Mechanical

 Measurements  (2)  
MPE  212  
 
Error  =  Measured  O/P  Signal  –  Real  I/P  
Errors: Systematic + Random
Systematic is sometimes called Bias or Fixed
Includes:
Calibration Error (Standard) - Data Acquisition Error - Data Reduction Error (Curve
Fitting/Numerical)

         Physical                Sensor                    Signal                    A/D  

Computer  
           System          Transducer        Conditioning        Converter  

Blunder/Negligence/Ignorance
Data Acquisition System  
 Classification of I/P Signals:

1 - Static: y(t) = A0
2 - Dynamic:
i) Periodic

Simple Periodic: y(t) = A0 + C sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙! )

!
Complex Periodic: y(t) = A0 + !!! 𝐶𝑛 sin(𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙! )
ii) Aperiodic

Step: y(t) = A0 U(t), U(t) = 1 for t > 0,

=0 for t  ≤ 0
Pulse: y(t) = 𝛿(𝑡) for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ dt {𝛿 𝑡 ∗ 𝑑𝑡 = 1}
=0 otherwise
Ramp: y(t) = A0 t for t > 0

!
3 – Non-deterministic y(t) ≈ A0 + !!! 𝐶𝑛 sin(𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙! )
 H.W. (1) Sketch the I/P functions below and engineering examples of each.

Static Dynamic Nondeterministic

Periodic Aperiodic
Simple Complex Step Pulse Ramp
Impulse Square Saw tooth

Examples:
a) Static: Power Stations (Boiler P, T, 𝑚, Turbine P, T, n, etc.)

5  
4.5  
4  
   m  steam  (kg/s)  

3.5  
3  
2.5  
 

2  
1.5  
1  
0.5  
0  
0   0.5   1   1.5   2   2.5   3   3.5  

Time  (hr)  
b) Step Function: Actuator valve opening/close, Shock wave, etc.

1.2  

1  
Pressure  (bar)  

0.8  

0.6  

0.4  

0.2  

0  
-­‐1.5   -­‐1   -­‐0.5   0   0.5   1   1.5   2   2.5   3   3.5  

-­‐0.2  

Time  (s)  

 
 
 1-­‐  Error  Propagation  or  Uncertainty  Analysis  
(for  quasi-­‐static  process)  

If  current  is  measured  as  I=10A±0.2,  and  the  voltage  is  

E=100  V±2  V,  The  power  is  P=IE  or  1000  W.  
Could  it  be  10.2*102=1040.4  (W)  or  98*9.8=960.4  (W)?  
 
Method  of  Kline  and  McClintock:  
If  un-­‐measurable  Quantity  R  is  calculated  by  measuring  
variables  𝑥! ,  𝑥! ,  𝑥! ,  …,  𝑥! ,  then  the  uncertainty  in  R  is  
calculated  w.r.t.  the  uncertainties  of  𝑥 ’s  as:  
 
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝝏𝑹 𝝏𝑹 𝝏𝑹
𝒖𝑹 = 𝒖 + 𝒖 +. . + 𝒖  
𝝏𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟏 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒙𝒏 𝒙𝒏
From  Taylor  Series  

Example:  
The  flow  rate  through  a  
flowmeter  (nozzle)  is  
calculated  as:  
𝟐𝒈𝒑𝟏 (𝒑𝟏 !𝒑𝟐 )
𝒎 =   𝑪𝒏 𝑨    
𝑹𝑻𝟏

Where:  
A      :  Nozzle  cross-­‐sectional  area=1.0  in2±0.001  in2  
𝑪𝒏 :  Coefficient  of  discharge=0.92±0.005  
𝒑𝟏 ,  𝒑𝟐  :  upstream  and  downstream  Pressures  
𝒑𝟏 =25  psia±0.5  𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎,                ∆p=1.4  psi±0.005  𝑝𝑠𝑖  
𝑻𝟏 :  Upstream  Temperature=70  ℉ ± 2  ℉  =530  °𝑹  
R  :  Gas  Constant  of  air    
Calculate  the  uncertainty  in  𝒎.  
Solution  
The  flow  rate  is  a  function  of:  
𝒎 = 𝒇(𝑪𝒏 , 𝑨, 𝒑𝟏 , ∆𝐩, 𝑻𝟏 ),  Then:  
𝟎.𝟓
𝝏𝒎 𝟐𝒈𝒑𝟏
=𝑨 ∆𝒑  
𝝏𝑪𝒏 𝑹𝑻𝟏
𝟎.𝟓
𝝏𝒎 𝟐𝒈𝒑𝟏
= 𝑪𝒏 ∆𝒑  
𝝏𝑨 𝑹𝑻𝟏
𝟎.𝟓
𝝏𝒎 𝟐𝒈
= 𝟎. 𝟓𝑪𝒏 𝑨 ∆𝒑 𝒑𝟏 !𝟎.𝟓  
𝝏𝒑𝟏 𝑹𝑻𝟏
𝟎.𝟓
𝝏𝒎 𝟐𝒈
= 𝟎. 𝟓𝑪𝒏 𝑨 𝒑 ∆𝒑!𝟎.𝟓  
𝝏𝒑𝟏 𝑹𝑻𝟏 𝟏
𝟎.𝟓
𝝏𝒎 𝟐𝒈𝒑𝟏
= 𝟎. 𝟓𝑪𝒏 𝑨 ∆𝒑 𝑻𝟏 !𝟏.𝟓  
𝝏𝒑𝟏 𝑹𝑻𝟏
 
 
The  uncertainty  in  𝒎  is  𝒖𝒎 :  
 𝒖𝒎 𝒖𝒄 𝒏 𝟐 𝒖𝑨 𝟐 𝟏 𝒖𝒑 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝒖∆𝒑 𝟐 𝟏 𝒖𝑻 𝟏 𝟐 𝟎.𝟓
= + + + +  
𝒎 𝑪𝒏 𝑨 𝟒 𝒑𝟏 𝟒 ∆𝒑 𝟒 𝑻𝟏

𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟓 𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟎.𝟓 𝟐 𝟏 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟓 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟎.𝟓

=
𝟎.𝟗𝟐
+
𝟏.𝟎
+
𝟒 𝟐𝟓
+
𝟒 𝟏.𝟒
+
𝟒 𝟓𝟑𝟎
 

=1.172%  
Comments:  
The  uncertainties  in  𝒑𝟏  and  𝑻𝟏  are  major  contributors  to  the  
uncertainty  in  𝒎.      
 
Now  where  do  we  get  the  uncertainty  of  each  of  the  
variables  above?      
 

Statistical  Analysis  of  Experimental  Data  

 
We  define  the  real  value  𝑥  that  represented  in  a  sample  
of  data  readings  as  a  function  of  the  mean  𝑥  and  the  
uncertainty  interval  𝑢!  defined  by  defined  probability  
level  P%:        
𝒙 = 𝒙   ±   𝒖𝒙                P%  
Probability  Density  Function  (pdf):  
   Due  to  data  scatter,  measured  variables  may  behave  as  
random  variables  (continuous  or  discrete)  with  tendency  
towards  accumulating  around  central  value.    If  the  number  
of  readings  is  ∞,  the  central  value  and  data  scatter  can  be  
determined  using  a  pdf.    
For  n  readings  the  
histogram  is  shown  as  
!

𝑁= 𝑛!  
!!!
!

𝑓! = 1  
!!!

 
 
For  𝑁 →  ∞  a  pdf  is  p(x)  s.t.:    A  Normal  Distribution  that  
is  :  
! ! !!! !
𝑝 𝑥 =   !.!  𝑒𝑥𝑝 −        
! !! ! !!
(Gaussian  distribution)  

 
The  Variance  is  
!
!
1
𝜎! = 𝑥! − 𝑥 !  
𝑁−1
!!!

The  Standard  deviation  is  𝜎!  

 
  
  
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
   
 
   
Example:  
Find  the  probability  if  a  single  voltage  measurement  is  made  would  
indicate  a  value  between  10.0  and  11.5,  if  the  voltage  signal  is  given  
by  𝒙 = 𝟖. 𝟓  𝑽  and  𝝈𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓  𝑽𝟐 .  
 
Solution:  

𝝈 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓  𝟏. 𝟓  
𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓 − 𝟖. 𝟓 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎 − 𝟖. 𝟓
𝒁𝟏 = = = 𝟐,                𝒁𝟐 = = = 𝟏  
𝝈 𝟏. 𝟓 𝝈 𝟏. 𝟓
𝑷 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎 < 𝒙 < 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂  𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓  𝑷 𝒙 = 𝑷 𝒁 = 𝟐 − 𝑷 𝒁 = 𝟏  
        =0.4772-­‐0.3413=0.1359  
i.e.  there  is  a  13.59%  probability  that  the  measured  value  lies  
between  the  above  mentioned.