The general outline is all that
low as well as on the top side, we must is needed. It is assumed that the deck
plane off the entire deck frame ; the frame is fair on both decks, and it is
ridges left by the adze between the not assuming too much to say that the
courses can only be removed effectually timbers also are fair hence we say, ;
with the plane. We do not mean by that if the water-ways are fair, and
this remark that the edges of the beams have been correctly bevelled, they only
are to be run fair from spot to spot, require putting in place once, when
but the entire surface then if the deck they will be found to fit to the place
;
plank are properly planed on the bot- they were made for, and may be bolted ;
tom and edges, we may reasonably ex- the upper edge of the upper deck water-
pect a deck setting close to the beams way is designed to seam to the lower
and and not unless this course side of the plank sheer and moulding
carlins,
is adopted. The water-ways may be their whole lengths, beyond which on
brought on board and fayed. the bow the sperketting rises above the
In our remarks on sheering it was deck and continues the sheer, as is
shown on the outside. The plank sheer period. It is presumable that the sheer
in its whole width extends no farther upon the floor is to be tin* sheer of the
than the stanchions are single the ; ship; if so, we have only to set off the
whole frames designed for solid bul- projection outside of the moulding edge
warks make an end of the plank sheer ;
of the timbers, or the line showing the
a moulding, however, is continued same. It will be remembered, that in-
around the bow both out and inside, asmuch as the bow flares, we require
likewise aft, if the ship have poop deck more projection there than elsewhere ,
and solid bulwarks. Before the plank the amount necessary may be obtained
sheers can be laid out, the stanchions by setting off the thickness of the bul-
require to be made and the scant- warks square from the timber, and
fair,
ling size reduced to a suitable taper. then measuring on a line parallel to

It is important to know, before tapering the load-line or base what the bulwarks
the stanchions, the siding way on which will give on the bevel beyond this we ;
side the taper is to be made, else we require the usual projection on the
may be unable to get the plank sheer flare of the bow one inch to one and ;
over the head of the stanchions. The a half is sufficient. (It will be observed,
most ready mode of determining this, that the same projection on the out-
'
is to lay a batten along on the strake's side all around when measured on the
edge against the stanchions, marking level, will appear to be much smaller on
the centre of each stanchion on the the bow than midships, after the bul-
batten, the face side of the bulkhead warks are on.) The amount of projec-
timbers being also marked ; the batten tion being determined, we have only to
may now be raised up to the head of set off on the floor this amount outside
the stanchions, and those centres and
of the rail-breadth ; run in the line,
transferred to the same half of the we have the outside of the rail to which
;
size of the heads may be set off each the harpen mould may be applied, and
side of the spots, and the stanchions a spiling taken if required that is to ;
may be thus reduced to the proper ta- say, if the ship is so finished that the
per,and may be done at the same time rail extends to the knight-heads. It is
that the clamps and strings are being sometimes the case that the moulding
put on. With regard to the sheer of only extends around the bow as far as
the rail, the rope may be carried the oak bulwarks extend when this ;
around by the sirmarks when the low- is the case, it is only necessary to take
er sheers are set, or at any subsequent a spiling from that point aft the ;
length of the plank determined, and the timbers extend above main rail,
the
scarphs arranged on the floor, the width are worked out to the width which the
of the rail may be determined by the thickness of the rail would show on
plank we have, or may be able to ob- the face of the timbers, and bevelled to
tain, not only the shape of the rail may compare with the cant of the rail on
be determined, but the bevel. It is both edges, then being steamed, are
quite as essential that the shape of the bent around. In such cases the ship
top side of the rail down, has no chocks on the bow, but the bul-
should be laid
as that of the lower side; and we will warks are continued above the main
add, that the whole rail may and should rail, both inside and out, and a smaller
be worked out and put together on the rail extends around the forecastle, and
ground before going on board of the is often continued the entire length of
ship. It is presumable that the stanch- the ship, and is known as the hammock
ions have been cut off the length of the or monkey rail. The same remarks
tenon above the line designed for the are applicable aft, in the arrangements
lower side of the rail, and that the of the poop-deck the main rail is con- ;
stanchions, and indeed the entire side- tinued by a moulding the length of the
line, has been moulded fair, with bat- poop deck, and the bulwarks are con-
tens both outside and inside. After tinued above to the upper rail already
those lines have been traced, and alluded to. Thus it will be seen, that
another line run below on the solid when the rail is continued around the
bulwarks, and trimnied out between, bow, it is also continued to the stern
we are ready for the rail, which may without interruption. We unhesita-
be brought on board, put together again tingly say, that the rail of a ship should
on the stanchions, ami cut down to its be worked out bevelled, and the scarphs
destined place, remembering that the fitted before going on board and it is ;
rail should have sufficient cant to turn much easier to fit the work on the
1
the water outside of the ship, except ground than on board the ship. 'J he
on the bow, where it cants less, and is rabbet around the bow on the lower
set to a line straight across at the side of the rail, for the reception of the
knight-heads. The tenons may be cut bulwarks, cannot be cut complete be-
on the stanchions before the rail is put fore the rail down to its place with-
is
on, or they may be laid out and all cut out hazard. The scarphs of a rail should
at the same time. With regard to the be edge-ways; and we deem the key
finish forward, the mouldings, when the scarph to be preferable to the hook
scarph for rails. The thickness of the These^ inquiries are not confined to
raildemands our notice. Commonly other countries; it is quite common
a ship of 1000 tons would receive a for the ship-builders of New-England
rail of 5 inches in thicknessand other parts to make a yearly tour,
; the plank
sheer the same but we would make to canvass the improvements in shape,
;
the plank sheer thicker than the rail, proportions, and finish.
for two reasons first, there is less flare
: It is presumed that enough has been
on the bow at the plank sheer than at said about the plank sheers and rail
the rail; and, as a consequence, though it may be only necessary to add, that
the plank sheer be the same size, it will the plank sheer should be laid out the
appear to be smaller ; second, the thickness of a rule larger than the
strakes we go up-
grow narrower as stanchion all around. In placing the
ward, and consequently make the rail rule staff for taking the spiling of the
appear heavy hence we say, that if
; plank sheer, care should be taken to
the rail requires a thickness of 5 see that the edge of the staff* is square,
inches, we would make the plank and the upper side of the staff is ex-
sheer 5? inches thick at least. The actly at the height at which the top of
width of the from 12 the plank sheer is to
rail is variable, come, and at the
to 15 inches, and even more. We same cant. First take a spiling for the
cannot determine any particular kind shape of the plank, and then for the
of finish for the top work of a ship, stanchions, first by marking their sides ;
there is such an endless variety, and and then taking a large pair of com-
all seem to be adapted to the va- passes, setting them to a definite size,
rious trades for which they are intend- say they are opened wide enough to
ed. This, however, reach from the outside of the stanchions
is altogether un-
necessary the young builder requires to the out edge of the staff, that being
;
only the general outline. We have on the inside of the stanchions the ;
confined our remarks to the manner of compasses may then be applied to every
building ships in this city, which seems stanchion, first outside and then on the
to be the standard for nearly all parts inside ; that is to say, apply one point
of the commercial world. We speak at the outer corner of the stanchion,
advisedly, having been called on from and the other point in the scribe made
all parts of Europe for New- York for the side; make a prick, and then
models, both with regard to the form of do the same with the inside this done ;
the hull, and manner of doing work. on both sides of each stanchion, will
39
306 .MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
furnish correct data tor the holes for the water-way inside. Before we leave
the stanchions; the stanchion deter- the top work, we may show the best
mines all the scarph that is required manner of putting on the bulwarks on
for plank sheer ; one nib will cut with the bow, outside in particular ; they
the side of the stanchion on one side are usually put on of oak, and are
of the plank sheer, and the other nib some 2 inches thick if the bow have
on the opposite sides both of stanchion any considerable flare and is full; the
and plank sheer. They are common- strakes should not be over 3 inches at
ly put over and trimmed fair on the the after end ; we can only approxi-
inside, taken off and the moulding mate the width, inasmuch as the
worked, when they are put over the opening should be equally divided.
stanchions, but not set down and fast- When an attempt is made to put bul-
ened until the ship is fully salted ; sills warks on in 4 to 5 inch strakes, it
for the reception of which are put be- makes a bad job ; the)' coak off from
tween the timbers about the light water- the timbers, are split, splintered, and
line, and extend the entire length of broke, and are an eye-sore to a man of
the ship and in order that the salt
; taste. We have seen bulwarks put on
may run down, part of the chock is re- in parallel widths ; take for example
moved. The heads of all the timbers the opening at the after part of the
are often sawed off" below the lower bulwarks; divide the same into 12 to
side of the plank sheer, in order that 15 strakes. as the case may require ;
the salt may cover them; both the edge make the strake the same width its
of the outside sfrake and that of the whole length, and commencing above
water-way are presumed to have been putting on the strake under the rail,
trimmed fair, both fore and aft, and and continuing down until we shut in
thwartships, and at the same time are aft, and from thence to put on strakes,
out of winde. The plank sheer should shutting in on the plank sheer with
be bolted through every
edgewise every strake growing shorter. If
stanchion, and have at least two bolts this is properly done, it is quite as
through edgewise between the stanch- good as if regularly divided all around,
ions to prevent their being split. As it and is quite an item in saving plank
must be quite apparent that there is the extra width on the luff of the bow
danger, inasmuch as they have no bear- cuts plank to waste. The bulwarks
ing in the centre, they should also be should be narrow from another con-
well-fastened to the strake outside, and sideration the plank is thin, and con-
:
sequently the shrinkage is greater in hatches may now be framed on both

proportion to the breadth of the same decks. Our remarks in relation to the
when the bulwarks are wide. The coamings forming tin; fore amUaft piece.
wales are assumed to be 5 inches thick, applies to the upper deck principally ;
we make them usually 7 inches wide the lower deck coamings are usually
;
now let us see the proportionate width low, barely enough to turn the water
for 2 inches thick, If 5 7 :: 2 we from the hatch.
: The usual fore and
have 7x2-=-5=2! inches and nearly a aft piece forms the hatch on the lower
sixteenth hence it is plain, that we deck there should be a centre strake
; ;
need never be at a loss to know the of deck somewhat wider than the other
proportionate width for any thickness parts; indeed the width of two strakes
of plank that is to be weather proof. would be scarce too wide. This strake
We have more than once seen oak should be prepared by being planed
bulwarks only 2 inches thick that were both sides it should also be thicker ;
about as wide as the wales should have than the deck, inasmuch as it is de-
been. We do not set down 7 inches signed for the centre strake, and to re-
as a suitable width for 5 inch wales ;
ceive the heels of all the stanchions
we say that narrow wales would be between decks. The middle of this
better, andwere showing what is strake should be laid to the centre the
-
usually done. Yellow pine plank reason why it should be thicker is to

shrinks much less than oak, and it is prevent water from running from one
quite common to plank first class steam- side of the ship to the other that may
ships with yellow pine it is equally
; chance to come in the steerage. It is
durable, and more buoyant, and would not always the case that it is thicker,
make a difference of several inches in nor is it absolutely necessary that it
her draught of water, even at the should be so. The stanchions may
same thickness as that of oak ; we now be put up between decks, and by
but
have said that it should be of greater referring to Plate 21, we shall discover
thickness to make up the deficiency that they are turned, and that the two
or loss in strength. decks are confined by a bolt passing
Having extended our general re- through the stanchion and both beams,
marks on plank sheer, rail, bulwarks, with a nut on below the lower deck
and wales, as far as we designed, we beam. When the stanchions are up
now go on board, and commence between decks, and the edge of the
where we left the deck frame. The water-way to which the deck is to seam
30S MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE,
is made fair, the lower deck frame is together with bolts edgewise. It seems
ready for the reception of the deck, to be necessary to have a very consid-
which is commonly and erable thickness to the partners, inas-
laid straight
in parallel widths not to exceed 6 much as the masts, bitts, pumps, &,c.
inches. The upper deck, however, is going through leave but little solidity
usually ready for being laid first, and without considerable thickness. As-
may be so considered when the hatches suming the water-way seam to be fair,
are framed, partners in their place, bitts we shall proceed to delineate the man-
in, framing and sole pieces for windlass ner of laying the upper deck, the beauty
bitts in their place. The framing for of which consists more in its fair, hand-
windlass bitts usually consists of thick somely curved seams, and proportionate
yellow pine, of considerable width, ex- taper, than in the quality of the plank.
tending over two berths, covered by a White pine is preferable to other kinds
sole piece of equal width, and at least of timber for the decks of merchant
I inch thicker than the deck, through vessels. Narrow strakes make the
which the bitts are mortised. We best deck, for two reasons first, there :
have seen the windlass bitts of ships is less shrinkage to the narrow than to
that depended wholly upon the knee the wide plank, and, as a consequence,
that fayed on the forward side of the the deck will remain tight longer the ;
bitts ;the bitts themselves extending second reason is found in the firmness
but 2 inches into the sole piece, which or adherence to the beams of the nar-
was the thickness of the sole piece row over that of the wide deck, where
above that of the deck, having no ex- by some mistaken freak, the deck is
tra framing below, and there being but caulked hard. The width of the plank
one beam to which the knee could be should bear the same proportion at dif-
fastened, must depend upon the sole ferent parts that the deck does that ;
piece principally for support and yet is to say, if the deck at the stern is but
;
such ships have been, and doubtless three quarters of the width of the deck
still are, insured as first class ships. midships, the plank should be the same ;
The fore and main partners are often in other words, if the plank be 5 inches
formed of mahogany, of from 9 to 12 wide midships, 31 would be the width
inches thick, in 2 to 3 widths, and ex- aft, inasmuch as 31 inches an; three-
tending from the fore and main hatch fourths of 5 inches. Again, suppose
to the respective beams aft, and bolted the width of the deck at the fore hatch
securely to the same, also connected is 1 of the whole width, does it not fol-
low that the plank should be the same ? ing a deck, one of which we shall give :
and that if the plank were 5 inches divide the space marked on a batten
wide midships, would be but 4| at
it between the half width taken at' the
the fore hatch. We must determine stern, and the half width taken mid-
how many strakes the deck will require ships, into as many portions as there
at 5 inches. Suppose the deck to be are strakes in half of the .deck, say 20,
from water-way to water-way 33 feet and number the parts as widths in
4 inches wide, which at 5 inches would inches and eighths for example, as we
;
require 80 strakes, only half of which have shown, let the width at the after
we require on each side, now it is plain beam be 3f ; the first of those spots
that the centre seam and
is straight, should be marked 3f and TV ; the sec-
that the curve gradually increases on ond 31 the third 31 and TV the fourth
; ;
every strake as we proceed towards 4 inches, and so on in like manner we

the water-way, and we shall discover advance 20 sixteenths from mark to
that the water-way seam has more mark, and reach the full width, viz., 5
curve than any other seam in the deck ;
inches. It will be understood that we
this symmetry is brought about by the are arranging to work out a strake the
taper of the plank, as same width that the whole deck is to
we shall see.
A batten may be prepared, and the be, and then this strake is arranged and
half width of the deck taken at about regulated with large spikes in the fol-
5 places: 1. at the widest part, lowing manner take a small batten

and 2. :
settings-off forward, and an equal num- and make a scale for an opening of
ber aft, and we have the problem for say 7 strakes, and in order to obtain
solution at once at each of the settings- this we have but to add the 7 widths
off. First, if the midship breadth, being together, or multiply the width of the
16 feet 8 inches, (which is the half of after and we have 28i inches
end by 7, ;
33 feet 4,) gives 5 inches in 40 strakes, we now measure 26i inches from the
what will the half-breadth of the next square end of a small batten, and di-
setting-off give? and we may in this vide the space between the 261 inch
manner obtain the widths at the sev- mark and 35 inches (this being the
eral settings-off. We whole width of 7 strakes 5 inches wide)
cannot adapt
the taper to the bow, and it is not ne- into 7 equal parts, marking each spot
cessary to take a setting-off forward of as follows: the first spot 3} inches;
the foremast. There are other modes the second 31 and TV inches; the third
doubtless equally as good for diminish- M
inches the fourth 41 and TV inches; ;
the fifth 4$ ; the sixth 41 and r\ ; the after end of the plank being tacked, we
seventh 41 ; the eighth 5tV. We thus shift the batten forward, and apply it
discover- that we must either »o into to the opening, where we find the
fractions not found on .the carpenter's plank corresponds in width witli that
rule, or divide the spaee by sixteenths, called for by the next spot on the bat-
inasmuch as seven times one-eighth ten that is to say, where we l\nd the ;
and one sixteenth make one inch one plank to be 31 and iV inches wide, there
quarter and one-sixteenth, which is re we set the strake to the opening found
too much this, however, makes no
; at the second spot ; thus we continue
difference, as we can make the open- the operation until the whole strake is
ing of the space between 5A and 4? set not only to the widest place on the
i
less than the spot at 5 A calls for, and strake, viz., 5 inches, but the whole
we have what we want. The reason distance forward as far as the deck was
is obvious there are t\ difference be- first divided at the fore hatch, from
;
tween the width 41 and5rV; conse- thence the strake may continue fair to
quently one-third off leaves just what the sperketting. If the strake thus set
we want, viz., 5 inches. We have se- is fair, or shows a fair outboard edge,
lected an odd number of strakes for we may readily conclude that our di-
two reasons first, that we might make visions are correct, and may run off
:
the most intricate case of division that any irregular swell the inboard edge
would be at all likely to occur perfectly may show; the strake being about what
plain our second reason was, that we we want, may be fastened.
; Due at-
might have the shutters in the deck tention to the manner of fastening is
properly distributed and we would quite essential for a white pine deck
; ;
add, that every fourth strake should be of not more than 5 inches wide, one
a shutter if we would have a tight deck. spike in each beam andcarlin is enough,
Our batten being prepared, we must except at the butts they should be ;
apply it aft, the square end against the crossed alternately, first on one edge
water-way, and tack the strake at the of the plank the next on the opposite ;
first spot here we discover the strake edge.

; The same arrangement should
is 3! inches wide, and that 7 strakes of be made with the beams and carlins ;
the same width will fill up the opening, the spike should be one-third of the
because 7 times 31 make 26t inches, width of the plank from the edge its ;
and that is the distance of the first length must be determined by the thick-
mark from the end of the batten; the ness of the plank. Having fastened
our first strake, we may use the same may be taken on a batten and carried
settings-off' or scale for another open- to the plank. The shutter should be
ing of seven strakes inboard from the driven in tight, but it will not answer
first ; this strake, it will be perceived, to make the plank more than one-six-
forms less curvature than the first, and teenth larger than the opening, else we
each strake must of necessity continue will be liable to shatter the plank in
to straighten as we approach the cen- driving down. It is a common prac-
tre this strake being worked to the tice to chamfer the shutter
; this is ;
width called for, and the opening set wrong, the upper edge of the plank
by the batten, showing at the same forming the opening should be cham-
time a fair seam or edge, may also be fered, if any the seam below should ;
fastened. We now have one-half or be as tight as possible.

one side of the deck divided into three We have said that the divisions of
principal openings, two of which are the openings were not arbitrary we
;
equal. This arrangement, however, will also add, that the precise manner of
is not arbitrary; the last strake may dividing is not arbitrary. We have
interfere no only shown the principle
with the hatches, as it the manner ;
doubt would. We may divide again, of dividing may be left with the prac-
and take a fourth strake from the first, titioner. We may take such number
and having the strake and opening to of strakes as shall make an even num-
agree, the strake may be fastened, and ber of'eighths, or sixteenths, or thirty-
another made to seam to it on each seconds of an inch, or we may adopt
side; so of the first, this will leave an the decimal mode, as shown on page
opening of one strake, which is term- 3 ; the principle is the same;where the
ed the shutter ; the outside berth or taper is more gradual the marks or
opening may be divided by on the batten will be closer
having a settinos-off
strake in the centre, and to that centre together than where the openings in-
strake another on each side, which will crease or diminish faster but again, ;
(by adding another strake to seam to the same gradation, in fact the same
the water-way) leave the remainder of scale, applies equally to a more or less
the deck in shutters those openings gradual taper; that is to say, in adapt-
;
may be filled by bringing the plank on ing our scale to an opening to be filled
board with only one edge planed, and with a given number of strakes, having
worked out to the size of the opening reached the largest part of the opening,
on deck, or the size of the opening and the opening begins to grow smaller,
but in a diminished or increased ratio, ing of 30 inches requires 6 strakes 5
it makes no difference in the scale, be- inches wide, and 33 inches also re-
cause the opening is to be rilled with quires 6 strakes of 5J wide, must be it
the samenumber of strakes as the first. equally clear that if the space between
The same principle applies to the divi- the 30 and the 33 inch mark be equal-
sion of the batten for planking, to ly divided into 4 parts, that each of the
which, however, less attention is paid, marks will represent the width required
because ii is not necessary that the plank to fill the opening in 6 strakes at any
on the outside should be of equal width, place where the opening corresponds
but it is very important that the deck with the mark. For example, we
should be very nearly equal in the width make the first mark from the square
of the strakes. We may adopt the end 30 inches at 30* inches we mark ;
same mode in the strings, taking the the batten 5£ ; at the second, 2 or li
opening forward between the strakes inches we mark 5i; at the third, S or
under the plank-sheer and the upper 21 inches we mark 5| at the fourth, ;
wale, assuming that it was in accord- 4 or 3 inches we mark 5i inches now ;
ance with this width, or with an equal does it not appear plain, that the six-
division of the strakes that the first eighths of space between the spots re-
strake was put on
assuming the open- present the six strakes ? and it would
;
ing to be one of six strakes, or that six make no difference whether it were
strakes of the same width as the upper sixteenths, eighths, or quarters of the
one will fill the opening suppose inch of space between the spots farther
;
the opening forward to be 30 inches, than this. The closer the spots on the
and midships to be 33 inches, is it not batten, the jiearer will be the settings-
plain that the strakesmust be 5 inches off or the widths furnished to line the
wide, inasmuch as 6 times 5 are 30 ? plank by if, however, the spots or ;
and is it not also quite as clear that widths are given within 5 feet of each
the width midships must be 5h inches, other, it is near enough. We may pre-
inasmuch as 6 times 5b are equal to sent this subject in another form, to
33 inches ? Thus we discover that on which we have referred the widths ;
a batten 33 inches long, we may make may be expressed in decimal parts of

a scale by which to determine the the foot for example 5 inches equal
; :
widths of the strings, provided the .42, and 5i equal .43 so with 5i ;
opening be as we have assumed it to which equal .44 in like manner 5'i ;
be ; hence it is plain, that if an open- equal .45 and 5i correspond with ;

.46 ; thus we discover that the deci- It is not important that each strake
mal parts of the foot express all we should be exactly of the same width
require, and furnish a universal system below the wales indeed it adds to the ;
by which all may work if we require symmetry of the whole structure to

:
the sixteenth of an inch expressed in have the strakes freed from that con-
decimals, we may have it also thus, tinued sameness that is consequent
005. We would be glad if this system upon having a great many strakes of
were universal in the ship-yard as well the same width. The strings appear to
as on the tables of displacement, what advantage equally divided, as also do
an almost endless number of mistakes from 10 to 14 strakes of the wales,
might be avoided One man expresses, (the number of strakes of wales is va-«
!
for example, five inches and three quar- liable, according to the shape and size
ters, 516 another will set it down 51; a of the ship,) but below these the di-
;
third 5? a fourth would call the first minishing strakes and the bottom plank
;
example 5 feet 6 inches hence it may vary in width to advantage. The

;
must be clear to the thinking man that true principle in planking and ceiling
all mechanics, particularly those of the may be shown in the following exposi-
same business, should express mea- tion suppose a spot is made at the:
surements in the same manner. What wood ends, both forward and aft the
now seems perfectly legible to one man, height any named strake is required
is hieroglyphics to another and we to come, a spot may also be made on
;
unhesitatingly say, that every mechanic one of the midship frames at which the
should fully understand the decimal same strake is required to come. We
expressions as shown on page 3. will now assume that a ram line be
It may not be necessary to carry drawn straight from the wood ends
our expositions farther, believing that forward to the same aft, and made fast
they will be readily understood by the at each spot we will next suppose we ;
thinking reader. The same rules ap- can take a range that wilt bring the
ply equally well to any part of the ship, line and the spot made midship in the
but need not be applied on the outside. direction of each other; while the eye
Indeed they cannot be applied with any thus cuts the spot midship, let others
considerable advantage until the bilge be made at convenient distances for
is reached from below, and then we may lining from one to the other, both for-
not find it advisable to be confined to ward and aft; and having the line
equal divisions from the graded scale. stricken around the side or bottom, we
40
have the direction the strake should not necessary either to run the line or
run; it matters not whether the strake to apply the straight edge. We have
points high or low whether the strake
: described them as being the best modes
be on the bottom or on the side. It of illustrating the subject. With re-
may be thought that because of the gard to the ceiling, it does not follow
cross seam preventing the rise of the that the strakes would run as they do
after end, the ride would be useless; outside. We may run them in the di-
but this makes no difference the strake
; rection of the water-lines if we please,
comes outboard on the transom in the with the ends down and the middle up,
same ratio that the forward end rises. and still the principle is not affected ;
• This we say is the true principle upon or we may keep the ends higher than
which the direction of the plank both those on the outside. We may readi-
inside and outside should run. If the ly make the application of our first ex-
young beginner is desirous to have position with the same line on the in-
this mode made familiar to his eye, he and set the bilge strake in this
side,
may apply a long straight edge on the manner. The manner of arranging the
upper e<\ge of any strake he may select keelsons, bilge strakes, and ceiling, is
on the bottom at say one-third of its not arbitrary. Plate 21 exhibits a
length from forward or aft let the very efficient mode of adding strength
;
straight edge be long, and for conve- to a ship in the distribution of the keel-
nience it may be placed with its upper sons, thick strakes, &.c. It may now
edge at the seam, and the outer end be necessary to return to the clamps,
be left moveable, in order that it may both between decks and in the lower
be raised or lowered until the eye and hold. We assumed that it was only
the edge of the strake blend into each necessary to run two or three strakes
other he will then readily discover any before putting the beams across
; we ;
discrepancy in the direction —

in other may, at a suitable time after the deck
words, a swell or a hollow will be readi- is laid, run the remaining strakes.
ly detected. Before moving the There may be some objections in the
straight
edge, let another be placed one-third minds of many to this course, inas-
from aft, both at the seam and out of much as the tree-nails in the wales
wind with the first the sight being now being driven, must of necessity be cut
;
taken from aft, we shall see how the off and wedged on the timbers, that
strake forward accords with the prin- the tree-nails should go through the
ciple laid down. We repeat that it is clamps. To obviate this the tree-nails
MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. 31o
may be left out of those strakes, par- designed to come through) more than
ticularly opposite the lower deck is actually necessary to hold the plank
clamps ; it is quite common, however, to the timbers, until all the through
to commence below, or at the bilge to fastening from the outside
is in and ;
ceil, and follow up with the clamps. we have known ships that were thus
We think this mode objectionable, in- systematically fastened to be set down
asmuch as it keeps the lower deck be- as slightly so, because the fastening
hind, or in a less forward state of ad- was not all put in when the plank was
vancement than the upper deck, which put on.
should not be the case under ordinary With regard amount of fast-
to the
circumstances. ening that ships require, we may add,

With regard to the strength of tree- that ships having two or more decks
nails, there can be no question of their require 40 pounds of iron and copper
adding a great amount of strength to fastening for every ton of displace-
a ship ; but where the plank is heavy ment. This, if properly distributed, will
and the timbers light, we prefer bolts, square fasten the ship that is to say, it ;
particularly on the inside of a ship, will allow 2 bolts or spikes in every tim-
where the corrosive influence of rust is ber where there are no tree-nails, with
less than on the outside. We say that an abundance for frame bolts, thick
the tree-nails may be driven harder strakes, keelsons, breast-hooks, deck
through the wale and timber than if frames, hanging knees, stanchions in ;
they extended through the clamp, and a word, for all the metal fastening re-
being wedged on the timbers, are equal- quired in a ship.
ly as good as if they extended through We deem it qufte unnecessary to
;
and, as a consequence, kept a bolt out our remarks on the manner

protract
of the lower deck clamps, where of construction in the present chap-
the outside plank is usually thiner than ter, nor would we underrate the ability
on the outside of those above. There of those who may feel themselves
should be system in fastening ships, qualified to build a ship. The expo-
and indeed all kinds of vessels, and we sition of some important rules that have
have been often surprised to see the been illustrated but not explained, may
loose and random manner in which suffice for this chapter.
fastening was put in ships. Not a bolt The first we shall notice is found on
or spike should be driven in the ceil- Plate 8, Fig. 1. This represents one
ing or clamps (where the tree-nails are of the readiest modes of obtaining the
sweep of a beam-mould or arch-board. ture of a circle. It will be perceived,
It will be discovered, that like all other that inasmuch as the quarter circle is
sweeps it has a base-line this line is divided into equal parts, it is necessary
;
straight, and extends the entire length to divide the large circle in the same
the mould is required to be. The cen- manner and that the segment of the
;
tre of this length is obtained, at which large circle cannot be divided before it
point a perpendicular is raised, and the is made; and for the purpose of ob-
required round set up, a quarter circle an approximation, we have
taining
being swept from the perpendicular to shown the angles a square line, how- ;
the base, is divided into any convenient ever, would doubtless answer the same
number of parts. The diagram shows purpose. Fig. 2 shows another mode
5 equal parts each side of the centre. of obtaining the same, but is better
As will be seen, the quarter circle is adapted to sweeps that have more
also divided into 5 equal parts, both round in an equal length than Fig. 1.
on the base and on the circle, and lines For example: to an arched hog frame
drawn from one to the other; the an- on a steamboat, Fig. 2 would be bet-
gle is then taken with a protrac- ter adapted for showing its periphery
tor or bevel in the direction of the than Fig. 1 ; it is quite simple, and is
division and at the corresponding lines made, as will be seen, by first striking
on the base, that will bring their in- a base, then raising a perpendicular,
clination from the centre of the base, as and setting up the height of the re-
shown in the dotted lines ; the sev- quired arch ; this height divided into
eral heights of the dotted lines in theany number of parts, a sufficient num-
quarter circle may next be taken, and ber to sweep by is all that is required
applied on those inclined lines, and a from the upper spot strike a line to
batten bent to the spots; while the the terminus, from which we raise
batten is thus bent, we may divide the another perpendicular, and again di-
curve shown by its edge into equal vide as before. Lines stricken to all
parts ;we then remove the bat- those settings-off, and repeated on the
ten without marking it, and draw lines opposite side, will furnish intersections
from the divisions on the base to the on their corresponding lines, as shown
last divided spots, and set up the heights in Fig. 2, and arc the spots required
on those lines; again bend the batten for the circumference of the circle.
to the last spots, and mark by the bat- We have also shown, on Plate 11,
ten the curve, which is the true curva- another mode of obtaining the same
curve, usually used for beam moulds which joins the two extremities of the
it formed by the base perpendicular arc of a curve, so called from the re-
is
and equal division principle it is sim- semblance which the arc and the chord
;
ple in its construction, and requires, together have to a bow and its string,
we think, only to be attentively ex- the chord representing the string;) sub-
amined, as shown by the diagram, to tract 25 degrees (which is half the
be readily understood. Fig. 1, Plate given angle) from 180, and the differ-
18, is designed to describe the arc of ence, 155 degrees, will be the supple-
a circle that shall contain anv form an angle of 155
number ment ; then
of degrees the operation being per- degrees with two rulers, and proceed as
;
formed without compasses, and in one shown in the diagram. Fig. 2, Plate
particular like the former examples, 18, shows the proportionate taper of
without finding the centre of the cir- spars. We have assumed that either
cle place two rulers forming an angle, of the straight boundary lines were
:
as shown in the diagram let the angle

; the base, and have dropped the per-
be equal to the supplement of half the pendiculars from the circle to both
given number of (The sup- lines, showing that the results are the
degrees.
plement of an arc or angle is what same. This sweep, used by spar-
must be added to it in order to make makers, (when there were fewer spars
a semicircle or ISO degrees,) and fix made than at the present time,) fur-
them as shown, their connection above nished the proportionate taper of all
being the altitude we require, or their sized spars. But the practice of draw-
upper edges forming the angle we de- ing a sweep for a spar of any descrip-
sire with the base. Place two pins at tion, has long since grown obsolete ;
the extremities of the given chord at it is only necessary to know the length
the termination of the sweep, and hold and diameter, and the spar-maker will
a pencil in the socket formed by the at once mark with a piece of chalk
union of the rulers above, or on their these same proportions on his rule
upper edge then move the edges of within the half diameter of the spar in
:
this instrument against the pins, and its largest place. Suppose the spar to
the pencil will describe the arch re- be made be a yard 75 feet long and 18
quired. Suppose it is required to de- inches in the slings, or 4 feet of length
scribe an arch of 50 degrees on a chord for every inch of diameter, which
of given length, or on a base of given is recognized as the proportion for
length, (the chord is the straight line smaller spars in the mercantile marine,
1*>! would be the proper diameter for now in use, and in order that we may
this yard 'but this is about as near as
; be clearly and fully understood, we will
spar- makers generally come to any add, that it is not our purpose to fur-
standard of proportions. Another ex- nish in this chapter any proportions
ample may serve to show how near for spars as connected with the vessels
proportions are carried out in spar- for which they are intended, but to
making: the ends of lower yards are analyze the manner of proportioning
set down at half than half the one part of a spar to the other
an inch less
the size of the slings, but it is quite after the dimensions are given ; in a
common to find them botli above and word, we have at present nothing to
below this medium. We have long say to the builder who furnishes the
since come to this conclusion from dimensions of the spars, but to the
close observation, that proportions for spar-maker who makes them ;
(they,
yards were far from being good. however, are often confined to glaring
Doubtless the experience of a long life errors and manifest discrepancies by
of sea-service would scarcely witness the masters of vessels, who suppose
the carrying away of a yard in any they know about all.) We will com-
other part than the slings ; this, it pare the proportions given at the sev-
seems to us, should teach the think- eral settings-off of a yard with those
ing man that they are too small in the we shall propose, and draw such in-
slings. The manifest error in the ferences as the subject may demand.
same rule when applied to lower masts, Assuming a lower yard to be 80 feet
becomes apparent, even to the casual long, and 20 inches in the slings, strike
observer. A lower mast, of 85 feet, a centre line on the spar, (after spot-
would be made not less than 32 inches ting it to prevent its rolling,) middle it,
in the partners, which would differ but and divide each half length into 4
little from one inch of diameter for equal parts, which, with the middle and
every 2s feet of length. There never end, will make 5 spots or settings-off.
has been any system brought forward The ordinary settings-off or sizes to be
that would universally apply to all de- applied at the several spots each side
scriptions of spars we cannot, how-
; of the centreline would be as follows:
ever, suppose that the proportions now in the centre 10 inches ; at the first set-
used for lower, top-sail, and top-gallant ting-off from the centre on each end.
yards, are free from manifest discre- 91 ; at the second setting-off or spot,
pancies. To illustrate tin- proportions St inches ; at the third, 7 inches ; and
Sii
MARINE AND NAVAL
,VA ARCHITECTURE. 319
at the fourth spot or end, 41 inches. recognized in the ship-yard as, and
Thus we discover that in the slings taken with, the be.vel. It does not,
the yard is 20 inches; at the first set- however, necessarily follow, that the
ting-off 191 inches ; at the second, mitre can be obtained only in the angle
17£ inches ; 14 inches
at the third,
of 45 degrees the equal division of
; ;
and at the end, 9i inches. We have any angle into two parts constitutes
shown another kind of sweep in Fig the mitre of that angle 45 degrees is
-
.
;
3, that will furnish better proportions the mitre of a square ; 90 degrees, or

than that of Fig. 2 : by applying the the square, is the mitre of the semi-
settings-off as taken from the diagrams circle, or of ISO degrees. It makes no
to the scale of three-quarters of an difference how large or how small the
inch, we shall discover the variations circle may be that is to be divided into
in the size of the same yard, of the degrees. The circle of our earth con-
same size in the slings, and an equal tains no more degrees than that of an
number of settings-off. The first set- orange, and the angles are the same ;
ting-off from the sling furnishes the hence we say, that the only correct
same as the first, 19£ inches the sec- mode of taking the dead rise of vessels,
;
ond, 16? inches ; the third, 12 inches ;

or of their sharpness, is by taking the
and the end, 6f inches. Now, we hesi- angle in degrees, or by taking the frac-
tate not to say. that spar-makers them- tional parts of a foot of rise, &c, con-
selves will acknowledge that a yard tained in a foot, which is the same
made by those dimensions would be as thing ; it applies to the rake of masts,
likely to break any where else as in the descent a vessel has on the stocks,
the slings, and not any more of course ; and of the ways and we
for launching ;
there should be an allowance in size confidently believe that were angular

for the weakening tendency of the measurements adopted more generally
sheave-hole, and beyond this nothing in the ship-yard, much might be gained
more would be required. Fig. 4, by way of correcting errors and of fa-
Plate 18, is designed to illustrate the cilitating work.
division of the circle into degrees or Although much has been said by
angles ; mathematicians in all ages about the
the quarter of the circle con-
taining 90 degrees and forming the circle, and the determination of the
square, and one-eighth containing 45 ratio of the circumference to the di-
degrees, which is the mitre or the right ameter, yet it still remains a problem
angle equally divided, and is usually for solution, and the circle, in connec-
trun with the straight line, are the only diameter, (or differs but a trifle from
two figures admitted into plane or ele- that proportion.) The usual mode of
mentary geometry and ,the question
; determining the circumference from
may have bce.ii often asked, what has the diameter is as follows, (and is near
geometry to do with the practical op- enough for ordinary purposes :) multi-
erations of a ship-yard? We
answer, ply the diameter by 22, and divide the
much more than is generally supposed. product by 7, the quotient will be the
Did the operative mechanic mingle the circumference very nearly. But again,
elementary principles of geometry with the cone has a prominent claim on the
his daily practice, he would he enabled attention of practical men in the con-
to cut closer or with more certainty of struction of ships, as well as other
success. Why is it that the butt of a branches of mathematics. The opera-
plank on the luff of a vessel'sbow is tive mechanic would be awed into
cut too short or too long? or why does wonder, at the astounding intelligence
the blacksmith make a band or the that the sni of a plank may be deter-
grummet of a yard too large or too mined with far greater accuracy by
small ? It is he has never the aid of conic sections than with a
because
studied the properties of the circle if rule staff; the blacksmith may also be
;
he had, he would have learned that his better enabled to band a bow-sprit cap
bar of iron should be three times its with a knowledge of the properties of
thickness longer than the circumference the cone, and yet the circle and the
of the spar, rudder, or whatever is to straight line furnish all the figures that
be banded, in addition to the weld, inas- are necessary to its practical applica-
much as the circle is three times the tion.
v
t
! fe *-
•+
*~.
C H*
«B. » *
CHAPTER X.
Steamboats —Ocean Steamers— Coasting Vessels—Vessels Suited to River Navigation.
With and patriotism ordinary calibre inasmuch as his first

feelings of pride ;
we launch into the subject forming steamboat was crude both in dimen-
the van of the present chapter. As' sions and form, lacking that essential
the discovery of the art of printing has qualification, stability, and was subse-
partially and must finally dispel the quently widened, in order to afford the
gloom of barbarism, so the discovery necessary amount.
and application of steam to navigation It may not be out of place to fur-
and the purposes of commerce, tend to nish a brief description of Mr. Fulton's
elevate the physical and moral condi- first effort at steamboat building, more
tion of mankind. In connection with particularly when we are assured that
the history of steam navigation, the no mechanical drawing of the hull was
name of no individual stands more ever made. The boat was 133 feet
prominent than that of Robert Fulton, long, 18 feet wide, and 7 feet deep, and
a man of whose genius, indomitable was subsequently made 22 feet wide,
perseverance, and unbending ener- by adding a strip of 4 feet to her mid-
gy, Americans may well be proud. dle, which also increased her length to
Whether we witness in our imagina- 141 feet. Her bottom was formed of
tion his experiments submarine and yellow pine plank of 1* inches thick,
in
torpedo warfare in France, in 1801, or tongued and grooved, and set together
on the 17th of August, 1807, form with white lead. This bottom or plat-
one of the incredulous company that form was laid on a transverse platform,
thronged the wharves of this city to and moulded out with batten and nails.
witness his first effort to navigate the The shape of the bottom being thus for-
Hudson by steam at the then surpass- ward, the floors of oak and spruce were
ing speed of 5 miles per hour, we must placed across the bottom the spruce ;
regard him as a man possessing me- floors being 4x8 inches, and 2 feet
chanical powers of mind of an extra- apart ; the oak floors being reserved
41
for the engine, and the spruce for the Fulton's own hand in 1808. Plate 22
ends the oak floors both sided and furnishes an exact copy taken from
;
moulded 8 inches. Her top-timbers the original drawing of the steamboat

(which were of spruce, and extended Raritan, built to run on the Raritan riv-
from a log that formed the bilge to the er. In shape she differs but little from
deck) were sided 6 inches and mould- the Clermont, and with the exception
ed 8 at heel, and both sided and of an amendment in dimensions, and the
moulded 4 inches at the head. She addition of guards, she is a fair repre-
had no guards when first built, and sentation of the first steamboat that
was steered by a wheel in a cockpit.. plied the waters of the Hudson. We
Her draught of water was 28 inches. shall giveMr. Fulton's instructions for
She had 1 boiler 20 feet long, 7 feet building this boat, as appended to the
deep, and 8 feet wide her cylinder; draft, and directed to Mr. Livingston,
was 24 inches in diameter, with 4 feet in his own words :
stroke her wheel was 15 feet in di-

; " As you will have more and greater
ameter, with 8 arms the buckets or
;
waves than the North river boat, the
paddles had 30 inches face, and 2 feet wheel guards must be so constructed
dip her shaft was of cast iron, 4J
;
that the head of the wave shall not
inches in diameter, under the deck, and strike under them. I would finish
had a fly-wheel of 10 feet diameter out- them as here delineated : they are 4
side of the boat the arms of the wheel
;
feet from the water A A, keelsons for
;
extended below the bottom, and were the boiler, 8 feet 6 inches from outside
the source of great inconvenience in to outside B B, keelsons for the ma-
;
shoal water. She was called first the chinery, 7 feet from outside to outside
;
North River, and subsequently the C, hatchway to let in the boilers, 8

Clermont, in honor of Chancellor Liv- feet 4 wide, 21 feet long. See Figure
ingston, who resided at Clermont, on
the 1st. ROBERT FULTON.
the Hudson, about 40 miles below Al- " October 22d, 1808.
bany. As no complete draft of the
" John R. Livingston, Esq."
hull of this boat (either before or after
she was widened) has ever been shown, We
cannot but look upon the first
the world cannot contrast all the im- efforts of Mr. Fulton at steamboat
provements of nearly half a century building with admiration possessing a
; ;
but we show our readers the sec- mind in every respect adequate to the
shall
ond boat, designed and drawn by Mr. gigantic enterprise that lay before him ;
wasting health and life in midnight has been invaded, and as if regardless
thought and painful study; dreaming of his regal wrath expanded in foam-
of science in the broken slumbers of ing billows, or the caresses of his
an exhausted mind, he steadily pressed boundless mirror.
on toward the goal of all his hopes, The construction of steamboats has
and in the year 1816 had constructed engaged some of the loftiest concep-
and supervised the building of 15 steam tions of the* age, and our steam river
vessels during a period of 10 years, navigation still forms a great theatre
the longest of which was 175 feet. of nature, inviting us to those bold
It wan Id have required a vision of researches in which science engages
more than ordinary strength to have with such keen delight.
looked through the vista of time for a In our expositions on the laws of
distance commensurate with less than resistance, we took occasion to make
half a century to a period when
some deductive remarks on steamboats,
the
speed of steamboats upon the same which may be found on page 66, and
river on which Fulton harnessed his onward. In building steamboats, the
trackless steed, should have increased first and most important consideration
from 5 to 20 miles per hour, and when is proper dimensions, without which
the motive power (versus pressure on our hopes for superiority will be futile.
the boiler) should be increased from There is no analogy existing between
that of 8 to 50 pounds per square the proportions of length, breadth or
inch ; we say that the mind capable depth of steamboats, as compared with
of grasping and keeping pace with such sailing vessels, (we allude to river boats
wondrous results, in so short a time, as now constructed on the Hudson

must be expansive indeed but when and other rivers.) The reason is ob-
;
we remember that not only this, but vious to the thinking-man they are —
far greater achievements belong to required for great speed, which is only
America in steam navigation, the com- attainable by having great length and
mercial world instinctively bows to the a sufficiency of breadth to secure the
fecundity of American genius, while stability of equilibrium, and no more
her ocean steamers are ploughing depth than the grand object at which
trackless furrows in every sea, and we aim (viz., speed) requires. The
leaving their tardy rivals far in their reasons will, we think, appear obvi-
wake. Such has been the progress of ous: first, great length pie-supposes
steam, that the domain of old Neptune acute lines ; or, in other words, two
ends, and but little middle longitudi- some other boats that could scarce
nally ; that is to say, an additional make the run within 8 hour? This
breadth is added to the sides of the enterprise can only be accor yplished
model for the purpose of making it by allowing the builder to have discre-
sharper ; hence it follows, that if the tionary power in dimensions, shape,
additional length were added to the and the
and the weight of the boat ;
ends for the purpose of sharpening engineer to proportion the engine and
them, no addition can be made to the boilers in accordance with his superior
middle in length that will accomplish judgment and the captain to have ;
the same object. We mean by this, that nothing to say farther than to judge
great speed cannot be gained by in- of the quality of the materials 'and of
creasing the length midships, and re- the work. We are persuaded that it
taining the same or nearly the same would be much more difficult to secure
shaped ends as before this, however, such an arrangement, than to accom-
;
is often done to secure alight draught plish the work of building the boat to
of water, but always at the expense of perform the trip in the given time ;
speed true, we may gain an equal consequently we must allow those pas-
;
amount of stability with less breadth in sengers whose business compels them
the boat having short ends and a long to travel in haste, to take the railroad,
middle, and in addition to this the boat until captains and owners shall have
is made to show a smaller registered learned, that that which they cannot
tonnage. But look at the consequences; do, can be done by mechanics.
the boat shorn of her speed from 1
is A light draught of water seems to
to 5 miles per hour, and at once set be the grand desideratum with the
down when she
as a second class boat, greatest portion of steamboat men ;
might, with the same cost, have been but unless it is obtained at the expense
rated a first. of weight, or by other means than those
Steamboats in this age of the world generally adopted, it is only secured at
are rated by their speed, or in accord- the expense of speed. It would be
ance with the degree of speed attained ;
hazardous to attempt to furnish any
and we think we hazard nothing in standard of proportionate dimensions
stating it our firm conviction, for steamboats the circumstances are
to be ;
that steamboats may be built that would so variable under which steamboats
be able to make the run to Albany are built, that what would be a jusl
w ithin 6 hours, at no greater cost than proportion in one case, would be far
from the same in another. The engine she should present but little really flat
and boilers are so variable in the altitude surface to the fluid. Abundant proof
of their centre of gravity, that the di- of this is afforded almost every day of
mensions and the power should be the travelling season on the Hudson
taken in connection under ordinary a river doubtless unsurpassed for its
;
circumstances from 9 to 10 feet of natural facilities afforded for experi-

length to 1 of breadth, and 3 of breadth menting on a wide and extensive scale
for 1 of depth, are deemed just propor- —
on steamboats being at some parts
tions for river boats with beam engines. wide and deep, while at others it is
Many persons have supposed, that if narrow and shoal and again, in other
;
the relations between the breadth and places narrow and deep, while at
depth remained the same, that the another we find it wide and shoal.
length might be increased to advan- Thus the observing mechanic may
tage for speed. This is not strictly readily determine the best shape for
true ; the stability is sensibly affected speed, even though he be unskilfully
when this is the case ; but it does not versed in the philosophy of nature's
follow that the breadth should be in- laws. The boat, with an extensive flat
creased on all parts of the greatest or straight surface on the bottom when
transverse section in the same ratio ;
in shoal water, will generate a much
our object may be gained by increas- larger wave on each quarter than the
ing the breadth at the load-line of flo- boat having less, and will actually
tation, while at the middle of the bilgeground when another will pass over,
it remained as before. We have al- that would actually draw more water
ready remarked, that an easy bilge was when at rest the same results are ;
an essential qualification for high consequent upon the straight side lon-
speed, and that a large column of water gitudinally when the boat is near the
should pass between the wheel and the shore. Few indeed there are who can
bilge. This answers a two-fold purpose: form a just conception of the effect
it cuts down the resistance., and at the upon the speed of a steamboat when
same time sustains the boat where in shoal water, or in a narrow pass of
buoyancy is most required and while the river. ;
it is absolutely necessary that the boat With regard to the proper shape for
should be entirely flat, that is to say, speed, we will say, that the greatest
that she should have little or no dead- transverse section or <3> frame is found
rise ; it is also still more essential that to be well adjusted when in the centre
of length, and the buoyancy equally two-thirds of the distance from the
distributed each side of the longitudi- stem to the 0, we should have lifted a
nal centre of length. The centre of sheet of water close to the stem, which
effort should be higher than would again meet us with redoubled
in sailing
vessels, to counteract the leverage of force, and must again be thrown off in
the engine, or its centre of gravity over consequence of the accelerated force
that of the centre of displacement, it with which it moves. It should be re-
being usually above the deck of the membered that this sheet of water
boat. Although the displacement on raised on the bow generates a wave,
the two ends of the boat should be (and that wave, unlike one generated
about equal, it does not follow that by the friction of the wind, that merely
they should be of the same form, either oscillates and has no progressive mo-
at the line of flotation or on any part tion ;) this wave meets the bow again
below that line ; the sharpest end of farther aft, but the resistance is in
the boat should go foremost, and yet it creased by the accelerated motion oy
end cannot the wave, which is thrown off ana
1
must be observed, the after

be a great deal fuller than the fore again returned with increased force
end, or the centre of buoyancy would thus a succession of concussions talc
not be at the centre of length ; this is place, that diminishes the speed to
accomplished by making the lines on very great extent. It requires but ?
the bow hollow longitudinally ; this glance at the inevitable results, to ena-
form of line makes the least disturb- ble us to imagine the amount of r«
ance, and if sufficiently acute, will not sistance on the bow of a steamboal,
translate the fluid into foam by throw- when we remember that the vertical
ing it off from the bow we may rest
; pressure on each square foot of surface
assured, that there is an unnecessary of fluid equals 2,160 pounds, and tlu>l
amount of resistance where the fluid there must be an excess of pressure

is either thrown off or the smallest on the bow before the wave can be
wave generated. A given amount of formed. The pressure on the bow and
fullness may be forced through must be equal to the whole pow-
the stern
water with less disturbance, by entering er of the engine and as the speed of ;
with an acute line and gradually in- the boat is increased, the wheel makes
creasing the angle of resistance as we more revolutions with the same pres-
advance ; whereas, had we commenced sure of steam. The number of revolu-
with the same angle that we present tions of the wheel in a given time, niul-
liplied by the periphery of the wheel that although the large wheel is with-
taken at the centre of the bucket or out doubt favorable to high speed, (pro-
paddle, furnishes data for determining vided we have steam to handle it,) yet
the relative speed of a boat ; but there if we determine to obtain great speed
is a certain allowance to be made for with a large amount of power (and a
what is usually termed the slip of the large wheel) from a bad shape, we may
wheel, which is the yielding property get disappointed. We may make the
of the water ; this amount is usually boat bear a load of resistance beyond
set down 20 per cent., but is varia- her strength, and shiver the wheel into
at
ble, consequent upon the amount of fragments with power, and she may go
dip to the bucket, the number of arms no faster. There is a certain amount of
in the wheel, &c. speedadaptedtoevery shape,and beyond
It must be quite apparent that a this she will not go but it does not ;
steamboat cannot turn her wheel follow that when the bow, for example,
around as often in a given time when has been driven up to its highest speed,
made fast at the wharf, as when in that the stern has also attained its
motion or under way, though the same greatest speed. The bow is not always
amount of power be exerted the adapted to the stern, or the stern to
;
same may be said with equal propriety the bow indeed, it is often quite the ;
of a boat that has more resistance than reverse; the most heterogeneous quality
another with the same sized wheel and may be found on one end, while the
power. The problem is a plain one, and other may possess all that is desirable.
we think may be readily understood by How often do we see steamboats settle
the apprentice at the grindstone when at the stern when under way. This is
;
the man of the axe bears harder, owing to the disparity in shape of the
one of two things is the consequence, two ends one end being adapted to a
;
either the stone makes a less number much higher speed than the other.
of revolutions per minute, or the boy ap- There a peculiar qualification that
is
plies more power. Much has been said steamboats should possess, in order to
relative to the comparative efficiency this adaptation, and without it the ends
of the large and small water-wheel, cannot be adapted the one to the other.
the increase of power necessary to be It is not enough to know that the cen-
applied to the large wheel may also be tre of gravity of displacement is in the
considered, if we would make the same centre of length longitudinally, or that

number of turns. We will remark, it is at a given point but we should ;
also know ifiat nt traverses have less confidence in those experi-
a vertical
line, not only at the several lines of ments than the projectors themselves.
flotation, but from the base to the load- There are some circumstances connect-
line, and a wide departure from this ed with the experiments that fail to fur-
track will be perceptible in the per- nish analogies in all particulars ; for
formance of the boat. example : a canal is not the place to
It does not follow, from what has try those experiments, and simply be-
been shown, that the two ends must of cause the water is shoal, and the sheet
necessity be alike there may be the
; narrow; consequently, the bottom and
widest departure from sameness, and sides of the canal have a very great in-
yet this relation still exist between the fluence upon the results. While we as-
two* ends. must be quite apparent
It sume, and we are really disposed to be-
to the reflective mind, apart from ex- lieve, that the resistance belongs to the
perimental test, that if one line is adapt- boat, a very large share belongs to
ed to the element, with the centre of the bottom and sides of the canal, which
gravity at a given point in the longitu- under some circumstances, would
dinal length, another line would also amount to more than half. Were it pos-
be equally as well adapted to the ele- sible to accumulate the same amount
ment with this central point in verti- of resistance on the vessel as that shown
cal line with the one above or below, by the indicator, she would be torn
when at the same speed. (Were the asunder. Experiments for quite a
several sections driven at a different moderate speed will or may furnish
speed, then the case would be different; data, but for high speed, under the in-
but while all parts of the boat go at fluence of an extraordinary amount of
the same speed, and the element is of power, the river itself is, comparatively
the same consistency at every parallel speaking, too small. In the canal
of experiments have been we shall find that as soon as we dis-
altitude,)
made upon models that have shown turb the water on the banks, we com-
the centre of gravity of displacement mence towing not only the vessel, but
to sae aft at the surface from a verti- all the water in the canal. Hence we
tical line, but still there was a uniform say, the wider and deeper the river
relation. The Russell theory, based upon which experiments are made, the
on experiments, recognizes those rela- more reliable is the data furnished.
tions those of Mr. Stevens would also
; AY ith regard to our present know
seem to corroborate them but we ledge of shape for speed, we have no
;
hesitation in saying, that a speed of 25 ers, when the coal remains, in the side
miles per hour may be obtained, but bunkers and is used out of the ends of
the mechanic who undertakes the en- the vessel first ; and on the contrary,
terprise must be from the tram- when the coal is used out of the side
free
meling influences of captains and own- bunkers first, and left in the ends, the
ers. With regard to the shape of vessel and becomes unsteady, with
rolls
steamboats for speed, like other vessels, first one wheel immersed, and then
much depends upon the dimensions. the other. We think those who ad-
Many men lay large and heavy vocate narrow vessels for stability will
claims to upon this find it difficult to digest this fact, in

experience, and
they lay a foundation broad and deep connection with the assumption that
for a fine spun theory, that would lead because a vessel has the apex of the
the casual observer to believe that nar- sea on one side, the trough must of
row ships or steamboats would roll less necessity be on the other, and that the
than wide ones. But the discrepancy leverage is greater in proportion to any
in their theory becomes apparent, when extension of the breadth, and the ves-
we remember that the advocates for sel must of necessity roll more. But
wide vessels do not demand a greater there is another fact that belongs to
area of load-line than those who this question of the sea on one side
adhere to narrow vesselsand the trough on the other the ad-
; the dif- ;
ference lies just here the advocate for vocates of narrow vessels must remem-
:
narrow vessels depends on dimensions ber, that the stability depends as we

alone, while the advocate for more have shown upon the altitude of the
beam bases his claims for beam as a centre of effort; the higher this point,
means of obtaining the required shape : the more stable the vessel, provided
he does not require beam for the pur- the shape and stowage do not conflict
pose of extending it from one-half to with the known laws that govern sta-
two-thirds of the length of the vessel ;
bility in these particulars. We say
he requires more beam than is usually that it is only those who take a superfi-
given for the purpose of making a cial view of the matter who advocate
round side line from the line of flota- narrow vessels, inasmuch as the known
tion downward. If proof were re- laws of geometrical science, in connec-
quired of the truth of the assertion we tion with experience versus experi-
have made, we refer to the fact of the ments of a tangible nature, is against
increased stability of our ocean steam- them. With regard to the weight oi
4-2
steamboats, seems to us that some that would navigate a stream of
it
remarks would be in keeping. When water 13 inches deep, and yet the
great speed is the desired object in same may and has been accomplished
building steamboats, all unnecessary with iron. A larger amount of
weight should be dispensed with ; and strength with the same weight, or the
we would here remark, that the same amount of strength with less
strength of steamboats for river navi- weight, may be obtained of iron than
gation should principally rest in With regard to the resist-
the of wood.
bottom, when the engine is low pres- ance of the two kinds of materials,
sure, and secured to the same. The timber presents more than iron hence ;
distribution of timber for strength is a it follows, that if two steamboats were

matter that requires the exercise of built alike in shape, and brought to the
some considerable amount of mechani- same draught of water, and the same
cal skill centre, engine, sister and amount of power applied to both boats,
;
bilge keelsons are of the utmost im- the iron boat would be found to be
portance to the steamboat having her faster than the one built of wood the ;
engines in the hold, and these should reasons will appear obvious if we but
be square fastened with blunt bolts. reflect that the timber is porous, and
There arc many parts of steamboats that the molecules or particles of water
and other small vessels where screw- rilling the orifice must be rent asunder
bolts should be used, where the in their collision with those of the ex-
amount of surface through which the terior surface of the passing boat.
bolt is to be driven is not commensu- This separation exhausts an enormous
rate with the strength of the material amount of power the proportions of ;
or the strength required. An easy or which may be judged, if we but wit-

light draught of water being often in- ness the effect when the operation is
dispensable to river navigation, it is in accordance with the known laws of

very generally sought in the shape at hydraulics let a pipe of any given size
:
the expense of speed, whereas it should be the conductor of a stream of water,

have been looked for in the dimensions it may be to convey the stream in longi-
and weight of material; for very light tudinal or vertical directions, it matters
draught iron boats are superior to those not which, the pipe may be assumed
of wood. It would be a difficult mat- to be of parallel opening its whole
ter to build a boat of timber of any length; we may now determine precise-
considerable size and sufficiently strong, ly the arhount of water that it will dis-
I
charge per minute with a given head, inasmuch

in this country, is their cost,
or with a reservoir of a determinate expense ranges from 25 10 30
as the
altitude the pipe may now be enlarged per cent, more than wood
; this must ;
in any part of its length between the prove a barrier to the construction ot
ends, and again the discharge may be large sailing vessels of iron in this
determined per minute, and it will country, where timber is abundant,
be found that it is less, although
and the chances remain that a vessel
the pipe has been made larger, and may pay her first cost with interest,
is placed in the same position as be- wear and tear, long before she is com-
fore, under the same head of water. pletely rotten.
It is the disruption of the particles that In England, iron vessels of all sizes,
remain in the recess of the pipe that and almost all kinds, have been, and
checks the passage so with the plank
; continue to be, built. English authors
on the steamboat's bottom and can ; have endeavored to show all, and even
only be counteracted by metal sheath- more than all, the advantages that ac-
ing,which for shoal water is difficult to crue from building of iron ; but while
keep properly adjusted. It is in this we are quite willing that their argu-
particular that iron presents (for speed) ments should be heard, we are dis-
a better surface than wood. There are posed to correct any error into which
other circumstances under which iron they may have fallen, in their eager
as a material for building vessels ex- haste to show the superiority of iron
hibits its advantages over that of wood; over wood.
in the West Indies and some parts of Mr. Grantham, President of the
South America, and even the southern Polytechnic Society of London, in a
parts of the United States, timber rots work entitled, " Grantham on Iron, as
in a very short time, in consequence a Material for Ship-building," sets down
of the peculiar state of the atmosphere as one of the advantages, the correct-
generating deleterious gasses rapidly, ness with which the draught of water
which causes wooden vessels to rot in a may be ascertained, in proof of which
very short time hence we say, that an instance is cited, in which the
;
for low latitudes where vessels cannot draught of water was not determined
be abundantly ventilated, they should within 24 feet on a steamer built of
be built of iron, if durability is a con- wood.
sideration. The principal objection to Lest the reader should be led astray
their introduction on an exteîve scale by similar statements, we would add,
that had the builder of the steamer in endless variety in opinions with regard
question taken a few lessons in the to the proper shape for high speed,
United States, he would have been able apart from the proportionate principal
to have approximated the draught of dimensions. It has been set down as
water of any vessel before launching, an axiom, that the highest degrees of
without goinjj into the calculation. speed were only attainable by the long-
That the precise or exact draught of est boats having the proportionate
water may be more readily determined amount of power; but what that pro-
when the material of construction is portion amounted to has never been
iron, cannot be doubted but we are defined.
; Almost from the commence-
persuaded that a mechanic who had ment of that spirit of rivalry that has
never before seen a vessel, would be marked the progress of steam on the
able to mark her draught within 2* feet Hudson perhaps more than on any
without the use of figures, or quite as other river in the world, there has
near as the case cited. been a disposition manifested by the
Iron steamboats possess another ad- organization of companies to monopo-
vantage which should, we think, re- lize the travelling facilities on this ma-
commend them for the Mississippi and jestic river but not the least promi-
;
other Western rivers. The advantage nent feature of these aggrandizing ef-
alluded to consists in the water-tight forts is, that of claiming that their
bulk heads, which effectually prevents commensurate with
knowledge was
the boat from sinking, even though their experience, and their experience
one part should be snagged and filled with the amount of means expended
with water. The corrosive quality and efforts made to maintain the su-
that stands connected with the use of premacy. At intervals, however, in"
iron for vessels to navigate the ocean, the history of those efforts, there has
in connection with their cost, must be arisen some indomitable spirits who
a drawback on their extensive use. have dared to undertake the construc-
As it regards shape for high speed in tion of steamboats for high speed of
river steamboats, we desire to stand much smaller size, and not unfrequent-
fully committed, whatever may have they borne off the palm of vic-
be the ly
strength of that tide of influence, made tory over their more powerful competi-
up of prejudices, and completely in- tors. Among those thus successful,
terwoven with the subject of steam staiuls the steamboat REINDEER,
river navigation. First, there is an the lines of which are shown on Plate
23. This boat, built during the pres- wheels, 39,300 pounds. Ttie weight
ent year, 1S50, by Mr. Thomas Colyer, of the boiler equals 87,S47 pounds
although not of mammoth proportions, the water in the same, 91,847 pounds;
(and consequently not of gigantic size,) displacement or weight of the boat at
is superior for speed, and is doubtless 4 feet draught of water, 447 tons 417
at this time the fastest wooden river pounds weight of engines and boilers,
;
bmit of her length in the United States. with water in the same, 187 tons 1,133
She has the wave-line bow, and it pounds; weight of joiner's work, 63
would be found a difficult matter to ob- tons 111 pounds; weight of furniture
tain an excess of speed in the same and outfit, 17 tons 320 pounds. Total
length with the same amount of power, weight of engines, boilers, joiner's work,
without reducing the weight, (which furniture, and outfit, 267 tons 1564
it will be seen is pounds leaving for the weight of the
by no means great.) ;
The Reindeer has been termed a 24 boat 179 tons 1090 pounds, which is
mile boat that is to say, she can a very close approximation to the
;
run 24 miles in an hour, in still water, exact weight of the hull.

without much extra effort by way of connection with the speed of
In
making steam. steamboats, the power applied, and
Her dimensions are as follows: length, the manner of computing it, stands in-
260 feet ; breadth, 34.0S feet ; depth, timately connected with the subject.
midships, from base line to deck line, In Europe very generally, and in this
round of the beam deducted, 9.75 feet country to some extent, the power of
area of her immersed midship section, steam vessels is computed by horse-
119 square feet diameter of cylinder, power. The great bulk of operative
;
56 inches; stroke of piston, 12 feet; mechanics do not fully understand this

diameter of water-wheel, 34 feet face manner of computing power, and we
;
of wheel, 9 feet 6 inches width of have ever regarded it as loose and in-
;
bucket, 24 inches, calculated to dip 9 definite. There is a distinction (that

inches below the surface. Her engine between the is not always regarded)
is that known as the pressure indicated by the steam guage
vertical beam en-
gine balance valves with Stevens's cut- at the boiler, and the effective power
;
oil*; its weight, in connection with applied as resistance at the water.

that of the gallows frame, (which is The principal c;iuse is found in the
set down at 16,000 pounds.) is com- loss occasioned by the friction of the
puted at 201,019 pounds; the water- journals, and in the transfer of the
steam from the boiler to the cylinder. only power that can be obtained for
The sum total of this is set down at the remainder, or the other half of the
.65. The horse-power is determined must be obtained from the ex-
in stroke,
the following' manner: multiply the pansion of the steam, which loses part
area of the piston by the pressure of of its heat, (and consequently part of
steam, as shown by the guage per its power,) in the expansion hence ;
tt * T=2, the multiplier

fl
square inch, plus the pressure of the we have
atmosphere, and that sum by the velo- for which is .S47. Suppose the di-
city of the piston per minute, divide ameter of a cylinder to be 72 inches,
by 33,000, (which is the weight in the stroke of piston 12 feet, pressure
pounds, it is assumed that a horse can of steam per guage, 40 pounds, as
raise one foot high in one minute,) and shown by the steam guage, cut off at
multiply the quotient by .65, which half stroke, (or half the length of the
will give the effective power for steam cylinder,) number of revolutions per
engines. Example :
minute 22, required the horse-power.
Velocity of
Am Pressure PtotOD First find the mean power
effective
a x p x v x .65= Horse- per square inch in the manner we
power effectual. When the steam is
have already shown, the value of 2 be-
cut off at half stroke (or when
the sup- ing the multiplier, which is .S47, '(see
ply of steam is withheld at half the Haswell,
stroke) in the cylinder, there is another Pressure Atmosphere
drawback which reduces the effective 40 lbs. + 14.7 54.7 x. 847 46.33 = =
power from unit to .847, inasmuch as pounds as the mean effective pressure
.S47 is found to be the multiplier for in the cylinder for each square inch of
2; this may be readily understood if its area. To find the horse-power, find
we but remember that in cutting off the area of piston

1
the supply of steam at half stroke, the
Feel per EfiVciivo

minute. horse-power*
4071.5x 46.33=188632.595x528=99598010.16- 33000=3018x.65 = 1961.'i
Some farther expositions in relation by freight or passengers several inches,
to thewater-wheel of river steamboats than they did when light, thus afford-
may be necessary. Some boats have ing the most conclusive evidence, that
been found to have attained a greater had Ujie wheel been larger the boat •
Speed when brought down in the water would have performed better, inasmuch
.V
*mr. .
«p
as the same amount of power would we may have steam enough, but loose
have been applied with less steam, for her fasts and let her go, and we soon
it should not be forgotten that a bulk see the difference. This leads us to
t
of steam equal to the cubical contents another truth that should also be re-
—
of the cylinder is lost at every revolu- membered the faster the boat itself is
tion, even though we cut off at half capable of being driven, the less re-
stroke ; hence, it is plain, that unless sistance with the same sized wheel, and,
an even pressure is kept in the boiler as a consequence, the wheel will turn
there is a loss of power, and more faster with the same power and use
would be gained by increasing the size more steam; so that as we diminish the
of the wheel if we would keep the pow- resistance on the boat, we must in-
er at the same altitude. But there is crease it on the wheel, to keep the same
another view to be taken, which aug- amount that a slower boat would have.
ments the advantage of large wheels in We have been led to these remarks,
diameter they operate more direct on
; upon witnessing the wholesale blun-
the water, and although more power is ders made upon river steamboats in re-
required to turn them, or to make the lation to the proportion existing be-
same number of revolutions in a given tween the boiler and wheel, by men
time, yet all the available power of the whose claims to a registry in the cal-
boiler and engine is applied at the endar of common sense, (in this as
water with less difference between the well as in other matters,) were recog-
speed of the wheel at its periphery and nized on all sides apart from a know-
the boat, and consequently, less slip or ledge of the science of mechanics.
slide of the bucket. We would not be It should also be remembered that a
understood to say, that the slower the saving of steam is a saving of fuel, and
wheel the faster the boat, but we do a saving of fuel is a saving of dollars.
say, that when the wli§&fr turns fast Most of the engines of the river boats
enough to reduce the pressure in the of the United States, excepting those
boiler, we require more wheel or more of the Mississippi, are high pressure
boiler. This may condensing engines, although denomi-
be clearly illustrated
in the steamboat at the dock with the nated low pressure a term belonging —
engine in operation —
the ^flflwe pres- properly to those engines only that
sure of steam will not turn the wheel carry a pressure in the boiler not ex-
as fast as when moves ahead;
the boat ceeding that of the atmosphere, or 15
and while the boat remains at the dock pounds per square inch.
' .
«^ .'V*
-.
33G MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

Much might be said in wondrous achievements
relation to the list of
Stevens's new plan to increase the consequent upon American genius,
speed of steamboats, by interposing a having already shown that it is to
stratum of air between the flat surface the United States that the honor be-
of the bottom and the water. Little, longs of first embarking in this noble
however, is known in relation to the enterprise.
final results of this experiment by The silent observer beholds with
Mr. Stevens himself; but this much wonder and admiration not only the
appears to be quite conclusive, that he speed, but the regularity of steam-ships
has succeeded in securing a rate of as they furrow a trackless path be-
speed superior to that of any wooden tween the Old and New World, not-
boat of equal length on the Hudson withstanding the ocean may be lashed
;
and this has been secured upon an into furious, rugged, and frightful pre-
iron boat of some 270 or 2S0 feet long, cipices by the friction of the wind yet ;
of a shape the most heterogeneous for she seems to tarry not, her course is
high speed. Mr. Stevens has seen fit onward, as if to hurl defiance at the
thus far to divulge but little in detail watery blast. Here lies the great se-
of his method of operations, although cret of success in steam-ships, viz.
the right to the invention has been their regularity in the length of their
patented both in Europe and America voyages, while running at the same
some years since ; as a consequence place, or plying between the same
we are unable to anticipate what might ports. If storms retard their progress
be accomplished, provided the inven- so that, for example, the voyage be-
tion could be applied to a good shape tween New- York and Liverpool varies
for speed. from 11 to 13 days, they cannot be
Having accomplished our purpose depended on, and in this particular
in relation to steamboats, we shall pro- have but little advantage over the sail-
ceed to inquire what are the most es- ing ship for little doubt exists that
;
sential properties required for steam- there are sailing ships now built that
ers suited to navigate the ocean. Our would not vary more than 10 to 12
readers are doubtless familiar with the days in„the length of their voyage for
achievements of American steam-ships, a year at a time. The performance of
and it seems only necessary that we the Ca'nton packet ship Sea Witch
should show the qualities requisite to abufl#antly warrants us in this asser-
place the ocean steamer at the head of tion; and her last voyage to San Fran-
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E 5
J&IARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. 337
cisco from this city in 97 days, shows Thus we discover that to make ^steam-
that there is much room for improve- ship profitable for freighting purposes,
ment before a steam-ship could per- she is conveyance of pas-
unfit for the
form a similar voyage. sengers and the mail, inasmuch as pas-
It may be said that steam-ships are sengers and letters require a speedy
not designed for long voyages ; this we conveyance hence, it must be plain
;
admit, in their present state of ad- even to the casual observer, that the
vancement ; nor are they best adapted most desirable quality in steam-ships is
for short voyages, unless regularity be speed, but to acquire this, we must sac-
stamped on their performances or rifice many of the hereditary notions
equality on the length of their trips. that pertain to sailing vessels. An
Steam-ships are costly and expensive, ocean steam-ship, in crossing the At-
and unless they answer the object
fully lantic, should never vary more than a
designed, they are unprofitable, and it few hours in the length of her voyages ;
does not require much sagacity to dis- this would inspire confidence in this
cover that as soon as they cease to pay, class of vessels, and secure all the pas-
they will be abandoned for other than sengers. To accomplish this they re-
mail and war purposes. quire a reserve of power of at least one-
Itmust be quite apparent that steam- third of the entire power of the engine ;
ships cannot successfully compete with this power should be applied when the
sailing ships for freighting winds are adverse, to enable the ship
purposes,
for this reason, if they have any con- to maintain an equilibrium in speed.
siderable capacity for cargo, they are It is vain and futile to think of doing
liable to detention on account of storms, this unless the ship be very sharp lon-
which will lengthen the voyage, and gitudinally, so much so that at her
render it of uncertain length. The highest speed she will not generate
merchant willpay extra freight even the smallest wave. It has been
not
unless he is certain that his goods will found that instead of applying more
be conveyed to their port of destina- power in a storm or gale of wind, it is
tion within a definite time, and we at necessary to apply less to save the ship.
once discover that the steam-ship has The full bow generates resistance to the
not only more expense to encounter, wave, and causes it to strike with de-
but carries less freight, in consequence structive force, and between the force
of the engines and coal occupying a of the wave driving in the direction of
large portion of her capacity for freight. the stern, and the engine driving in the
43
direction of the bow, the ship labors wet, cannot be denied, but it is in most
in every joint if the equality of power cases consequent upon an improper dis-
is maintained, and the consequence is, tribution of sail; the leverage, however,
the power must be reduced ; whereas, is different in the steam-ship, the bow
had tlie ship been as sharp as she is not depressed, but is raised. If the
should have been longitudinally, she steam-ship is as sharp as she should be,
might have not only braved the storm, no matter how much power is applied,
but maintained her original speed by she will not herself make the wave
the use of the reserve power. We say upon which she rises. The less motion
that ocean steam-ships cannot be made the ship has, the faster she will go, and
too sharp. If the bow be so sharp that not only so, but the safer she will be,
it has no buoyancy, or very can inasmuch as it is the roll and pitch that
little, it
be sustained, but if it is full, it cannot endangers the ship by straining the

be kept down when submerged in a engines, and is so annoying to passen-
sea the consequence is, the engine is gers.
; Hence we say, let the bow be
—
unsupported the ship being sustained long, and as sharp as the length of the
by the ends, and very soon shows the ship will admit of; and in order to keep
result by straining both the ship and it dry, let the flare be carried close up
the engine. That part of the ship in to the rail, in order that the sharpness
which the engines and boilers are lo- may be continued above the line of flo-
cated, must be supported by the water tation. In addition to this, the bow
;
the engines have their own work to do should be deeper than the stern; that
without holding the ship when the is to say, from the line of flotation to
water refuses to do it. It has been the rail on the bow should be on a
said that when the bow is very sharp
steamer of any considerable size (and
it is also very wet —
that the sea makes one less than 2000 tons is a small af-
too free a use of the deck forward. fair) from 5 to 6 feet higher than that
This need not be so the bow is im- of the stern and if the line of flotation
; ;
properly formed when this is the case. is sharpest at the commencement of

The sea may be parted in such man- the bow, and gradually fills out until it
ner as to throw off its bulk from the reaches the middle of the same, from
ship. lyhich point it again commences to
It is held as an axiom that a fist sharpen, and continues to do so until
ship must of necessity be a wet ship. it reaches the greatest transverse sec-
That fast sailing ships are in general tion, (which may be aft of the centre of
length,) and as soon as we reach the cause, have been clear and conclusive
extreme breadth, commence our own judgment, and if experi-
losing in
the same as we approach the stern in ence is any test, we are also supported
;
the same maimer we shall accomplish in a good degree. There is, however,
what we aim at as far as the line of another feature connected with a good
flotation has an interest in this matter. degree of breadth for steam-ships that
Thus we discover that the bow, as de- should settle the point in the minds of
scribed, extends from the stem to the those whose experience is hereditary
® frame, or to the greatest transverse as well as their opinions. It is admit-
section, and that the sharpest part of ted on all hands that an ocean steam-
the bow is at the wood ends this is a ship should, if possible, have the same
;
property of hollow parallel lines to the dip to her wheel the whole length of
line of flotation, while the round line, the voyage ; in other words, if the
no matter how sharp, makes the fullest wheel has the right amount of dip at
part of the bow at the wood ends this the commencement of the voyage, and
;
causes the water to rise and generate has less at the termination, it does
a wave, which is continued when the not have enough consequently the —
ship is driven at any considerable speed; nearer this dip at the commencement
in a word, the lines of a steamboat or and termination of the voyage can be
ship should have no sameness. As equalized, the faster the ship will go.
soon as the greatest breadth has been The question at once arises, what has
reached, we should commence retiring this to do with the breadth of the ship ?
at once toward the end but this shape We say much 800 tons of coal re-
; ;
contemplates stability lengthwise, and moved from a narrow ship with a

is consequent to some extent upon di- known displacement, will raise her
mensions. The draught of water and higher out of the water than if the ship
weight to be sustained must be brought were wider with the same displace-
into the account, or we reckon without ment. There is nothing mysterious
our host. The breadth must also be about this two ships of the same dis- ;
considered, and for stability we require placement, the one narrow and the other
more than the usual proportion for wide, the narrow ship in discharging
sailing ships, as we have shown 500 tons is raised out of water 6 inches
ofi
page 43, popular prejudice to the con- more than the wide ship, and, as a
trary notwithstanding. consequence, has 6 inches less dip to
Our remarks upon rolling, and the her wheel, which, had the two ships
an equal amount of resistance, power before we commence building the ship,
and speed would place the wide ship and learn before we adopt the model,
in advance of the other at the termi- even if it be made, how much the con-
nation of a voyage together, and al- sumption of the necessary fuel will
though the narrow ship might secure lighten us, and what dip will remain,
an equal amount of resistance at the and if we find it necessary, increase
wheel, by securing the same dip, it the proportion of breadth fully up to
would be expense of more re-
at the what has been shown on page 43.
sistance on the ship, on account of We need have no fears in relation to
water she might pump in tanks to the roll of the ship; the altitude of the
equalize the dip of the wheel for it is
; centre of effort, the location of the
plain, that if she burned less coal, she centre of gravity, and the shape of the
would make less steam, and, conse- bilge determine this quality. We, as
quently, would have less power for ; Americans, have been led into this er-
after all that can be said about power ror of narrow steam-ships by England ;
on steam vessels, the steam is the and surely no steam-ships roll more
power, and a given amount of the same than the Cunard line, with the fullest
kind of fuel will, under the same cir- part of their line of flotation at the two
cumstances, make a given amount of extremities they hang by the ends, ;
steam. Thus the adherents to narrow (as if in a turning lathe,) and roll from
steam-ships are driven to the necessity side to side, taking the water over the
of starling with more dip than they rail forward in astonishing quantities.
should have, and even more wheel than England, commercial
although a
they can properly manage to continue nation, and as her Premiers and lead-
so, until the ship has been lightened by ing statesmen have boldly announced,
the consumption of coal, or else at the her policy is strictly commercial, yet
termination of the voyage the wheel is her hereditary institutions have stamp-
making foam on the surface of the ed her commercial progress with a
water, and rolling alternately each mildew that would fetter, if not endan-
wheel out with little effect, straining ger, American genius ; and we unhesi-
the engine to no purpose. tatingly say, that America must take

From what has been shown, it must the van in steam as well as in other
have been discovered that it is all-im- ships and not only so, if steam-ships
;
portant to determine the diameter, and, are to be the commercial watch-word,

as a consequence, the dip of the wheel, they must attain a greater degree of
speed than they have ever yet attain- may have her proper trim, without be-
ed —the Atlantic must be crossed in ing compelled to carry coal where we
eight instead of ten and a half days, do not want it for the purpose of trim-
and this as the general average. Let ing the ship, as is not unfrequently
not our readers be startled at this an- This is rendered necessary in
the case.
nouncement, it can and will be done, consequence of the bow having less
and even more, if steam-ships continue displacement than the after end this ;
to carry the mail and passengers would seem like placing the wrong
between New- York and Liverpool. end ahead but such is the fact, that ;
Steam-ships must advance in speed as for high speed the bow will require less
well as other ships. The Californias buoyancy than the stern. If we divide
have opened a trade for fast sailing the length on load-line into two equal
ships, that will in a few years astonish parts, the consequence will be, that the
the most sanguine in relation to the sship would set by the head when
speed of sailing ships already are ships launched, and if the centre of the
;
being built for this trade from 200 to weight of the engine were located at
220 feet long, and other dimensions in the centre of buoyancy, the ship would
proportion. By continue to be by the head
the aid of these fast her trim ;
sailing ships, merchants and specula- would not be altered. This will become
torscan obtain the returns of cargoes apparent if we will but reflect that the
bought on time before their notes be- bow, being thelongest,consequent upon
come due thus we discover the spirit
; its being the sharpest, balances at a
of American movements in commerce line of immersion equivalent to its
is onward, and if steam-ships do not weight ; the stern, being fuller, requires
advance, sailing ships will. immersed than the bow, to
to be less
It is not only important, in calcula- equilibriate hence Ave discover that ;
ting for a steam-ship., that we should if the engine were equally divided, and
have a determinate line of flotation, the one half placed on the centre of
but we should know the amount of gravity of the bow, and the other on
displacement below this line of immer- the centre of gravity of the stern, the
sion ;and more than this, we should bow would settle down faster than the
locate the centre of gravity of this en- stern ; and, as a consequence, if the
tire bulk of the immersed part, and we centre of the weight of the engine were
should also know where to locate the to be placed at the centre of buoyancy,
centre of weight, in order that the ship the effect would be the same, though
aft of the centre of length, hence we dis- location of the centre of weight would
cover that something more is required. require to be placed still farther for-
The discrepancy lies here ; the amount ward, in order to prevent the ship's
of buoyancy between the centre of trimming by the stern. In this case the
gravity of displacement and the cen- steamer is small, and consequently has
tre of length should be determined, and not sufficient length to enable us to
an equal amount aft of the centre of make her as sharp as if she were
gravity of displacement should be also larger, and, as a consequence, longer.
determined, and upon the margin of Hence we discover that it does not
this bulk should be the point longitu- follow, that in adding length to steam-
dinally at which the centre of weight ships, it must of necessity be equally
should be located ; that is to say, sup- divided on the ends ; it often occurs
pose there were 600 cubic feet of buoy- that the stern is sharp enough for a
ancy between the centre of length r A i speed of 20 miles per hour, while the
the load-line and the centre of the en- bow can only be driven 12 to 14 this ;
tire displacement, and that the distance has been proven on our river boats in
between those points were 13 inches not a few instances. Hence we say,
between the two centres, is it not plain that if speed is required in ocean steam-
that 600 cubic feet of buoyancy must ships, give them length. Suppose 40
be obtained from that portion aft of feet were added to the bow of the
the centre of buoyancy ? but it does steamer shown in Plate
and 10 feet 2,
not follow that the distances will be to the stern, and the assumed propor-
equal in which it is obtained that is tionate power were doubled, may it not
;
to say, it may be found, as most likely be clearly inferred that her speed would
it would be, before we went as far aft be greatly increased ? and we hesitate
as 13 inches, but at whatever distance not to say, that such vessel could go
we found the 600 cubic feet at, the to Liverpool within 8 days instead of
after boundary would be the place for 10V, as we now do. But an objection
the centre of the weight of the engine. may be raised to her want of depth,
In the Plates showing the lines of the and, as a consequence, a want of suf-
ocean steamer, it will be seen that al- ficient strength. If this supposed want
though the ® frame is in the centre of depth were, absolutely necessary for
longitudinally, yet the centre of buoy- strength, it would be a tenable position;
ancy is 4i feet forward of the longitu- but inasmuch as the required strength
dinal centre ; as a consequence, the can be furnished without our being
burdened with extra depth, we would for a steamer of any considerable size.
add, that she has a proportionate The first course is usually let into the
amount and it is presumable that the frame at an angle, with a vertical posi-
;
addition assumed would be sufficiently tion of the frame of 45 degrees, and

buoyant to carry its own weight, and, the second course runs in the opposite
doubtless, something more conse- direction, at the same angle
; all being — 1
quently, the draught of water would sufficiently bolted to the frame, and
call for no more depth of hold, and any rivetted together at the crossing, (which
extra top hamper would only serve to must come in the room between the
make the ship roll. We
have not timbers,) renders the whole fabric strong
taken the position of assuming that the longitudinally. The most ready man-
lines of the steamer shown in this work ner of obtaining the marks for the
was not sharp enough we only say, holes, is to take a rule staff about the
;
that if a greater speed is required, she width of the plates, and bend it out to
would be too small. Without doubt the place where the plate belongs, and
she is sharper than any vessel of her mark the holes upon it, transferring
class now built, and for her size is per- the same But there are
to the plate.
haps about sharp enough ; she could other and additional means by which
not, however, be made much sharper strength may be added to steam-ships ;
without increasing the length. With they may have iron clamps, which
regard to the strength of ocean steam- would be both stronger and lighter than
ships, they cannot be made too strong. the same of wood. We may also have
Of the manner now almost universally iron keelsons made of sheets of boiler
adopted of cross-plating the frame on iron, bolted on the sides of the centre
the inside, too much can scarcely be keelson, which would take no room
said in its favor. Some, however, have worth speaking of, and could easily
supposed that the was be prevented from corrosion and rot,
single plate
—
enough that there was danger of a consequent upon the action of heat
collapse by adding the cross-plate, even and salt to which they would be ex-
though they were rivetted together at posed and as far as speed and strength;
the crossings —those apprehensive fears are entitled to notice only, an iron
are groundless ; the strength depends steam-ship could be made both stronger
somewhat upon the size of the plates, and yet lighter, assuming two vessels to
and their number plates, one inch thick be built by the same model, the one of
by 5 inches wide, is quite light enough iron and the other of wood hence we ;
saj, for speed iron is preferable to power thrown away on full vessels,
is
wood. The corrosive qualities, as we beyond that which is required for a

have before said, is a barrier against speed adapted to, or commensurate
its use for the outside shell, but may with, the shape ; and if a man is so un-
be used inside, as we have described, fortunate as to own a full steamer, he
with great advantage. should be content with moderate speed,
With regard to the power of steam- or he may be compelled to abide by
ships, we deem it important that we the results we have shown, after hav-
should make some remarks. Many ing spent much money to reverse it.
persons have supposed that if the ves- And when we have a sharp steamer, the
sel were made sharper, less power power is required to bring her fully
would answer all purposes. This is a up to an amount of resistance com-
great mistake it is the place, and the
; mensurate with the shape, inasmuch
only place, where its advantages may as it is assumed that this vessel is
be seen. A large amount of power ap- meeting the resistance on the sides of
plied on a full vessel is thrown away. the bow and not at its commencement
True, it causes the ship to make much hence it is quite manifest that the ap-
disturbance it causes an amount of plication of power must increase the
;
resistance equal to the power of the speed in a greater ratio on the sharp
engine, but this is not speed. We might vessel than on the full one, from this
rend the vessel into fragments with the fact, that the steamboat of 10 miles
power applied, and she would not be per hour makes more disturbance than
fast ;she has a column of water to the boat of 20 miles per hour. We
raise in length equal to the length of seem, however, to forget, that inas-
the voyage, and in breadth equal to the much as the resistance is less on the
breadth of the wave her fullness sharp vessel, it should be greater at
generates, and its depth is equal to the wheel to be equal to the vessel of
the altitude of the wave. Now
more moderate speed and that as the
it ;
must appear quite clear, that inasmuch ocean steamer must have a very con-
as resistance increases so much faster siderable dip, (else the wheel will be
than power when an attempt is made out of water at times,) and that this in-
to increase the speed of vessels, whether creased dip requires an enormous
by steam or sail, that it were a fruit- amount of power to turn the wheel
less task to endeavor to remove this sufficiently fast to bring the ship up to
column of water fast thus we say, her required resistance we make use
; ;
>
of this term because we wish to be un serve power; and the same is equally
der stood in this matter to say, that an true with very sharp sailing vessels
ocean steam-ship (if she is very sharp) that have great length, if their propel-
requiresa considerable amountof resist- ling power is properly distributed.
ance on the bow to keep her steady it This seemingly paradox may be il-
;
is like wedging the bow fast that it can- lustrated in the following manner :
not veer about, and we will add, that when a sailing ship has the wind di-
she will perform better, and if the bow rectly ahead, she cannot prosecute her
is properly formed, will prove herself voyage in its proper direction, but must
to be a better sea boat in every respect. turn aside until the wind is received
This leads us to another consideration : partly in the direction of the beam,
the wheel must be larger, or must turn and the impulsive power aft of the
faster but to the latter there is this beam, or at right angles with the line
;
objection the heavy machinery re- of direction from which it comes

:
quired for ocean steamers cannot, if the ship be full, and a press of sail is
without hazard, be made to move as crowded upon her, she is almost
fast as that of the river boats hence brought to a stand still at times by the
;
we find ourselves deficient in power power of the sea ; the surges are felt
and if we increase the size of the all over the ship, and the area of sail
wheel and secure a larger dip, we can- spread may be increased, but the ship
not turn the wheel fast enough and ; will go no faster ; she may labor more,
although steam-ships have less stroke surge heavier, or plunge deeper, but
than steamboats, they have cylinders go no faster. Let this same ship be
of much greater diameter, and require made sharper by lengthening the bow
more steam, having two engines more ; from its after part and continuing for
particularly if they have reserve power. ward any given distance, say as far as
Hence we say that it amounts to this : the front of the cut-water from 10 to
the full steamer is strained by under- 12 feet let the ship be again placed
;
taking to force her beyond her appro- in the same circumstances as before,
priate speed ; while, on the other hand, and we shall find that she sails faster
if she is very sharp, and this sharp- with the same sails set as before, and
ness is of the right kind, it binds her that she makes less disturbance on
together, and keeps her steady, and the the bow ; but notwithstanding this, we
ship would perform better in every re- shall also find that more sail would be
spect by being driven with extra or re- an advantage in making her motions
44
regular ; t hewould be dry, run 1000 miles within 60 consecutive
vessel*
(provided the bow were properly hours, which is equal to 100 miles per
shaped,) and sail faster hence we say, day.
; This ship, on her first voyage,
that every vessel (and steamers in par- was trimmed by the head, under the
ticular) require when sailing or steam- supposition that her fullest end being
ing, an amount of resistance commen- aft, she would require to be by the
surate with the shape this is obtained head
; to make her steer, but this
by the application of power, whether was found to be an error; her sailing
secured from the leverage of the masts trim being 3 inches by the stern, and
or the rotary motion of the water- when in this trim there is no difficulty
wheel and it may be set down as an in steering or working the ship her
; ;
axiom, that under ordinary circum- mean load-line draught of water is 16

stances a diminished resistance on the feet, which is about all that can be
immersed part of the hull demands an made available in running to New-
increase of power to secure the con- Orleans, to which route she is remarka-
templated speed. bly well adapted and notwithstanding ;
There have been some steam-ships her light draught of water compared
built in the United States that have at- with her tonnage, which is equal to
tained a tolerable degree of speed that of the largest that has been built
among these none stand more con- in this country, we have the highest
spicuous than that of the steam-ship rate of speed that has been attained by
Georgia —the tables of which has found steam-ships, with only about 4-5ths of
a place in this work. In contrasting the power of those crossing the Atlan-
the advantages of a proportionate tic. She is well adapted for navigating
breadth for steam-ships, we have had one of the most dangerous coasts laid
occasion to notice this ship, on page down on any chart. The propor-
106, and deem it only necessary to add, tionate dimensions shown on page 43,
that she had less alterations
has are carried out in the construction of
and repairs than any other American this and if farther illustrations
ship ;
steamer that has been built and al- ; of the advantages of beam were re-
though she has her greatest displace- quired, we are here furnished with
them.
ment aft of the longitudinal centre of The area of her greatest im-
length, and, consequently, the small mersed transverse section equals 677
end (and as many have thought and square feet; her launching draught
said the wrong end) ahead, she has was 7 feet 9 inches her constructed ;
l:
TABLES OF STEAMER GEORGIA, FINISHED 1850.
load-line of flotation furnished a ing vessels will be found to differ widely

draught of 15 feet 6 inches (which from those of sailing ships. It is not
contemplates her without freight) unfrequently the case that schooners
water, below which her displacement are built with a breadth of 3 times the
is 2700 tons 592 pounds. depth; and we have known schooners
With regard to steam-ships for speed, that have had a breadth of half of the
they should be large; there is scarce- length of keel ; they, however, had
ly a limitable length beyond which great rake, both to the stem and stern-
steam-ships cannot go, provided they post.
combine strength in proportion to the The coasting vessels of the United
increased size, which we are fully States combine the greatest variety
satisfied they may. We believe there of shape and. principal dimensions;
is much room for improvement in the and we would doubtless be quite safe
marine steam-engine likewise in the ; in our conclusions were we to add, to a
water-wheel and while ship-builders
; much greater extent than in any other
are perfecting the hull, the engineer part of the world, which we think the
should be endeavoring to rid the en- difference in the draught of water will
gine of the enormous amount of fric- fully prove. There are vessels built of
tion, by more direct application. considerable size that run on a draught
Among the different channels through of 3 feet, and from this extraordinary
which the commercial intercourse of light draught up to 10 feet water they ;
our country is augmented, the coasting are doubtless the most stable vessels in
trade of the United States is not the the world, because of their great
most insignificant. Perhaps there is breadth. It must be quite apparent
no coast on the globe of the same ex- that no definite instruction can be given
tent that has so much demand for ves- for the construction of coasting vessels
sels of easy draught of water. Almost that will apply universally to all, inas-
the entire southern coast of the United much
some are built with a centre-
as
States is linked to the ocean by shoal board, or moveable keel, to increase
rivers ; hence it is plain that the ves- the lateral resistance when the water
sels engaged in our coasting trade is of sufficient depth to admit of its
should be so constructed that they may being lowered, while others have a deep
be able to ascend those rivers to the keel; and again on the other hand,
various ports of entry located thereon. some have no centre-board and a very
The proportionate dimensions of coast- small keel ; and ulthough very many
persons are firm in the belief that a vessel adapted for the coasting trade,
vessel must have a sharp floor verti- of about 10 feet draught of water, that
cally, in order that she may
would be adapted to the schooner rig
sail fast,
yet we sometimes see a vessel that is she would require no centre-board,

perfectly flat having a centre-board, having 10 degrees rise to her floor, and
and sailing faster than another vessel having a very considerable length of
having a very considerable vertical 104 feet on load-line, with 26 feet of
rise hence we are brought to this moulded breadth, and the greatest
;
conclusion, that it is in the shape more transverse section in the longitudinal

than in the vertical rise that proper- centre of length; the lines being easy,
ties of speed consist. This, however, consequent upon their unusual length,
is quite conclusive, shape would render her a profitable as well
that the
must be to a very great extent conse- as a fast sailing vessel, and well adapt-
quent upon the draught of water, in- ed to the coasting trade, where that
asmuch as the fact is too palpably draught of water may be had she may ;
plain to be for a moment questioned, be very properly termed a high-decked

that where the draught is very light, vessel, inasmuch as she is deeper than
or even moderately so, the bow must the proportions of a low-decked vessel
not be sharp longitudinally, else we would require. We mean by the de-
shall doubly fail in accomplishing our nominations of high and low deck, a
object ; first, we shall draw too much certain adaptation that low-decked ves-
water, and in the next place we shall sels have for carrying a deck-load of such
have an unprofitable While articles as are not perishable, they are
vessel.
we are desirous to secure speed, it must shoaler than high-decked vessels, and
not be at the expense of cargo to any the scantling or moulding size of their
very great extent, inasmuch as the stanchions are generally larger, as also
most profitable vessels are those which their deck-frame they are principally ;
carry the greatest number of tons or built for and engaged in the lumber
barrels in proportion to their tonnage, trade, and not unfrequently carry
and also carry them in the shortest from one-half to five-eighths of their
possible time, and with the least wear cargo on deck. Almost the whole
and tear to the vessel, this is the great amount of yellow pine timber brought
and most desirable object in coasting from the south is carried in this kind
vessels. of vessel the timber that is in the lo«
;
The tables on page 349 represent a and of any considerable length, say oo
It
349
TABLES OF SCHOONER.
DIMENSIONS Length, 105 feet ; Breadth, 26 feet ; Depth, from Base line to lower side of Plank sheer, 10 ft. 3-j- in.
350
TABLE3 OF PILOT-BOAT MARY TAYLOR.

H'GHT OF GUNWALL HALF BREADTH HALF BREADTH HALF BREADTH HALF BREADTH
*N
HALF BREADTH RISE OF MARGIN
LINE
ABOVE AT AT AT AT AT
ABOVE
the Water Line. Gunwale* 1st Water Line. 2d Water Line, 3d Water Line, 4»h Water Line.
Base.
Frames. Feet. Frames. Feet. Frames. Feet. Frames. Feet. Frames. Feet. Feet. Frames. Feet.
Stem 2.96 2 2.21 2 2 35 2 79 1.25 Stem 6.65

2 2.54 i. ... 3i83 4 27 4 1.02 4 1.87 4.. 273 .. 5.64
4 2.08 6 5.25 6 69 6 1.90 6 3.17 6.. 4.29 4. .. 4.63
6 1.77 8 6.33 8 1.29 8 2.92 8 4.52 8.. 5.77 6. .. 3.94
8 1.5 12 7.66 10 2.03 10 4. 10 5.89 10.. 6.97 8. .. 3.5
12 1.04 16 8.29 12 2.83 12 5.1 12.... 7.04 12.. 7.78 10. .. 3.1
10 81 20 8.46 14 3.60 14 6.1 14... 7.93 11.. 8.25 12. .. 2.84
20 75 21 8.29 16 4.31 16 6.95 16... 8.48 16.. 8.58 14. .. 2.58
21 79 28 7.87 18 4.89 18 7.53 18..., 8.75 18.. 8.76 16. .. 2.33
28 96 32 7.29 20 5.25 20 7.83 20... 8.83 20.. 8.81 18. .. 2.1
32 1.29 36 6.5 22 5.36 22 7.87 22 ... .
8.76 22. 8.75 20. .. 1.86
.'
36 1.83 Post 6.29 24 5.25 24 7.66 24 ... 8.62 24 8.62 22. .. 1.66
Post 1.96 26 4.78 26 7.11 26... 8.42 26.. 8.46 24. .. 1.43
Stern 3.25 28 4.00 28 6.29 28..., 8.05 28.. 8.28 26. .. 1.21
30 3.06 ;n 5.11 30..., 7.28 30.. 8.04 28. .. 1.
82, 1.86 32 3.5 32 5.96 32.. 7.64 30. .. .8
34 9 34 1.73 34 377 34. 6.87 32. .. .56
36 4 36 46 36 79 36.. 4.57 34! .. .45
Post 29 Post 29 Post 29 Post. 2.58 36. .. .16
RAKE OF STEM FROM FRAME 2. feet.

Timbering Room 1.75
feet
At Gunwale 3.33 Stern aft of Frame 36 4.00
At fourth Water Line 3.33
At third Water Line 2.77
At second Water Line 1.16
MOULDED SIZE OF STEM AND KEEL.
HEIGHT OF WATER LINE ABOVE BASE.
At Stem-head 7
FirstWater Line at Post 4.42 At Frame 1 1.17
FirstWater Line at Stem 4.65 At Frame 7 1.46
Second Water Line at Post 5.90 At Frame 21 2.
Second Water Line at Stem 6.25 At Frame 24 2.
Third Water Line at Post 7.35 At Frame 36 2.
Third Water Line at Stem 7.79
•-*
^
to 75 feet, is carried on deck, while the the slave trade on the coast of Africa
shorter lengths are taken in the hold is not as prolific as formerly, and their
through a lumber port cut through the great draught of water shuts them off
bow immediately below the deck this from their own coasting trade hence
; ;
class of vessels are built principally in we at once discover that vessels drawing
the New-England and although less water, sailing equally as fast, and
States,
they are profitable, and seem to answer carrying from 30 to 50 per cent, more
the object for which they are built, yet in proportion to their tonnage, are
they have at least one prominent de- much better vessels for the coasting
fect —
being too low on the bow ; the trade of the United States. The ta-
deck forward should be high enough bles we have referred to would fur-
to allow the port to remain above water, nish a vessel of this description.
until the hold is entirely full. It is not It should not be forgotten that the
mi frequently the case, that after re- tonnage laws have no warping influ-
moving anchors, cables, &c, on the ence on this class of vessels; there is
quarter deck to keep the port above nothing to be gained by disproportion-
water, it is found necessary to close it ate principal dimensions, as the laws
before the hold is full ; the tonnage of vessels
conse- for determining the
quence is, the deck must carry the re- having but one deck, measure the
mainder, even though it be the largest depth of the vessel, and not assume
half; hence one of the reasons why her depth to be about what it ought
they are sometimes wrecked. to be, regardless of what it is.
The famous Baltimore Clipper, of The centre-board, or centre; slide-
which so many legends have been keel to which we have alluded, has
written, the canvas of which has proved itself to be of great advantage
whitened every sea, has no longer a to vessels of light draught, inasmuch
charm among the owners of coasting as they are sometimes in deep water,
vessels the competition in the coast- when it can be lowered or dropped
;
ing trade renders a more profitable down to enable the vessel to hold a
vessel desirable, inasmuel^&'tkey car- better wind, or to sail by the wind with
ry a proportionately •small amount of less lee way. The slide keel is usually
cargo, and do not sail as much faster placed above the middle of the vessel
than other vessels as would make up longitudinally, and varies in length ac-
the defect another reason for their cording to the size of the vessel, from
;
gradual disuse is found in the fact, that 15 to 20 feet long the trunk or well ;
that contains and protects the board, have their frames entire
vessels that
and at the same time keeps the water but if proper care is taken, and the
out of the vessel's hold, is usually cut short frames properly secured by an
through the vessel at the side of the extra side keelson and knee'd to the
keel ; the smaller sized craft have the trunk, they are sufficiently strong for
trunk through the middle of the keel navigating our rivers, and in some
it is framed by placing a stanchion at cases our sea-board, where many are
each end of the trunk, which extends now engaged. The board is usually
quite through the frames, and as high hung by a single bolt at the forward
as the top of the deck the size must end, about ! of the breadth of the
;
be sufficient in the transverse direction board from the lower edge, and at such
to form the opening for the board, but distance from the forward end as to
to this may be added the thickness of admit of the exposure of I of the board
the plank with which the trunk is below the bottom of the keel ; being
to be planked on both sides ; in the thus hung, it will be perceived that
fore and aft direction, the stanchion when the edge of the board strikes the
should be large enough to receive all bottom of the river in shoal water, it
the fastening the trunk will require ;

will rise without damage to the vessel ;
the frames which are thus cut box and having a small chain appended to
off,
into a piece of timber placed along the upper edge of the board at the
side of the keel, and extending below after end, it is readily raised by a small
far enough to come flush with the bot- winch placed on deck at the after end
tom plank, and above high enough to of the trunk for that purpose.
bring the first seam of the trunk above It must be quite apparent, even to
the ceiling ; the length of this side keel the casual observer, that with a large
should be sufficient to cover several of lever extending quite through the ves-
the frames, both forward and aft of the sel, and a number of feet below, acting
trunk ; thus it will be perceived that in the one direction, and with another
there no seam in the well of the trunk in the masts, extending many feet
is
that cannot be readily caulked this above the deck, acting in the opposite
;
job should be well done, inasmuch as direction, must have a'tery powerful
this kind of vessel has suffered severely tendency to divide the vessel into two
in their reputation in consequence of parts; hence we say, that extraordi-
leaky trunks. It cannot be denied nary means are required to secure the
that they are less strong than other vessel against this dividing tendency ;
and an extra amount of timber and quite hollow near the extremities, else
fastening are required to secure centre- the great breadth of the buttocks would
board vessels from consequent leakage prevent the retiring molecules from
upon any neglect in this particular. In reaching the rudder before the strength
small vessels there are many parts of the current, caused by the moving
where screw-bolts should be used had partially subsided. Thai a
in vessel,
lieu of blunt bolts, or those that are vessel's motions under some circum-
riveted the size of the bolts, both in stances would be easier by having some
;
diameter and length, or the small dead-rise, there can be but little doubt ;
amount of surface presented by the re- and we will add, that an easier angle
duced size of the timber, renders it of resistance may also be obtained on
necessary that the bolt should possess the vessel having some vertical rise ;
more of the confining property than its and all vessels that are propelled by
surface on the sides alone presents ;
sails having no centre-board, should
and in have some dead-rise to the floor, for
addition to this, bolts in small
timber are seldom driven harder than the following reasons the bilge should :
it is found to be perfectly sate to drive not hang below the keel, which it un-
screw-bolts, and yet possess all the doubtedly would (when the wind was
drawing properties peculiar to the were there no dead-
not directly aft)
screw. With regard to the form of rise. If we have more than a suffi-
the lines of this class of vessels, it has ciency for this, which should seldom
been found that inasmuch as the very exceed 10 degrees (unless the vessel
light draught they are required to be a yacht or a pilot-boat) where every
draw presents such formation as would other consideration is sacrificed for sea
divide the fluid very different from qualities, and in such case 15 degrees
another vessel of heavier draught ; in would be as much as we could derive
this case the fluid must be parted in a advantage from. This fact should not
diagonal direction on the bow, and the be forgotten in modelling sailing ves-
parallel lines to that of flotation require sels, viz., that by giving the vessel a
to be very round, with a very consid- large amount of dead-rise, we under-
erable rake to the margin mine the foundation for carrying sail,
line of the
stem thus it will be perceived that and cause the vessel to heel or incline
;
the vessel slides partially over the fluid, from her vertical and proper position
rather than part it in a horizontal di- for speed more than she otherwise
rection ^p lines aft require to be would. In a river where (with a head
;
45
wind,) the sloop or schooner with per- sion caused by the sea, and of the com-
bottom and centre-board is paratively straight side-line that this
fectly flat
often found to outsail the pilot-boat, class of vessels usually possesses; in ves-
the reason will appear obvious the sels of light draught it cannot be avoid-
:
sloop with her board partially or entirely ed, without the sacrifice of other equal-
out presents much greater lateral resist- ly important qualities. We have said
ance, because she heels or inclines that this round 'side-line enabled the
less and farther, the sides of the board sloop or schooner to come into the
;
are vertical when the vessel is upright, wind quick, and in this respect she
while the bottom of the other on the would have the advantage of the pilot-
lee side presents a plane parallel, or boat or other vertically sharp vessel
nearly so, to the surface, and the keel, not only so, but by having more bilge ;
from its inclination, does much less more side surface is presented, which
toward holding the vessel to windward augments the rotundity we have ap-
than an equal amount of surface on preciated for working quick. But
the centre-board does. Hence we dis- again, it may be said the flat surface
cover that the sloop is enabled to carry is also increased that has been repu-
a greater amount of sail, and at the diated. To this we in reply would only
same time makes less lee way, and say, that the flat is increased transverse-
need not tack as often ; but again, the ly, but need not be longitudinally, inas-
great breadth of the sloop furnishes much as the lines of resistance on the
her with very round side lines, and flat vessel run more nearly in the di-
completely divests her of the straight rection of section lines, while on the
or partially straight side that we have sharper vessel they run in the direction
so fully deprecated in the preceding of diagonal lines ; they may each alike
pages of this work; those round lines be divested of the straight as soon as
incline her to come to the wind, when we fairly get clear of the influence of
the smallest impulse at the helm favors the base-line; the transversely flat
this This inequality of the bottom we have shown is an advantage
course.
two lines of flotation, although it causes for stability.
all vessels to carry a weather helm, It must not be inferred iWm what
or compels the helmsman to keep his has been shown that the vessels en-
tiller to windward, is a bane in all, and gaged in river navigation are entirely
more particularly in sea-going vessels,

free from discrepancies but we feel ;
on account of the increased submer- quite safe in the assertion, that they
» »
**
.
pierced. A practical builder would and in addition to this, the builder

never think of sparring two ships alike, absolutely necessary to deceive
-
finds it
because they were of the same princi- the owner in relation to the dimen-
pal dimensions, without reference to sions, model or spars, to save himself
the model ; and yet this has been the from the cruel mortification of witness-
stereotyped practice for years in the ing in the ship he builds a total failure
Navies of both the Old and New in some of the most essential qualities,
World. That it is less difficult to con- while he is compelled to keep the im-
struct vessels for the avowed purposes provement and thus feed
to himself,
of war, will appear manifest, if we but the vanity of ship owners and when ;
consider the objects to be attained ; we remember that the private builder

first, the vessel shall possess the neces- is expected to (and does) improve
*
sary quality of being able to carry and against this tide of influences that op-
work her guns in all we cannot but admit that it
weathers ; this pose him,
calls for stability, both theoretical and is less difficult to construct a war than
practical the second essential quality a merchant ship.

;
The war ship has
is found in the speed necessary to be a determinate cargo, the weight of
attained, for a vessel of war should be which is known, and, as a consequence,
fully able to outsail all other vessels, the centre of gravity of this weight is
particularly those designed for freight- known, and the weight can be so also
ing purposes and yet the fact is too distributed as to furnish the most ad-
;
palpably plain to be for a moment vantageous trim for speed. She is re-
questioned, that the navy is behind the quired to carry a sufficiency of provi-
merchant service in point of speed, sion in addition to her armament for a
notwithstanding the many varying cir- limited period, and no more under —
cumstances to which the merchant these favorable circumstances, we see
'
ship is liable, that the war vessel does nothing to prevent them from being
not encounter. the fastest sailing ships on the globe
The merchant ship ;
must be built by such dimensions as but the contrary, until within a very
will enable the owner to gain by her few years, has been the case.
measurement ; she must carry more With regard to requirements neces-
than her tonnage, and as much as other sary to secure the first essential quality
ships, or she is unprofitable ; she must in war ships, viz., stability, we say that
be loaded often in a hurry, and without a oood degree of breadth is required,
reference to the moments of inertia the proportionate amount of which

will, in sonic degree, depend upon the feelings of others from what would be
weighl of (he battery to be sustained ;
our own, were we appointed to a ship
if the battery be on more than one that in point of speed was destined to
deck, the breadth should be 5 that follow in the distance, chilling indif-
of the depth; the length should be at ference would fill the place that would,
least 5 times that of the breadth, and under other circumstances, have been
this would only accord with the pro- filled by enthusiastic zeal. The very
portion of some merchant ships. It form and nature of our government
must not be expected that a ship can calls for an efficient Navy, not formi-
be an extraordinary fast sailer without dable by the number of guns heaped
length. The day is not far distant when upon one vessel, or by the terrific frown
merchant sailing ships will be built of of a few ships of the line, that could
a length 6 times their breadth, and if be taken by a single steamer ships —
war vessels are to sail from 12 to 13 that are formidable only in fine weather
knots by the wind, which they should at sea, or to a crippled vessel of the
do, they must be long. Much may be enemy that is unable to maintain her
gained by reducing the weight they ordinary speed by some casualty. The
are now required to carry. It must annals of the Navies, both of the Old
be apparent to the thinking man, that and New World, will show how com-
it is much easier to obtain water than paratively little service this class of ves-
other supplies belonging to the provi- sels have rendered nor indeed is it ;
sionally calender in foreign ports; hence reasonable to suppose it could be other-

we say, that if it is necessary to carry wise and whatever may be said to the
;
provision for four months, it is not ne- contrary, we say that it would be a
cessary to carry water for more than wise policy for the United States to
2i to 3 months; the amount of buoy- razee all her ships of the line they ;
ancy necessary to sustain this extra would be capable of rendering much

amount of water may be taken off the more efficient service at much less
model, and thus diminish the resistance, cost. The only reasons that can be
which will enable the ship to sail faster, adduced (having the least claims to fea-
and, consequently, render her more ef- sibility) why this measure should not
ficient, inasmuch as a war vessel is be adopted, found in the fact that
is
little better than a failure, if she other nations have not done so tlius ; i
does not surpass in speed other sailing giving abundant evidence, that in naval
vessels. If we should judge of the operations we are willing to follow,
•*-. ?
while every other interest is satisfied ship of the line, we cannot secure a
with nothing short of the lead. Let sufficiency of stability, and at the same
ns turn our eyes to the history of the time possess all other desirable quali-
Old world, and see what have been ties for example, their great height ;
the effects consequent upon a formi- above water, to which must be added
dable Navy, made up principally of the weight of guns above the several
ships of the line. That it was the decks, rendering it necessary that they
principal cause of the loss of the Span- have great breadth to this,
should ;
ish Armada of 15S8, few will deny. however, there can be no objection,
We are told that from the year 1756 provided it were not absolutely neces-
to 1760 France had taken from Eng- sary to carry this extra breadth to the
land 2539 vessels and during the extremities, which incapacitates them
;
same period England had captured for even an ordinary amount of speed,
from France 944 vessels during this and renders them the dullest sailers
;
time she had 120 ships of the line, that navigate the ocean. We have it
all of which were in active service from no less authority than the officer
;
France had not a single ship of who commanded one of the best, if not
the line at sea —a more conclusive the very best ship of the line belonging
evidence could scarce be adduced of to the Navy of the United States, that
the inefficiency of this class of vessels, with a head wind and sea, she could
inasmuch as it is notorious that Eng- not make more than 6 knots per hour,
lish valor was above suspicion, when and she drifted to leeward more than
the terms were equal. Were it neces- any vessel he ever saw, and at the same
sary, we might show the issues of the time rolled less ; this is not the result
present century, with the history of of observation of a single day, but of a
which doubtless our readers are fa- whole cruise of 2 years or more, and
miliar, and need not be repeated. But furnishes abundant evidence that a full
apart from these, there are other rea- bow cannot sail fast, and that a great
sons why the construction of ships of draught of water is no security against
the line should be abandoned. We drifting to leeward, unless the shape
have said that proportion was the ral- be adapted to speed ; but admitting
lying watch-word in the construction that a ship of the line could be so con-
-of ships — not less applicable to naval structed as to make her a fair sailing
than to merchant vessels. We find vessel, and at the same time retain all
upon applying these proportions to the her efficiency, we say even then it is
t
46
an extravagant manner of distributing To make the ship of the line a fast

force upon the high seas ; it iswould be an expensive under-
true, sailer,
that the sight of a ship of the line taking, even if it could be accomplished
moored before a town or a battery of without hazard. But there is another
equal power, is calculated to strike dis- important fact in connection with this
may in the ranks of the enemy, but subject that should not be brooked in
the chances are rare in which the silence it is absolutely necessary that
;
same number of guns placed on the a ship of the line should draw at least
decks of two or three vessels would 26 feet of water, (we allude to those of
not accomplish more, even though all the first class,) and we very much
this force were required at the same doubt whether there are any belonging
place, apart from the fact that this to the Navy of the United States that
force may be divided, have gone to sea at so light a draught.
if necessary.
The argument used as a reason why The height and weight above water
the United States should not abandon require a sufficiency for stowage below,
the construction of this class of vessels to enable the ship to maintain the equi-
is weak and That a foreign librium of stability when a press of sail
futile.
government would treat an ambassador is spread to the wind, inasmuch as the

with less dignity on account of his not centre of gravity of the weight above
having been sent out in a ship of the water is high, the centre of gravity of
line, is without the slightest founda- the weight below water should be cor-
tion, or that the laws of nations would respondingly low, else the leverage will
not be as fully respected, or could not be small for carrying sail. With this
be as fully enforced by an equal amount
heavy draught of water the ship is shut
of power distributed on more than one out of many important ports, both at
vessel, betrays a want of courage that home and abroad there are but three ;
has never stigmatized the American or four ports she could enter in the
name, either on land or sea. That it whole range of coast belonging to the
is more honorable to move at the slow United States, no matter what casualty
pace of 6 knots an hour in a ship of might occur this objection
; alone,
the line, than to sail 12 knots an were there no other, should be a suffi-
hour under the same circumstances in cient reason for abandoning the farther
another ship, is a logic entirely obsolete use of this class of vessels.
in any other than naval operations, It may be said with regard to the
particularly in this age of advancement. speed of ships of the line, that they
"*W
arc only dull when on when is at this time more efficient and for-
a wind, or
sailing by the wind ; that when the midable than perhaps it ever was be-
wind is free they sail much better fore, we find but 73 ships of the line
this we admit, and are willing to ad- on her navy list for 1850, 15 only of
mit another fact, viz., that a Chinese which are in commission, and the re-
Junk, or a scow, will sail before the mainder, 58 in nnmbcr, are laid up in
wind; the sailing qualities of ships are ordinary while, as we have shown, in
;
not determined by the speed with which 1760 she had 120 ships of the line, and
they can drift in the direction of the all in commission. If experience is
wind, but by the excess of propulsion worth as much to nations as to indi-

over the resistance presented by the viduals, our Government might learn
immersed surface. The ships of the something tangible from this but we ;
line of the United States Navy have an need not circnm navigate the globe to
excess of capacity beyond what is show the inefficiency of ships of the
actually necessary ; they carry too line. A
preparatory to action can
line
much water for their" provisions. It be formed of other ships than those
may be said that having two gun decks and a spar deck,
the excess of water
need not be taken, but in answer to that will prove more powerful in the
this proposed remedy, it may be only weight, if not in the altitude of their
necessary to say, that this would light- battery. The dimensions of a ship of
en the ship above her determinate line the line differs but little from the fol-
of flotation, and, as a consequence, di- lowing: 207 feet on the main gun
minish her stability the only remedy deck
; 54 feet beam and 36$ feet from
; ;
can be found in the first construction base-line to the top of the main gun
the proportionate draught of water is deck beam ; thus we find that her
not at fault — it is the shape ; they are proportions are good, when the spar
fuller than is actually necessary, by deck is excluded from the depth — hav-
an amount of buoyancy equal to this ing about 3 feet of breadth for 2 of
excess; this being entirely impractica- depth hence we say, that although ;
ble, it only remains to razee or relieve her shape gives her stability beyond
them of the spar deck with all its ap- the usual proportion, yet her stability
purtenances, and they will be found to inasmuch as her arma-
is artificial,
be much more efficient, quite as for- ment has a permanent location, when
midable, and less expensive. the ship is in commission. But enough
Notwithstanding the British Navy has been furnished upon this subject.
-*.,
5k,
The next class of vessels that de- of the ship herself; but this is not all,
mands our attention is that of the the constructor should be entirely free
Frigate : of war ves- from the trammeling influences of fur-
this description
sel exhibits (even to the casual ob- nished dimensions it is only necessary ;
server) the constituent properties of that he should know the weight of the
efficiency. The conclusion ar- ship with all on board, the dimensions
first
rived at, is her proportions : her lower belong properly to him, and on him
deck guns are carried as high as the should the responsibility rest of her
ship of the line, and her length is seen performance, or her ability to carry and
to advantage, not being absorbed in work her guns in all weather our ;
top hamper, or surplus height. If the Government has been at fault in this
past can furnish an index for the fu- particular; her recent course, how-
ture, we feel quite safe in saying, that ever, has furnished some indications
until within a very few years of a disposition to place the responsi-
the
Frigates of the Navy of the United bility where it belongs in relation to
States have rendered most efficient smaller vessels,*and we say if in one,
service. The term Frigate applies to why not in all?
a ship having one covered gun deck, It cannot be expected that the Sec-
and carrying more than 28 guns there retary of the Navy should know (but
;
are two classes, first and second, and for a comparatively short period) the
they are designated by the number of present condition of the Navy, or its
guns they carry. Whatever may have future wants ; his immediate connec-
a direct connection with the weight of tion with the political organization of
provisions,guns and other equipments, the Cabinet forbids more than a super-
(more strictly speaking) pertains to ficial knowledge hence we may rea- ;
other branches of the naval service sonably infer that he must have advi-
than that of the construction of the sory counsel from some source, and
hull, inasmuch as the several depart- we are brought to the threshold of an
ments move each in its appropriate inquiry, from what department should
sphere notwithstanding this, the con- it emanate ?
; We may perhaps be al-
structor should know the amount of lowed to say, if the past can furnish
the entire weight to be sustained be- an admonition for the future, let all
fore he can design a draft having suffi- that pertains to the manner and form
cient displacement to sustain (not only of construction emanate from the me-
this weight, but) the additional weight chanical department of this branch of
the Government. It has been justly who do not carry the pressure of these
remarked by an eminent ship-builder, bands down to the loneliness of the
that he who could not with his own tomb. The effects of this course has
hands make a model, could not design a most pernicious influence upon
one ;and it is notorious, that while genius when in the bud of youth.
the modelling of ships and other ves- Operative mechanics having served
sels belonging to the Navy was in the an apprenticeship in one of the
hands of a board of commissioners, a Navy Yards", well know how greatly
downward tendency in every essential they felt the need of that knowledge
quality was but too plainly manifest which is obtained only by prnctice ;
and had not better councils prevailed, the small amount of real science which
the Navy would ere this have been a they vainly supposed was to be the
foul blot upon our national escutcheon. palladium of success in all future opera-
We are glad to see that a change of! tions, vanished like clew before the sun,
measures has effected wonders, and and they were left to learn in riper years
that instead of the miserable failures the very first principles of ship-build-
that succeeded each other in quick ing. It may be assumed that this
succession, the bureau system has is visionary, or that these are excep-
wrought a salutary change. It cannot, tions to the general rule ; but we
however, be expected, that even under ourselves have been taught these les-
the present system, the Navy of the sons, and had we not laid a founda-
United States can keep pace with the tion among the private competing in-
improvements of this wondrous age. terests of the day, we should have been
With few exceptions, the Naval Con- subject to the mortifying necessity we
structors receive most of the knowledge have described. We have said that
they possess of ship-building from with- science without practice was of little
in the walls of a Navy Yard thus; avail, and practice alone is also equally
knowledge becomes hereditary, and dark; but blend them the one with the
the apprentice is taught that science is other, and they furnish a system worthy
the one thing needful, and that what- of the admiration of the finest and
ever emanates from another channel most brilliant genius, rising in organized
is of little consequence. It is thus that proportions like a new Cythera from
habits are formed, which arebands the enchanted wave.

like
of iron when once created: and there Let Naval Constructors become di-
are few that are thus circumstanced vorced from those habits to which they
3GG MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
have been so long wedded, and look at States Navy than there has been, com-
the rapid progress of commercial en- mercial enterprise will not only raise
terprise, and they will learn that not the means for the support of com-
onlv Frigates, but even their Corvettes merce, but it will also build the ships
and Sloops of War are indifferent sail- that are to protect it.
ing vessels compared with many in the With regard to other qualities than
merchant service. Ships no larger those of speed, they lack strength,

than Sloops of War are built ronger than more particularly if their length be in-
Frigates of the United States Navy, creased ; they should be plated diago-
and, as we have shown, ships are now nally across the frames as steamers are.
building that are longer than any ship We
have no hesitancy in saying that
in the Navy, the Pennsylvania not ex- the shape of the greatest transverse
cepted. That our Frigates, in their sections are altered from the original
sailing, as well as other qualities, are mould whenever the ship is under a
equal to any on the globe, we have no press of sail with the wind abeam; this
hesitation in adding the weight of our is the effect of the weight of her bat-
testimony ; but are they not, and is often seen in the opening
some of tery,
them at least, models of the past cen- of the water-way seam, where the di-
tury ?and are those of the present vision of strain takes place at every
century superior models to those of roll, more particularly when the guns
the last ? does their performances prove are housed with their muzzles against
them such? While we readily admit the side.
that the Navy of the United States, as The most efficient class of sailing
far as the models of her ships may vessels belonging to the Navy of the
stand connected with the operations United States, are those denominated
of a Navy, is equal to any on the globe, Sloops of War. This class of ships
we do not admit that in this matter have within a few years undergone an
we should remain in a state of eternal entire change the dull-sailing, bad- ;
childhood. Inasmuch as American steering, straight and wall-sided, shape-

commercial enterprise surpasses that less hulks that disgraced the National
of all other nations, in like manner the Ensign, have occasionally been eon-
American Navy should be the most verted into store-ships; others have
efficient on the globe. Unless there is been broken up, and now few remain as
a greater improvement in the sailing engines of war. Their places have been
qualities of the ships of the United supplied with others that answer quite
well the object designed ; there is yet cessary to give a general description,
much room for improvement, but taken inasmuch as many of our merchant
as a whole, they are creditable vessels. ships, in case of a rupture with a foreign
The construction of these vessels power, (possessing a very considerable
has been left in the hands of the con- navy,) could be converted into Frigates,
structors themselves, who have fully Corvettes, and Sloops of War, in suffi-
shown the advantages arising from en- numbers in the space of three
cient
trusting to mechanics the management months to render our Navy the most
of mechanical operations. These ves- formidable for sailing- vessels on the
sels, with rare exceptions, are con- globe ; these ships are, as it regards
stantly in commission ; the exceptions strength, equal to any vessels in the
are very generally those periods in Navy ; the enormous cargoes and the
which they are undergoing repairs, of press of sail they carry, and the small
which they seem to require much more amount of repairs they require, incon-
than ships in the merchant service. testably prove this. It may be said
It is not our purpose, nor yet our that were guns placed on their decks,
province, to induct our readers into the the case would be quite different we, :
path usually however, think otherwise

followed by writers on it matters ;
Naval Architecture, who have detailed not whether the cargo be guns or rail-
the manner of naval construction prac- road iron, and many of these ships carry
tised in the Old world, and the many an amount between decks equal to
others suggested by the theorists of an any battery, besides the great bulk
obsolete age. But believing as we do, of the same material in the hold. We
and go farther and say, that there is no
for tangible reasons already given, will
that naval operations throughout the ship in the Navy that is able to do the
world are very far behind the mercan- work that many merchant ships have
tile marine, we deem it only necessary done, and still retain their shape with
most prominent defects the same amount of repairs the rea-
to point out the ;
in the manner of construction, and son will appear obvious, if we but con-
show the remedy. We have already sider that the tanks for water, and the
furnished the lines and tables of some spaces left for kentledge, deprive the
of the finest and most efficient vessels ship of a great amount of strength, in-
on the globe, and we have also de- asmuch as most of the space occu-
scribed the manner of constructing pied by these is tilled with heavy bilge
them ; hence it only seems to us ne- strakes, and with sister keelsons ; these
render the bottom and bilge very weakens the plank, and secondly it
strong ; the top-sides are not overlook- causes the timber to rot sooner than it
ed. Very many of our merchant ships would otherwise do and most surely ;
have live-oak and locust top-timbers no one will say that the head of the
and stanchions and as it regards the bolt would not rest quite as firm on a
;
manner of putting the frames together, live-oak top-timber as on a white oak

are actually stronger than those of the plank; and this extension and expo-
Navy, inasmuch as the distribution of sure of the deck fastening through the
the butts of the timbers is more general. outside plank, is one of the reasons
No one in a private yard would think why the ships of the Navy rot so much
of adhering with any degree of tenacity sooner than merchant ships, in con-
to the diagonal sirmark for cutting off nection with another, viz., that of a
the head or heel of a timber ; it should want of proper ventilation. It is no-
be remembered that the greatest torious, that our ships of war, although
amount of strength is obtained from built of what is assumed to be the best
an equal distribution of the butts ; and material, rot in a very few years ; in
with regard to the manner of fastening some instances on particular stations
the ships of the two classes, we deem a single cruise of 3 years was sufficient
it rather a detriment than otherwise to warrant a new suit of wales. There
to extend the fastening of the deck is much greater pains taken to venti-
frame through the outside plank, and late merchant ships than ships of war,
we are not alone in this matter. It is in addition to the natural advantages
assumed by those whose province it is arising from the frequent discharge of
to determine how much fastening is cargo. We are glad to learn that the
required, in vessels of war, that the Navy department have adopted mea-
plank should be square fastened to sures to determine the best or proper
the timbers throughout ; must time for cutting timber, and the best
this, it
be admitted is enough, and if enough mode of curing it, or securing it against

in one part, why not in all? Square dry rot in connection with this, their
;
fastening implies 2 bolts, spikes, or investigations also combine a deter-

tree -nails in each timber, or 4 in mination of the specific gravity. Those
the frame in each plank. It will not experiments are confined to the three
be denied that more than a suffi- principal kinds of ship timber, viz., live-
ciency is an injury; in this case it oak, white oak, and yellow pine, and
is an injury in two respects first it will be of incalculable benefit tc> the
:
*•
naval and mechanical interests of the ments for the first year, commencing
United States, when we remember that on the 15th of September, 1849, and
there no table of specific gravity continuing in regular order up to the
is
that is at all reliable for any meridian 15th of August, 1850. These experi-
of North America, and that our ments will perhaps be better illustrated
mechanics have been making calcula- in the following order: On the 15th —
tions from tables of specific gravity of September he received in 12 feet
found in European works, we shall lengths the butts of ten trees of live-
begin to approximate a conception of oak, and an equal number of white
its value ; a location in oak and yellow pine. Five of each
the timbered
districts of this wooded country (for kind were worked square at the place
practical purposes) will satisfy the most where cut, and the remaining five were
incredulous, that little is known about brought round with the bark on after ;
the productions of the American forest their arrival they were subdivided into
— a location of two years for this pur- 3 feet lengths. The squared pieces are
pose, satisfied the author that he knew from 12 to 15 inches square ; the
but about the natural science of round pieces in bark from 12 to 15
little
the forest timber growth of the United inches in diameter. The specific gravi-
States. We are doubly gratified to ty of each piece is at once obtained,
learn that this importantand responsi- and then they are located as follows :
ble trust has been committed to Mr. 4 pieces of the squared live-oak and 4
James Jarvis, of Virginia, a mechanic pieces of the round live-oak in bark
whose unbending energy and zeal in are placed in tanks under cover, where
the discharge of duty, fully qualifies are the solutions of cor rosive sublimate,
him for this and hav- copperas, alum, and coal tar.
important trust ; The
ing filled the office of Inspector and same number of white oak and yellow
Measurer of Timber for the Govern- pine pieces, amounting in all to 32
ment at its principal depot for many pieces of each species of ship timber,
years, has acquired a knowledge of its one half of which are square pieces,
defective properties to an extent un- the other half round and in bail;.
surpassed doubtless by any man in this These live-oak, white oak, and yellow
country. Mr. Jarvis has discretionary pine pieces were kept in the tanks sub-
power given him by the Department merged one month, at the expiration
at Washington he has kindly furnish- of which time they were distributed as
;
ed us with the result of his experi- follows under cover, in open air,
:
47
planted as posts, and laid as rail-road time for cutting ship timber, or whether
sills. There is a suitable number of it is of any material consequence; and
the pieces which have not been pre- by testing the weight of the same kinds
pared, also under cover, in open air, of timber in connection with its dura-
planted as posts, and laid as rail-road bility, and thus set this matter at
sills ; a proportion of the pieces, one rest. The timber used for these 1
ex-
square, and one round, are water-sea- periments is thus described: — The live-
soned for six months oak and white oak are of excellent
; after being re-
moved from the water, two pieces are quality, and felled purposely for those
made of one, and one kept under cover, experiments, with a few exceptions.
the other in open air. The pieces The yellow pine is not as good as is
which have not been in the solutions, used in the Navy its speciric gravity ;
are the test amongst these will not prove the fact. The very best
pieces ;
pieces Mr. Jarvis has fitted some to- of yellow pine is not of the greatest
gether, wood and wood, except having density. Pitch-pine is not as good for
between them tarred paper coated with decks or deck frames as other fine-
charcoal dust. A {ew years will prove grained pine from the south. There
by ocular demonstration, which of the is a species of yellow pine from about
solutions, substances, or water, will Wilmington, N. C, whose speciric
make timber most durable. The pieces gravity is about the same as the pine
which have had no preparation on used in the experiments, and corres-
them, and are kept under cover, are ponds (difference of time when cut con-
weighed each month, to observe the sidered) with that found in the table
amount of the juices or moisture lost of specific gravities of dry timber
by evaporation in one month and in .610. The very best yellow pine tim-
one year. The weighing of the first ber is that in which the even fineness
piece felled in September, 1849, had of the grain is continued to the centre
been weighed twelve times in August, or pith of the tree. By careful ob-
1850 ; therefore it will take until Sep- servation, much information that is
tember, 1851, before the timber felled valuable may be from the
obtained
and received in August, 1850, can be tables of specific gravity. Notwith-
weighed twelve times. The object in standing the thickness of the bark on
weighing or obtaining the specific the yellow pine and its lightness, (the
gravity each month in the year, is, that specific gravity differing not materially
he may be able to determine the best from that of cork,) we find that the
pine timber bark weighs much more

in pine, when in pieces of any considera-
than the square timber; this, to the when the
ble size, it shrinks but little
casual observer, would
seem vessel is in active service, and when
hardly
possible the man unacquainted with used as deck plank, should be made
;
the nature of yellow pine sap-wood, narrow. The convictions of our judg-
would be likely to doubt the correct- ment lead us to this conclusion, that
ness of the table ; but such is the na- yellow pine requires no seasoning to
ture of the exterior coating immedi- make it durable ; the ebb and flow of
ately under the bark of yellow pine, turpentine is through the sap, as the
that we cannot find a more analogous specific gravity will show hence we ;
substance than that of sponge ; its re- say, that the capillary tubes of the
tentive properties are very similar, and heart wood have no more of the re-
the turpentine with which this sap- sinous property (if cut at a proper sea-
wood is saturated, is the cause of
son) than is required for strength, and
its in-
creased specific gravity above that of to render it durable, which, we think,

the squared timber when covered with Mr. Jarvis's experiments will fully
bark. The thinner the sap-wood, the prove. The continued use of yellow
less the specific gravity. There is an pine timber in the private ship-yards
error in the prevailing opinions in re- of this city, have already proved it in-
lation to the durability of yellow pine contestably; we could name ships, built
timber. Our Government has become some 25 years ago, that have
in this city
a heavy stockholder in this prevailing their first yellow pine beams in their
error, by acting on the supposition decks, and we could point to others
that yellow pine timber required a great that have exhibited a durability in their
amount of seasoning. The
conse- deck frames unknown in the Navy of
quence has been, that large timber the United States. Proper care should
houses have been erected and filled with be taken to clear the timber of all sap ;
yellow pine timber, which has been and as it regards shrinkage in the
kept for many years, and when in a naval vessels, if the same measures
state of decay has been used both for were adopted as in the private yards
new vessels and those undergoing re- of making strakes of plank narrow, we
pairs this is a great mistake
; an equal think there will be no cause of com-
;
number of months would have answer- plaint the strakes of deck plank, ;
ed a better purpose than as many years clamps and bulwarks of Navy vessels,
;
as it regards the shrinkage of yellow are too icide. There is another error
in that of preparing yellow pine thousands of dollars, besides

timber save
in the woods, both for the private and having better pine timber, were the
for naval purposes, it being absolutely Navy department to have yellow pine
necessary that the sap should be ex- forests at their command rather than
cluded ; the timber should be eight in- timber sheds stored with pine timber,
stead of four squared, thus in effect besides retaining the life of the timber
only taking off the sap, (on account of by not having the turpentine drawn
the very best of the timber being next from the tree before it is worked into
to the sap ;) this would enable the timber. As we have already remarked,
builder to work out water-ways and the most dense timber is not the best,
all similar pieces without cutting in as or most durable, because of the amount
far as the pith on the exposed side of of turpentine it contains it is often ;
the piece. The present manner of rendered so near the butt, in conse-
cutting yellow pine timber is a reckless quence of the tree having been tapped
waste ; the very best parts of the tree while standing, in order to draw off the
being left in the woods. would prefer the quali-
Inspectors turpentine. We
measure square logs clear of sap, and ty of pine we have alluded to in its
the consequence is, that but a very pristine state without seasoning for
small three-cornered strip or vein of durability, provided it were properly
sap is left on the corners whereas if ventilated when in the ship. With re-
;
at the centre of the length of the log gard to the density of white oak, it
the sap were removed, and the log may with strong propriety be assumed
were measured as in other girth mea- that the quality is in the same ratio as
surements, the most valuable parts the density ; but we shall discover that
would come into the private and pub- the tables of specific gravity do not
lic yards and although it would be
; furnish an index for determining the
somewhat awkward at first to receiveinasmuch as they show the
best quality,
timber in this manner, being accus- squared white oak timber cut in De-
tomed to the square log, yet the price cember and May, to be the heaviest
per cubic foot would actually be less, when cut, while at the same time that
and the timber-getter would save in which was cut in January and July,
labor what he paid in extra hauling was of the best or better quality. In
and freight, and not only so, but he order to detect this supposed discre-
would get paid for all the timber he pancy, let us follow the subject farther.
brought. The Government would The timber in bark will show that our
'+
first conclusions were correct, inas- of live-oak and white oak is less dura-
much as the timber cut in July is of ble than the heart, it is generally re-
the greatest density, and that cut in ceived with the heart, and as mer-
January differs but a trifle from that chantable timber. The lasting pro-
cut in December ; hence we are in perty of live-oak consists chiefly in
evitably brought to the threshold of its being entirely void of that acid juice
this conclusion, that no table of specific which white oak contains; but this is
gravities for white oak timber is relia- not all, the whole of the capillary
ble for determining the quality, unless tubes seems to be completely coated
its weight can be shown in the bark. and filled with a greasy glutinous sub-
The reason of this discrepancy between stance, that is not found in the sap,
round and squared timber in its densi- which is doubtless the reason why the
ty, is found in the fact that the texture sap is not rendered equally durable
of the grain of some trees is better this substance may be brought out for
adapted for receiving the juices than analyzation by steaming; it takes steam
others throughout the entire transverse nearly or quite as well as yellow pine.
section, while others receive the supply The monthly tables of specific gravity
chiefly through the sap. This of the green tree, furnishing as they
latter
kind is the best quality ; and, as a con- do the basis of (doubtless) the most re-
sequence, is likely to prove the most of experiments ever un-
liable series
durable, as well as being the strongest. dertaken in this or any other country,
There may, however, be exceptions will, we think, be examined with in-
even to this, as a general rule. With terest by mechanics, and particularly
regard to the specific gravity of the those whose business it is to use the
live-oak, as shown by the tables, we three kinds of timber of which they
clearly discover that the sap-wood is take cognizance. In addition to the
lighter than the heart, inasmuch as monthly tables, Mr. Jarvis has furnish-
the bark being thin, could scarcely re- ed us with the mean specific gravity,
duce the weight as much as shown by as made up of
and the 12 months,
the tables. The tables will not war- carried the whole out into pounds and
rant this conclusion of white oak, inas- ounces avoirdupois. We then have
much as we find that which was cut a table of the specific gravity of dry tim-
inMarch was heavier in bark than ber, showing when and where cut.
when squared. But although the sap

37 1
THE "GREEN TREE."

9 p E( ,,,, GRAVITY OF TIMBER FRF.SIIFROM THE FOREST NONE OF WHICH WAS FELLED MORE THAN TEN DAYS
BEFORE THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY WAS OBTAINED.
LRE live oak.

We have shown by the hydrostatic for that purpose, by a proper mode of

balance, Fig-. 4, in chapter I, one ventilation. Experience has shown
method by which the specific gravity that vessels employed in hot climates
of any body, whether a floating body (unless the timber be well-seasoned) rot
or one more dense, may be determined. in a very short time ; but let this same
The term specific denotes that its employed in a climate colder
vessel be
gravity or weight is determined by com- than that in which she was built, (or
parison with water, inasmuch as dis- the timber was cut,) and she will con-
tilled water is recognized to be univer- tinue sound for years; from this we
sally the same when pressed under the may learn, that vessels built of green
same weight of air. The expositions timber, or that partially seasoned,
given on page 28 of the manner of should not be sent on stations where
using the hydrostatic balance, will the order of seasoning is reversed, and
doubtless be sufficient, and render it a fermentation of the acid takes place,
unnecessary to remarks which will rot any timber vessel within
extend our
upon its use and advantages. Another a very few years. Enough might be
remark in relation to the durability said upon this subject to fill a volume,
of timber, (white oak in particular,) and we hope that the untiring zeal of
when in a green state, and the causes Mr. Jarvis, in his philosophical investi-
of its decay, may suffice. It is doubt- gations, will elicit such information as
less true beyond a doubt, that in many shall fill up the great chasm in me-
instances more than one-half of the chanical knowledge, so necessary in

actual gravity of timber is made up of the construction of this stupendous
the juices hence it is plain that the fabric, and upon a subject of which
;
seasoning process is but a removal of the mechanical world is avowedly ig-

this moisture by evaporation the in- norant, and we are quite well assured
;
quiry then follows, which is the best in our own minds that a volume upon
mode of evaporating this moisture, by this subject would meet with public
slow or sudden means ? and should we favor.
be deprived of the use of the timber But to return to the subject of ven-
while this operation is being perform- tilation —we say that there is abun-
ed ? We think the day is not far dis- dant room for improvement in the
tant, when it will be proved by ocular Navy of the United States in this par-
demonstration that timber can be sea- ticular. In the Sloops of War, as in
soned in the vessel, without storage other vessels of the Navy, an air strake
is formed, or an open space of 3 or 4 side, and the fire-place draught on the

inches between the clamps and rail this reciprocal change alternately,
left ;
sperketting between decks this seems it will be perceived, would draw out
;
rather as a conductor of foul, than of the foul air on one side and supply the
fresh air we should rather be inclined fresh air from the opposite side, chang-
;
were those openings ing alternately. It will be perceived,

to the belief, that
closed, and the ceiling made tight by that the only thing required to accom-
calking, as also all communication plish this is the apparatus for the gene-
with the timbering room below the ration of a current from below, and the
upper deck, there would be less cause removal of obstructions from the pas-
of complaint. The only communica- sage above, at the same time prevent-
tion that should be had with the tim- ing the water from entering through
bering room should be above deck, the same channel ; this has recently
where access to the can been partially accomplished in some of
pure open air
be obtained. This mode of ventilation the merchant ships of this city. Free
is fully accomplished in merchant access may be had with the open air
ships, and at the same time water or through an orifice in the plank-sheer,
any other substance than air is not and yet the water cannot enter, inas-
admitted it is true that between the much as the orifice is closed when the
;
knees and the deck plank the air may bent tube is submerged this is done ;
have access, but the channel is very by a ball simply floating into the orifice,
small, and the excess of draught above which effectually closes it against
would neutralize its effect a vessel is water, and when the water subsides,
;
properly ventilated when at the limber the ball drops down, when air is admit-
strake an apparatus is arranged that ted this contrivance, though simple
;
shall be to the ship what the fire-place and useful, and doubtless equal if not
is to the house, while another on the superior to any other, lacks another to
plank-sheer, port sill, or rail, shall as- be placed at the lowest part of the
sist drawing out the foul air, as the timber room for the purpose, as we
in
smoke is drawn upward, the timbering have said, of generating a draught,
room representing the chimney this which will effectually draw off the foul
;
may be placed on one side of the keel- air, which causes vessels to rot so much
son, while on the opposite side of the faster in the naval than in the mer
keelson the same kind of instrument chant service, and would prove much
that is found on the rail of the first more effectual than filling the timber-
ing room with salt, which has prevailed Corvette,) stands at the head of the
to a very considerable extent. The list for usefulness. In this age of
Sloops of War of the Navy should have fire, must
water, and vapor power, it
a light spar deck, and there are several be admitted that the War Steamer is
reasons why ; first, the ship would af- most reliable as an engine of war or
ford greater facilities for ventilation, a messenger of peace. It must not,
and if advantage were taken of those however, be supposed that power for
facilities, the ship would be more dura- weal or wo in a War Steamer consists
ble ;another reason may be shown in in the numbei of guns mounted in

the improved health of the crew. It dread array. In the steamer, as in
cannot be denied that pure air, or a other vessels of war, a small number
more extensive circulation than can be of large calibre located in selected
obtained below the gun-deck of a Sloop positions, will accomplish wonders.
of War, would contribute to the health But the main object in their construc-
and comfort of the crew. On the coast tion is not to make mere floating bat-
of Africa, or even on the West India teries ; this kind of vessel belonged to
station, the addition would be of incal- an obsolete age a War Steamer is ;
culable value, inasmuch as a free cir- formidable in proportion to her speed

and the weight of her shot a single
culation of air through the ports might ;
be obtained, and benefit the entire swivel gun, carrying- a 10 or 12 inch

crew, who could suspend their ham- shot, is more formidable than a broad-
mocks to the spar deck. This addi- side of 42 pounders and a War ;
tional deck would not increase the bat- Steamer, carrying 12 eight or nine
tery, nor yet the number of men, and inch guns, and 2 twelve inch pivot
surely every Sloop of War should have guns, would be of much greater ser-
a sufficiency of stability to carry a light vice than the Pennsylvania with her
spar deck. This class of naval vessels three gun-decks and spar deck, pro-
are rendered doubly serviceable, in con- vided she could use them all.
sequence of their draught of water, With regard to the relative excel-
which is sufficiently light to enable lence of the models of naval and com-
them to have ingress and egress at all mercial steamers, the latter very far
the ports of entry of any considerable surpasses the former in the United
size; and next to the War Steamer, States. As we had occasion to re-
the ship commonly called the Sloop of mark in relation to commercial steam-
War, (more properly denominated the I ers, that to be profitable, they must be
•
48
/;ist ; so we say of War Steamers, to of the vessels same man-
built, in the
be serviceable, they should be fast. ner that the underwriters do, and this
He who is behind in this age of the to the Government would be but fur-
world, is ever chasing lost time, a nishing employment for those already
part which the American character under pay, thus (we have assumed that
repudiates. We would not be misun- naval officers would be selected for
derstood in this matter ; we do not say this mechanical operation, as has al-
that commercial steamers are better ways been the case) not only millions
vessels, but that they are better models of dollars might be saved to the Gov-
for this great desideratum, viz., speed, ernment, but the mortifying reflection
and. consequently, are preferable for that her steamers were behind the age,
War Steamers. more
Instead of being be- notwithstanding they had cost
hind, they should be even faster than than enough to place them in advance
those of the merchant service. It is —
they were comparatively slow, though
evident that the two kinds of vessels they had cost enough to render them
require the same models, inasmuch as efficient. The continuation of the
they both aim at the same important former practice of modelling vessels of
points, viz., stability, speed, and easy war, as well as other vessels, for gene-
draught of water. A steamer for com- rations yet unborn to build, is entirely
mercial purposes must be able to go in wrong, as whole frames of steamers
and out at the ports for which she is and other vessels bear witness these ;
destined and a War Steamer should frames were cut to the moulds, and
;
be able to enter almost any port where bevels made by models the Govern-
fuel may be obtained. All commercial ment have repudiated, and the timber
steamers of any considerable size should is condemned because of its having
be so constructed that they may at any been shaped out by an inferior model
time be converted into War Steamers; we say the promiscuous timber used
this could be accomplished, and the in the private yard is far better adapt-
Government at all times would have a ed to working the ship's frame, than
respectable force in steamers, that that which is worked out any me- ;
would be in advance of other nations; chanic can mould out a better frame
this could be accomplished without where he has the variety of crooks
material additional cost of construc- before him on the ground, than when
tion it would only be necessary for
; selecting the shape from the tree while
the Government to know the quality standing. The strength of Ocean
Steamers, whether for commercial or that the line of flotation of every

war purposes, should be unquestiona- steamer in the Navies of the Old or
ble; and the one requires quite as New World are fullest at the stem,
much as the other and all the means and, as a consequence, the bulk of the
;
we have named for adding strength to wave generated by the bow is found at
the commercial is equally applicable to the wood ends, or along the bow close
the War Steamer. Few steamers that by the stem this must of necessity be
;
are very fast carry much freight, but the case on every bow that has a lon-
doubtless quite enough to be equal to an gitudinally round line of flotation, and
amount of armament sufficient both Chapter 10 we contrasted the mo-
in in
calibre and extent for a War Steame in tions of the narrow, straight-sided and
1
*
addition to her provision and fuel. The round bow of the steamer at sea, to her
weight of War Steamers differs but lit- suspension in the turning lathe so ;
tie, from i to TV of their load-line dis- with regard to the longitudinal motion
placement ; much of this, however, on the bow that has this fullness at the
depends upon their principal dimen- extremity. The man who doubts the
sions, as well as their shape ;no pro- tangibility of the demonstration we
portion of the registered tonnage can have given, needs but to apply the pro-
by any possibility apply to the weight tractor to the bow of any vessel having
that may be considered a reliable rule, a line of flotation continued round to
inasmuch as any alteration in the di- its extremity, and he will at once dis-
mensions would increase or diminish cover that, as we have said, the fullest
the weight for example, we may add part of the bow is at its extremity
; ;
to the depth 5 feet, and take off the and if fullness and resistance mean any
breadth but one inch, and the tonnage thing, he must admit, (however unwill-
is less, although the ship would weigh ing,) that the greatest part of the re-
perhaps 10 per cent. more. The car- sistance on the bow is at the wood
penter's measurement, or any other ends ; that is to say, the same area at
than that of the displacement, is not a that part has more resistance than an
reliable standard. The remarks found equal amount of surface any where
on page 345 in relation to the shape else, or at any other part we have ;
of the bow of an ocean steam-ship will been thus particular in defining our
be found equally applicable to those position, inasmuch as we are but too
intended for war purposes. It requires well convinced that it conflicts with
but a mechanical glance to discover the hereditary notions of the age, and
Ci
that it will meet with more opposition We say this, that a few War Steam-
on both shores of the Atlantic Oceau ers, capable of carrying a battery as
than almost any other that might be has been designated in this Chapter,
demonstrated with an equal amount and provision and water for one month,
of tangibility but the candid man will and capable of being driven 15 miles
;
look at the position taken in all its per hour, (which should be considered
bearings, and if his perceptive powers a moderate speed for a War Steamer,)
are not remarkably obtuse, we have no would be more formidable and efficient
fears of the result. than all the registered Navy of the
In defining the proper This desirable quality
shape for United States.
war vessels, we are well aware that can only be accomplished by large
we are navigating a dangerous coast vessels a steam-ship even of 2000 —
the dogmatical supremacy assumed by tons is a small affair for naval purposes;
this branch of the Government, would if she has any considerable amount of
lead the casual observer to believe that power, she is entirely full with nothing
here was the consummation of the per- but her engines and coal, and even for
fective qualities to be found, and no a light draught of water, (not exceed-
where else : and close ing ten feet,) a steamer cannot be built
but a careful
observation has taught commercial (that shall be adapted to all the pur-
men that this (once the right) arm of poses of war) of a smaller tonnage than
national power is diseased, and that 2500. War steamers need not draw
unless a cure is speedily effected, am- a heavy draught because they are
putation must inevitably be rendered large —
16 feet is a sufficient draught
necessarv. England has learned this for a steamer of 3000 tons. A vessel
truth, that her Navy (itself considered) as already described, drawing but 10
could not keep pace with her mari- feet water, would require a great
time interests hence she found it ne- breadth, with reduced depth, and an
;
cessary to foster such a direction of in- easy bilge, to prevent her rolling ; her
dividual enterprise as could be made depth should be even less than half of
available for national purposes how the breadth, and she would require
;
far a similar course may be made additional strength on the sides, and at
available for the better security of na- every available part ; for example, the
tional honor on the part of the United coal bunkers, that have been merely
Slates, it is not our purpose to ex- regarded as bulk-heads to confine the
amine, or our province to discuss. 04ml within certain limits, may be made
to add very materially to the strength a vessel to strike a blow, the effects
of the ship, extending through each of which we have described, may be
transverse bulk-head. judged from the effects of a collision
We have shown at different parts of of one of the comparatively frail steam-
the work the proper measures for in- boats on the Hudson river: an ordi-
creasing the strength of vessels ; and narily sharp boat will cut a sound
Ocean Steam-ships, whether for com- sailing vessel in two, and at the same
mercial or for war purposes, require time the shock will scarcely be felt in
all the strength that can be made the ladies' saloon, or at the captain's
available with the ordinarymeans. office, while the boat herself is not
Our Government determined to build materially injured. Collisions of this
a War Steamer some years since for kind have fully proved that the sharper
harbor defence, and after having pur- the vessel, the more of longitudinal
chased iron for the purpose, the pro- strength she possesses ; and if we but
ject was abandoned, at least for the contemplate a vessel built for strength
present. and speed, we may readily conceive of
Experiments in England have proved its power to strike a blow that no ves-
the futility of attempting to render the sel could resist —
it would be equal to
sides of iron vessels impenetrable by that of a train of rail-road cars of equal

shot. We however, weig'ht running into an embankment
are persuaded,
that the most formidable description at the speed already named. Guns
of vessel for harbor defence would be for harbor defence should be on terra
such as carried no guns, presenting an firma ; they are little better than a
angle that would be impenetrable by useless appendage, for the protection
shot such vessel, built of iron, and of the harbors or bays of our exten-
;
driven at a speed of 25 miles per hour, sive coast.
would go into the broad-side of any With regard to the application of

vessel quite as far as would be neces- power for propelling War Steamers,
sary to sink her in a few minutes, with- the side paddle wheel is objectionable,
out the firing of a single gun this ves- on account of its exposure to shot,
;
sel might be so completely housed and and the inequality of the dip on the
made shot-proof that its crew would be two sides the smallest roll effects a
;
securely protected, being so sharp that material change in the dip of the
neither the hull nor its cover could be bucket, even if the vessel should not
affected by shot. The power of sttoh roll, but remain perfectly stable, this
chancre would take place, and cause a the features of which appear to be like
loss of power ; with the side wheel a the following : provided the propeller
larger amount of can be unshipped, or by a coupling

dip is necessary, in
order to seen re a continued unvarying joint be lifted out of water, to enable
resistance from the wheel. The pro- the sails to be used to advantage, would
peller in some respects might be con- it not be preferable to the side
wheel?
sidered preferable for War Steamers, The same may be said of the side
but the seeming advantage arising wheel: the buckets or paddles may be
from its security against shot by its taken off; not, however, without diffi-
peculiar location, is counteracted by culty when at sea.
the difficulty in making repairs; the With regard to the propriety of
vessel must be docked when the small- sparring War Steamers with the same
est amount of repairs are required. weight of spars that a sailing ship of the
As it
we say the prac-
regards the effective qualities of same size would carry,
those two modes of applying the power tice is manifestly wrong. They are only
for propelling steam-ships, we are per- required as jurymasts, to be used
when
suaded the side wheel derangement of the machinery
is preferable, in- any
asmuch as the geering necessary to takes place. Steam and sail work very
obtain the required speed of the pro- well together when the wind is fair,
peller, adds to the risk, and renders but the steam-ship that cannot be
this mode of application more liable to worked in an open sea without sail, m
derangement than a more direct ap- a poor affair, either in model or power :
plication, which the side paddle wheel a vessel whose principal advantage
is recognized to be ; this, in connection consists in being able to help sailing
with the ready manner in which the vessels when unable to help them
side wheel can be repaired, renders it selves, herself depending upon sail foi
preferable. We are persuaded, how- the faithful performance of her duty,

ever, that there is a wide field for im- renders her at once unworthy of the
provement the propulsion of steam- name she bears ; apart from another
in
ships. In relation to the security of consideration, that they have enough

the machinery against shot, the coal to carry without this unnecessary ap-
bunker when full would furnish some pendage, an equal weight in coal would
protection. be of much more service. War Steam-
question has been, and is now ers furnish abundant room for improve-
The
agitated, resolving itself into a problem, ment in almost every part.
* s
Having shown our remarks on trials, has been placed on the steam-
in
river steamboats the manner of com- boat Santa Claus. Length 208 feet — ;
puting horse power, and what are the breadth 25 feet draft of water 5 feet ;
disadvantages of the ordinary side pad- cylinder 48 in diameter 10 feet ;
dle-wheel for Ocean Steam-ships, we stroke ; diameter of wheel 25 feet ; 7

should prove recreant to our purpose 24 revolutions per minute.
feet face ;
did we not show what has been done The velocity of this boat was ^91 per
by way of improvement in the applica- minute, or 0485 per second relative ;
tion of power on War Steamers as well velocity at periphery of wheel £% per

as Coasting Steamers in Europe, and second, or £%$ per hour relative velo- ;
contrast those improvements with what city at centre of pressure 4^0 per second,
has been done, and is now doing, in the or 3.17 per hour. The gain on Chap-
United States. In England an im- man's patent wheel equals 15 per cent,
—
provement has been introduced the of former speed of boat calling the slip ;
wheel of Win. Morgan has been suc- of the flat bucket unit or 1, the slip of
cessfully applied, not only to steamers Chapman's bucket equals .57 at the
running coast-wise, but the War centre of pressure of the wheel. The
Steamer Medea, of about S00 tons, and buckets of this wheel are made of plate
220 horse power, has been made the iron in two parts, and of a curved
subject of this experimental wheel, and form, running from the side arms to
has shown its superiority over the or- the next centre arm back, with an
dinary wheel. has opening between them at the centre
The Morgan wheel
the advantages of entering and leaving arm of half an inch to each foot of di-
the water vertically —
a quality not pos- ameter of wheel the ratio of gain of ;
sessed by the side paddle wheel. Its this wheel is about equal at all immer-
reputation in England has been, and sions, which is not the case with the
is still,such as to render it worthy of a Morgan wheel.
more extended notice than our pages On Chapman's wheel all parts are
will justify —
its description may be seen fixed permanently, while on the Mor-
in the works of Tredgold. gan wheel the buckets are worked by
While England has been improving, an eccentric arm; and by the number
Americans have not been idle. The of moveable parts, it must of necessity
wheel of Mr. Abner Chapman, of this be both expensive in its construction
city, is worthy of notice. This wheel, and repairs.
after having had several successful

CHAPTER XII.
Laws of Beauty and Taste — Heads and Sterns—Compend of the Rules all for Masting and Sparring Ves-
selsof description — the Author's Improvements.
all
The French rhetoricians have a in their mind's eye all the various parts
maxim that there is nothing beautiful of this stupendous fabric in detail, yet
that is not true — an axiom that ap- to us the reason appears obvious : they
plies to ships as well as other things. have never allowed themselves to think
From time immemorial first impres- independently of the opinions of others;
sions have been well nigh omnipotent, this practice has been continued until
and men have in all ages set a value they cannot think for themselves, and,
upon those impressions above all price, as a consequence, they are fettered by
and in by far the greatest number of the opinions of others. We hold that
instances, the impressions made at first no man can improve to any considera-
sight have followed their possessor to ble extent either in ship-building or any
the threshold of the grave. The Chi- other branch of mechanism, whose
naman is doubtless quite as tenacious volitions are not the result of his own
about' the size of the eye he paints on conceptions.
the bow of his Junk as the ship-builder With regard to beauty in ships, we
of modern times would be about the have said that it consisted in fitness
size of the hawse-hole, and in both for the purpose and proportion to effect
cases the constructor would be gov- the object designed. The eye of many
erned as he supposed by the principle men remain uncultivated for a whole
of utility. How important then that life-time, in consequence of their not
the principles of utility should form thehaving studied the analogy of propor-
mechanical alphabet for the inexpe- tions, found only in nature the con- ;
rienced, and not the opinions of others! sequences have proved fatal to the phi-
There is a certain fitness that is char- losophy of mechanism ; let the branch
acteristic of every and although be what it may, proportion is the uni-
art,
there are few indeed who can follow versal alcahvst, and dissolves before
the cultivated eye the mightiest fabric construction, inasmuch as the eye must
into —
one of smaller magnitude this is determine its every part, and we some-
as equally true of the pyramid as of times see ships that fully exemplify
the ship it;is seen in nature from this. There is a certain effect conse-
the mighty oak, (the monarch of the quent upon
principally, but not entirely,
wood,) whose giant arms have dared the sheer and the rake of the stem :
the blasts of an hundred winters, down those lines, if proper attention is paid
to the smallest shrub all Nature to their direction, will furnish a point
;
teaches us that her works appear to to which every part should tend. If
the eye smaller than they really are. the bow be longitudinally sharp, or
We were led to these reflections have a very considerable rake, the cut-
from a knowledge of this fact, viz., that water should extend farther out than
a great many ships are built whose ap- were less sharp, or had less
though it
pearance is really disagreeable to men rake. This leads us to another con-

of taste on account of the clumsy ap- clusion, viz., that the chances for se-
pearance they present, consequent curing a long head are less on the
upon the heavy appearance of the sharp than on the full vessel hence it ;
head or stern, or some other part that will appear quite manifest that a just
may be disproportioned. It is not the medium should be observed, and if the
many mouldings on a ship, or the ship should appear to require a long
amount of carved work on the head head, it should be reduced vertically.
and stern, that makes her appear to We completed our expositions on
have life so far from adding to the the general outline of the construction
;
appearance of a handsome ship, they of a ship (with the exception of the

detract from it, and it is only the dis- head and stern) on page 315 we shall ;
proportioned ship that requires those now follow up the connection, and
external superfluities to make her finish the ship.
passable ; indeed, we have often seen a we have illustrated the

On Plate 4
ship that exhibited a much handsomer manner of laying down the stern on
stern with nothing on it, than another the floor ; the detailed description of
with a fall tafterel. These remarks the manner in which this part of the
apply with equal propriety to the operation performed may be found
is
head ; the setting of a head on the on page 13S. When the stern is thus
bow of a ship has been considered to" laid down on the floor, the side coun-
be one of the most difficult parts of ter timbers are worked out in the same
49
3SG MA K N I E AN D NAVAL ARCHITECTURE,
manner any other timber of the bers so close together.

as When the
frame they are also raised and se- centre and the corner timbers are in
;
cured to the ribband at the rail height their place, a ribband is extended
there should be a harpen made at the across the stern at the heads, or a short
height of the rail, the top of which distance below, and the arch-board is
should range with the sheer; this then extended across the stern ; it will
would be all the ribband that would be be discovered that, as we have shown
required; the timbers being worked in Plate 4, the arch-board rakes at a
out by the counter timber moulds, different angle from that of either the
would find their proper location on the stern or the counter; that it is ad-
transom ; it being assumed that the justed between the two angles ; the
distribution of the counter timbers has stern timbers above the arch-board
been so arranged that the cabin win- bein^ straight, no other ribband is ren-
dows will come between the timbers, tiered necessary. It is customary to
and taper as we advance toward the give the arch-board about the same
outside from the centre, as in Fig. 1 of vertical round as the beam mould this ;
Plate 26. would require much more on the board

The practice which now prevails al- inasmuch as its
itself, rake and round
most universally of building sterns, is combined, demands much more sni or
as follows the side counter timber is
: crook edgewise, in order to obtain the
made to conform in its rake with a round of the beam mould above a hori-
mould that is temporarily nailed to the zontally straight line. We have shown
side of the stern post ; two half tim- in Fig. 1, Plate 8, the manner of ob-
bers are also worked out, extending taining a true sweep for the arch-board,
no higher than the arch-board is de- after we have determined how much
signed to go along side of these half sweep we require the board is usually
; ;
timbers on each side of the post, a coun- of oak, and the same in thickness as
ter timber extends to the rail, and is fast- the plank on the counter and stern ;
ened to the post the reason for keep-; its width for the smallest ship, as we
ing the counter timbers off from the post have said, is seldom less than 12 inches
by half timbers is, that the rudder-stock, at the centre, and somewhat less at the
which is larger than the post, may not side of the stern ; the ends are usually
cut the whole timbers ; a second rea- extended quite across the wale, and
son is, that the windows could not be are shown on the outside, until covered
properly divided with the centre tim with the quarter piece; below the
*
*>*--
I
V ..
arch-board the ends of the wales are seam, showing the round of the taff-
partially cut with a mil re for several rail, and differing gradually to that of
st rakes down, when the mitre be- tin- arch-board; by planking the stern
comes more complete, and extends with narrow strakes, we may be able to
quite across the transom to the post; do so with straight plank tiny may, ;
thus it will be perceived that some of and doubtless will require to he steam-
the ends of the wales are seen below ed. With regard to the shape of tin;
the arch-board, as we have said, for tafferel, little can be said that would
several strakes. We
do not think this be applicable to all descriptions of ves-
mode a good one, for the following rea- sels further than this the tafferel, or :
sons: in calking the cross seam in its whatever finish decorates a vessel, or
continuation from the post to the arch- is intended to do so, should be made
board, that part where the mitre is in- to correspond with the vessel. The
complete has a tendency to start the idea of having one tafferel mould, or
wales off", inasmuch as the seam makes one cut-water mould for all vessels, no
the ends of the counter plank much matter what the form may be, is with-
nearer square than those of the wales. out a foundation in the philosophy of
We have mitred the entire seam below Nature's laws. If the ships are alike in
the arch-board, and deem it preferable form and finish, it is then not out of
to the present mode above the arch-
; place ; but if the models differ, all other
board all the plank extend quite across parts should be made to correspond.
the stern it has been the
; custom to Some builders have labored to make it
plank the stern above the upper arch appear as a want of decision of char-
(which forms the vertical size of the acter in the man who would not build
cabin windows) promiscuously, or with- two ships alike, but would adapt his
out reference to the direction of the model to the trade of the ship, even
seams, and then lining the stern above though the dimensions were the same,
and below the tafferel ; but this prac- or nearly the same ; to us, however,
tice is objectionable, inasmuch as it the continued sameness which stamps
causes the stern to rot sooner than all by the same man, is
vessels built
other parts, besides it does not look so a manifest weakness, and admonishes
well ; the stern should be planked with us that the man has but one idea ; in
narrow strakes, not wider other words, that he can only icade,
certainly
than the deck plank, and properly di r or he would venture into deeper water,
minished from the taffrail down each and be governed, to some extent at
3SS MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
least, by circumstances. If, for ex- stronger stern. The altitude of the
ample, a ship be longer than another arch-board is usually determined by
of the same model, the only difference the size of the rudder, inasmuch as the
being in the expansion of the model, counter is extended above the stock of
does it not follow that the head and the rudder at least one of the strakes
stern should also be expanded ? We of the same ; and farther, the cabin
are persuaded that no mechanic would windows are designed to furnish light
decide against us ; and yet we see ship below the main deck beams, which
after ship, no matter what the size, must of necessity keep them down.
with the same sized head on it is not
; The practice prevails of having alter-
enough to rake, raise or lower a cut- nately every second window, such only
water mould, and say that all is right in appearance, it being a false window ;
The laws of proportion apply as fully this is accomplished by rabbeting the

and as fairly to heads and sterns as to timbers sufficiently deep to receive
any part of the ship, and that which plank of the same thickness as the
was designed to ornament a ship is and sunk back Mush with the
stern,
sometimes made to disparage her moulding edge of the timber this ;
beauty neither is it enough to say

; blank surface is made before the upper
that one builder's heads and sterns are arch-strake is put on, which covers
equal or superior to another, or to any. enough of the upper part of this false
We and without fear of successful
say, light to make it tight with light calk-
contradiction, that every ship's head ing ; the same may be said with refer-
should be adapted to the ship. If a ence to the arch-board, the plank form-
ship seems to require a long head, she ing the false light extends below the
requires an adaptation aft in the rake upper edge of the arch-board in the
of the stern or if we have no head, we
; same manner as above the vertical ;
require less rake to the stern

another edges that rabbet into the timber are
;
feature with regard to the sterns of covered with the pilaster which covers
ships : they are made
appear heavy the timber cabin windows on the stern
to ;
by their continued sameness or equality are usually made wider than their depth
of rake a twist to the stern imparts a on the face of the stern, inasmuch as
;
life-like appearance, and while the cor- the stern broader than deep, and not
is
ner of the stern may, for appearance, only so, but any extension above the
have all the rake necessary, the centre usual depth would be useless, being di-
may have less, and will furnish" a rectly in range of the first beam next
(
to the stern. The beauty of this part does look well on a certain ship, but it
of the stern consists in having more does not follow that the same will ap-
round to the stern at the arch-board ply to any other ship ; and although
than elsewhere ; also to have the upper many have deemed it the part of weak-
and lower arch taper as we recede ness to be changing, we deem it quite
from the centre in addition to this,
; the reverse ; no one would suppose
the width of the windows should taper that it was an exhibition of folly to re-
in width, and the pilaster should also quire the tailor to make a coat fit in
be reduced as we approach the outside every part
and although the reader ;
of the stern. may weigh precisely the same, and be

Where those little things are attend- exactly of the same height as his friend,
ed to, the casual observer is at once yet he would rather the tailor should
struck with the symmetry that is exhibi- measure himself than his friend for the
ted,and is pleased with the appearance, coat he was about to make for him,
but cannot tell why there is a certain and why ? simply because he thinks it
;
something that makes an impression will fit better; so we say of ships with
on his mind in other words, he has this qualification.
;
seen proportion somewhere, and if no- We will now do what we promised.

where else, he has seen it in the look- The arch-board for a ship of 1000
ing-glass when recognizing his own tons may be about 13 inches at the
person ; and now he sees the same centre, and 11 to 11 J at the ends; the
trait, viz., proportion reflected back, upper arch may be about 18 inches
and he at once recognizes it. It would above the lower one at the centre, and
be the same with any other piece of 164 to 17 at the outer window; if we
mechanism, a house, a church, or even prefer a window in the centre, it must
a barn and if the casual observer can
; be a false one, on account of the rud-
appreciate proportions, how they must der, and may be 2 feet wide, both above
loom up to the man with a cultivated and below, joined by a pilaster on each
eye, who has taken Nature for his side ; these pilasters may be 1 foot
model, and has adhered to that model wide and parallel; the next window on
with unfaltering fidelity ! each side may be 2H below, and 211
As we have beforeremarked, we above, followed by pilasters 111 below,
can give no stereotyped dimensions and llf above the next two windows, ;
that will apply to any vessel; we may one on each side, may be 2H below,
and shall give an outline that has, or and 20i inches above, followed by two
pilasters Hi below, and Hi above; culated for every necessary sea quality
we now have 5 windows ; the next two than the old-fashioned stern ?
may be 20i inches below, and 19s There was a time when a merchant
above ; thus it will be seen that we ship must have quarter galleries, to
make the taper greater as we approach give a majestic, warlike appearance,
the outer window. With regard to inasmuch as this, with every thing else
the number of windows, the width and copied from the Navy, must be right :
shape of the stern will determine this; few dared to call in question the pro-
neither can the tafferel be delineated priety of the addition ; and to the pres-
it may land on the arch-board, as it ent time some English merchant ships
has almost from time immemorial, or have quarter galleries.
may be conducted around the quarter, The day has gone by when the Navy
and under the arch-board, any way in will be taken for a pattern in any
which it will best lit the stern. We branch of commercial operations. In-
have shown two modes, the one on dividual enterprise must furnish a basis
Plate 9, where there is no counter, for naval operations in ship-building,
and the wood ends run up to the lower improvements are in future
unless its
edge of the arch-board, and lights are more rapid than they have been. We
inserted instead of windows, which are want the quarter reduced to its lowest
preferable ; these lights are weather- possible dimension or size, for the bene-
proof, and are more secure ; they are fit of the ship, in order to equalize the
hung with hinges, and closed with a lines of flotation.
hand screw to exclude the weather. With this general description of
The second, Plate 10, shows an easy sterns, and the manner of building
quarter, with lights instead of windows, them, we leave this end of the ship,
and the tafferel turned under with and go forward on the head this, like :
counter, but no arch-board a single the stern, should be adapted to the

;
moulding continues the upper wale form of the ship the whole bow and ;
across the stern. A mechanic will at rake of the stern should determine its
once discover that the old stereotyped size and form. The head may be laid .
tafferelwould not and could not be down with the ship, as we have shown,
made to appear well on a stern in the but the practice is quite common of
form of Plate 10 and who will take making a mould on the ship about the
;
the responsibility of asserting that this, time the ship has her decks framed,
or that of Plate 9, are not better cal- ceiling in, and wales, on ; this is the
'
-
most suitable time, inasmuch as the of necessity be when it is designed to

head cannot be finished much before end at the cat-head much, however, ;
the ship is ready to launch and yet of this heavy appearance may be re-
;
there is time enough to finish the head moved by the taper of the checks and
if it should not be commenced until head rail. Suppose the head rail to
the vessel is planked ; there is this ob- be moulded four inches at the figure,
jection to delay : the carver must or and twelve at the cat-head, it follows
should have all the time that can well that the usual taper would be eight
be allowed, (unless they have time on would im-
inches at the centre ; this
their hands ;) the head cannot be set part the heavy appearance of which
until the hawse-holes can be located. we complain six and three-quarters ;
A surface of boards is extended beyond to seven inches is all that is required ;
the stem to the extent we design the and if the strength is deemed insuffi-
cut-water shall be upon this crude cient, it may be increased beyond the
;
mould battens are tacked to represent regular taper in the siding direction.
the front of tiie cut-water and the With regard to the cheeks, they should
cheeks, and when they conform to the swell beyond the regular taper, inas-
eye, they are marked, and the mould much as their size is not commensu-
taken down, not however, before it is rate with their length their strength ;
fully determined whether the head rail is secured in the transverse direction,
shall blend into the plank-sheer mould- for we discover that at the figure they
ing, or continue in that direction for a are but \\ inches while at the wood ;
suitable distance, and then suddenly ends, if the line were continued across
turn and conform to the size and di- the throat of the knee, they would be
rection of the cat-head ; this is a mat- 12 inches or more ; again in the siding-
ter of taste with the builder. There direction they may be 2} inches at the
appears in our minds to be but one figure, and 61 to 7 inches on the bow ;
objection to the head rail uniting with what we mean in the taper of the
the cat-head, which is its consequent cheeks is, that half way between the
increased size at the after end, which and the bow, the cheek should
figure
imparts a heavy appearance to the be moulded, or show in the vertical di-
whole bow the head rail starting from rection more than half of the difference
;
the same point, viz., the figure head, between the two terminations: that is
should not be larger than the cheeks to say, if the bracket or following piece
at the starting point, which they must of the cheek were 2> inches at the
figure, and 6j at the bow, it should be certain ships merely on account of the
at least 42 inches to 41 at the middle peculiar symmetry of the head or stern.
of length, instead of 41, which would It is designed as an ornament to de-
be the regular taper ; by thus relieving corate the representative of a thing of
the one of the extra heavy appearance, and any thing that would in the
life,
and the other of its consequent (when least mar its beauteous proportions,
contrasted) light appearance, we ap- should be studiously avoided.
proximate that symmetry so essential It was formerly the custom to keep
in the appearance of a vessel's head both of the cheek knees below the
one quarter of an inch seems to cover hawse-holes, but of late years the prac-
but a small space in the eye when look- tice has grown obsolete, and the hawse-
ing at a ship's head, but even that may holes come between the cheeks, and
be seen readily, and may be added to the improved appearance is quite
or taken from the cheeks or head rail, manifest.
and be noticeable at the first glance of It may not be out of place to show
the practised eye ; the difficulty with the only correct way to cheek
side
many mechanics lies just here : they knees, although it may be thought by
cannot determine when the form is some that this operation is so generally
right, or detect error in adaptation of understood, that it would be entirely
the one to the other ; they have be- superfluous; we, however, think quite
come so accustomed to let others do differently. There are very few, even
their thinking, that they find it difficult among those who do little else besides set
to think for themselves. heads and sterns, who can side a cheek
There is a certain fitness about the knee properly, and we have seen heads
head of a ship that at once stamps an greatly depreciated in their appear-
impression on the mind in relation to ance, in consequence of a discrepancy
the entire ship, and why ? We say in this particular. It must be quite
that the head of a ship is like a por- apparent, that whatever of the knees
trait, we look at the physiognomy of extends beyond the wood ends towan
the man, and judge of his intellectual the stern, should be of the same size
endowments — of his internal and his and that on
as that at the wood ends ;
external qualities so with the ship, it the sharp vessel, if the after end of the
;
is the builder's mechanical portrait knee or the end of the body extends
;
and curiosity or quest of knowledge farther aft than the corner at the wood
j
has often attracted men on board of ends, it should be sided by the upper
HOWLAND SC
edge of the mould, because the lower tion it will appear fair from any view
;
side is continued parallel on the bow; we may take. The space between the
most persons continue the mould no cheeks will also have a proportionate
farther than the corner, when they taper, likewise the opening between
mould the arm, or the part that comes the cheeks and rail ; the space or mar-
against the cut-water, and then obtain gin of the cut-water must be looked
a spot through the throat, wind- at ; that is, the surface between the
ing out the rest of the face by this edge of the cut-water and the lower
spot. This is manifestly wrong, as will cheek ; in a word, all must be seen at
appear upon a moment's reflection. the first glance hence we would al- ;
Who can tell at what angle this spot ways recommend that a draft be drawn,
must be obtained in the throat ? If which costs less in time than to go
the cheek knee be out square, which it through the operation we have de-
undoubtedly would, let the mould ex- scribed, besides having just what we
tend beyond the corner at the wood want. The sheer-plan should be drawn,
ends, and as much farther as will bring in order that we may adapt the head
the end of the mould and the end of to the ship.
the body of the knee on the bow in a We would not tenaciously adhere to the
line square from the arm against the ordinary cut-water, cheeks, and head
cut-water this of course comprehends rail, by any means; there are ships upon
;
a square knee, and then the secret is which they cannot be made to appear
all out let the spots be put on parallel well, and upon which the plain bow, if
;
to this line, or put a spot on the knee extended out to a point, would make the
that shall be parallel to this line, and best finish that could be made. It is
at the same time having one edge of more difficult to set the full figure on a
the straight edge on the mould when cut-water that shall appear graceful,
the spot is obtained this is what we than the billet head or simple scroll
;
require of the mould for siding the the reason is found in the difficulty in
knee after having marked by its edges getting the bow-sprit high enough, and
;
on the arm the size of the same, it will if the head is extended far enough to
readily be perceived that the remaining obtain the height we require, we have
spots may be pricked oft", being parallel the cut-water farther out than we wish.
and out of wind with the first, and thus The reason why the bow-sprit may not
the knee may be counter-moulded, and be raised above the ordinary height
will look fair from more than one posi- will appear obvious, if we but reflect
50
tlnit it requires some security above to delineated the general principles of
counteract the leverage on the bow; construction sufficiently lucid for the
the bow-sprit should in all eases have mechanic of ordinary mind, who is
a breast-hook or chock above to con- willing to take the trouble to think, we

fine the bow together. shall, before entering upon the subject
In delineating a ship's head, either and other vessels,
of sparring ships
on paper, in the mould loft, or on the make some tangible remarks upon
ship, provision should be made for the launching vessels, and thus set the fab-
security of the bob-stays the head rail ric afloat after its construction, and
;
should be made to clear the bow-sprit before we spread the canvass to the
shrouds ; in a word, the whole effort breeze.
of the head should be that of harmoniz- The casual observer when attending
ing all parts — no chafing. We some- a launch is instinctively impressed with
times see a ships's bob-stay braced oft* the idea that there is great danger of
from the cut-water above connec- the ship falling over side-ways out of
its
tion, in order to prevent its chafing the the cradle, or the bed upon which she
head this at once exhibits a lack some- rests, as soon as the shores are removed;
;
where, and would be seen by a man of this opinion is without foundation, in-
taste, as soon and as far as he could asmuch as the centre of weight must
delineate one stay from another. In of necessity be located at the centre of
smaller vessels it would be difficult to the vessel transversely. To illustrate
delineate any determinate size or pro- this, suppose a ship weighing when
portion for the heads of coasting ves- ready to launch 1000 tons, and that
sels, or those adapted to the navigation she were of equal density throughout ;
of our rivers, inasmuch as an almost we will also assume that the ship was
endless variety exists in model and de- 40 feet wide, and was prepared for
scription, and, consequently, in finishlaunching in a cradle of 13 feet wide,
;
in very many instances our coasting that being a trifle less than one-third
and river vessels would look much bet- of the breadth we now have 25 tons ;
ter without a head than with one but of weight for each foot of breadth now
; ;
the eye of the owner having become is it not plain, that if the keel were
familiarized with its appearance, sees sided 16 inches, that there must be a
nothing amiss. leverage equal to 16f tons at each side
Having concluded our expositions of the which should at once teach
kêl,
on the heads and sterns, after having us that a ship would stand on her keel
alone, without a shore under her, pro- when launching a ship of

the blocks
vided the weight of materials were dis- 40 feet beam, we cannot discover any
tributed equally on eaeh side of the reason why they do not furnish enough
centre of the ship but let us continue to do the same work for a ship of 50
;
this leverage farther we have assumed feet beam the width of the cradle is
: ;
the cradle to be 13 feet, which fur- considered to be the distance between

nishes an excess of weight equal to the outside of the ways.
162 tons ; that would
is With regard to the angle of descent
to say, that it
require a weight equal to 162 tons for launching, it may only be necessary
placed 6j feet outside of the ways to to say, that the weight of the vessel,
cause an equipoise, or a liability to and the surface of bilge ways, should
cant her transversely out of her cra- influence us in this particular; if the
dle ; hence we discover that it requires vessel to be launched be a ship, 1 inch
but reflection to show us that our fears or 1J inches to each foot of length will
are groundless. With regard to the be quite sufficient ; if the ship be very
width of the cradle, the narrower the large and heavy, i of an inch to eaeh
better for the ship, but at the same foot of length is an abundance, and even
time men must have room to work in less will do ; £ has been found to an-
getting out the blocks. swer every purpose, but for long steam-
The reasons why a narrow cradle is boats, intended for river navigation, 1
best, may be found in the fact that upon inch to each foot would be not any too
the centre of the vessel the most of the such cases the ways should much ; in
weight is sustained, inasmuch as the not be wide, inasmuch as the surface
decks are kept their proper distance of ways and the weight of the boat do
above the keel and keelson by the not correspond the boat being very ;
stanchions, and the entire ship would light, will not counteract the glutinous
be sustained on the keel with less properties of the tallow, (the substance
strain to any commonly used for greasing the ways ;)
the structure, than at
other point it then follows that the
; in such, and indeed in all cases. Castile
ways should be as near as may be, all soap should be used 1 part of Castile ;
things else considered —

one third of the soap to 2 of tallow is a fair propor-
breadth of the vessel has been consid- tion, and will prove an ample remunera-
ered as a rule but we know of no rea- tion for the extra expense consequent
;
son why it should be followed; if li upon its The ground ways should
use.
feet furnish room enough to remove be arched where we may not be able to
obtain all the descent we require ; the ing against the way. By this mode it
curve should be regular — not more in will be perceived that there is no. more
one part of the length than in another ribband required than the length of;
the blocks under the ways may be spaced each bilge way, and we have the sur-
as the keel blocks are forward, but they face of the way exposed to view. It
should be somewhat closer aft the will also be perceived that below the
;
ways may cant inward, in proportion edge of the bilge way the ribband ex-
to the angle of dead rise there can ;
tends the same as in the former case,
be no determinate rule for this it is but a remark seems necessary here in
; :
only requisite to have enough to pre- relation to the strength of the ribband
vent the packing midship from having when on the bilge, there should be a
too much drift, and to prevent the bilge great amount of strength in the timber
way from which it itself, inasmuch as no amount of fast-
inclining outward,
undoubtedly would do, (and sometimes ening that could be put into the rib-
does;) 1 inch to the foot of breadth is band and bilge way, would compensate
enough cant for the ways they should for tjiis when the bilge way inclines
;
be spaced somewhat farther apart at out the ribband must be sufficient- ;
the lower end than at the stem —

from ly strong in itself to keep the way
3 to 4 inches is as much hence we say the ribband
as is usual, inboard ;
unless the length of ways be very great, should be of oak, and thick, such as
or much more than is usual. It has will not readily split to prevent which, ;
been customary to keep the outer edge fastening should be put through it edge-
of the ways fair, and spike a ribband wise; there is no liability to splitting off'
on, extending above the surface of the the ribband when outside, inasmuch as
ways some 3 inches their entire length the shores come against it above the ;
against this ribband shores are distri- face of the ground way, which ef-
buted from 10 to 15 feet apart; the fectually prevents any accident from .
heels secured against stakes in the this source. There is little danger to
ground, and the heads spiked into the be apprehended from the starting of
ribband. Some builders prefer the the ribband when either mode is adopt-
mode introduced in this city by the ed, provided the vessel is lively on the
late Isaac Webb : by this mode the ways, and starts as soon or before the
ribband is secured to the bilge way, blocks are all removed ; the custom of
and the inside of the ground way is holding the vessel until all the bloc'
kept fair and straight ; the shores com- are out, is wrong; when the 'keel
01
v«
blocks are removed, they are taken out to let a vessel stand on the ways, and
and the shores at the same time, wait for orders, as is the case in the
aft first,
or in advancee of the work as it pro- Navy, it is the proper mode, but if we

gresses from aft and before two-thirds are to launch as soon as ready, it is not
;
of the blocks are out, the shores should necessary ; neither is it necessary to
be all out ; the vessel hangs aft as the hold the ship by bolting the bilge way,
ways take her weight, and often cants and sawing it off; (when for this rea-
a number of the blocks. If, however, son, which is sufficient, were there no
she is not inclined to go when the other :) if the ship has an inclination to
blocks are all out, a battering ram or go, we hold her if she has no inclina- ;
screw may be used ; if and when the

a screw is tion, we hinder her ;
placed against the end of the bilge way, ways are bolted, we cannot know until
there may be a strain put on it before the blocks are out, or the ways are
the blocks are and as the re- sawed off, and then there has been
all out, .
moving of the blocks advances towards time lost not that we suppose there ;
completion, the strain may be increased is danger of her coming down, or get-
on the screw; sometimes when a ves- ting out of the cradle, but of the tallow
sel is launched on tallow after being packing hard the ship should be live- ;
packed up several days, it is found ly that is, have a little motion, which ;
very difficult to start her, and it has keeps the tallow slippery.
often occurred that the vessel of neces- With regard to the packing at the
sitywas blocked and shored up again, ends of the vessel, a ribband extends
the packing removed, and the ways across the poppets, over which chains
regreased. In such cases, it has are extended that go under the keel
been found that the tnllow has been and up the opposite side these being ;
so completely packed into a cake that wedged taut, support the ends of
it had no appearance of having the the vessel sometimes cleets are spiked ;
H???$r slippery property in other cases, above the heads, but this is manifestly
;
when the weather has been hot, the wrong, particularly on the bow we ;
tallow was melted, and to a great ex- have seen a fore wood broke; entirely
tent disappeared ; hence we say, that off by a set bolt placed over a elect
Cast'rlf soap should be used. In the that was spiked on the bow.
Hteavy, the packing is all lit ted on the When those poppets reach the
v dry ways, and then removed, and the after end of the ways, the sooner they
wa^J* greased ; a*d when it is designed get out of their place the better, pro-
vided there is water enough for the enough ; in the one case we have a
bow to drop; and it* good launch in
there is not, they — the other we have
can be held better by chains there none we are quite safe in saying that
; ;
may be two ribbands, one at the heel, any vessel will go at 1J inch to the foot,
and another at the head but when and this is usually considered enough
;
this is the case, the poppets should when both the ground and bilge ways
incline a very considerable inboard to- are yellow pine, and have been used a
wards the centre from a perpendicular few times care should be taken that ;
line at the head : it is not absolutely there is the same space or more for
necessary that the heads of the poppets the fore foot to pass than its extension
should be as far apart on the two sides below the ways at the bow, else she
at the head, as the packing midship ;
may drag on the shore in passing out
in other words, that the cradle the ship of the slip.
l
sets in, should be as assume that the ship is
wide at the ends We shall
as in the centre besides, the poppets launched, and along side of the wharf,
;
will hold up much more without the ready for her spars, and we now enter
least slip when the heads are tumbled upon the duty of delineating the man-
home. ner of adapting the spars to the ship.
The principal difficulty in launching The various random modes of sparring
long steamboats is found in the differ- vessels in all parts of the world have
ence in the descent of the boat and the rendered this the most difficult and
ways —the boat standing at a much perplexing problem that has ever en-
smaller descent than the gaged the attention of commercial
ways, the
fore end of the ways are against the men and so fairly and fully has the ;
bow. When we find that we have not labor of devising an unvarying rule for
as much descent as we desire, we masting and sparring ships and other
may let the mean descent be all, or a vessels been divided, that there are al-
lit lie more than we require, and arch most as many rules as there are builders':
the ways, so that the after ends will each has carved out his own path, and
have, say li or li inches to the foot, each adheres with tenacity to his own
and the fore end *, f or f of an inch darling project, which in ninety-nine
the circumstances of the case deter- cases out of every hundred, has no re-
mining the amount in all cases ; it is ference to the peculiarities of the ves-
better to have a little more descent sel.Perhaps there is no branch of
than is necessary, than not quite human knowledge that is kept so cem-
pletely, so promptly within the pre- each side of which the sail should be
mind as the little that is about equally balanced, allowance being
cincts of the
known of what pertains to the science made for certain contingencies, found
of sparring vessels. principally in coasting vessels.
The most remarkable feature con- Force operates the same, whether
nected with whole subject of spar- it
this be that of the hand against the bow
ring vessels, is the fact that men have or stern of a vessel, or an equal amount
not dared to give utterance to a single in wind against the sail; the masts of
thought that would tend to show the vessels are like so many levers, and al-
absurdity of the present, course. though the power is distributed along
We shall endeavor first to show what the mast in the ratio of the altitude
are the most prominent rules in some each sail having a different size, con-
parts of Europe, where, as in the Uni- sequent upon a separate location, yet
ted States, no reference is had to the the centre of the propulsory power
peculiarities of the model presented by of each sail is the point at which the
the exterior surface of the vessel to effect takes place ; hence it follows
the fluid, from which is received all that there must be a point that repre-
the absolute resistance that is to be sents the force of all the sails, that
overcome. We unhesitatingly say, point we have already denominated
that the annals of scientific knowledge the centre of propulsion ; it then only
does not furnish a parallel for absur- remains to determine where this point
dity : pronounced a bad or should be located, and the universal
a ship is
good model in the ratio of her perform- dissolvent to this mysterious problem
ance, be it what it may, without the has been discovered. We should re-
most remote reference to the location member that we not only require its
of the centre of buoyancy, or to the longitudinal location, but we require
centre of effort of the sails ; in this its altitude. In order that we may
particular, mechanics have all become more understand the subject, it
fully
sailors, continually looking aloft in the will not be amiss to examine the con-
aerial regions for what can only be
sequences of having an improper loca-
found beneath the surface of the water. tion first, if the centre of propulsion
;
It requires but a moment's reflection is too high, and the vessel is sailing be-
by the thinking man, to discover that the fore the wind, she will incline by the
longitudinal centre of the lateral resist- head, and her speed will be impaired :
ance must of necessity be the fulcrum, if the centre of propulsion be too low,
400 .MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
the vessel will incline mined with reference to the vessel's
by the stern
this seems paradoxical, but is neverthe- performance when sailing before the
less true and the reason is found in wind while the area of sail should be
; ;
the fact that the bow is entering strong resolved with reference to the vessel
water, or water possessing its full share when on a wind. Thus it will be dis-
of buoyancy, and the pressure against covered that the longitudinal and the
the bow being at right angles with the vertical disposition of this point deter-
surface of the fluid, imparts a lifting mines all that we require. Before,
tendency to the bow, and, as a conse- however, we endeavor to spread our
quence, the stern must go down, inas- sails, it is important that we know the
much as the centre of propulsion is ratio of stability the vessel may possess,
not high enough to counteract it ;
as the whole matter rests here : if the
hence one of the reasons why ships do vessel have a large amount of stability,
not perform in accordance with the we may be able to spread a large area
wishes of those who command them ;
of sail, but on fhe contrary, if we have
a tolerable good model is often repudia- but little stability, a small area of sail
ted in consequence of this mal-distri- only will be required ; hence it will be

bution of power. The effects of this necessary to determine the amount of
unequal distribution is also seen when we possess in
stability the manner we
sailing on the wind ; if the centre of have shown in Chapter 3. It should
propulsion be too far forward, she will not be forgotten that it is possible to
not come wind readily, and what make a vessel too stiff for a sailing ves-
to the
has been termed the lee helm will fol- sel by artificial means that is to say, ;
low and on the other hand, if the by the distribution of cargo a vessel
;
centre of propulsion be farther aft than may be made so stable, or stiff, that
its appropriate place, the vessel will her masts would be endangered by tin;
carry a weather helm by inclining to sudden efforts to right btnself when in-
the wind. Ithowever, to clined by the wind or sea v ^This, it
is difficult,
determine how much of the weather will be observed. Would not arise from
helm is attributable to the improper the size or dimensions of the ship if
distribution inasmuch as the built by the proportionate dimensions
of sail,
inequality in the two lines of flotation we have furnished.

is the cause of the weather helm to a Before entering upon the exposition
very great extent. The altitude of the of our own views, we shall show what
centre of propulsion should be deter- rules are adopted in some parts of
Europe. The Danish rule for masting to 10 degrees ; the main mast i to s of
and sparring merchant ships is as fol- the length aft of its longitudinal centre ;
lows : The centre of the fore mast is rake from 6 to 10 degrees; elevation
located at i to i of the length of the of the bowsprit 8 to 10 degrees. In
load or constructed line of flotation cutters, sloops and yatchs, the mast is
from the forward perpendicular; its from i to § of the length of the load-
rake is set down at from i to 1 de- line aft of the forward perpendicular ;
gree — these being the extremes. The they sometimes have no rake, and the
centre of the main mast from tt to tV greatest extreme of rake is set down at
of the load-line, abaft the centre of the 4 degrees ; the elevation of the bow-
siune; the extremes of rake are set sprit is set down at from 6 to 8 degrees.
down as in that of the fore mast, varia- It will be observed that this descrip-
ble, being from I to 2 degrees. The tion of vessels are all sloop-rigged, and
centre of the mizen mast from I to rs that the term cutter does not denote
of the load water-line forward of the in other countries a vessel having two
after perpendicular ; the extremes of masts.
rake from 2 to 5 degrees ; steve of the We would deem the time vainly
bowsprit 20 to 25 degrees. For barks, spent in delineating every description

the centre of the fore mast is placed i of small craft, and the crude manner
to y of the water-line aft of the forward of sparring them ; there is, however, a
perpendicular; the centre of the main vessel called the Galeas, unknown in
mast I? aft of the centre of the length the waters of the United States, and
of the load-line of flotation ; the mizen used in the Danish merchant service ;
mast and bowsprit as in ships. In the rig is very similar to that of the
brigs, the centre of the fore mast is i hermaphrodite brig in this country,
to t of the length of load-line aft of its with this exception — the main royal is
forward perp^ltcucular, to rake from 1 to not as taunt as that of the fore we ;
3 degrtf&s»£. tê.jmujv'^wast is placed would call the after mast the main
from i to I of the'"" length denominated the mizen
of the load- mast, but it is
line aft of its longitudinal centre its mast by their builders. The main or ;
rake from 3 to 5 degrees elevation of fore mast is from & to f of the length
;
the bowsprit from 15 to 25 degrees. of the water-line aft of the forward

In -schooners, the fore mast is usually perpendicular rake from 1 to 2 de- ;
from i to t of the length of the load-line grees the mizen mast i of the length ;
aft of the perpendicular ; rake from 4 from the after perpendicular to the
lore mast, set off forward of the after the main mast mizen mast and its ap- ;
perpendicular; rake from 2 to 3 depended spars are, for ships from § to 2
grees ; elevation of the bowsprit from of the main mast. In barks the mizen
16 to 20 degrees. The length of the mast is the same length as the main
spars is as follows : for ships that have mast the mast head is I of this length,
;
a good degree of stability, main mast and the diameter 1 inch for every 4 or
(whole length) the moulded breadth of 4i feet of length spanker-boom of ; I
the ship x 2, and the depth from the its length over the stern ; in diameter
lower deck to the keelson added ; mast 1 inch to every 4 feet of length ; the
head J to I of the whole length di- ; gaff is § or 3 of the boom ; diameter 1
ameter 1 inch to every 3* feet of the inch to SI feet of length ; bowsprit out-
same; the whole length of the top- board I or I of the moulded breadth ;
mast equals the moulded breadth and in diameter the size of the fore mast ;
the depth as shown head £ of the ; jib-boom outboard of bowsprit of the IS
whole length of the top mast diame- ; For schooners the

foregoing length.
ter in the cap 1 inch for 3 feet of whole length of the main mast is 3 or
whole length ;
(on ships of small sta- 31 times the extreme breadth, and in
bility t$ or 4 of the depth is taken for diameter 1 inch for 4 feet ; mast head
the lower and top masts; the topgal- i to f of the length ; the fore mast from
lant is \ to % of the top masts; in di- I to to of the main mast ; the diameter
ameter 1 inch to 3 feetand length of the head as the main
; royal mast £ to
§ of the foregoing pole i main yards mast bowsprit outboard i or S of the

; ; ;
(whole length) the moulded breadth breadth diameter same as the fore ;
multiplied by 2 or II ; both of the yard mast jib-boom outboard of bowsprit

;
arms TV of the yard ; diameter I inch £ of the breadth diameter 1 inch per ;
to every 4 feet of length ; topsail yard 5 feet of the whole length main boom ;
3 of the main yard both arms i of £ ; of the distance from the main mast
the whole length diameter 1 inch to to the stern over the stern
;
diameter ;
4 feet ; topgallant yard § of the topsail 1 inch for 5 feet; gaff? or 3 of the
yard ; diameter 1 inch to 4 feet ; royal boom ; diameter 1 inch for 4 feet ; fore
between i and % of the foregoing di- ; gaff 4 to 6 feet shorter than main gaff;
ameter 1 inch to 5 feet of length fore ; main top mast 2 or 3 feet longer than
mast is I of the length of the main top half the lower mast ; fore top mast l
mast shorter than the main mast the ; or to of the main ; lower yard 13 to II
other dimensions are IS or 9

To of that of of the breadth ; diameter I inch to 4
feet : topsnil yard 4 of the lower yard ;

boom § to 3 the length of the outboard
topgallant yard § of the topsnil yard. part of the bowsprit ; boom 2 to 6 feet
Tin; Galeas have a fore mast twice over the stern ;
gaff is § to 3 of the
their breadth added to twice their boom. Cutters and yachts are sparred
depth ; diameter I inch per 4 feet in the same manner. The Danish
mizen mast § of that of the fore mast theory requires the centre of effort (or
diameter 1 inch per 4 feet ; bowsprit as we have termed it, the centre of pro-
outboard from H
to 2 times the pulsion) oft he sails of square-rigged ves-
breadth diameter the mean of the sels to be 2 o to 3 of the length between
;
]
'o
masts jib-boom outboard once the the perpendiculars forward of the cen-
;
breadth diameter 1 inch per 4 feet

; tre of the length, and li to If of the
fore top-mast H times

extreme breadth above the water-line.
the breadth ; di-
ameter 1 inch for every 3i feet of On vessels without square sails, this
length mizen top-mast V of the lower point may be found at or aft of the
;
mast fore yard twice the breadth

; longitudinal centre. ;
topsail yard 2. of the lower yard; di- The German mode of sparring ships
ameter 1 inch per 4 feet topgallant may be comprehended in the following
;
yard 3 of the topsail yard; diameter 1 manner: let L be the length between
inch per 3k feet ; fore boom 2 to 4 feet the perpendiculars between the (or
shorter tlân the distance between the rabbets) on the load-line, and B the
masts ; diameter 1 inch per 3? feet ;
moulded breadth centre of the fore ;
mizen boom 1£ to li times the breadth; mast =.16 xL aft of the forward per-
gaffs are § of the booms ; fore mast pendicular; rake iofan inch per foot;
head i of the length of the mast above centre of main mast .071 * L aft of the
deck; mizen mast head i of the whole centre of length ; rake i inch per foot;
length of the mast. Sloops, if vessels, mizen mast A x L forward of the after
have a large amount of stability, the perpendicular rake 1 inch per foot ; ;
length of the load-line of flotation is length of the main mast 2.45 x B; =

the length of the mast if an ordinary diameter 1 inch per 3 feet
;
mast head ;
amount of stability, 3 times the breadth; £b of the mast top-mast=f to t of the ;
diameter 1 inch per 4 feet head i of mast diameter 1 inch per 3 feet
; ;
the length of the mast top-mast the head .12 of its length topgallant mast
; ;
length of the lower mast from the deck 5 of the length of tin* fore mast 1 = ;
to the tressel-trees ; bowsprit outboard inch per 3 feet of length for diameter;
2 to 3 feet more than the breadth ;
jib- royal mast of the former, and to this
*-
add the pole I of the royal mast fore ; .1 x B ; flying-jib fore leech .5 of its
mast is in all its dimensions H of the stay ; foot leech .7 x B.
main mast ;
and In locating the masts in brigs, the
fore-top, topgallant
royal mast=M of that of the main centre of the fore mast £ of the length ;
=
the length of the mizen mast= T o, and of the load-line forward of its middle
9
;
diameter I of the main top-mast the rake I of an inch per foot centre of ; ;
other top-masts are £ of the main top- the main mast i of the water-line aft of
mast, and the diameter § of them; its middle rake 3 of an inch per foot ;
bowsprit outboard =.8 x B ; elevation all the other dimensions as in ships.

4 to 5 inches per foot jib-boom the ;
In France the following is the ride
outboard of bowsprit .68 x B diame- ;
by which ships and barks are sparred
ter .6 of an inch per foot of this length ; Let L be the length between the rab-
flying jib-boom outboard of jib-boom bets on deck B the moulded breadth ; ;
.51 x B diameter .5 of an inch per centre of fore mast=.29 x L forward

;
foot of this length main yard whole of the middle of the water-line
; rake ;
length .49 x L diameter 1 inch per 4 TV of the foot to each of length centre
; ;
feet; both arms A of the length ; top-sail of main mast .155 x L aft of the lon-
y arc]=.376 L; x diameter 1 inch per gitudinal centre of the length of water-

4 feet of length ; both arms .117 of line rake h of the foot
; mizen mast ;
the length ; topgallant yard .258 x L .365 x L aft of the longitudinal centre
1 inch per 4 feet of diameter ; arms r\ of length ; rake I of the foot ; whole
of the length ; royal yard .174 x L ; 1 length of the main mast 2.33 x B ; di-
inch for every 4 feet of length mast head ; arms ameter 1 inch per 3? feet ;
TV of the length; fore yards are as the t of the length fore mast whole length ;
main yards, or i of the same mizen 2.25 x B diameter 1 inch per 3t feet ; ;
or cross-jack yards are 2 of the main mast head 1 of the length mizen mast ;
yard ; fore gaff .207 x L ; diameter 1 whole length 2.22 x B ; diameter 1
inch per 4i feet main gaff .167 x L inch per 4 feet mast head t of the
; ;
diameter 1 inch per 4 feet mizen or length bowsprit outboard .75 x B di- ; ; ;
spanker gaff .207 x L diameter 1 inch ameter as that of the fore mast jib-
; ;
for 4 feet mizen or spanker boom boom of the outboard part of bowsprit
;
.3 x L ; 1 inch per 34 to 4 feet of .66 x B ; diameter i of the bowsprit ;
length ; fore leech of stay-sail .6 of its flying jib-boom of the outboard part of
stay ; foot leech .75 x B ; fore leech jib-boom .5 x B ; diameter s of thVjib-
of jib .75 of its stay ; foot leech booin ; main yffrd=5 x L; diameter
1 inch per 4 feet ; both arms=} of the fore mast .25 x L forward of the
I he whole length ; the fore yard same middle of the water-line ; rake .0S3
as main topsail yards .375 x L di- feet per
; ; foot ; centre of main mast
ameter 1 inch per 4 feet both arms .125 x L ; aft of the middle of the water-
I of the length ; topgallant yards line ; rake .25 per foot ;
(L and B
25 x L; diameter 1 inch per 4 feet represent the same as on ships and
both arms i of the length royal yards barks ;) main mast whole length 2.895 ;
.184 x L diameter 1 inch to 3i feet x B

;
diameter tV of the length head ; ;
of length botli arms i of the length

; tV fore mast whole length 2.25 x B ;
; ;
top masts 1.25 x B diameter 1 inch diameter TV of the length head i bow-
; ; ;
per 3 feet; head outboard .75 x B

4 ;
diameter as
topgallant mast sprit ;
.66 x B diameter 1 inch per 3 feet

; the fore mast jib-boom of the out- ; ;
royal masts .66 x B diameter 1 inch board of bowsprit 1.15 x B diameter i

; ;
per 5 feet pole i mizen top masts of the bowsprit

;
flying jib-boom the
; ;
1.7 x B 1 inch diameter for 5 feet

;
outboard of jib-boom .5 x B; diameter ;
pole i; fore trysail, main top-mast 1.8

or fore spencer f of the jib-boom ;
2 x L diameter 1 inch to 4 feet

;
x B diameter 4V pole I fore top mast ; ; ; ;
nain spencer gaff .125 x L diameter 1.25 x B diameter Tv head 4 fore ; ; ; ;
1 inch to 4 feet spanker boom, or topgallant mast .666 x B diameter 1

;
;
mizen boom .25 x L diameter 1 inch inch per 3 feet fore royal mast .68 x
; ;
per 4 feet; gaff .154 x L diameter 1 B diameter 1 inch per 4 feet pole ; ; ;
inch per Si feet. The distribution for J

3 ; fore yard .53 x L ; diameter is ; both
brigs are as follows : location and di- arms A ; fore top-sail yard .39 x L
mensions the same as those of barks, diameter & both arms \ fore topgal- ; ;
except the boom sail, or spanker, which lant yard .25 x L diameter .02 both ; ;
equals .483 x L diameter 1 inch per arms 4

;
fore royal yard .184 x L di- ; ;
5 feet gaff .34 x L

;
diameter 1 inch ameter .02 both arms 4
;' fore gaff ; ;
per 4i feet the jibs are t lie same as on 25 x L

;
diameter 1 inch per 3* feet ; ;
barks flying jib fore leech .5 of the main gaff .3 x L

;
diameter 1 inch per ;
stay the foot leech .7 x B jib fore Si feet

;
main boom .535 x L diame- ; ;
leech .75 of its stay foot leech 1 x B ter 1 inch per 4 feet steve of the bow- ;
; ;
stay-sail fore leech .6 of the stay; foot sprit from a horizontal line .42 feet.
leech .75 x B. The schooner brig, or The English mode of sparring ships
as \V is termed in the United States, is as follows: Let L be the length be-
hermarAhioditcbrig, htive the centre of tween the stem and post on deck, and
B 1 he breadth to the outside of the variable on the globe ; the most promi-
wales ; whole length of main mast nent builders each profess to have a
~; diameter mast mode peculiar to himself. We have
i per 3 feet ; fore
I. of the main mast; mizen mast 3 of taken from several of the best propor-
the main diameter § of the main tioned double-decked freighting ships
;
mast main top-mast f of the main some tangible results not, however,
; ;
mast ; diameter 1 inch per 3 feet ; fore as to the mode of adapting the stations
top-mast I and dimensions to the peculiarities of
ofthe main top-mast; mizen
top-mast f diameter tV of the main the model, for this would be admitting
;
top-mast topgallant mast i of the that ships are thus sparred, which we
;
top-mast diameter 1 inch per 3 feet

; do not. We cannot entertain the most
royal masts £ ofthe topgallant masts distant idea that any system is adopted ;
diameter § of the topgallant masts; in this more than in any other country
whole length of bowsprit f of the main of sparring ships or other vessels all —
mast, outboard! of this length diame- the changes that are made from the ;
ter as that ofthe fore mast; jib-boom common rules, or well-known usages,
outside of cap of same, as the bowsprit are made in accordance with the
outboard ; diameter 1 inch for 2i feet opinion of the builder, without refer-
of length ofthe jib- ence to the lateral resistance, the very
; flying jib-boom f
boom diameter 1 per 3 feet main basis of propulsion by sails; but while
; ;
yard I of the main mast diameter .7 American ship-builders vary from the
;
per 3 feet fore yard 1 ofthe main yard

; rules of a stereotyped age, there is good ;
mizen, or cross-jack yard, same as the reason for the belief they will yet re-
fore top-sail yard ; diameter I per 3 cognize a system worthy of themselves,
feet ; main top-sail yard 4 of the main ofthe age, and ofthe country in which
yard ; diameter S per 3 feet ; fore top- they live. The following is the result
sail yard £ of the main top-sail yard ;
of the deductions referred to : — Take
mizen top-sail yard I of the main top- of 760 parts of load-line from aft side
sail yard ; ofthe top- of stem to fore side of post 150 parts
topgallant yard f ;
sail yards royal yards i ofthe top-sail to centre of fore mast

; from thence ;
yards mizen boom as the main top- to centre of main mast 264 parts from
; ;
sail yard gaff I ofthe boom

;
diame- thence to centre of mizen mast 211 ;
ter § for 3 feet of length. parts, and 135 parts will remain U of ;
The rule for masting ships in the the length on load-line should be* the
United States is doubtless the most length of the main mast fore* *nast ; -I?
of the main mast mizen mast fj of main mast bowsprit § of main mast
; ; ;
the main mast main top-mast f° of j inboard main top-mast I of the main
; ;
the main mast main topgallant mast mast main topgallant mast 1 of the
; ;
il of the main top-mast royal U of main top-mast, exclusive of the pole,

;
the topgallant sky-sail mast *J of the which is usually i of the topgallant

;
royal main yard 1 of the length of the mast fore top-mast ! of the fore mast
;
; ;
main mast main top-sail yard if of fore topgallant mast i of the length of
;
the lower yard main topgallant yard the fore top-mast exclusive of pole,
;
11 of the top-sail yard main royal If which is as on the main mizen top-
; ;
of the topgallant main sky-sail If of mast f of the mizen mast; mizen top-
;
the royal. The fore top-mast, topgal- gallant mast i of the length of the
lant and royal should bear the same mizen top-mast pole as fore and main; ;
ratio to the lower masts that the main jib-boom length of the bowsprit, of if
does ;likewise the mizen top- mast, which is outside of cap main yard ;
&c. The fore yard, top-sail yard, top- extreme breadth ; twice the ship's
gallant and royal will stand in the same main top-sail yard § of the main yard :
ratio as the main the mizen likewise main topgallant yard S of the main top-
;
will stand so related; as a consequence sail yard fore yard » of the main yard ; ;
the fore yard will be H of the main fore top-sail yard § of the fore yard ;
yard and the fore top-sail yard if of fore topgallant yard I of the fore top-
;
the lower yard ; the topgallant fj of sail yard ; royal yards s of the length
the top-sail yard, &c. ; the cross-jack of the respective topgallant yards ;
yard \i of the main yard

mizen top- ; main top-sail
cross-jack yard same as
sail yard if of the cross-jack yard bow- ; yard mizen top-sail yards same as
;
sprit outboard £ of the fore mast jib- main topgallant yards mizen topgal-
; ;
boom \\ of the outboard part of bow- lant yards two-thirds of the mizen top-
sprit ; spanker-boom * the length of sail yard. Sprit-sail yards are some-
the fore mast gaff!! of the length of
;
times carried, and are £ of the fore top-
the boom. This rule will also apply sail yard spanker-boom the length of
;
to brigs. the fore top-sail yard mizen gaff of ; is
The following method is sometimes the spanker boom. Top-sail yard arms
adopted for proportioning the spars are usually longer than others, in con-
of a ship —main mast 2i times the ship's sequence of their being oftener reefed,
beam ; foremast equal to I of the main and the arms should be adapted to the
mast ; *nizen mast equal to t of the hauling out of the close reef earing.
40S MARINE AMD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE,
Masts are placed often by the following built wherever timber and capital a»re
rule divide the length of the upper
: found, and water enough to launch
deck between stem and post into 360 them hence the reason why such di-
;
equal parts; place the fore mast on versity in dimensions, shape and distri-
the 69th from forward the main mast ; bution of sail. For sloops the spars
124 parts from the fore mast the ; are less variable : hoist of main sail 2i
mizen mast on the 99th part from the times the breadth ; foot leech 3 times
main mast rake of fore mast 3 of an
; the breadth added to the depth ; after
inch to every foot of length main ; leech 3 breadths added to 3 depths of
mast I mizen mast 1 inch steve of
; ; hold ;
jib-stay same as foot leech of
bowsprit 4* inch to each foot of length main sail ; after leech of jib same as
from a horizontal line. hoist of main sail; head of main sail 1
The methods for masting schooners breadth and 3 depths added foot leech ;
is so variable that little tangible infor- of jib the same; station of mast, of 'i
mation can be derived the hoist of the breadth from the forward part of
;
sails ranging from twice to 2§ times deck rake I inch to the foot schoon- ; ;
the breadth of beam. The masts are ers from I to I inch. With regard to
sometimes stationed in the following the rake of masts, there seems to be
order : divide the length of the deck an error that prevails almost univer-
into 756 parts ; take 192 from forward sally ; the original design in raking
for the centre of the fore mast 258 masts is to get lifting power in vessels
;
from the centre of the fore mast to with fore and aft sails both masts are ;
that of the main; and 336 parts for raked as if both ends could be lifted
the foot leech of the fore sail, and 408 with the power of the wind at the same
for the foot leech of the main sail ; one time. It must be plain, we think, that
half of the latter for the head leech of if the vessel displaces a volume of water
both 348 parts for the foot leech equal in weight to the weight of the
sails;
of the jib. These proportions apply vessel, that of the How is depressed by
principally to fast sailing coasting ves- the power of the wind the centre of ;
sels, but flat wide schooners with propulsion is too high or too far \'oqm>
centre-boards have a greater propor- ward hence it follows, that whatever ;
tion of sail there is no rule that is in- power is expended in endeavoring to

;
variable. The schooners of the United lift the vessel, is lost in propelling her
States are not built like our ships, prin- onward; and if the vessel's head is de-
cipally in the large cities ; they are pressed, it is yjot because the masts do
not rake enough, but because the alti- mast of ships more than the fore mast,
tude of the centre of propulsion is in consequence of the mizen top-sail
above a just proportion of this lifting being in close proximity to the main,
tendency, consequent upon the rake ;
causing the current of wind when leav-
were this what it is assumed to be, the ing the main top-sail to strike the
proper mode would be to rake the fore weather leech of the mizen top-sail
mast only it, however, should be re-
; aback, when close haul upon a wind ;
membered, that any very considerable but while it is necessary in many cases
rake to a vessel's mast has a tendency to rake the mizen mast more, it is not
to depress the vessel when an inclina- necessary to extend the special grant
tion takes place the lifting power to the main, inasmuch as the extra
;
operates against us when the vessel is rake to the mizen was designed to clear
careened to any very considerable ex- the two top-sails; and must be quite
it
tent. To mariners it has been a mat- apparent, that to rake the main mast
ter of wonder how the vessel's bow more than the fore mast, (because the
could be so much depressed while the mizen mast has been,) is to counteract
head sails were set at a powerful lifting the effects of what has been gained by
angle ; the bellying- of the sail itself, the extra rake of the mizen. We
were there no other influence, is de- readily admit that to the eye there
pressive in its tendency and although seems to be a fair distribution of rake,
;
by raking the masts of vessels we move because we have been accustomed to

the centre of propulsion farther aft, see the masts of a ship thus disposed ;
which is in itself important when re- but the principles of utility owes no
quired, yet the gain in lifting the ves- allegiance to this false standard : it
sel is much less than is must be quite clear, that if the main
generally sup-
posed were the masts to be set direct- mast were raked less, the mizen would
;
ly perpendicular to base-line,they would require less schooners and sloops fur-

;
appear to incline fbrward, and indeed nish a clear exemplification of the po-
they actually would so incline when sition while the schooner's rake is
:
f0ke vessel was under a press of canvass. variable, ranging from 3 to li inches
We are not opposed to the raking of to the foot, the sloop ranges from i to
vessels' masts enough to impart life is i of an inch to the foot the only ex-
; ;
sufficient, and this amount would not ception to this rule worthy of notice,
materially influence the vessel. It has is the small fishing smack.
been found necessary to rake the mizen It is notoriously true that the sloop
52
can shape her course closer to the wind be prevented from bellying out to lee-
than the schooner. We, however, are ward much better than the main sail
frank to admit, that this discrepancy in of the schooner or sloop, for the mani-
the schooner is not wholly consequent fest reason that the square sails of the
upon (lie rake of her masts. The wind ship can be sheeted home at both cor-
will more effectively on one sail ners, and if the yards should bend un-
act
than two, though there be even some- der the strain in sheeting home, the
what more area in the two than in the lifts can be kept sufficiently taut to
one. This may be accounted for hence we
counteract the extra strain ;
upon philosophical principles when discover that the flow of fore and ail
:
the schooner is on a wind, the after sails is much greater than that of u i
leech of the jib bellies or bows to lee- square sails, in consequence of the ina-
ward less than the part just forward of bility to spread the fore and aft sails as
the leech ; this is because the leech of near the perfect plane.
the has the strain of the jib-sheet
sail With regard to the location of the
to keep it taut the wind passing out masts of ships, brigs, schooners or
;
of the jib strikes the fore sail on the sloops, the grand secret does not lie in
lee side;, and destroys its efficiency as the mere location of the masts, but in
far as its influence is felt. Just so with the locality of the centre of propulsion.
the main sail : the wind leaving the This point, like the centre of gravity,
fore sail operates in the same manner. represents all the forces that propel
It is true that the sloop has the same the ship. For example the three :
difficulty with her jib,buther main sail is top-sails of a ship are supported by the
large, and the proportionate draw-back yards the yards are supported by the
;
is small, being only on one sail squ are- masts, and the masts are supported and
;
na-fired vessels have an advantage that stayed by the hull ; but is it not plain
fore and aft ones do not possess ; not be- that either or all the top-saile may be
cause their sails are larger, which is held in equilibrio by a single four-
not the case, but because they are ena- stranded rope of a size adapted to the
bled to trim the sails much nearer the force? To accomplish this, it is only
perfect plane, consequently this dele- necessary to find the centre of gravity
terious influence of one sail upon of the sail; that is to say, find that
another is not felt so around'which there is an equal

much. point
It will appear obvious to the discern- area of canvass, whether vertical or
ing mind that the square top-sail can horizontal, as we have shown in Plate
1and Plate 20; this point being found, nearer the middle of the ship ; if tin;
we may assume the Four-stranded rope mast remains, tin; same thing may he
to be unlayed a suitable distance from effected by reducing the sails; these
one end ; the standing part being remarks apply to the other masts.
stretched and kept in horizontal line The difficulty lies here- we have be- :
with (he centre of gravity, and made come accustomed to see the fore mast
fast ; let the four strands be made fast nearly as high as the main mast, and
to the four corners of the sail, is it not the mizen mast still shorter than the
plain that the effect is the same ;is fore mast, and a certain adaptation of
though the wind filled the sail when the yards and while there is no mani-
;
suspended to the yard ? and will not fest departure from this hoary practice,
the rope sustain nil the force conse- all is well; but let the masts remain,
quent upon the filling of the sail by and reduce or increase (he sail by
the wind, even though the sail were adapting it to the model, and doubtless
loosed from the yard ? and if it is the the objection once he heard.
will at
ease in one sail, is it not so with regard On the ordinary model the difference
to ail the sails ? and may the} not all would not in many instances he mani-
be represented in the same manner? fest, but let the ship be designed for
It is quite a common expression (in speed, and the centre of buoyancy lo-
reference to the propelling power of a cated at or aft of the longitudinal cen-

ship) to say that her fore mast (for tie of length, (inasmuch as this locality
example) is too far forward, or that has been proved to be the best for high
she has too much head sail, or that she speed,) and the discrepancy w ill be but
has not enough head sail ; that her too manifest. When the length is di-
masts are too far aft : these, we say, vided into a given number of parts,
are common expressions, and familiar without reference to the breadth, for
to almost every commercial man but ; stationing the masts of a ship, it must
is not the same effect produced when be plain that the rule would place the
the sails on the fore mast are reduced masts in a scow of the same length in
or increased ? We expect by moving same location as those of

precisely the
(lor example) tin; fore mast farther aft, the ship; and it does not follow that
with all the sails unaltered, to reduce because the ship is of uncommon length
the pressure ou^ the how; not by re- that she is able to bear sail in propor-
ducing the sails, hut by bringing the tion ; neither will it answer to have
propulsory power of the fore mast exclusive reference 1o the breadth '
in
masting and sparring ships nor yet on a vertical line over the centre of
;
to the centre of buoyancy, to the ex- buoyancy, let the model now be placed
clusion of all other points. There is in water as deep as the load-line of flo-
another point in connection with the tation ; it may then be assumed that
centre of buoyancy that should be no- the model rests on a sheet of still water,
ticed, if we would have the ship work of sufficient extent to be moved freely
well. We will draw our deductions in any direction, supported by the cen-
from well-proportioned ships that is to ; tre of buoyancy, and that point at the
say, those on which the greatest trans- centre of length longitudinally. We
verse section is at, or very near the may now determine the centre of the
centre of the vessel ; and, as a conse- lateral resistance in the following man-
quence, in the present state of advance- ner : insert a nail at the centre of buoy-
ment, the centre of buoyancy would ancy, to which connect a string, and
be about the centre or somewhat for- then take the angle the middle line of
ward of that locality. We will now the model forms with the side of the
determine the longitudinal centre of box basin, or side of whatever the
the lateral resistance ; this point can- water and model may be placed in
not readily be determined from the let the model be drawn side-ways by
draft ; hence, in order to make the the string a considerable distance, and
"
subject clear, we shall resort to other aoain take the angle of the middle line
means, and adopt another medium as before, when we shall be able to de-
through which to furnish our exposi- termine which end of the model has
tions. The model, we think, will fur- the preponderance of lateral resistance;
nish all that we require assuming the end having the least will have
;
that the model of a ship were varnish- moved the greatest distance we may, ;
ed, it would not be materially injured after having adjusted the string, try
by being immersed as high as the load- again not, however, before insert-
;
line of flotation in order, however, to ing another nail and string of equal
;
secure an equilibrium in an upright po- weight on the opposite end of the cen-
sition, it will be necessary to screw a tre of buoyancy, to counteract the lev-
piece of batten on the top extending erage of the one we propel by it will ;
across the middle line at some length, be perceived that in the first instance
ovi which a weight may be secured, the nail and string were at the centre
that will cause the model to equipoise of buoyancy, and was not unduly in-
transversely ; the batten being placed clined to either the bow or the stern :
but now in the second trial we have met at right

pressure or resistance is
the nail and siring on one end, and, angles from the immersed surface, a
consequently, the same or an equal much greater amount of resistance is
distance from the centre of buoyancy, found on the leeward than on the wind-
on the other end we must append an ward side and, as a consequence, the ;
equal weight ; we again take the angle

preponderance of propulsion is required
as at first, and then draw the model on the forward side of the centre of
side-ways as before ; we may require buoyancy, to counteract its influence.
not only this second, but several subse- On Plate 20 we have shown the dis-
quent trials, before we
have de- tance of the centre of propulsion to
shall
termined the correct location of the be 8 feet forward of the centre of buoy-
centre of the lateral resistance hav- ancy, and yet the ship is lightly sparred
;
ing found this point in the manner de- and has less than the usual proportion
scribed,which will most likely be aft of of head sail, while the model exhibits
the centre of buoyancy, inasmuch ns the less of this leeward preponderance than
cavity of the run augments the lateral perhaps any freighting ship of equal
resistance; in a word, the impressive breadth and displacement, and yet her
sameness in most models leads us to performance warrants us in announc-
draw this inference : if the model be ing the distribution to be all that could
that of a ship, and be quite full, or as be desired ; but this arrangement could
full as freighting ships usually are, the not be carried out with equal success
centre of propulsion should be quite as on all freighting ships, and for the fol-
far forward of the centre of buoyancy lowing reason : the ship referred to
as the centre of lateral resistance is has an equal distribution of buoyancy

aft of the same ; and the reason why on each side of the longitudinal centre
this departure should take place, may at the load-line of flotation, which is
be found in the fact that the inequality rarely the case in sailing vessels of any
in shape of the two lines of flotation, description ; but it does not follow that
causes the vessel's bow to incline to the centre of the lateral resistance is
wind ; and the reason will appear also in the centre of length ; the rake
mahi&st if we but remember that of the stem causes a loss of lateral re-
from the dead-flat frame on the lee line sistance on the bow, while the surface
of flotation to the wood ends the dis- of the rudder increased its amount on
tance is much greater than on the the after end; hence we discover that
weather line, and inasmuch as the the centre of buoyancy was between
The two points, and about equidistant is of the longitudinal centre: and
aft
from each. It must not, however, be although the form of the vessel is such
supposed that because full ships re- as to bring the centre of the lateral
quire more sail forward than this ship, resistance equally as far, if not still
on account of the greater inequality farther aft, yet we say this ride is
in thr form of the lines of flotation, equally applicable to this description

that the distance between the centre of vessel, and in some instances where
of buoyancy and the centre of propul- the equalization of the form of the two
sion should be augmented; fortius rea- lines of flotation is complete, the cen-
son the ccut re of buoyancy is farther tre of propulsion may be located at
forward on the full bow, and the cen- the centre of the lateral resistance.
tre; of lateral resistance farther aft In Plate 25 we have another illus-
;
hence we find that the locality of those tration in the sloop Victorine this ;
points furnish an index to the appor- vessel, a remarkable fast sailer as we

tionate distribution of sail. have already shown, has her centre of
We have another demonstration in buoyancy somewhat less than 2" f<el
Plate 1 ; there we svte the centre of forward of the longitudinal centre, and
propulsion about 34 feet forward of the centre of Literal resistance is About
the centre of buoyancy, and when we 3 feet aft of the longitudinal eentre, as
remember that the vessel shown in shown by the sirmark B ; but this is
Plate L is but about 70 feet keel, and not all : the centre of propulsion is
that the other on Plate 20 is about forward at the same point in this case ;
170 feet keel, we shall at once recog- we discover the centre of buoyancy,
nize the analogy in the proportions o'f which is at the sirmark A, to be near-
the distance between the two centres ly 5 feet forward of the centre of late-
of the two vessels; here we have ral resistance. The
casual observer
another exemplification of the advan- may be able here to discover the cause,
tages of blending practice with science. viz., the rake of the stem forward, and
The vessel shown in preponderance of surface to* the
Plate 1 furnishes the
an exhibition of the advancement of centre-board on the after side of the
science in the Old word, while Plate centre of length, in addition to the
20 fllustn !S the approximation to skeig-like shape of the after end of the
maturity in the New. immersed part; in this case the rake
In Plate 24 we are shown a pilot- relieved the bow to a veryônsi len-
boat on which the centre of buoyancy ble extent of the effects of the i
«•«?
THE LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
Santa Barbara
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE

STAMPED BELOW.
Series Ills-
D 000 727 311 3

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TREATISE

.MARINE AID NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

THEORY AND PRACTICE

ILLUSTRATED WITH MORE THAN FIFTY ENGRAVINGS.

=Equal to, as 144 square inohes=I square foot.

+ Plus, or more, signifies addition, as 3+3+6+9=21.

as .1 is TV.01 is j^j, or .792 TWo-

and the Laws that Govern it. CHAPTER VIII.

Laws of other Nations — Laws of Resistance

CHAPTER IV. Steam-Boats —Ocean Steamers — Coasting Vessels

— Sheer Plan — Sheering General— in Intimate Its

Connexion with the Appearance of Vessels.

CHAPTER VI. CHAPTER XII.

In the dedication of this work to the Comparatively few American me-

building is yet in its infancy. efficient naval force, while maritime

plates and diagrams. The subject of provements, but to be in advance of

But our Creator has, in benevolence, marshalled armies of their race.

ditions of the present time. hundred and seventy-two years before

of Nebuchadnezzar, of swallowed up the river which they wor-

learn from Athenius, that Archimedes, ous embellishments and contrivances

to be conducted on land. The invasion revival. The Spaniards followed up

art of building one of complish her designs, she sought other

Petersburgh, Arendal in Norway, wings of lightning, he is ready to cir-

standard value of American ships has imparted an indomitable energy of

page. Were we thus disposed, we leave no moisture on other bodies im-

of matter in a solid state, it could not surface, when

has been termed the hydrostatic par- foot, or an interior circumference of 1

dant proof of this is afforded at every would sustain a bursting pressure of

sure would remain unchanged, however composed, and reduced to a gaseous

22 MARINE AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.

scent. The cause of this reciprocating ingvessel —

the sudden elevation or depression of a bulk, regardless of its size or shape. If

is pressed upward by a force equal to external fulcrum, or line of flotation,

ant when in commotion than when require a pressure downward to sub-

fluid beneath or around a vessel is exactly equipoised, without the appli-

must be felt while, by disturbing the

this fundamental law that the weight state of indifference or equilibrium as

floating on an important part

whether supported from beneath, or an imaginary axis, around which solid

unless it be prevented by external sup- mer plumb-line of suspension, or the

from which suspend the model by a required, as in fig. 3. It is, doubtless,

ed by the other extremity, representing the vessel transversely, must of neces-

amount of the displacement, or the ag- determined, according to the ratio of

by calculating the area of every paral- of equilibriating and mechanics, in ;

and, as a consequence, the remaining tributed, is so small, that it will furnish

160=76,8004-7.5= 10,240x62.5=640,0004-2,240=285+ 1,600x2=571+960

could be determined by allowing the weight, or its specific gravity. It is

model with the top well-known that although water is a

ed that there no notable difference

Or, the formula may be thus :

Pounds. Tons. Pds. Tons. Pds,

4,096 X 10 40,060 -v- 4 = 10,240 X 62.5 = 640,000^- 2,240=285+1,600 x 2=571+960

make calculations from, it is always will be readily discovered, that the

vessel. A vessel 100 feet long, 25

commencing extreme breadth or bulk of water displaced by the vessel

every fourth frame will be 10 feet of gravity of displacement changes its

present purpose to consider the fourth neous, or of such shape as to create no

case it has no appear gravity of displacement, and the direc-

the point I have denominated the cen- precautionary measures to maintain

an exposition to illustrate the princi- and as it is the centre of the bulk of

a precarious amount of stability, and egated to represent all the forces of

bility and secure an upright position surface remains unchanged, both in

unchanged, and homogeneous but, of measurement of stability the centre