Cambridge IGCSE Biology

0610 Last Minute

Revision Part ¼

Reallyacademics
Preface

● This series will consist of 4 parts:

○ Part 1: Topic 1 to Topic 6
○ Part 2: Topic 7 to Topic 12
○ Part 3: Topic 13 to Topic 18
○ Part 4: Topic 19 to Topic 21
● The revision notes will follow the sequence in the ‘Cambridge IGCSE Biology
0610 syllabus for 2022’ which includes both Core (C) and Supplement (S)
● Lastly, good luck!!
Syllabus

● Topic 1 - Characteristics and classification of living organisms

○ 1.1 Characteristics of living organisms
○ 1.2 Concept and use of a classification system
○ 1.3 Features of organisms
○ 1.4 Dichotomous keys
● Topic 2 - Organisation of the organism
○ 2.1 Cell structure and organisation
○ 2.2 Levels of organisation
○ 2.3 Size of specimens
● Topic 3 - Movement in and out of cells
○ 3.1 Diffusion
○ 3.2 Osmosis
○ 3.3 Active transport
Syllabus

● Topic 4 - Biological molecules

● Topic 5 - Enzymes
● Topic 6 - Plant nutrition
○ 6.1 Photosynthesis
○ 6.2 Leaf structure
○ 6.3 Mineral requirements
Topic 1 - Characteristics and
classification of living
organisms
 Key definitions
Movement An action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of position or place

Respiration The chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules and release energy for
metabolism

Sensitivity The ability to detect or sense stimuli in the internal or external environment and to make
appropriate responses

Growth A permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number or cell size or both

Excretion Removal from organisms of the waste products of metabolism (chemical reactions in cells
including respiration), toxic materials and substances in excess of requirements

Nutrition Taking in of materials for energy, growth and development; plants require light, carbon
dioxide, water and ions; animals need organic compounds and ions and usually need water
Common features of cells

● Have a:
○ Cytoplasm
○ Cell membrane
○ Chemical called DNA, making up their genetic material
○ Ribosomes, which are used for making proteins inside the cell
○ Enzymes that are used to help the cell to carry out anaerobic
Classification

● The main reason for classifying living things is to make it easier to study
them.
● Organisms that share a certain feature in morphology (the overall form and
shape of their bodies) and anatomy (the detailed body structure) are
grouped together because they have all descended from the same ancestor.
○ The ancestor that they all share is called a common ancestor
Using DNA to help with classification

● DNA is the chemical from which our chromosomes are made.

○ It is the genetic material, passed on from one generation to the next.
● Biologists can compare the sequences of bases in the DNA of organisms
from two different species.
○ The more similar the base sequences, the more closely related the species are to one
another.
The classification system

● Swedish naturalist, Linnaeus, divided all the

different kinds of living things into groups
called species.
○ Organisms that belong to the same species if they
can breed together successfully, and the offspring
that they produce can also breed.
● Species are then grouped into a larger group
called genera.
○ Each genus contains several species with similar
characteristics.
● Genera are grouped into families, families
into orders, orders into classes, classes into
phyla and phyla into kingdom
The binomial naming system

● Binomial system consists of two parts:

○ First part is the name of the genus the organism belongs to, and always a capital letter.
○ Second part is the name of the species, and always a small letter.
The Kingdoms of living organisms

● Animals ● Plants
○ Characteristics: ○ Characteristics:
■ Multicellular (their bodies contain ■ Multicellular
many cells) ■ Cells have a nucleus, cell walls
■ Cell have a nucleus, but no cell walls made of cellulose and often contain
or chloroplasts chloroplasts
■ Feed on organic substances made ■ Feed by photosynthesis
by other living organisms ■ May have roots, stems and leaves
The Kingdoms of living organisms
● Fungi
○ Characteristics:
■ Usually multicellular (many-celled)
■ Have nuclei
■ Have cell walls, not made of
cellulose
■ Do not have chlorophyll
■ Feed by saprophytic or parasitic
nutrition
● Protoctista
○ Characteristics:
■ Multicellular or unicellular
■ Cell have a nucleus
■ Cells may or may not have a cell
wall and chloroplasts
■ Some feed by photosynthesis and
other feed on organic substances
made by other organisms
The Kingdoms of living organisms

● Prokaryotes
○ Characteristics:
■ Often unicellular (single-celled)
■ Have no nucleus
■ Have cell walls, not made of cellulose
■ Have no mitochondria
Viruses

● Viruses are not considered living organisms

because they cannot do anything other than
just exist outside of their host.
● When they invade a host cell, they take over
the manufacturing to make multiple copies
of themselves which then burst out to infect
other cells.
● Viruses cannot move, feed, excrete, show
sensitivity, grow or reproduce on their own.
Classifying animals
Phylum Vertebrates

Animals with a backbone ● Class Amphibians

○ Characteristics:
● Class Fish ■ Vertebrates with moist, scale-less
○ Characteristics: skin
■ Vertebrates with scaly skin ■ Eggs laid in water, larva (tadpole)
■ Have gills lives in water
■ Have fins ■ Adult often lives on land
● Class Reptiles ■ Larva has gills, adult has lungs
○ Characteristics:
■ Vertebrates with scaly skin
■ Lay eggs with rubbery shells
Phylum Vertebrates (Continued…)
● Class Birds
○ Characteristics:
■ Vertebrates with feathers
■ Forelimbs have become wings
■ Lay eggs with hard shells
■ Endothermic
■ Have a beak
■ Heart has four chambers
● Class Mammals
○ Characteristics:
■ Vertebrates with hair
■ Have a placenta
■ Young feed on milk from mammary
glands
■ Endothermic
■ Have a diaphragm
■ Heart has four chambers
■ Have different types of teeth
(incisors, canine, premolars and
molars)
Phylum Arthropods
● Characteristics:
○ Several pairs of jointed legs
○ Exoskeleton

● Insects
○ Characteristics:
■ Arthropods with three pairs
of jointed legs
■ Two pairs of wings (one or
both may be vestigal)
■ Breathe through trachea
■ Body divided into head,
thorax and abdomen
● Crustaceans
○ Characteristics:
■ Arthropods with more than four
pairs of jointed legs
■ Not millipedes or centipedes
■ Breathe through gills
Phylum Arthropods (Continued…)

● Arachnids
○ Characteristics:
■ Arthropods with four pairs
of jointed legs
■ Breathe through gills called
book lungs
● Myriapods
○ Characteristics:
■ Body consists of many segments
■ Each segment has jointed legs
Kingdom Plants
● Ferns
○ Characteristics:
■ Plants with roots, stems and leaves
■ Have leaves called fronds
■ Do not produce flowers
■ Reproduce by spores
● Flowering plants
○ Characteristics:
■ Plants with roots, stems and leaves
■ Reproduce sexually by means of flowers
and seeds
■ Seeds are produced inside the ovary, in
the flower.
○ Divided into 2 main groups
■ Monocots
● Only one cotyledon in their seeds
● Usually have a branching root
system.
● Usually have veins run in parallel to
one another
■ Dicots
● Two cotyledons in their seeds
● Frequently have a tap root system
● Leaves are broader
● Have a network of branching veins
Keys

● A key is a way of leading you through to the name of your organism by giving
you two descriptions at a time, and asking you to choose between them.
● This kind of key is called a dichotomous key
○ It refers to the fact that you have two descriptions to choose from at each step.
Topic 2 - Organisation of the
organism
 Microscopes

● Light microscope - uses light and can magnify about 1500 times
● Electron microscope - uses electrons and can magnify up to 500000 times

Note - Magnification equation

Size of real object = size of drawing x magnification

Animal vs Plant cell
Animal cell Plant cell
Animal vs Plant cell (Continued…)

Plant Cells Animal Cells

● Have a cellulose cell wall outside the cell ● Have no cell wall
membrane ● Have a cell membrane
● Have a cell membrane ● Have cytoplasm
● Have cytoplasm ● Have a nucleus
● Have a nucleus ● Have no chloroplasts
● Often have chloroplasts containing chlorophyll ● Have only small vacuoles
● Often have large vacuoles containing cell sap ● Never have starch grains; sometimes have
● Often have starch grains glycogen granules
● Often regular in shape ● Often irregular in shape
Cell membrane

● All cells have a cell membrane

● The cell membrane surrounds a jelly like substance called the cytoplasm
which carries the organelles.
● Cell membrane is made of proteins and fat
● It controls what goes into and out of the cell —> ‘partially permeable’.
Cell wall

● Only in plant cells

● Made up of cellulose (belongs to a group of polysaccharides)
○ Forms fibres which criss-cross over one another to form a very strong covering to the cell.
■ Helps to protect and support the cell
■ Prevents the cell from bursting
● It is fully permeable
Cytoplasm

● A clear jelly
● Contains many substances dissolved in it, especially proteins.
● Many different metabolic reactions take place in the cytoplasm
Vacuoles

● Space in a cell, surrounded by a membrane, and containing a solution.

● In plant cells, the vacuoles are very large and contain solutions of sugar and
other substances. These vacuoles are called cell sap.
● In animal cells, the vacuoles are much smaller called vesicles which may
contain food or water
Chloroplasts

● Only found in plant cells

● Contain the green colouring or pigment called chlorophyll.
○ Chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight to make food by photosynthesis
● Contain starch grains which are made by photosynthesis
Nucleus

● Contains the genetic information

○ Helps the cell make the right sort of protein
● Genetic information are kept in chromosomes which are made up of DNA
Mitochondria

● Found in almost all cells, except in prokaryotes.

● Powerhouse of the cell.
● Inside, oxygen is used to release energy from glucose, in the process called
aerobic respiration.
● The amount of mitochondria in a cell depends on the cells activity
○ E.g. muscle cells need more mitochondria for energy production.
Ribosomes

● Look like tiny dots attached to a network of membranes that runs

throughout the cytoplasm.
○ This network is called the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
● They are found in all types of cells
● Protein synthesis takes place in the ribosome by joining amino acids
together to make long chains
Cells and organisms
Topic 3 - Movement in and
out of cells
Diffusion

● Definition - the net movement of molecules and ions from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration down a concentration
gradient.
● Factors affecting rate of diffusion:
○ Temperature - higher temperature more kinetic energy
○ State of the substance - solids move slower, gases move the quickest
○ Mass of solute
○ Distance travelled
Diffusion and living organisms

● Examples of diffusion in living organism:

○ Get rid of waste products
■ E.g. Carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaves for photosynthesis and Oxygen (the
byproduct of photosynthesis) is released and diffuses into the atmosphere
○ Gas exchange for respiration in animals and plants
○ Some products of digestion are absorbed from the ileum of mammals by diffusion
Osmosis

● Definition: the diffusion of water molecules from a region of higher water

potential to a region of lower water potential, through a partially permeable
membrane
● Scenario:
○ A partially permeable membrane is placed inside a beaker, the left side contains less sugar
solution than the right side. The partially permeable membrane prevents the sugar
molecules to move across the sides. Only water molecules can cross so they travel from a
region of higher water potential to region of lower water potential down a concentration
gradient.
Osmosis and animal cells

● When the solution outside of the animal cell is more dilute than the solution
inside the animal cell, the water molecules move from a region of higher
water potential to a region of lower water potential through the membrane
into the cell. Because the animal cell doesn‘t have a rigid cell wall, the animal
cell will burst open.
● When the solution outside of the animal cell is more concentrated than the
solution inside the animal cell, the water molecules move from a region of
higher water potential to a region of lower water potential through the
membrane out of the cell. The cell will shrink.
Osmosis and plant cells

● When the solution outside the plant cell is more dilute, the water molecules
will move into the cell due to osmosis. Because the plant cell has a rigid cell
wall, it prevents the cell from bursting and makes the cell turgid.
● When the solution outside the plant cell is more concentrated, the water
molecules will move out of the cell due to osmosis. The cell membrane will
pull away from the cell wall, and the cell will become plasmolysed.
Active transport

● Definition: the movement of molecules

and ions in or out of a cell through the
cell membrane against a concentration
gradient, using energy from respiration.
● Examples of active transport:
○ In the cell membrane of the root hair cells are
special transport proteins. These proteins
pick up nitrate ions form outside of the cell,
and then change shape to push the ion into
the cell. The changing shape requires energy.
○ Glucose can be actively transported from the
lumen of the intestine into the cells of the villi.
Topic 4 - Biological
molecules
Water

● We are made up of almost 80% water

● Functions:
○ Provide an area for metabolic reactions to take place because the chemicals have to be
dissolved in water.
○ Solvent
○ Plasma in blood contains water —> transportation
○ Dissolves enzymes and nutrients in the alimentary canal.
Carbohydrates

● Carbohydrates include starches and sugars.

● Their molecules contain three kinds of atom - carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and
oxygen (O).
● There are three types: monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides
Carbohydrates (Continued…)
Mono- Di- Poly-

Are simple sugars which act as Made up of two Made up of more than 11
the building blocks of monosaccharides joined by monosaccharides joined by
disaccharides and condensation reaction giving out condensation reaction giving out
polysaccharides water to form glycosidic bonds water to form glycosidic bonds

Water soluble Water soluble Insoluble in water

Taste sweet Taste sweet Does not taste sweet

Reducing sugars Some are reducing sugars Non-reducing carbohydrates

Have a single ring structure Have two ring structures Have a number of ring structures
Functions of carbohydrates

● Needed for energy

● In humans,
○ The carbohydrates used in respiration is glucose
○ Glucose is transported through the blood plasma to cells for energy to carry out the process
of life.
○ Stored as glycogen in animals (stored in liver and muscles)
● In plants,
○ The carbohydrates used in respiration is also glucose
○ However, glucose is changed in sucrose to be transported around the plant before being
converted to glucose in cells for respiration
○ Stored as starch in plants (stored in their seeds or tubers)
Testing for carbohydrates

● Test for reducing sugar (such as glucose or maltose)

○ Using Benedict's solution.
○ If the food contains reducing sugar, then a brick-red colour will be produced
■ It changes from blue, to green, to yellow and orange then brick red
○ If there is no reducing sugar, then the Benedict’s solution remains blue.
● Test for starch
○ Add iodine solution to a sample of the food.
○ If there is starch present, a blue-black colour is obtained
○ If there is no starch, the iodine solution remains orange-brown
Fats

● Also known as lipids

● Contain 3 kinds of atom - carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen
● Made up of four smaller molecules
joined together.
○ One glycerol is attached to three long
molecules of fatty acids
● Insoluble in water.
Functions of fats

● Can be used in cells to release energy

○ Provides twice as much energy as carbohydrates
● Very useful for storage due to its extra energy
● Stored underneath the skin, become filled with large drops of fats or oils
called the adipose tissue.
○ This adipose tissue can keep the body warm and insulated in cold areas
● Many plants store oils in their seeds for energy for germination
Testing for fats and oils

● Ethanol emulsion test

○ Chop the food and shake it up with ethanol.
○ Fats will dissolve in ethanol
○ Pour the ethanol in to water
○ If there is fat present, the fat-ethanol mixture breaks up into millions of tiny droplets when it
is mixed with the water. Hence called an emulsion. It looks white and opaque.
○ If there is no fat present, the mixture of water and ethanol remains transparent
Proteins

● Contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen as well as nitrogen and small

amounts of sulfur
● Protein molecules are made of long chains of smaller molecules joined end
to end called amino acids.
Function of proteins

● Used to make new cells for growth and for repair of damaged parts of our
body.
○ Cell membranes and cytoplasm contains a lot of protein.
● Proteins are needed to make antibodies
● As well as enzymes for chemical reactions in the body
● Different sequences of amino acids form different shapes of proteins due to
the difference in bonding between amino acids. These difference in shapes
help in the function of proteins
○ E.g. in enzymes, only specific shaped substances can fit the active site of enzymes for a
reaction to take place.
Testing for proteins

● Biuret test
○ Mixing the food in water, and then adding dilute copper sulfate solution.
○ Then dilute potassium hydroxide solution is gently added.
○ A purple colour indicates that protein is present.
○ If there is no protein, the mixture stays blue.
Topic 5 - Enzymes
Biological catalyst

● Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction and is

not changed by the reaction itself
● Enzymes: Proteins that function as biological catalysts
● Without biological catalyst, enzymes, chemical reactions (metabolic
reactions) within the body will take place really slowly which may not be
enough to support life.
● Enzymes can be catabolic or anabolic, catabolic meaning break down and
anabolic meaning build up.
Naming enzymes

● Enzymes are named according to the reaction that they catalyse. For
example:
○ Enzymes which catalyse the breakdown of carbohydrates are called carbohydrases
○ Enzymes which breakdown proteins are called proteases
○ Enzymes which breakdown fats (lipids) and called lipases
● Enzymes can have more specific names:
○ Enzymes that break down starch are amylase
○ Enzymes that break down maltose are maltase
○ Enzymes that break down sucrose are sucrase
Lock and key hypothesis
● Within the enzyme, there is a site known as the active
site which has a specific shape.
● Only one substrate or type of substrate can fit into this
active site —> giving enzyme its specificity
● The enzymes and substrate slot together to make a
complex
● Formation of the enzyme-substrate complex lowers
the activation energy of the reaction
○ Makes the bonds within a substrate easy to break
○ Brings the substances closer together to form bonds
● Once the reaction is complete, the products are not the
right shape to stay in the active site and the complex
breaks up.
● This releases the products and frees the enzymes for
further catalytic activity
Properties of enzymes

1. All enzymes are proteins

2. Enzymes are made inactive by high temperature
○ This is because the protein becomes denatured and the active site no longer fits the
substrate
3. Enzymes work best at a particular temperature
4. Enzymes work best at a particular pH
5. Enzymes are catalysts
○ They are not changed in the chemical reactions which they control.
6. Enzymes are specific
Relationship of temperature on the rate of
enzyme activity.

● Rate of reaction increases with temperature at

first because substrates and enzymes have the
kinetic and potential energy to react
● The optimum temperature is when the rate of
reaction is at its peak (different enzymes have
different optimum temperatures)
● Above the optimum temperature, the rate of
reaction starts to decrease because the
enzymes become denatured (loss of shape of
active site) hence the substrates cannot bnd to
the site for reaction
Relationship of pH on the rate of enzyme activity

● Different enzymes work in different

ranges of pH
○ This is because changes in pH affect
the formation of the hydrogen bonds
and disulfide bonds that hold the 3D
structure of the active site
Topic 6 - Plant nutrition
Photosynthesis

● Definition: the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw

materials using energy from light
● Equation:
Photosynthesis (Continued…)

● Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplast with the help of chlorophyll

● Chlorophyll is the pigment which makes plants look green.
● When sunlight falls on a chlorophyll molecule, some of the energy in the
light is absorbed. The chlorophyll molecules releases the energy which
makes the carbon dioxide combine with water, with the help of enzymes
inside the chloroplast.
Leaves

● A leaf consists of a broad, flat part called the

lamina, which is joined to the rest of the plant by a
leaf stalk or petiole.
● Running through the petiole are vascular bundles,
which then form the veins in the leaf.
Leaf Structure (Continued…)

● The top and bottom of the leaf

are covered with a layer of closely
fitting cells called the epidermis.
○ Their function is to protect the inner
layers of cells in the leaf
○ The cells of the upper epidermis
secrete a waxy substance called
cuticle which helps to stop water
evaporating from the leaf.
○ The lower epidermis has small
openings called stomata.
■ Each stoma is surrounded by a
pair of guard cells that open or
close.
Leaf Structure (Continued…)

● The middle layers of the leaf

are called the mesophyll.
○ These cells all contain
chloroplasts.
○ Divided into palisade layer and
spongy layer
■ Palisade layer is made up of
cells arranged like a fence or
palisade.
■ Spongy layer is made up of
cells that are rounder, and
arranged quite loosely, with
large air spaces between
them.
Leaf Structure (Continued…)

● Running through the mesophyll

are veins or vascular bundles.
○ Each vein contains large,
thick-walled xylem vessels for
carrying water.
○ As well as, smaller, thin-walled
phloem tubes for carrying away
sucrose and other substances
that the leaf has made.
How the raw materials for photosynthesis get
into a palisade cell.
Adaptation
Adaptation Function

Supported by stem and petiole To expose as much of the leaf as possible to the sunlight and air

Large surface area To expose as large an area as possible to the sunlight and air

Thin To allow sunlight to penetrate to all cells; to allow CO2 to diffuse in

and O2 to diffuse out as quickly as possible

Stomata in lower epidermis To allow CO2 to diffuse in and O2 to diffuse out

Air spaces in spongy mesophyll To allow CO2 and O2 to diffuse to and from all cells

No chloroplasts in epidermal cells To allow sunlight to penetrate to the mesophyll layer

Chloroplasts containing chlorophyll To absorb energy from sunlight, so that CO2 will combine with H2O
present in the mesophyll layer
Adaptation
Adaptation Function

Palisade cells arranged end on To keep as few cell walls as possible between sunlight and the
chloroplasts

Chloroplasts inside palisade cells To expose as much chlorophyll as possible to sunlight

often arranged broadside on

Chlorophyll arranged on flat To expose as much chlorophyll as possible to sunlight

membranes inside the chloroplasts

Xylem vessels within short distance of To supply water to the cells in the leaf, some of which will be used
every mesophyll cell in photosynthesis

Phloem tubes within short distance of To take away sucrose and other organic products of
every mesophyll cell photosynthesis
Mineral ions required by plants

Element Nitrogen Magnesium

Mineral salt Nitrates or ammonium ions Magnesium ions

Why needed To make proteins To make chlorophyll

Deficiency Weak growth, yellow leaves Yellowing between the veins of leaves
Limiting factors

● Definition: Something present in the

environment in such short supply that it
restricts life processes.
● Sunlight
○ In the dark, a plant cannot photosynthesis at all.
○ In dim light, it can photosynthesis slowly.
○ As light intensity increases, the rate of
photosynthesis will increase, until the plant is
photosynthesising as fast as it can.
○ At this point, even if the light becomes brighter, the
plant cannot photosynthesis any faster
○ At points A and B, light is a limiting factor. But at
point C, light is no longer a limiting factor
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Part 2 FAQ of IGCSE BIOLOGY