ORGANISMS, LIFE

Prokaryotes (membrane-bound cell, no nucleus, genetic information floating in cell)

 Bacteria
 Archaea
Eukaryotes (membrane-bound cells, with nucleus)

 plantae (cell walls have cellulose, can photosynthesize)

 protista (e.g. kelp)
 fungi (heterotrophs, chitin in cell wall)
 animalia (have keratin)

note viruses are not considered living…

MAMMAL CELL
o nucleus (bound by nuclear membrane, contains nucleolus which assembles ribosomes and
chromatin)
o mitochondria (membrane-bound, generates most chemical energy of the cell)
o golgi apparatus (manufacturing house, processes proteins and lipids)
o endoplasmic reticulum (transport system: rough ER studded with ribosomes i.e. particles made of
RNA which it uses to synthesize proteins from amino acids, smooth ER releases transport
vesicles)
o lysosomes (lys = break down; membrane-bound, contains cellular enzymes to break down
proteins)

EMBRYOGENESIS
 single cell, zygote, at fertilization
 disk-shaped structure (sits between above amnion w/ fluid and below yolk sac which provides earlier
nutrients) with supporting extra-embryonic structures
 development signals organization into four germ layers
Ectodeterm 1 (next to amniotic sac)  adhered cells with little extracellular matrix , hair, CNS
(can only form cells; important parts of skin and all CNS from here)
Mesoderm 3  has cellular proteins which can produce extensive extracellular matrix  most
tissues of the body; muscle, blood vessels, heart, bone, etc (only one that can produce extracellular tissue,
so most tissues constructed from mesoderm)
 Endoderm 2  flat adhered cells, later become columnar  lines stomach, colon, lungs
epithelium (digestive tract and associated organs)
Neural crest  derived from ectoderm  migrate through the early embryo, producing important
components e.g. sensory nerves, melanin, adrenal glands, etc

BODY CAVITIES (may not be fully closed of)

o Head
o Neck
o Thorax
 Pleural cavity for lungs
 Pericardial cavity for heart
o Abdomen
 Peritoneal
 Abdominal, pelvic
o Limbs (upper, pectoral or lower, pelvic; attached to body via girdle)

ANATOMICAL PLANES
Superior (above) vs inferior (below) – transverse cut OR
Ventral (towards abdomen) vs dorsal (towards back)
Anterior (forwards) vs posterior (backwards) – coronal cut
Medial (towards vertical midline of body) vs lateral (away from midline)
Proximal (closer to the body or PoR) vs distal (e.g. further along limb)
Left vs right – sagittal cut (splits left and right down midline)

Cranial (towards head) vs caudal (towards tail/pelvis)

Rostral – towards nose/snout

Standard anatomic position = upright anterior, with arms to the side and palms forward (always assumed
we’re using this, even if lying down etc)

MOTION
o Flex/extend (angle less/more)
o Rotate (circular movement around its axis)
o Abduct/adduct (away from body/towards body)
o Circumduction (circular movement around some axis)
o Pronate vs supinate (hand facing back/forward)
o Dorsiflex vs plantarflex (foot raised upwards/downwards)
o Eversion/inversion (turning sole laterally/inwards)
o Protract/retract (shoulder forward/backwards)
o Deviation (hand moving laterally, medially, or radially)
o Afferent vs efferent (inwards, towards primary organ, e.g. sensory neurons or veins; outwards,
away from primary organ, e.g. arteries or motor neurons)

Organism  organ systems  organs  tissues  cells  organic macro(complex)molecules  atoms

MACROMOLECULES (themselves composed of smaller molecules, or polymers)

o Carbohydrates/sugars
 Energy storage for metabolism
 Structure
 Composed of C, H, O
 Monosaccharides (one molecule, e.g. glucose)  dehydration synthesis, where alpha/beta
glycosidic bonds are formed  disaccharides, polysaccharides
o Proteins
 Catalyze all biological reactions (enzymes)
 Structure (e.g. muscles, ligaments, bones)
 Composed of chains of 100+ amino acids (20, 9 essential which cannot be made by the body)
connected by peptide bonds (polypeptides)  BASED ON AMINO ACIDS IN PRIMARY
STRUCTURE, interactions between adjacent amino acids can create specific polypetide forms  folded
into a 3D shape that lead to further complex properties  can form protein complexes, e.g. hemoglobin
or keratin
o Lipids/fats
 Energy storage
 Cell signalling
 Structure
 Fatty acids (long carbon chains with hydrogen, saturated or unsaturated)  +glycerol to form
glycerides OR phospholipid/glycolipid (structural, in cell membrane; phospholipids have hydrophilic
head that can interact with water and a hydrophobic tail); steroids have distinct carbon framework e.g.
cholesterol
 Micelles are spheres with heads facing out (body breaks down fats to this level to
allow final enzyme digestion)
 Liposomes are spheres with two layers of phospholipids, so outer surface as well
as an inner envelope are both hydrophilic (facilitates transport of materials)
 Bilayer of phospholipids is hydrophilic on the outside and hydrophobic on the
inside to provide a barrier for many molecules to protect the cell
o Nucleic acids
 Encode genetic information through matched base pairs (A/T and G/C) with a sugar phosphate
backbone
 Three bases form a codon which corresponding to an amino acid
 DNA has AGCT; is double-stranded; and carries genetic information
 RNA has AGCU; is single-stranded; and constructs macromolecules for cell
signalling and enzymes
 Catalysis
 Protein synthesis
 Composed of carbohydrate backbone (RNA or DNA) and nucleotide functional groups

TISSUES (groups of cells with similar structure)

Function + composition + examples

o Epithelial covers and lines body wall

 Physical protection, controls permeability (internally + for organs), provides sensation and
specialized secretions (glands)
 Tightly packed cells (single/multiple layers) with irregular placement of organelles
 Large bank of stem cells
 Base  basal lamina/basement membrane  basal layer (most organelles)  apical layer
(mostly cytoplasm)  specialized surface

o Muscular provides locomotion/heat/structure, regulates blood pressure

 May be striated (highly organized bundles), smooth (little organization), or cardiac (unique
striation for heart) (type)
 May be somatic (part of the body wall/skeleton) or visceral (attached to internal structures)
(location)
 May be voluntary (associated with somatic NS) or involuntary (associated with
autonomic/visceral NS) (innervation)
 SKELETAL is voluntary, striated, multinucleated (incapable of division but satellite stem cells
produce new fibres and hypertrophy or increase of cell size causes growth)… found in voluntary muscles
and attached to bones/tendons
 Cells come together to form large muscle cells or microfibres
 Functional roles/physiologies are distinguished by metabolic properties related to
oxygen (red vs white)
 Myoglobin; glycogen = fundamental fuels of the cell (provides oxygen; energy)
 Oxidative capacity = ability to use oxygen well
 Type I (oxidative)
 Type IIA (oxidative/glycolytic)
 Type IIB/X (glycolytic) – allows for bursts of movement
 SMOOTH is involuntary, single nucleus… found in wall of stomach and viscera, arteries, dilator
pupil; controls vasoconstriction/dilation, opening/closing pupil, etc; macromolecules form a net around
the cell
 CARDIAC is involuntary, striated, single nucleus, intercalated discs (domino effect for
contraction rather than using nerves), not directly innervated… forms heart

o Nervous involved in sensory information

 From ectoderm – 1, Neurons (cell body, dendrites, axon, myelin sheaths, synapse); receptor &
transmitter end; in neuron, signal is transmitted along axon as an action potential; synapse involves
electrochemical gradient where cell is slightly negative; cannot transmit electrical signals directly, so
instead discharges an action potential via neurotransmitters in liposomes into the synaptic cleft between
cells which can interact with receptors on the next/target cell
 Blood-brain barrier
 From mesoderm – 10, glial (support) cells provide nutrients, structure, insulation, and destroy
pathogens/aging neurons; they provide myelin sheath by wrapping cell membrane around axon
 In CNS, large oligodendrocytes produce myelin sheath around multiple axons
 In PNS, single Schwann cell wraps produce myelin sheath; or support
unmyelinated neurons without the myelin

o Connective binds/supports the body structure and surrounds organs; cells embedded in a protein-
rich extracellular matrix; majority of body tissue, from mesoderm
 Loose (from fibroblasts)
 Collagen (long straight protein chain w/ overlapping triple helix, very strong
tensile but not elastic) forms tendons and ligaments
 Elastin (organic latex; branched and wavy, elastic, interwoven with collagen)
 AREOLAR surrounds/anchors most organs; sparse fibres in a gel-like matrix w/
all three fibre types (collagen, elastin, reticular fibres); cells, fibroblasts, immune
cells
 ADIPOSE similar to areolar but includes tightly packed adipocytes (contain fat)
for heat insulation, energy storage, and structural support
 Dense
 REGULAR involves ordered parallel collagen strands with little elastin,
fibroblasts; forms tendons, ligaments, fascia, etc; attaches muscle  muscle,
muscle  bone, and bone  bone
 IRREGULAR involves sporadically arranged collagen with some elastin,
fibroblasts; withstands tension in multiple directions
 Cartilage (from chondroblasts)
 Avascular and aneural; highly hydrated; chrondocytes; grows only during
development and regeneration is difficult since no blood vessels
 Interstitial (adding within tissue via cell division) vs appositional (adding to
surface in layers) growth
 Matrix involves long collagen fibres with side chains of proteoglycans which
function to form a hydrophilic structure, allowing them to stretch/inflate the
collagen
 HYALINE cartilage is surrounded by dense perichondrium on surface; …
 ELASTIC cartilage contains elastin fibres and is resilient/flexible, may have lipid
cells
 FIBROCARTILAGE has little ground substance but dense collagen fibres which
gives it strength (little water + proteoglycans)
 Bone (from osteoblasts)
  Osteocytes (trapped osteoblasts) and osteon (cylindrical tube from
sheets/lamellae of bone tissue) organization; highly vascularized through canal of
osteons; high resistance to compression
 Hydroxyapatite matrix (calcium + phosphorus + oxygen, inorganic)
- Radio-opaque
- involved in absorption + deposition
- provides resistance to compression
- (osteoporosis results from low density of this!, inbalance of)
- surrounding collagen fibres (organic) – rigid but not brittle
 Organic: osteoclasts (absorbs bone matrix, releasing hydroxyapatite), osteoblasts
(immature, forms), osteocytes (mature), osteoid (unmineralized collagen
scaffold)
 Yellow bone marrow contains fat for adipose deposition; Red/hematopoietic
bone marrow produces blood cells
 Blood (from hematopoietic stem cells)
 Cells in protein matrix (Plasma + suspended proteins with diff cell types), but
highly hydrated
 Transports nutrients, ions, waste, etc
Fascia = thin layer of connective tissue surrounding some organs e.g. muscle and bone (superficial
consists of dense+adipose tissue w/ nerves and blood vessels; deep consists of dense tissue that separates
muscles into compartments)

ORGANS (collections of tissues for a function), further organized into

o Stomach
o Heart
o Brain
o Lungs

ORGAN SYSTEMS (collection of organs for a role)

Integumentary
 Composed of integument (skin), largest organ
 Epidermis (outer) – waterproof, tightly packed epithelial (from ectoderm),
superficial layer involves keratin while basal layer involves regenerating cells
 Basement membrane
 Dermis (inner) – vascularized and innervated; provides support and nutrients
from epidermis
 Protects against most injury; regulates temperature; maintains hydration; metabolic processes
 E.g. keratin-filled cells in hair is fused together

Lymphatic
 Network of small vessels (transport fluid, dietary fats, lymphocytes) and nodes (glands that
contain lymphocytes) in body tissue
 Drains excess interstitial fluid from tissues (asymmetric; drains with venous system on left side
while only right head, neck, thorax drain on left side); houses immune cells; transports some digestive
fats
 Main components include tonsils; thymus gland; spleen; bone marrow; appendix; lymph nodes
 Spleen produces macrophages which eliminate cell debris from blood
 Thymus gland produces T-cells, type of lymphocyte
 Bone marrow produces lymph stem cells

Skeletal
 Bone + cartilage
 Provides structure; protection/housing of internal organs; anchor for muscles; reservoir of
important minerals
 AXIAL vs APPENDICULAR
 Bone (organ)
 In outer cortical bone, functional unit is osteons (Harvesian systems) made up of
lamellae (collagen fibres + minerals) which form concentric rings around central
Haversian canal (nerves and blood vessels go thru) + osteocytes in spaces called
lacunae (interact with each other via canaliculi channels)
 Volkmann’s canals perpendicular interconnect

 Trabeculae = spongy bone, spaces have bone marrow

 Periosteum (dense irregular connective tissue) surrounds bone and is considered
part of bone as an organ – highly innervated, isolates bone, helps growth/repair –
outer fibrous layer and inner cellular layer

 Same bone may be formed two different ways…

 Intramembranous ossification (develops from a fibrous membrane within tissue
itself)  dermal bone
 Endochondral ossification (replaces hyalin cartilage) 
endochondral/replacement bone, majority of bones; forms when cartilaginous
precursor is invaded by osteoblasts
- From outwards to inwards, Epiphysis (ends, covered in hyaline cartridge,
secondary ossification where articular cartilage is replaced by bone),
metaphysis (final ossification at about 25 yrs, site of growth plate),
diaphysis (main shaft, contains marrow, primary ossification)
- Skeleton development begins at 6-8 weeks; Appositional growth only
- Rough structure formed  blood vessels invade diaphysis  epiphyses
form with cartilage (growth zone) in between diaphysis and epiphyses
where new cells are formed  cells undero hypertrophy and the bone
elongates until metaphysis and epiphysis fuse and growth stops

 Bone growth as well as remodelling (reabsorption) occurs to maintain shape of

bone
 Wolff’s law (bone can adapt to the loads that are applied to it, i.e. stress instigates
growth/remodelling)
AXIAL SKELETON (skull + vertebral column + thoriac cage)
o SKULL (22 bones)
 Neurocranium (8, both intramembranous and endochondral bone) houses/protects brain
 Calvaria = bones that cover the skull (frontal, occipital, parietal, temporal);
temporal has squamous portion (flat) and petrous portion (surrounds the ear; high
density to assist detecting direction of sound); joined by SUTURES
 Cranial base = sphenoid (behind eye sockets), ethmoid (back of nasal passages),
cribiform plate (roof of nasal cavity, perforated for olfactory nerves to pass thru)
 Pterion = where parietal, frontal, temporal, and sphenoid bones meet; weak point
in the skull & blood vessels behind
 Viscerocranium (14, face/jaws, mostly endochondral bone) protects/supports entrances to
digestive/respiratory tracts
 Maxilla (upper jaw) = fused to the skull
 Nasal conchae
 Zygomatic arch = part of cheekbone
 Mandible (lower, movable jaw)
 Ossicles (6) in middle ear – malleus, incus, stapes
 At birth bones are held together with un-ossified fibrous connective tissue (week points =
fontanelles); simultaneous intramembranous ossification of fontanelles forms calvaria bone/skull sutures
 Foramen magnum = large hole at base of brain case that spinal cord passes thru
 Fossa = three disc-shaped areas that brain rests on

 Nasal region includes sinuses (air-filled spaces within some face bones; lighten the skull, affect
sound of voice; frontal above the eyes, maxillary below the eyes, sphenoid at rear of nose, and ethmoid
bones on either side of the nose; produce mucus) and nasal conchae (turbinate bones; shell that increases
SA of nasal passage; spins the incoming air so that particles hit mucus)
 Dentition = two sets of teeth (first dentition to get 20 deciduous teeth starting at 6-8 months,
second dentition to get 32 permanent by 16-30yrs)

o VERTEBRAL COLUMN
 Series of bones (that support the body i.e. bear weight + maintain upright body posture and
normal curvature + lever system, protect spinal cord/nerves, and are restricted flexible); connected by
ligaments and intervertebral discs

 Vertebral structure: anterior vertebral body (centrum; contact posterior/adjacent vertebrae),

vertebral arch (posterior, two columns on either side or pedicles, spinous process formed by lamina bone),
transverse processes off laterally, superior and inferior articular processes (form joints + interlock with
adjacent vertebrae, stabilizes and restricts column), vertebral foramen (space where spinal cord runs
through)

 Cervical (7) – C1 (atlas, no spectrum) attaches to skull, C2 axis is most inferior

(has dens that interlocks with C1); small vertebral body, bifurcate process,
transverse foramen for vertebral artery; balances the head
 Thoracic (12) – involve costal facets where ribs attach; heart-shaped centrum &
circular foramen, lateral costal facets or joint surfaces; curves rearward to make
space for internal organs
 Lumbar (5) – large oblong centrum, small triangular vertebral foramen, no spinal
cord going thru but rather nerve roots; curves forward to bring weight under
trunk
 Sacrum (5, fused by age 25/30) – attaches to pelvis at sacroiliac joint, spinous
processes are replaced by median sacral crest; convex posterior surface; curves
backwards to make space for pelvic organs
 Coccyx (3-5, fused)

 components
 Intervertebral discs – between all vertebrae, solidly connecting them, allowing
mobility, and absorbing shock; anulus fibrosus (fibrous outer rings) and nucleus
pulposus (gelatinous core from early notochord)
 Spaces are intervertebral foramen, which spinal nerves exits thru to each side
 Spinous process faces rearward generally for muscle/ligament attachment and
leverage
 Normal changes during development or pathological changes (e.g. in severe osteoporosis;
kyphosis = concave forwards, lordosis = concave rearward, usually affect thoracic/cervical vertebrae;
scoliosis = lateral deformations, affect thoracic/lumbar spines)

o THORACIC CAGE
 Surrounds thoracic cavity, supports pectoral girdle, provides protection for thoracic and abdomen;
allows breathing via limited motion in each segment but large collective movement; spaces contain
intercostal muscles
 12 pairs of ribs (costa) connected to the 12 thoracic vertebrae
 True ribs (1-7) attach directly to sternum via own costal cartilage
 False ribs (8-10) fuse use joint costal cartilage with that of rib 7 to indirectly
attach to sternum
 Floating ribs (11-12) do not connect to the sternum

 Costovertebral joints (ribs to thoracic vertebrae)

 Costochondral joints (ribs 1-10 and their costal cartilage)
 Sternocostal joints (ribs 1-7 and sternum)
 Sternum – flat elongated bone (forms anterior chest wall) in three parts: manubrium, body,
xiphoid process
 Like all bones, ribs are covered by innervated periosteum, but also associated with innervated
pleural lining

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
o JOINTS
 Syndesmoses = fibrous joints w/ minimal ability to move (e.g. skull sutures)
 Synchondroses = hyalin or fibrous cartilaginous joints (e.g. costal catilages or ribs, intervertebral
discs); also act as temporary connections between bones that later fuse together to create synostoses
 Synovial joints = common joints w/ free movement; involving articular (hyalin) cartilage, joint
cavity enclosed by joint capsule (outer fibrous membrane & delicate inner synovial membrane that
secretes synovial fluid surrounded by fibrous capsule); hinge, pivot, ball&sock, condyloid, gliding, saddle

o UPPER LIMB BONES (pectoral girdle  arm  forearm  hand)

 Pectoral girdle = connects upper extremity to trunk, basis for movement, positions shoulder:
clavicle (S, anterior, connects to upper sternum) and scapula (flat bone, posterior; lateral glenoid fossa art
with humerus head + posterior acromion art with clavicle; sits on back of thorax but does not attach to
ribs)
 Sternoclavicular joint (arm + thorax) = gliding synovial joint with
fibrocartilaginous articular disc to absorb shock
 Acromioclavicular joint (acromion + clavicle) = strong support via ligaments
 Glenohumeral joint (scapula + humerus) = synovial ball&socket joint for
mobility not stability; axillary recess involves loose capsule fibres for ability to
raise arm
 Humerus
 Head = art with glenoid fossa of scapula
  Important tendon runs through intertubercular groove; tubercules on head are
sites of muscle attachment
 Deltoid attaches to deltoid tuberosity
 Capitulum (lateral) = art with head
 Trochlea (medial) = art with ulna
 Olecranon fossa (posterior) = art with ulna
 Cubital joint = elbow, connects both radius and ulna (hinge joint) to humerus
 Ulna (medial, hinge) = head art with humerus (largest at proximal end), main contact with
elbow; posterior olecranon stabilizes joint during flexion and acts as lever for extension; do not directly
articulate with carpal bones but via fibrous cartilaganous pad
 Radius (lateral, pivot, rotates on capitulum to flips over ulna distally) = head art with humerus
(largest at distal end) with annular ligament, main contact at wrist
 Radiocarpal joint = synovial joint between radius and scaphoid (one of carpal bones) allowing for
full movement
 HAND = carpal bones (8 bones with sliding joints to dissipate forces, protect vessels/nerves,
allow for change in direction), metacarpals, and phalanges (three parts or one part); bones are arranged
around carpal tunnel which tendons from extrinsic hand muscles and median nerve run thru

o LOWER LIMB BONES (pelvic girdle  thigh  leg  foot)

 PELVIS formed from
 2 hip or coxal bones (ilium blade, posterior ischium, anterior pubis fused by
synestoses which contribute to acetabulum (hip joint socket) and sacrum (5 fused
vertebrae), anterior/posterior union to form pelvic basin
 ilium and sacrum connect at sacroiliac joint (posterior); pubic bones connect at
pubic symphysis (syndesmoses, anterior)
 superior pelvic inlet and inferior pelvic outlet
 Male (narrow, tall, larger and more curved sacrum, acute angle) vs female (wide,
short, shorter and less curved sacrum, obtuse angle)
 Acetabulofemoral (hip) joint = synovial ball&socket joint w/ strong support from ligaments for
greater stability but joint capsule restricts mobility
 Ligamentum fovea = ligament on head of femur, primary blood supply to femur
 Acetabular labrum = cartilaginous extension that deepens the acetabulum and
holds head of femur tight
 FEMUR is longest+largest bone
 Head art with acetabulum of pelvis
 Great trochanter on top, patellar surface on bottom
 Condyles art with tibia
 Tibia (medial, larger, arts with femur, proximal/anterior tuberosity for attachment of knee
extensor muscles; distal medial malleolus helps stabilize ankle)
 Fibula (lateral, slimmer; distal end has lateral malleolus; does NOT reach femur)
 Tiofibular joint (tibia and fibula art proximally at lateral condyle of tibula) = interosseus
membrane along both bones that separates them into anterior and posterior; proximally, sliding synovial
joint with robust fibrous joint capsule; fibrous syndesmosis joint distally
 Tibiofemoral joint = Knee joint; modified hinge (allows for slight rotation) synovial joint;
supported by robust ligaments e.g. medial+lateral collateral ligaments and anterior+posterior cruciate
ligament (not within official joint cavity defined by synovial membrane); fibrocartilaginous pads
(menisci) to seat the condyles and distribute load; medial collateral and medial meniscus connected

 Patella = kneecap (sesamoid bone i.e. bone formed within tendon, increase lever of knee extensor
muscles and help protect tendons), only art with femur
 FOOT = tarsal bones (7 with supporting ligaments; absorb shock, provide muscle attachment,
protect vessels/nerves; three arches displace weight, provide balance/support; sliding synovial joints),
metatarsal, phalanges (3 parts for most, 1 part for one)

Musculoskeletal system
o Skeletal muscles exert force via connective tissue connected to bones (e.g. tendons) to produce
movement and/or stabilize the body/maintain body position, support soft tissues, regulate orifices,
maintain body temperature, and store nutrient reserves; muscles cross at least one joint

o Muscles are STRUCTURED in bundles (myofilaments  myofibrils  muscle fibres/cells +

endomysium  perimysium  epimysium) with muscle + connective tissue + nerves
 Outer epimysium (dense collagen layer)
 Perimysium (collagen + elastin, blood vessels + nerves) surrounds muscle bundles or fascicles
 Endomysium (elastin) surrounds muscle fibre cells (very long multi-nucleate, mitochondria-rich,
combo cells)
 Many myofibrils (consist of bundles of protein myofilaments, thin actin or thick myosin which
shorten to produce muscle contraction) compose skeletal muscle fibre
 Sarcomere = basic contractile unit, responsible for striations
 from inwards out, A-bands are composed of thick myosin filaments (overlap
except in H-zone), I-bands from adjacent sarcomeres are composed of actin
filaments which are anchored at the Z-lines that bound a sarcomere
 During contraction, myosin creeps along actin (forming cross- bridges between
myosin and active sites on actin, which are usually covered until Ca+ released;
myosin ratchets actin and stays attached until ATP stimulates release) so that
everything gets smaller/closer except that A band width is constant (sarcomere
can only contract, not relax)
 Motor unit = motor neuron and all the muscle fibres it supplies (muscle tension depends on no.
motor units contracting)
 Motor nerve releases acetylcholine to signal all myofibrils in range to contract

o Collagenous TENDONS are also hierarchal (collagen  fibril  fibre  fascicle  tendon) and
extend into bone matrix
o Electromyography can represent activity of the muscle (TWITCH = stimulus, latent period before
effect occurs, contraction time to reach max tension, relaxation time; twitches may sum to create an
incomplete or complete tetanus), but not exact force

o Origin (muscle attachment to stationary bone) vs insertion (muscle attachment to moveable bone)

o Muscles + articulating bones form levers (force from muscle is amplified by using a fixed
fulcrum to move some load)
 1st class lever – force, fulcrum, resistance; large range of movement of resistance but less
effective force (e.g. neck)
 2nd class lever – force, resistance, fulcrum; effective force but resistance moves slowly/long (e.g.
jaw molars)
 3rd class lever – resistance, force, fulcrum; speed and distance increased but force is less effective
(most common)

o Actions (movements muscle contraction may cause)

 Agonist - mover
 Synergist – assistant mover
 Antagonist – opposes/controls agonist (+ allows relaxation)
 Fixator – steadies joints

o Types of muscle contractions

 Concentric isotonic (m tension > resistance, muscle shortens)
 Eccentric isotonic (resistance > m tension, muscle lengthens)
 Isotonic (m tension = constant)
 Isometric (m tension = resistance, no change in length)
o Organization of muscle fibres
 Parallel – fascicles parallel to long axis of muscle; efficient, common; muscle gets shorter &
wider during contraction
 Convergent – fascicles originate over wide area but converge at attachment site; less force but can
change direction of pull
 Pennate – tendon in muscle, fascicles form oblique angles to tendon; more muscle fibres so more
ability to generate tension; unipennate (muscle on one side of tendon), bipenate, or multipennate (tendon
branches within)
 Circular – concentric fascicles which form sphincters (contraction reduces opening
ACTIONS
o Extension of the arm
 Agonist = latissimus dorsi
 Synergist = triceps brachii
 Antagonist = pectoralis major
 Fixator = teres minor
o Adduction of the arm
 Agonist = latissimus dorsi
 Synergist = pectoralis major
 Antagonist = deltoid (acromial)
 Fixator = deltoid (clavicular) + rotator cuff

joints = mobility vs stability – can only have one or the other by themselves

TRUNK
o Muscles move/stabilize the trunk and facilitate breathing via manipulation of thorax
o Anterior (hypaxial) musculature = moves ribs, supports abdominal viscera, maintains inter-
abdominal P for breathing and digestion; postcranially, uses anterior (intercostal ramus) branch off spinal
motor nerves
o Posterior (epaxial) musculature = supports body; postcranially, uses posterior/dorsal
ramus branch off spinal motor nerve; dominant in neck

Somatic (body) musculature derived from somite (25-28 days) in embryo

 External dermatome  dermis of integument
 Myotome  body wall musculature  divides into hypaxial and epaxial musculature; explains
pattern of innervation and distinct division between muscular innervation
 Inner scleratome  vertebral column + ribcage
THORAX/INTERCOSTAL
o Run between ribs/costa
o Raise/lower ribs to change thoracic volume
o External intercostal muscles - sloped fibres from superior lateral to inferior medial
o + transverse
o Internal - sloped fibres from inferior lateral to superior medial

ABDOMINAL WALL
o Compress abdomen, rotate/flex trunk, stabilize trunk
o Originate on anterior abdomen/ribs/vertebral column, insert on linea alba/ribs and pelvis
o 3 layers (fibre orientation for reinforcement + diff effect on movement)
 External oblique – sloped fibres from superior lateral to inferior medial
 Internal oblique – sloped fibres from inferior lateral to superior medial
 Transversus abdominus – runs across abdomen horizontally
 All attach to anterior ‘rectus sheet’ or aponeurosis; within is the long, vertical
rectus abdominus which runs from anterior pelvic to the lower ribs via tendon
inscriptions; sheaths on either side connect at linea alba (dense collagen
connective tissue)

POSTERIOR/BACK
o Superficial/extrinsic muscles (most) anchor/control upper limb
 Tenuous bony connection between upper limb and axial skeleton
 Scapula to manubrium (sternum) via the clavicle
 Stability occurs because upper limb is attached to thorax by ‘muscular sling’ ***
o Stability/posture
o Deeper (intrinsic) muscles insert on axial skeleton/vertebrae/ribs to stabilize/straighten the spine
(erector spinae), relatively vertical
 Illiocostalis – lateral; from ileum to costa
 Longissimus – medial
 Spinalis – more medial
 Multifidus – deep, pyramid shaped; attaches rear pelvis to lumbar vertebrae to
support the base of vertebral column; important to stabilize this connection when
walking or running

UPPER EXTREMITY

PECTORAL SLING/shoulder ***

o Conversely, these muscles function to attach the upper limb/bony pectoral girdle (scapula,
humerus, or clavicle) to the trunk; scapula = foundation of p.g.

 POSTERIOR
- Originate on v. column, insert on scapula/humerus
- Stabilize scapula during movement, rotate glenohumeral joint

-Trapezius (broad, different fibre directions; ascending =, descending = ,

transverse = ) = from occipital bonethoracic vertebrae to spine of
scapula; to control/stabilize scapula
- Rhomboids (major, minor) = deeper, attach to thoracic vertebrae and
scapula; nearby levator scapulae = attach to cervical vertebrae and
scapula
- Latissimus dorsi (broad, different fibre directions; vertebral = , scapular
= , costal = , iliac =) = directly from thorax to humerus, indirectly
stabilizes pectoral girdle by stabilizing humerus; attaches to pelvic
aponeurosis + all lumbar and most thoracic v.
 ANTERIOR
- Pectoralis major = directly from thorax to humerus
- Pectoralis minor = ribcage to scapula + attaches to coracoid process on
scapula
- Serratus anterior = ribs to under scapula

o Elevating shoulder i.e. moving glenoid fossa (trapezius, scapula, rhomboid)  important to
stabilize scapula on thorax when arms are pulled down

o Protraction of the scapula (pec major/minor, serratus anterior)  important to stabilize scapula on
back when arms are pushed posteriorly  occurs when reaching forward, when arms are pushed
posteriorly  serratus anterior muscle, ‘boxer’s muscle’

o Serratus anterior = over ribs; long (vertical) thoracic nerve = over serratus anterior (if damaged,
raising arm can cause scapula to move out back)

o Rotation of the scapula  important to elevate upper limb  abduction = supraspinatus muscle
(crosses glenohumeral joint from scapula and attaches to greater tubercle of humerus) causes the humerus
to rotate upwards in glenoid fossa up to 20°; deltoideus muscle up to 120°; then maintain position of the
humerus relative to the scapula and rotate the scapula up to 180° (trapezius, serratus anterior)

UPPER LIMB
o Designed for flexibility/mobility above stability
o Muscles at glenohumeral, cubital, and radiocarpal joints stabilize+rotate arm/hand
o The muscles that attach the humerus (upper limb) to the scapula (shoulder) function to
stabilize/move the humerus
o Divided by fascia into functional compartments (anterior + posterior)
o Muscles of the limb originate from hypaxial musculature  anterior (flexors) and posterior
(extensors)

Muscles crossing the shoulder joint (originate on clavicle/sternum, insert on humerus) include:
 Major, minor pectoralis
 Deltoid (clavicle to lateral humerus)
 Clavicular
 Acromial
 Spinal
 Rotator cuff (scapula to head of humerus)
 Recall glenohumeral joint is highly mobile due to non-restrictive joint capsule;
these function to stabilize the shoulder (can relax to increase mobility + contract
for stability)
 Tendons shape glenoid cavity and increase stability of joint
 Attach as a cuff around the joint capsule
 SITS: supraspinatus = above the spine, infraspinatus = below, teres minor = runs
along with infra, subscapularis = below the scapula

ARM permits movement around glenohumeral and cubital joints

 Anterior (flexor)
- Biceps brachii = both heads crosse both elbow and shoulder, long head
runs thru joint capsule and attaches to glenoid fossa, short attaches at
coracoid process
- Brachialis = crosses only elbow, humerus shaft  ulna
- Coracobrachialis = crosses only shoulder, coracoid  shaft of humerus
 Posterior (extensor)
- Triceps brachii = three heads which all attach to olecranon of ulna (long
= , medial = , lateral = )

FOREARM permits movement around cubital and wrist joints; originate on humerus/ulna/radius
and control extrinsic muscles of the hand via tendons; extensors and flexors can work together to
deviate hand
 ANTERIOR (flexors, o. medial epicondyle on humerus)
- Flexor carpi; radialis and ulnaris on respective sides
- Flexor digitorum superfacialis (superficial) runs to middle phalanges of
digits 2-5; tendon forks so deep tendon can pass through it & can flex
metacarpo-phalangeal joint and proximal inter-phalangeal joint
- Flexor digitorum profundus (deep) runs to distal phalanges of digits 2-5;
only tendon that can flex distal interphalangeal joint
- Supinator is wrapped around radius when hand is pronated; it can
contract to supinate
 POSTERIOR (extensors, o. lateral epicondyle)
- Extensor carpi ulnaris, radialis brevis, radialis longus
 - Extensor digitorum superfacialis, profundus
- Extensor indicus (for index finger)
- Extensor tendons don’t have as much autonomy as flexor ones so not as
easy to extend individual fingers
- Pronator teres

LOWER EXTREMITY
o Enable upright body position/stability; gait via coordinated action; hip + trunk muscles maintain
posture and balance
o Especially divided by fascia into functional compartments
o Constantly adjusting to maintain balance!

PELVIC
o Stabilize femur; permit rotation about acetabulofemoral (hip) joint; originate on hip bone (ilium)
and sacrum, insert on greater trochanter of femur
 Gluteus maximus – also attaches to and tightens the iliotibial tract (fascia that
extends from hip to knee, important to stabilize pelvis when single limb supports
body), along with (lateral/proximal to thigh, next to min) tensor fascia latae
 Medius (proximal to maximus)
 Minimus (deep to medius)
 Weakness of medius/minimus (needed to apply counter moment to balance
trunk) due to damaged superior gluteal nerve = Trendelenburg sign (drop of
pelvis on swing leg side, imbalance of weight while walking) and gait
(unconscious shifted G to stance leg side)

THIGH
 Move the thigh (originate on lumber vertebrae A/pelvis P, insert on femur)
 Move the leg (originate on pelvis and/or femur, insert on tibia and fibula)
 Anterior
- (iliopsoas group with common insertion on proximal anterior femur, P)
- psoas major minor (o. lumbar vertebrae)
- iliacus (o. ilium)

- (dedicated to extending leg at knee, attach to the patella)

- Rectus femoris
- Vastus group (medialis, intermedialis (deep to rectus femoris), lateralis)
- Sartorius
 Medial (also counter moment during single leg stance to keep the trunk upright)
- Adductor longus
- Adductor magnus, pelvis to lower femur, posterior to longus
  Posterior
- Gluteus max, mid, min
HAMSTRINGS (extend hip & flex knee, P):
- Biceps femoris (lateral), long head attach to pelvis at ischial tuberosity
and proximal tibia; short head originates from shaft of femur
- Semitendinosus (medial), long head attach to pelvis at ischial tuberosity
and proximal tibia
- Semimembranosus (deep to semitend)

LEG
o Permit knee/ankle/foot movement, stabilize posture
o Originate on tibia/fibula, insert on tarsals/phalanges (reduced mobility comparatively)
o Anterior
o Tibialis anterior, lateral side of tibia, most important dorsi flexor of the foot, keeps toe
from dragging
o Extensor digitorum (extrinsic) for digits 2-5
o Extensor hallucis longus (extrinsic) for digit 1
o Tendons enter foot at anterior ankle
o Lateral
o Fibularis longus, brevis
o Tendons enter foot posterior to lateral malleolus/fibula
o Superficial posterior
o Gastrocnemius, medial lateral head, attaches to distal femur
o Soleus, distal to gastro, attaches to tibia
o Tendons directly attach to the calcaneus, heel bone
o Deep posterior (antagonists to anterior)
o Tibialis posterior = plantar flexor
o Flexor digitorum longus for digits 2-5
o Flexor hallucis longus for digit 1
o Tendons enter foot posterior to medial malleolus/tibia
CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Lymphatic system (spleen, thymus, portions of bone marrow, nodes, vessels) works complementary for
fluid (tissues  regular circulatory system)
o collects surplus tissue fluid (lymph) and transports to venous system; absorbs large fatty acids
that can’t pass into portal veins; transport lymphocytes
o lymphocytes (one type of WBCs, involved in adaptative immunity) = T-cells produced in
thymus, B cell and natural killer NK cells produced in bone marrow; NK and T cells are
responsible for specific defenses, i.e. to identify antigens on specific pathogen and release
perforins to destroy cell membrane, unlike non-specific defenses like fever, skin,
inflammation)
o lymph enters venous system at right lymphatic duct (for right arm, right upper thorax,
and right head) and thoracic duct (for left side and lower body)

o lymph nodes filter lymph before venous circulations; swell during infection as lymphocytes
replicate
o thymus (in anterior chest, behind sternum) is important in growth and development of immune
system; grows until puberty and is then gradually infiltrated by fat, but produces T-lymphocytes into
adulthood
o spleen (from reticular tissue) recycles RBCs + has T-cells that monitor blood for pathogens and
macrophages that digest debris in the blood; protected by ribs 9-11 but can be ruptured

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
How it works (pressures)
Pressure differential (f(cardiac output and vessel resistance/size)) drives blood flow and movement of
fluid into lymph systems.

How it works
o Circulatory (blood) vessels carry blood from the right side of the heart through the pulmonary
(lungs  heart, oxygenated blood) circuit, to the left side of the heart and through the systemic circuit
(heart  body, deoxygenated blood), and back to the right side of the heart
o Portal system (low P network of veins in between two capillary beds in series), small in pituary
and kidney, large in gut
 The (hepatic) portal system = veins draining GI (e.g. foregut, midgut, hindgut)
collect together to divert blood to liver to allow detoxification of blood and
nutrient processing
  if blood has trouble exiting the hepatic portal system (portal hypertension)  4
shunts allow irregular blood flow thru vessels near portal system which may
cause vericosities (thru esophageal veins, near navel, thru lumber veins, rectal
veins)

o Arteries  arterioles  metarterioles  capillaries  venules  veins

o Arteries (thick, layers of smooth muscle, innervated by sympathetic nervous system for
vasocontriction) carry blood away; branch into arterioles/ metarterioles (thinner, single layer of smooth
muscle)
o Veins (thin, little musculature; lower pressure/blood velocity so larger diameter) carry blood to
heart; valves prevent backflow of blood; higher variation in vessel patterns
o Capillaries (thin, single cell, largest overall cross-sectional A no smooth muscle; low blood
velocity bc shear number of vessels) allow exchange between arteries/veins
 Fluid filtration occurs via competing hydrostatic (blood pressure on
arterial/venous vessel walls) and oncotic pressure (osmotic pressure
outside/inside capillaries due to protein concentration)
 high arterial P forces fluid through capillaries into venous system or surrounding
tissue; as venous P lowers, fluid is pulled into capillaries (high venous P or low
oncotic pressure may result in excess tissue fluid  lymphatic)
 not all capillaries are open at one time; precapillary sphincters regulate blood
flow, usually as a result of [Co2] levels (high CO2 opens sphincters and vica
versa)

Artery/vein names
Aorta exits the left ventricle to distribute blood to body:
o at top, the ascending aorta has ‘great vessel’ branches:
o on the right side, brachiocephalic  right subclavian artery and right common carotid; on
the left side, left subclavian artery and left common carotid
o subclavian arteries supply upper extremity  axillary artery (past clavicle)  brachial
artery (past armpit region)  splits into radial artery and ulnar artery (in forearm)
o common carotid arteries (supply brain/head) branch to form internal/external carotids
 just below branch is carotid sinus containing baroreceptors
 next to internal carotid is carotid body containing chemoreceptors
 carotids enter brain case just behind optic nerve, connecting with vertebral artery
at Circle of Willis which provides redundancy of circulation, allowing blood to
bypass blockages
 internal serves the brain (supplemented by vertebral artery); main carotid branch
forms middle cerebral artery (ischemic stroke ✰)
 external serves face and external head; branch of external carotid, middle
meningeal artery, serves inner side of skull (passes by inner pterion (frontal,
temporal, parietal, sphenoid intersection) where injury can be fatal)
 o descending aorta is called thoracic and then abdominal aorta
o in abdominal aorta, 3 unpaired branches (celiac trunk, superior and inferior mesenteric)
serve GI
 foregut (e.g. pancreatic area), served by ciliac trunk
 midgut (top colon), served by superior mesenteric artery
 hindgut (descending colon, rectum), served by inferior mesenteric artery

o paired renal arteries serve kidneys

o inferiorly (near base of lumbar), aorta splits into common iliac arteries (internal +
external iliac arteries)
 external iliac  femoral artery (below pelvis) with deep artery (thigh) branch 
popliteal artery (behind knee)  splits into anterior tibial and posterior tibial

Venous return from head is via internal jugular veins (+ smaller external and anterior jugular veins);
internal ones run into left/right brachiocephalic veins which converge to form superior venae cava.

HEART (organ)
o muscular pump; right for deoxygenated and left for oxygenated
o coronary arteries are the first branches of the aorta (run on heart along the chamber divisions);
fill from ‘backflow’ during diastole & supply epicardium/myocardium of heart
 when coronary arteries are blocked, can use stents or bypass surgery/ CABG
(grafting internal thoracic artery or great saphenous vein)
o cardiac veins drain into posterior cardiac sinus  right atrium

o Mediastinum = septum (space with important organs but non-true cavity) between pleural cavities
that contains important vessels; tissues loosely held together by loose connective tissue and
infiltrated by fat which allows for heart to physically adapt
o Heart located in inferior mediastinum but enclosed by pericardium = double-walled fibroserous
sac enclosing the heart
o outer, fibrous stabilizes and prevents over-dilation/overfilling
o serous pericardium directly covers heart; produces lubricant which fills pericardial (true)
cavity
o Heart layers (from mesoderm)
o Epicardium = thin, external, allows lubrication (serous membrane with vessels, nerves,
etc)
o Myocardium = thick, middle, contraction (cardiac muscle, most)
o Endocardium = thin, internal, protection (endothelial + elastin, collagen)
 o cardiac skeleton involves 4 rings of fibrous connective tissue which separate heart chambers,
insulate electrical conduction of heart, and anchor the valves

o Atria = smooth, thin interior, collect blood

o Pectinate muscles for contraction of atria
o Interatrial septum
o Auricle (outpocketing) on each atrium increase capacity but can collect thrombi and send
them out
o Ventricles = send out blood
o Trabeculae carnae for vigorous contraction
o papillary muscles are connected by chordae tendineae to AV valves, allowing contraction
to close valves
o Interventricular septum
o Apex of heart is at inferior end, next to diaphram
o Valves = prevent backflow of blood, fixed by rings of fibrous connective tissue
o Triscuspid (AV valve, right atrium-ventricle)
o Bicuspid/mitral (AV, left atrium-ventricle)
o Semilunar (pulmonary, right ventricle-pulmonary trunk; aortic, left ventricle-ascending
aorta); also prevent high P flow into coronary arteries during systole

How it works (cardiac cycle)

o Atria fill with blood from venae cavae and pulmonary veins  bi/triscuspid valves open as atria
contract + ventricles relax+fill (diastole, low P)  bi/tricuspid valves close (lub) and semilunar
valves open as ventricles contract (systole, high P)  semilunar valves close (dub)

o heart beats autonomously (without needing direct CNS control)

o sinoatrial (SA) node in right atrium (with specialized cardiac muscle cells) regulates rhythm and
can respond to sympathetic/parasympathetic signaling; SA node transmits impule to atria and AV
node
o NOTE: non-conductive connective tissue separate atria and superior ventricles
o spread of cell contraction is regulated by network of modified cardiac muscle cells rather than
nerves (conduction system of heart)
o atrioventricular (AV) node distributes signal to inferior ventricles (delayed) via Bundle of His
(inferiorly, Purkinje fibres)

on ECG, heartbeat shows as electrical PQRST wave: P wave = atrial contraction, QRS complex =
ventricular contraction (+ atrial repolarization), T wave = ventricular repolarization
pacemaker = device with leads that simulate natural electrical signal from AV node; leads are typically
placed in (via superficial and brachiosphyalic vein) superior venea cavae/right atrium and device is
implanted below skin
Fetal circulation
o bypasses liver and lungs since these are not yet fully functional

o gets oxygenated, rich blood via umbilical veins (half passes through liver  hepatic veins 
inferior vena cava; rest shunted through ductus venosus  inferior vena cava)
o blood meets back at inferior vena cava, where it mixes with other, less oxygenated blood from
lower body
o mixed blood flows into right atrium and then through foramen oval into left atrium (directed by
septum secundum and higher vascular P)  left ventricle  aorta (mainly to brain/head)
o deoxygenated blood flows from brain/head to superior vena cava  right atrium  right
ventricle  pulmonary trunk + shunted to descending aorta (via ductus arteriosus) where it mixes
with partially oxygenated blood from aorta  lower body or umbilical arteries

o ductus arteriosus  ligamentum arteriosum

o foramen ovale  fossa ovalis in interatrial septum
o ductus venosus  ligamentum venosum
o umbilical vein  ligamentum teres (attaches to anterior liver)
o umbilical artery  medial umbilical ligament

Cardiovascular development
o heart begins as two L&R tubes, which fuse to form a single tube with arterial and venous ends
(truncus arteriosus)
o tube folds (ventrally) within pericardium to form heart structure, with arterial and venous ends
next to each other at the superior end (separated by transverse and oblique pericardial sinuses
which persist through adulthood)
o dextrocardia = mirror image heart

o Interatrial septum develops to separate single atrium+ventricle into two (with foramen ovale
opening that has a flap which will close after birth); septum secundum separates the atria
o Initially, truncus arteriosis is only arterial exit; but eventually truncal ridges form and spiral to
start dividing the truncus arteriosis into aorta & pulmonary trunk (coordinates/attaches with
intraventricular septum which separates the ventricles)

o Paired L&R aortae fuse along length of embryo (except cervical and cranial region) to form
midline dorsal aorta; in the pharyngeal region, paired vessels or aortic arches (5, corresponding to
brachial arches) develop and connect the truncus arteriosis to the dorsal aorta

o Aortic arches (1/2  small head arteries, 3  common carotid arteries, left 4  aorta, right 4 
subclavian artery, right 6  disappears, left 6  connects pulmonary trunk and aorta, ductus
arteriosus)
 o Postcranially, segmental arteries sprout from the dorsal aorta

o 5th lumbar artery  central lower limb artery, common iliac, and lower limb network
o 7th cervical artery  central upper limb artery, subclavian, and upper limb network
o Connections between adjacent cervical arteries  vertebral artery

GI SYSTEM (Gut tube = continuous tube from mouth to anus = GI)

Functions: ingestion, secretion, motility, digestion (breaking down food into nutrients usable by cells, i.e.
mechanical + chemical), absorption (taking from lumen of GI  more internally within the body),
elimination
Components: esophagus, stomach, small/large intestine (primary); pancreas, liver, gallbladder
(secondary) but NOT spleen, kidneys etc

Digestion`` ```````````````````````
o under parasympathetic regulation
o Mechanical (chewing/churning) in oral cavity, stomach, and duodenum
o Chemical via enzymes produced by secondary digestive organs and acid produced by stomach
LIPIDS
 bile and pancreatic lipases work together for lipid digestion
 lipid digestion uses lingual and pancreatic lipases; bile salts emulsify lipid drops; lipid-bile salt
complexes called micelles are formed, and diffuse into intestinal epithelia to release lipids into
the blood as chylomicrons (short chain fatty acids); note cholesterol is not broken down so it
instead absorbed by lymphatic system, and cycles through the heart/blood before entering the
liver
CARBOHYDRATES
 carb digestion begins in the mouth; complex saccharides are broken down in the stomach and
brush border enzymes in small intestine; at monosaccharide level, they are absorbed across
intestinal epithelia
 may go into most tissue and be used for ATP production, or go into liver/skeletal muscle and be
stored as glycogen
 varying levels of digestibility, e.g. humans can not digest cellulose

PROTEINS
 low pH/gastric juices destroy tertiary/quaternary structure and enzymes (pepsin, trypsin,
chymotrypsin, elastase) free the individual amino acids which can be absorbed in the small
intestine

Intestinal movements
o Peristalsis (gut tube) = coordinated contraction of smooth (circular + longitudinal) muscle to
move food through the gut tube
o Segmentation (small/large intestines) = double mixing as things are broken down and moved
around
o Gastroenteric reflexes = triggered by stretch receptors in the stomach, changes rate of emptying
stomach
o Gastroileal reflex = causes peristalsis in the ileum and opens ileocecal valve to large intestine

ABDOMINAL/PERITONIAL CAVITY
o Forms superior/major part of abdominopelvic cavity, defined at top by diaphragm and at bottom
by pelvis
o Includes all organs associated with absorption of nutrients

o Peritoneum = serous/fluid-secreting membrane surrounding abdominopelvic cavity, facilitates

movement of the viscera during digestion and respiration
o an outer parietal layer (around peritoneal cavity) and inner visceral layer (completely
surrounds intraperitoneal organs) surrounds interperitoneal organs (e.g. stomach,
 jejunum, ileum, spleen, cecum, appendix, liver, gallbladder, transverse colon, sigmoid
colon), with mesenteries (extensions of peritoneum) anchoring them to body wall
o unless organs are fused to the body wall (secondary retroperitoneal, duodenum,
ascending/descending colons, most of pancreas)

GI REGIONS (based on vasculature)

o Foregut of absorptive portion of gut = end of esophagus, stomach, liver, gall bladder, proximal
duodenum, superior pancreas (+ spleen since shares blood supply but NOT involved in digestion)
o Midgut = distal duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, appendix, ascending colon, transverse colon
o Hindgut = distal transverse colon, descending/sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal

DEVELOPMENT
o In embryonic development, ectoderm folds around endoderm to form cranial and caudal folds, as
well as primitive gut tube (yolk sac is trapped and connected to midgut of gut tube for a while)
o Early gut tube is surrounded by endoderm and then mesoderm
o Pleural/peritoneal cavities are simply space/air trapped inside early embryo
o Originally, both anterior and posterior mesenteries or connections of the gut tube to the peritoneal
cavity

ABDOMINAL CIRCULATION + venous return

o Gut tube is served by three unpaired arteries (celiac trunk, superior/inferior mesenteric arteries)

o filtering of absorbed components (by the liver) is needed; to do so, all venous return from the
abdominal GI collects at portal (capillary-vessel-capillary) vein and passes through liver, and then
through short hepatic veins to inferior vena cava

PRIMARY ORGANS
ESOPHAGUS
o Food is drawn down through esophagus (= muscular tube that starts at the end of the laryngeal-
pharynx) with voluntary, smooth, or both muscle
o Posterior to trachea, pierces diaphragm to enter stomach (separated by esophageal sphincter)
o When empty. collapsed; when food enters, lumen expands to elicit reflex peristalsis in inferior
2/3
o somatic/sensory innervation in upper half only
o Naso-pharynx = behind nasal passage, above the soft palate
o Oro-pharynx = behind oral cavity, from soft palate to epiglottis
o Laryngeal-pharyn = from epiglottis to esophagus proper
STOMACH (main mechanical digestion)
o Expandable portion of GI in 3 perpendicular layers of muscle
o Acts as a muscular churn (contracts/expands to process food), involving enzymatic digestion (e.g.
proteins by pepsin) and chemical digestion (by HCl) as well as mechanical digestion in order to
convert food mass into liquid chyme
o Few nutrients but some drugs are absorbed here
o Esophagus enters stomach at cardia; lump at top of stomach = fundus (portion of organ opposite
exit); main (C-shaped) portion is body with greater curvature and lesser curvature side; pyloric
canal at end which forms pyloric sphincter

o The smooth inner surface is lined by gastric mucosa at the top and forms gastric folds when
stomach is not stretched
o Gastric glands at the base produce/secrete HCl stimulated by smell/taste and especially distention
of the stomach; preliminary digestion of proteins denatures the tertiary/quaternary protein
structure to expose peptide bonds
o pH of 1-2

SMALL INTESTINE
o Duodenum (top, secondary retroperitoneal) = shortest, widest, most fixated part, surrounds head
of pancreas & receives bile/pancreatic fluid vs duodenal papilla (common bile duct)
 Main enzymatic/chemical digestion here: involves mucus (from secreting Brunner’s
glands that also protect from HCl), bicarbonate (activates enzymes from
pancreas/liver/gallbladder), and bile (helps emulsify fats)
 in response to low pH (from entering chyme), releases secretin to buffer pH to 5ish

o Jejunum = upper right (2/5) of small intestine, for absorption of nutrients, water, fat (main
absorption)
o Ileum = bottom left (3/5, interperitoneal) of small intestine, for absorption of mainly water and fat

LARGE INTESTINE-
o Cecum (connects to ileum via ileocecal orifice/valve) + appendix  colon (ascending, right colic
flexure, transverse, left colic flexure, descending, sigmoid)  rectum  anus
o Rather than being uniformly covered by muscle, LI involves thickened bands of smooth muscle
(teniae coli) forming sacs (haustra) with some fatty projections/appendages (omental appendices)
o Functions to reabsorb water (+ vitamins produced by bacteria, electrolytes, bile salts) and create
compact feces (ingesta – water + bacteria and mucus) that can be stored prior to defecation;
involves mass movements of stool and defecation reflex triggered by distention of rectal walls etc

o Cecum acts as a large pouch for collection of food (no mesentery so can be displaced)
o Appendix has a disputed function (possibly refuge for growth of good intestinal bacteria);
considered a lymphatic organ
 o Colon moves ingesta for excretion, absorbs water, and is lined with bacteria to absorb remaining
nutrients and break down indigestible food

SECONDARY ORGANS
ORAL CAVITY
o Teeth of different mechanical functions
o Tongue for manipulating food bolus
o Salivary glands (3, sublingual below tongue, submandibular below mandible, and major parotid
on the side of the lower face) which produce saliva for lubrication and chemical digestion of
bolus, with amylases (for carbohydrates) and lipases (for fats)
o Folds at side at oral cavity, and the back of the mouth, have the tonsils, or lymphatic
concentrations designed to be immunoprotective
PANCREAS
o Head (inside curve of duodenum), body, and tail (along splenic artery),
o Pancreatic duct along its length which empties into duodenum; secretions (buffers low pH,
activates digestive enzymes, with amylases, lipases, trypsin) from pancreas are ESSENTIAL for
digestion
o Endocrine and exocrine organ (produces secretion that are circulated in bloodstream / pushed out
of organ respectively),

LIVER
o largest gland in body & one of 2 able to repair itself
o just below & integrated with diaphragm
o filters blood (main), secretes bile for digestion, and stores glycogen (mobile form of energy
storage)
o ATP = $$ in pocket, glycogen = $$ in bank account, lipids = stocks
o Functionally independent left and right lobes as well as caudate and quadrate lobes (identifiable
in liver but little functional significance)
o Blood enters liver through portal vein where it is processed, and then exit through central 
hepatic veins (while the hepatic artery brings the blood that actually serves the liver tissue)
o Bile duct, portal vein, hepatic artery run together at portal triad
o Portal system is independent of main blood circulation

GALLBLADDER
 o Bile produced in the liver is transported to (right hepatic duct) and stored in the gallbladder;
release (cystic duct) is triggered when fat enters the duodenum; both ducts form the common bile
duct
o One of the two pancreatic ducts join to bile duct and enter duodenum at duodenal papillae
(enzymes activate when they reach duodenum)

RENAL SYSTEM
Functions: (1) regulate blood pressure (water balance) and ion concentrations in the blood (2) by
producing and eliminating urine which includes metabolic, esp. nitrogenous waste (e.g. urea, creatinine,
uric acid, from nitrogen buildup due to catabolism of amino acids) along with some quantity of water

KIDNEY
o Location: in abdominal wall of retroperitoneum, behind peritoneal cavity
o kidneys sit in renal bed of packed adipose tissue
o kidneys, (supr)adrenal glands, renal arteries and veins, ureters surrounded by renal capsule
o Renal hilum is entrance/exit to kidney; renal vein/artery/ureter pass through hilium into renal
sinus with branching blood vessels
o Outer cortex extends inwards via renal columns through the inner medulla with renal pyramids;
urine is concentrated in pyramids and collected in minor calyces at the end of each pyramid,
which merge to form major calyces and the renal pelvis and then the ureter
 o Abdominal aorta  renal arteries --> renal veins  inferior venae cavae (NOT processed
through portal system); if left renal vein is entrapped by superior mesenteric artery, nutcracker
syndrome occurs with inflammation of kidney

o Functional unit = nephron (2 million in both kidneys), located in both renal cortex and renal
pyramids; involves countercurrent blood vessels for exchange of waste and water:
o Plasma is mechanically filtered out into ducts, and chemically filtered
o Acts as another portal system
o Within the glomerulus: afferent arteriole  leaky/porous capillary bed, covered by
podocytes (control amount of filtering)  2nd capillary bed  cells monitor quality of
blood before exiting  proximal convoluted tubule

o Blood enters glomerulus (physical filter, surrounded by bowman’s capsule); filtrate

(plasma-like fluid, without large plasma proteins) travels down capsule proximal
convoluted tubule (reabsorbs 60-70% of remaining filtrate, easy to recover, stuff
including most organic nutrients, Na+ and other ions, water, and some secretions) 
Loop of Henle (osmotic gradient in medulla allows further filtering, bringing back water
and some ions)  distal convoluted tubule (final adjustments with active
secretion/absorption, regulated by anti-diuretic hormone; e.g. tubular cells reabsorb Na+
and Cl- in exchange for secreting K+ or H+)  collecting duct  renal pelvis

o malfunction of kidney nephrons can cause general edema, or anasarca

o fluid in kidneys often involves calcifiable/ crystallizable components emersed in water; if
this becomes extreme, kidney stones can grow and fill calyces and/or block ureter

URETERS
o pair of smooth muscular tubes from renal pelvis to (obliquely enter) bladder; peristaltic
contractions move urine toward bladder
URINARY BLADDER
o muscular reservoir for storage of urine (smooth muscle contractions expel urine)
o connective tissue trigone does not expand much
o located in true pelvis, firmly attached to pelvic wall via pubovesical (female) or puboprostatic
(male) ligaments; posterior to pubic symphysis although can expand into abdomen

URETHRA
o tubule extension from bladder to external environment; external urethral sphincter (smooth) as
well as somatic muscles regulate flow of urine
o in females, urethra extends to opening anterior of vaginal orifice
o in males, runs thru p: preprostatic contains internal urethral sphincter (part of ejaculatory system,
closes off bladder during ejaculation); prostatic has prostatic ducts for fluid and is surrounded by
prostate gland; membranous contains external urethral sphincter; spongy passes thru something..
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Cellular signalling (regulatory mechanisms to maintain homeostatis) occurs in ALL body organs, often
via hormones:

 Levels: autocrine (targets releasing cell, i.e. itself); paracrine (targets immediately adjacent cells);
neurocrine (special paracrine for neural tissue); endocrine (releases hormones into bloodstream);
exocrine (releases hormones/other products via ducts); pherocrine (releases hormones outside
body to signal other organisms, pheromenes)
 Classes of hormones: peptide (interact with receptors inside nucleus and cytoplasm), steroid
(interact with receptors in nuclear membrane), protein (interact with receptors embedded in cell
membrane, least specific)
Endocrine system is a cell signalling mechanism which uses hormones are released into the bloodstream
and circulate through the body, but may have specific or multiple targets. Hormone release are regulated
by feedback loops:

 Negative feedback (high levels of certain hormones inhibit production of their precursor
hormones by signalling glands to stop production, allowing relatively constant levels of
hormones)
 Positive feedback (high levels of these hormones increase production of precursor hormones to
increase blood hormone levels; requires antagonistic hormone to inhibit cycle)

HYPOTHALAMUS (brain, limbic organ)

o Act as link between nervous and endocrine system
o Located in central region of brain
o Regulates critical body systems and participates in homeostatis with the limbic system (long-term
memory, emotions, etc), endocrine, autonomic, (HEAL); secretes regulatory hormones that
stimulate pituitary
o Exerts direct neural control over endocrine cells of adrenal medullae (neuron that produces a
neurotransmitter)

PITUITARY GLAND (hypophysis, brain)

o Act as link between nervous and endocrine system
o Located in central region of brain, in sella turcica (Turkish saddle) near sphenoid sinus
o “master gland” in conjunction with hypothalamus; regulates other endocrine glands and responds
to hypothalamus
o Anterior pituitary is composed of glandular tissue that migrated from pharynx embryologically
(responds to hormones from hypothalamus that circulate via hypophysial portal system);
posterior pituary (neural hypophysis) is composed of nervous tissue as an extension of the
hypothalamus (responds to nervous signals from hypothalamus to stimulate release of posterior
pituitary hormones)
o Involves two portal systems together
 o Anterior pituitary hormones: TSH (triggers release of thyroid hormones), ACTH (stimulates the
release of glucocorticoids from adrenal gland); FSH (stimulates follicle development to release
ovum, estrogen secretion in females // sperm production in males), LH (causes ovulation and
progestin production // androgen production in males), GNRH (promotes secretion of FSH and
LH), PH (stimulates development of mammary glands and production of milk), GH (stimulates
cell growth/replication, associated with releasing and inhibiting downstream hormones), cortisol
(stress hormone)
o Posterior pituitary hormones: oxytocin (promotes contraction of uterus during labour, lactation in
breast) and vasopressin or ADH (for osmotic regulation/water retention in kidneys; ADH secreted
in low levels throughout the day to cause retention of water by changing permeability of distal
convoluted tubule; alcohol and other diuretics inhibit ADH)

THYROID GLAND (largest endocrine gland)

o Affects most body areas except brain, spleen, testes, uterus
o Surrounds trachea below thyroid cartilage in larynx
o Highly vascularized and innervated; involves significant lymphatic drainage
o Produces thyroid hormone (e.g. thyroxin) which controls metabolic rate/rate of ATP production;
metabolizes/uses iodine; involved in calcitonin production, temp regulation, blood pressure; also
synergistic effects with other hormones; essential for brain development
o dietary iodine intake important for healthy thyroid (iodine in salt has effectively reduced goiter)

PARATHYROID
o Small glands external to thyroid capsule; secrete parathyroid hormone for regulating calcium
level, as well as growth, lactation, smooth muscle action, etc
PINEAL GLAND
o Third, light sensing eye in reptiles
o Synthesizes melatonin; may also inhibit reproductive function, set circadian rhythms, etc

PANCREAS
o Vascularized by both celiac and superior mesenteric arteries/veins, empties into hepatic portal
system (kidney before rest of body)
o Stimulated by autonomic nervous system
o Both exocrine and endocrine cells scattered within; islets of Langerhans (clusters of endocrine
cells) associated with secretion of insulin (beta cells; lowers blood glucose by increasing rate of
glucose uptake/transfer into tissues), glucagon (alpha cells; raises blood glucose by increasing
rate of glycogen breakdown and glucose manufacturing), and GH-IH (delta cells, reduces secretin
of growth hormone in pituitary)

ADRENAL/SUPRARENAL GLANDS (kidney)

o Close to/on top of renal glands, superior to each kidney but below diaphragm; separated from
kidney by renal fascia; encased within perirenal fat capsule
 o Inner adrenal medulla = form of post-synaptic sympathetic neuron = secretes
epinephrine/adrenaline and norepinephrine/noradrenaline in response to sympathetic stimulation
o Outer adrenal cortex = stimulated by ACTH from anterior pituitary to produce hormone
glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol, for mediation of stress and immune response), mineralocorticoids
(for reabsorption of Na+ in kidneys), and androgens (precursors for sex hormones)

GONADS (testes/ovaries)
o Produce sex hormones e.g. progesterone, testosterone, estradiol for development of secondary sex
characteristics; stimulated by LH from anterior pituary
o FSH stimulates production/maturation of gametes in gonads

BREASTS/MAMMARY GLANDS
o Modified sweat glands encapsulated in adipose tissue, part of integument
o Lobes of milk-producing cells (alveoli) arranged around lactiferous ducts which collect in the
nipples
o Estrogen induces development of breast tissue (or in excess, breast cancer)

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Function: effective gas exchange between environment and blood; filtering particulates from air;
maintain body pH; heat exchange; production of sound; olfactory/smell sensation
Components: nose, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, larynx (upper) larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles,
alveoli (lower)
NOSE
o Creates turbulent airflow for filtering of air, heat and water exchange
o Conchae bones with mucous membrane/cilia facilitates this; air is spun to remove particles,
membrane absorbs water from air, and heat exchange occurs

Paranasal sinuses
o frontal behind/above orbit, maxillary under orbit, ethmoid at side of nasal passages, sphenoid at
back of nose next to pituitary
o continuous with conchae
o help increase turbulence in airflow; increase resonance for vocalization; provide light structural
support for face
o sinus infection occurs when mucous membrane get inflamed; get larger with age 1-20

PHARYNX
o Fibromuscular tube, common pathway for both air and food:
o Nasopharynx (.. to end of soft palate)
o Oropharynx (from uvula to epiglottis)
o Laryngopharynx (from epiglottis to esophagus)
 o TONSILS are specialized lymph nodes in pharynx
o Pharyngeal in the nasopharynx near auditory tube
o Palatine at posterior of mouth in oropharynx
o Lingual at base of tongue in oropharynx
o Form waldeyer’s ring, ring of protective tissue around opening to oral cavity

LARYNX
o Produces voice, guards opening to RT
o Around C3-C6, consists of nine cartilages which reinforce the trachea and connect pharynx and
trachea - whereas muscle reinforces the cartilage (e.g. largest thyroid cartilage, bump on throat,
and cricoid ligament, only ligament in RT which fully forms a ring, arytenoid where vocal
ligament attaches, rotates to open/close vocal system)
o Glottis = vocal apparatus of larynx; involves rima glottidis or ligamentous aperture between
vocal folds which changes shape according to desired vocalization
o false and true vocal chords; false = vestibular fold with protective function; true = vocal fold
(vocal ligament + vocalis muscle) which controls sound production; space between true and false
= ventricle of larynx

TRACHEA
o bifurcates into two primary bronchii, but right is more bifurcated so participates more in
respiration
o each supported by hyaline cartilage and branch to create bronchial tree
o primary bronchi divide  secondary branch (go to each lobe of lung)  lobar bronchi 
terminal bronchioles  respiratory bronchioles
LUNGS
o one central compartment (mediastinum) contains heart, great vessels, trachea, esophagus, thymus
o two lateral compartments (pulmonary cavities) have lungs; each are lubricated by serous fluid and
are enclosed by continuous serous membrane pleurae (called visceral pleura on lungs and parietal
pleura on body wall)
o lungs attach to heart and trachea at the root of the lung (all structures that lie within the hilum,
included pulmonary vessels, nerves, bronchi) which enters the lung at the hilum
o right lung is larger/heavier and its shape gives space for the liver
o 3 super, middle, inferior lobes (sup/inf separated by oblique fissure; sup/middle
separated by horizontal fissure)
o left lung has deep cardiac notch on anterior of superior lobe; shape gives space for the heart
o superior and inferior lobes separated by oblique fissure
o lingula = tongue-like thing on bottom of lung, characteristic

o pulmonary arteries  lungs  oxygenation  pulmonary veins

o functional circulation = typical pulmonary circulation
 o facultative circulation = portion of lung tissue that is NOT near exchange surfaces are
served by bronchial arteries (branch from thoracic aorta), typical pulmonary venous
return
o exchange surface = alveoli (300 million, small hollow spaces) immediately next to bronchial
capillaries (from pulmonary arteries)
o gas exchange occurs due to:
o partial pressure difference
o small diffusion distance
o lipid soluble gases allows them to go through cell membrane easily
o large total SA
o coordination of blood flow and air
o no cartilage reinforcement around bronchioles, but elastic fibers allow for expansion/contraction
of alveoli to help with breathing
o each alveolar bundle is wrapped by a capillary network to maximize SA for exchange

o diaphragm is main dome-shaped muscle of inspiration

o 3 apertures; for inferior vena cava (caval foramen), esophageal hiatus (esophagus), aortic
hiatus (abdominal aorta, next to vertebrae)
o Contraction = dome moves down = inhalation (increases intra-abdominal P and decreases
intra-thoracic P, increases thoracic cavity V)
o Accessory breathing muscles include: external/internal intercostals for
inspiration/experimentation (external intercostals raise ribs to increase lung space; internal
intercostals lower libs to decrease space in pleural cavity); scalenes in cervical region (stabilize
head & can help raise ribs); subcostals, transversus thoracis

o Lungs are passive organs (changes in thoracic volume causes air to move, according to pressure
differential)
o Quiet breathing (eupnea) = diaphragm, intercostals
o Forced breathing (hypnea) = diaphragm, intercostals, serratus anterior, pectoralis minor, scalene,
abdominal muscles, etc
o Spirometer can measure lung capacities (calibrated flow meter)
o Forced vital capacity (FVC, few litres) = amount of air that can be exhaled after full
inspiration
o Tidal volume (TV, half a litre) = amount of air inhaled/exhaled during normal breath
o total lung capacity = 5/6 L; residual volume is reserve air that is always is lungs
(residual volume can be measured via gas dilution test, based on gas concentration
changes; or body plethysmography, based on various pressure and air flow
measurements in whole body capsule)
o Inspiratory capacity = air for biggest inhale possible (tidal volume + inspiratory reserve
volume)
 o Expiratory capacity = air for biggest exhale possible (tidal volume + expiratory reserve
volume)
o Vital capacity = inspiratory reserve + tidal + expiratory reserve

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
SIMILARITIES/DEVELOPMENT
 We all start off as undifferentiated gonads (all male and female reproductive structures are the
same)  early on, chromosomes cause differentiation of reproductive structures to create either
ovary or testis (whichever structures are associated with chromosomes are emphasized whereas
others disappear largely)
 In early reproductive system:
 Mesonephric (Wolffian) duct associated with mesonephric kidney, i.e. second stage of kidney in
development, and male gonad  becomes the vas defers in males, which join at the prostrate 
degenerate in females
 Paramesonephric (Mullerian) duct associated with female gonad  in females, the the uterine
tubes, uterus form  degenerate in males

 Reproductive organs are found within pelvis & perineum; muscles+fascia connecting from the
pelvis form the cone-like pelvic diaphragm as structural support for the reproductive organs,
which forms the space perineum, with the anal triangle and the urogenital triangle (if you connect
line from ischial tuberosity and …)
 External genitalia are outside support
 Sperm are generated e.g. from ‘stem cells’, whereas primordia of egg cells are there since birth

Homologous (from the same origin) components

 Testes  ovaries
 scrotum (from urogenital fold, fused)  labia major (from urogenital fold, stays open)
 skin of penis  labia minor
 glans penis  glans clitoris
 bulb of penis  vestibular bulbs
 crus of penis  crus of clitoris
  gubernaculum (connection between testes and scrotum in males in order to pull testes down into a
temp regulated position (via inguinal canal))  ovarian/uterine ligament (connection between
ovaries and uterus in females, counteracted by round ligament to prevent pulling up) & round
ligaments (uterus  labia majora)

PENIS/URETHRA (M)
o Common outlet for urine + semen
o Root (bulb of penis + crus of penis, covered in erectile muscle tissue), body (middle corpus
spongiosum has urethra, outer corpus cavernosum), and glans penis (highly innervated,
sympathetic, at end of penis)
o in males, urethra has four regions: preprostatic just below bladder contains internal
urethral sphincter (part of ejaculatory system, closes off bladder during ejaculation);
prostatic has prostatic ducts for fluid and is surrounded by prostate gland; membranous
contains external urethral sphincter; spongy passes thru corpus spongiosum of p
o Viagra initially sold to treat hypertension, but it instead increased blood flow to penis…

TESTES (M)

 Scrotum is an extension of abdominal wall (layers of fascia as a piece of peritoneal cavity 

tunica vaginalis) that encloses each testis separately; involves cremaster muscle which can
contract to bring testes closer to body for T regulation
 Testes produce testerone (stimulated by LH) and spermatozoa (first form of sperm)
o contain seminiferous tubules, epididymis (coil tubule where sperm is stored; sperm cells
move here to fully mature, epididymis secretes fluid that helps with maturation), rete
testis (blood flow to testes, including pampiniform plexus for countercurrent blood flow
for T regulation)
DUCTUS (VAS) DEFERENS

 Muscular tube connecting epididymis and urethra; fully mature sperm are stored in ductus
deferens before ejaculation
 Associated/attached glands secrete fluid to promote wellbeing of sperm (sugar-rich alkaline fluid
for acidic environment of vagina and nutrition for sperm) and activate them
 Seminal fluid from seminal vesicle produce much of the fluid in semen
 Prostrate gland = 70% glandular, 30% fibromuscular tissue (to eject prostatic fluid) with dense
fibrous capsule; prostatic fluid for lubrication of the urethra and protection/nourishment/mobility
of sperm
 Bulbourethral(Cowper’s) glands = pea-sized glands posterior and lateral to urethra; Produces
alkaline fluid for neutralization and lubrication

VAGINA (F)

 VAGINA = musculomembranous tube from cervix to vestibule, serves as excretory duct for
menstrual fluid and inferior part of birth canal; rich vascularization and innervation
  vestibular bulb is split into two to allow opening of vagina
 crus of clitoris on either side, intersect at glans of clitoris
 vulva = external vaginal orifice, vestibule glands, erectile tissue; labia majora/minora surround
vaginal opening (majora = folds of subcutaneous fatty tissue; minora = folds of skin)
 clitoris = highly innervated, sympathetic and parasympethic; erectile organ where labia minora
meet anteriorly, with root (…) and body (corpora cavernosa…)
 vestibule = space between labia minora, containing external urethral orifice and vaginal orifice;
bulbs of vestibule are paired elongated erectile tissue on either side of vaginal orifice both para
and sympathetic as well
 greater vestibular glands secrete lubricating fluid into vestibule before s; lesser glands secrete
mucous

UTERUS (F)

 Thick and muscular-walled, pear-shaped hollow organ

 Anchored to body wall via round ligament of uterus
 Superior to urinary bladder (position changes with fullness of bladder/rectum)
 Cervix portion lies between bladder and rectum (above vagina)

FALLOPIAN/UTERINE TUBES

 Mesenteries over ovaries, fallopian tubes (ovaries + tubes share mesenteries), and uterus

OVARIES

 Produce estrogen, progesterone, ova

 Rich blood supply via gonadal/ovarian artery
 Anchored to uterus via ovarian ligament, and to body via suspensory ligament (thickening in
peritoneum)
 Adjacent but NOT DIRECTLY CONNECTED TO fallopian tube; fimbriae of uterine tube sweep
to try to carry ovum to uterus

 Ovulation regulated by GnRH; midway through cycle, estrogen increase  stimulates GnRH via
positive feedback  release of LH, FSH for maturation/release (ovulation) of ovum  old
follicle or corpus luteum degrades and produces hormones if ovum is fertilized, or disappears and
signals menstruation if ovum is not fertilized
 The pill = combine oral contraceptive, contains synthetic progesterone and estrogen  negative
feedback for GnRH and LH/FSH

 Fertilization takes place within first part of fallopian tubes usually

  In pregnancy, ovum develops in ovary; is released & travels down fallopian tube (if fertilized,
coating changes, divides into morula by day 3); fertilized ovum +supporting tissue (blastocyte)
implants around day 5-6 (should occur in vagina, but can occur in uterine tube, ovary, cervix,
peritoneal cavity (e.g. liver, intestines))
 Estrogen and progesterone must be high for endometrium to be maintained for implantation; for
first 60 days, embryo signals corpus luteum to produce estrogen and progesterone; by 90 days,
embryo has developed enough to sufficiently produce endogenous estrogen and progesterone via
placenta
 relaxin (secreted from corpus luteum, peaks at 14 and 40 weeks) inhibits collagen
synthesis/enhances breakdown to weaken pubic symphysis and even sacroiliac joint; increases
cardiac output and formation of blood vessels; renal blood flow; relaxes uterine muscle thus
dilates cervix

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Function: allows high-speed cellular communication, short-acting response in order to: collect/create,
interpret sensory information; control muscles; maintaining homeostasis; regulating necessary bodily
functions + higher functions (e.g. emotion, memory)
Neurons connected at synapses
Neuron = basic functional unit, with dendrites (extension that receives signals), cell body (nucleus +
organelles), axon (extension from cell body that propagates signal, may be surrounded by myelin)
Most cells are supporting glial cells (supply nutrients, provide structure/insulation, destroy pathogens,
prune neurons, produce myelin). Myelin (cell membrane/lipid bilayer wound around neurons, with spaces
or Nodes of Ranvier in between) insulates large nerve fibres and increase speed of signal propagation
along axon b/c/ current ‘jumps’ between nodes (saltatory propagation) and depolarization only occurs at
the nodes (lower E, Na+ needed, and much smaller diameter of neuron needed, i.e. after one micron of
fiber size, myelinated speed increases much faster)

 oligodendrocytes produce myelin in CNS, producing myelin sheath around multiple cells
 schwann cells produce myelin in PNS; single cells wrap around axons themselves
 some unmyelinated neurons in PNS, still associated with Schwann cells but w/o myelin

SIGNAL CREATION

 transmembrane potential (both chemical and electrical, resting = approx. -70mV) exists across
cell membrane; membrane voltage responds to ion permeability of membrane (passive feedback)
 Na+ open due to small delta in transmembrane potential, and close at high potential
 membrane contains leaky/passive channels (open) and gated/active channels (respond to stimuli)

 action potential (all-or-none, no stopping once started) occurs when excitable region of
membrane depolarizes enough (reaches threshold) due to some stimuli; can be due to summation
of smaller stimuli, or can be inhibited by reduced neurotransmitter at presynaptic junction
  depolarization = Na+ channels activated, Na+ moves into cell
 repolarization = Na+ channels inactivated, K+ channels activated, K+ moves into cell (by both
electrical chemical gradients)
 hyperpolarization = Na+ channels close, K+ channels remain open, pumps move Na+ out (3) and
K+ into cell (2)
 refractory = K+ channels close, pumps allow neuron to return to resting potential
 absolute refractory period (during first part of repolarization), cannot fire again
 relative refractory period (during second part of repolarization), strong stimuli can cause neurons
to fire again

SIGNAL TRANSMISSION

 at end of neuron (synaptic knob), Ca+ flows into cell  exocytosis of neurotransmitter e.g. ACh
(), norepinephrine (excitatory, brain), dopamine (inhibitory motor or excitatory psychogenic),
serotonin (excitatory, emotational), GABA (inhibitory, emotional)  neurotransmitters flow
across synapse, binds to post-synaptic membrane to transmit signal to next (muscle, nerve, etc)
cell, and is broken down/reabsorbed/recycled
 arsenic/lead are poisonous b/c they break down myelin; botulinus toxin blocks neurotransmitter
release to skeletal muscles; spider venom increases neurotransmitter release to hyperstimulate
neuron + deplete neurotransmitters; etc
SYSTEM DIVISION

 CNS = part of nervous system originally developed from ectoderm

 CNS  PNS = nerves
 off the spinal cord, posterior/dorsal root (+ ganglia) = sensory, anterior/ventral root = motor; join
together at spinal/segmental nerve
 Spinal nerve connecting dorsal and ventral roots split into posterior ramus = goes to muscles of
back, anterior ramus = goes to front muscles ????
 Segments of spinal cord correspond roughly to muscles at that height
 Any lesion at a spinal nerve halts signals passing below, hence why cervical lesion = affects legs
and arms, thoracic = affects legs, lumbar (includes consur/cauada equina) = affects legs, specific
 PNS consists of all nerves that extend from CNS (spinal cord and brain)
PERIPHERAL

 12 pairs cranial, 31 pairs spinal

 Each peripheral nerve composed of many axons
 Each axon surrounded by endoneurium (delicate connective tissue), bound into bundles or
fascicles by perineurium, group together into nerve by epineurium (dense collagen)
 Afferent/sensory fibers carry signals to CNS
 Efferent/motor fibers carry signals away from CNS
 Divided into somatic (sensory/motor) and visceral (sensory/motor)
SOMATIC
  Responsible for sensations that things that we can sense (touch, pain, temp, position) and
voluntary+reflexive muscle movements
 Dermatomes (areas of skin, in patterns down the body corresponding to spinal segments, in early
embryo) form the dermis and are associated with peripheral sensory nerves but can carry sensory
information from viscera (not usually consciously aware of signals from viscera) to somatic when
important (e.g. visceral/referred pain); e.g. when there is visceral injury, individual may feel pain
at the dermatomes rather than the viscera
AUTONOMIC/VISCERAL

 Innervate smooth/involuntary muscle, cardiac nodes, glands

 Always two neuron system, which connect at synapse of ganglia
 Sympathetic (fight-or-flight, anti homeostasis)
o come off CNS from T1 to L2 only, collects as ganglia or collection of neural bodies
(synapse in ganglia) that run down body wall
o energy expending
o primary NT = epinephrine/norepinephrine (adrenaline/noreadrenaline)
 Parasympathetic (rest and digest)
o come directly off brain or sacral segment; second neuron usually in wall of target organ,
so no ganglia
o Energy saving
o Primary NT = acetylcholine

CENTRAL

 BRAIN = largest organ of NS, with folds (gryi) and grooves (sulci) to increase SA for cells to
exist on
 Grey matter (cell bodies, unmyelinated neural tissue) = mostly exterior, white matter (myelinated
axons) = interior
 Interprets/relays information between PNS sensory/afferent and motor/efferent nerves coming
in/out
 Two symmetric hemispheres which communicate via C-shaped corpus callosum (thick band of
white tissue), weird stuff if this is injured
 Contralateral regulation of info (left side has main control over right side of body and vica versa)
 Sensory portion of eyeball = extension/tract of brain, not just nerve
 Functional segmentation, from original brain tube:
 o Prosencephalon (forebrain)  telencephalon ( cerebrum) & diencephalon (
thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary)
o Mesencephalon (midbrain, small, right below hypothalamus)
o Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)  metencephalon ( pons, cerebullum) &
myelencephalon ( medulla oblangata)
 Cranial meninges (3) = membranes that enclose/protect/support the brain and spinal cord, act as
framework for blood vessels/venous sinuses (run between membranes), and create a fluid-filled
space (subarachnoid) that submerges the CNS
o Dura mater membrane is most responsible for stabilization/support (runs most of the way
down between hemispheres, until corpus callosum); periosteal layer forms right against
skull, only around the brain and meningeal layer wraps around brain case as well as
exiting cranial nerves, around all parts of CNS; dural sinuses are large collecting veins
bound between layers of dura mater
o Arachnoid mater (fibrous, avascular) is tightly pressed against dura mater by P of
cerebrospinal fluid; channels from arachnoid travel through sinuses for dura matter for
reuptake of cerebrospinal fluid
o Subarachnoid space (containing cerebrospinal fluid) between arachnoid and pia
o Pia mater (highly vascular) tightly adheres to brain tissue
o Epidural hemorrhage occurs at dura mater (less serious), subdural occurs at arachnoid
(forces brain down into foramen magnum)

 Ventricles (4) = channels within brain (develop with brain) filled with CSF, continuous with
central canal of spinal cord
 Choroid plexus (like glomerulus, filters blood) within each ventricle produce CSF which
circulates through CNS and then reabsorbed into venous system at arachnoid granulations
surrounding brain; CNS provides cushioning (protecting), buoyancy (lower effective weight),
excretion of waste products, hormones for communication
 Endorphins (endogenous morphine, throughout body) or enkephalins (same but associated with
brain) = neuroactive proteins that circulate in the body, interact with natural opioid receptors to
modulate the stress/pain response as well as a reward positive activities; taking opioids
overwhelms endogenous receptors + reduces normal production of endorphins

 Brain is supplied with blood via the internal carotid and vertebral arteries (from basilar 
subclavian)
 circle of willis = anterior (from internal carotid  common carotid) and posterior cerebral artery
(from basilar); not middle cerebral artery, which go to lateral sides
 blood brain barrier (similar to membrane between ectoderm and mesoderm) isolates neural tissue
from general circulation (incomplete/porous in hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland,
choroid plexus)

CEREBRUM

 principal part of brain responsible for higher thinking/reasoning

 each hemisphere has frontal (personality, motor), parietal (somatosensory), occipital (vision),
temporal (smell, hearing) lobes
  central sulcus separates frontal/parietal lobes, lateral sulcus separates frontal/temporal lobes
 large SA of brain dedicated as motor/sensory for face/hand/etc, or

within the brainstem:

DIENCEPHALON (part of forebrain)

 core ‘mushroom stem’ of brain (thalamus + hypothalamus + pituitary), with R.L halves
 relays sensory and motor signals to cerebral cortex, associated with limbic system, regulates
consciousness
 thalamus relays sensory information entering the brain to the proper areas and coordinates
activities of cerebral cortex
 hypothalamus (HEAL) controls subconscious somatic motor activities, autonomic function,
coordinates activities of endocrine and nervous systems, secretes hormones, limbic system
 pineal gland at back
HINDBRAIN

 Cerebellum (arbae vitae as it looks tree-like in saggital cross-section) at posterior is important in

motor coordination
 Pons between the midbrain and medulla forms anterior surface of 4 th ventricle, controls sleep,
arousal, respiration
 Medulla oblongata continuous with SC controls autonomic functions (e.g. breathing, heartbeat)
SPINAL CORD

 Localized (cervical, lumbosacral) enlargements are where nerves supplying limbs come off; e.g.
C5-T1  brachioplexus
 Cauda equina = roots of nerves past L1/2 that result at the end of the spinal cord

 Meninges (extension of cerebral meninges) provide stability, shock absorption, nutrients/O2 (via
blood vessels) – outer dura mater (epidural space separates dura mater from walls of vertebral
canal, epidural anesthetic acts on specific nerves coming out at regions), inner arachnoid mater
(subarachnoid space contains CSF), innermost meningeal pia mater (CSF between arachnoid and
pia)

 External white matter organized into tracts (columns of nerves whose axons share
function/structure and relay same type of information at same speed/in same direction); internal
grey matter surrounds central canal (equivalent to brain ventricles); Honda-like shape includes
anterior horns (associated with anterior root, or somatic motor nuclei), posterior horns (associated
with posterior root, or somatic/visceral sensory nuclei), and lateral regions horns (visceral motor)

 Corticospinal/pyramidal tract (from primary motor cortex of brain along length of spinal cord) is
the most important human motor pathway; decussation occurs between the medulla and spinal
cord, where nerves cross between L-R
 Somatosensory pathways travel along either posterior column pathways (at posterior of white
matter section, proprioception e.g. ability to sense distance between body parts and fine touch e.g.
vibration; decussation occurs at synapse between primary and secondary sensory neurons, base of
medulla) or anterior column pathways (pain, temperature, course touch; decussation occurs
higher up immediately within grey matter between primary and secondary sensory neurons)

Motor pathway = two neurons in motor pathway; lesions can occur in upper or lower neuron (lower 
peripheral nerve severed, muscle has no input  flaccid paralysis, muscle atrophy, no reflexes, etc;
upper  nerve gives uncontrolled signals to muscle  increased muscle tone/stiffness, enhanced tendon
reflexes b/c no inhibition from brain)

Reflexes = rapid automatic responses to stimuli, if neural this means sensory fibers to CNS  motor
fibres  effectors (don’t have to pass through brain before going to motor fibres)

 Stimulus/activation of sensor  activation of sensory neuron  information processing in spinal

cord or via interneurons  activation of motor neuron  response by motor effector
 Monosynaptic (one synapse between afferent and efferent), e.g. stretch reflex automatically
monitors skeletal muscle length/tone such as with the patellar/knee jerk reflex, or ‘tired in lecture’
postural reflex
 Polysynaptic (involve pools of interneurons in grey matter of SC between afferent and efferent),
involving reciprocal inhibition (e.g. one leg moves up to avoid lego, other leg stabilizes)
SPECIAL SENSES

 General senses have receptors throughout body (specialized nerves that participate in
anterior/posterior somatosensory pathways) – e.g. pain (nociceptors), temperature, touch,
pressure, position
 Special senses have local receptors in a specific region/organ, with innervation from cranial
nerves (extensions of brain)
 Sensation occurs at sensory organ in response to stimulation; perception (conscious or
unconscious) occurs in brain (often thalamus) as the brain ‘decides’ which sensory information to
pass along for processing/interpretation

Olfactory (smell, CN 12 = olfactory nerve)

 olfactory receptors are modified neurons which can sense chemicals in air via odorant
binding proteins on olfactory neurons; signals passed through cribiform plate to … tract 
bypass the thalamus & sent to hypothalamus (+ limbic system, hence link to emotion /
memory) directly, interpreted in frontal lobe
 surfaces are coated with olfactory secretions
 interprets smell as unique (?) patterns of receptor activity; can become desensitized to certain
smells by CNS
 high receptor turnover + number of receptors decline with age

Gustation (taste, CN 7 = facial, CN 9 = glossopharyngeal nerve, and somewhat CN 10 = vagus nerve)

 tongue = mobile muscle that can change shape via coordinated muscle fibres in different
directions; involved in mastication, swallowing, taste, articulation, oral cleansing; complex
development and motor innervation (CN 10/12 for motor, CN 7/9 for special sense, CN 5 for
general sense)
 innervated by CN VII via chorda tympani
 mucous membrane on anterior to absorb chemicals, lingual papillae (tastebuds, foliate, fungiform,
vallate and filliform) for sweet/sour/bitter/salty/umami and friction
 taste is perceived by thalamus and interpreted by frontal lobe

Visual (sight, CN 2 = optic nerve)

 eye interprets light information
 visual info on right  left eye  right brain, depth perception is by relative positions from two
eyes as well as other cues from input from ocular muscles, parallax shift, size, etc
 light passes through 4 layers i.e. cornea (highly refractive so changes direction of light to focus it,
initiates corneal reflex/blinking), aqueous humour (water-like fluid anterior to the lens, P tested
by glaucoma test), lens (biconcave disk that adjust in thickness to focus, via ciliary muscles),
vitreous humour (dense, jelly-like fluid) to reach sensors at retina  signal travels through optic
nerve (optic chiasm, medial half of each optic nerves crosses to each half of brain, just above
pituitary) to thalamus  interpreted by occipital lobe

 outer wall of eye has three layers

 o outer fibrous layer for structure, focusing, and muscle attachment; sclera = opaque part in
posterior 5/6th, cornea = transparent part in anterior 1/6th
o middle vascular layer with iris to hold lens, control pupil, control input; choroid = dark
brown membrane between sclera and retina for large vasculature network that provides
oxygen and nutrients to retina; iris = contractile diaphragm with aperture/pupil with
smooth muscle fibres (parasympathetic via pupillary constrictors + sympathetic via
pupillary dilators); ciliary body between choroid and iris secretes humours; also involves
muscles that adjust lens
o inner nervous tunic including retina; within retina (receives visual light at posterior
margin), macula has high density of rods and cones and thus high visual acuity,
specifically fovea centralis has most cones (no rods); optic disc is where optic nerves exit
eyeball (blind spot since no cones/rods); light must pass through various cells to get to
photoreceptor cells, near pigmented black epithelium and choroid vascular network (rods
= B&W, low light threshold so high response to photons; cones = colour with 3 types for
red, green, blue; high light threshold)

 normal = 20/20 (see detail from 20 feet away as normally)

 near-sightedness  can see nearby objects clearly  cornea is too round
 far-sightedness  can see far objects clearly  cornea is too flat
 properties of lens change with age, e.g. becomes stiffer so ciliary muscles cannot accommodate as
much
 extra-ocular eye muscles (6) = finely control eye movement in coordination, innervated by CN 3
(oculomotor), CN 4 (trochlear), CN 6 (abducens); axis of muscles different than axis of eye

Auditory + equilibrium (hearing + balance, CN 8 = vestibulocochlear nerve)

 outer/external ear (on other side of tympanic membrane), middle ear (low density), inner ear
(equilibrium, in bone of skull, high density)
 hearing portion adapted from balance portion
 OUTER EAR: auricle (pinna, elastic cartilage) and external auditory meatus (canal); collects and
funnels sound to tympanic membrane (ear drum)
 MIDDLE EAR:
o within dense/petrous part of temporal bone (prevents sound from coming from other
side), contains ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes) that rotate slightly to amplify and transmit
 sound from lowhigh density media or tympanic membrane  oval window; tensor
tympani and stapedius muscles dampen vibrations/volume of loud sound
o Pharyngotympanic (Eustachian) tube connects tympanic cavity to nasopharynx, equalizes
pressure of middle ear with P_atm, allows free movement of tympanic membrane
 INNER EAR (within bony labyrinth, contains continuous vestibulocochlear organ and
semicircular canals/ducts)
o cochlea receives sound – stapes vibrates against oval window, vibrations transmit to
cochlea via perilymph of inner scala vestibuli, out of cochlea via outer scala tympani;
vibrations displace cilia in cochlear duct (different size cilia respond to different f in
endolymph, associated with nerve in spiral organ of Corti); vibrations dissipate in one
direction through round window
o balance depends on proprioceptors, visual system, and vestibular system
o vestibule (utricle, saccule) monitor static equilibrium by providing information about
gravitational acceleration/position (saccule in vertical plane, utricle in horizontal plane);
vestibule organs contain mobile otoliths, or ear stones that can signify x via bending of
the cilia embedded in gel below the otoliths
o fluid-filled semicircular canals (perpendicular to each other; anterior, posterior,
horizontal) monitor dynamic equilibrium by providing information about rotational
acceleration/position; end of each canal has swelling or ampulla, containing the
ampullary crest containing cilia that bend as endolymph moves
o endolymph within tubes, cont. with cochlea, and cochlear duct, or perilymph within bony
canal

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
Homologous = shared ancestry and similar origin (developmentally) but possibly very different function
(e.g. human arm, bird wing) to suit ecological/evolutionary need…
Analogous = similar function without shared origin (e.g. bird, moth wings)
insular dwarfism/gigantism, Mediterranean dwarf elephant

HOMOLOGY
o bones/muscles/tendons of horse = bones/muscles/tendons of human
 o horses do not have clavicle i.e. no bony connection of the arm to the body, only pectoral
girdle
o radius and ulna are fused, metacarpals form one robust bone, distal phalynx is attached to
hoof instead of fingernail
o horse stands on three (modified) phalanges to make the hoof system, same tendon
system, hoof = modified fingernail
o same split superficial tendon to middle phalange to allow distal tendon to pass thru

o in horses: force is transferred through hoof to skeleton, hoof (ectoderm, cells ‘dead’ once full of
keratin) must move relative to the skeleton (bones + connective tissue, mesoderm) as it grows and
is worn off; finger-like projections, surrounded by membrane of living cells between ectodermic
hoof and mesodermic skeleton, allow living cells to withstand stress just due to shear number of
cells

o we are related to other placental mammals (e.g. wolf, ground hog, mouse; substantial
development before birth, yolk sac before placental development) as opposed to marsupial
mammals (only have yolk sac rather than placental nutrition, born prematurely, finish
development in pouches, Australian generally, Tasmanian wolf, wombat, marsupial mouse), but
both have analogous structures/species…
o dogs and cats differ by the shape of their skull (change paralleled between placentals/marsupials)

o all mammals have the same SKULL bones, but shape changes allow for survival strategy:
o horse = herbivore, perissodactyl lineage (zebras, donkeys, tapirs, etc), frontal sinus
extends into horns
o cow (bovid) = herbivore, ruminant; similar sinus but network goes up into core of
keratinous hone
o elephant = proboscid (has trunk), herbivore, entire skull is filled with sinuses to reduce
weight
o rat = rodent, omnivorous, teeth for slicing and grinding
o vampire bat = chiropteran, hematophagus; sucks blood so agile on ground, wings actually
hands?? (phalanges form extended wing), can jump off ground via giant pectoral muscles
:( and thumb like basketball player foot?

o looking at TEETH
o dolphin = cetacean, piscivore (fish-eating), homodont dentition (essentially identical)
o beaver = rodent, herbivore (specialized for bark), heterodont dentition (grinding molars
vs long incisors) which grow continually through life
o human = heterodont dentition (incisors different from molars + canines + premolars),
omnivores (not specialized)
o elephant = grinding teeth, 4 giant teeth in action at any time, single tooth used on each
arcade (?) at one time
o horse = heterodont, remnant canine + long grinding teeth; grinding teeth keep growing as
they get worn but horses can’t open their mouth much…

o only mammals have a DIAPHRAGM, so in other animals, breathing is powered via:

 o crocodiles = hepatic pump, muscle from liver to pelvis (similar to human falciform
ligament from liver to abdominal cavity, if it connected to rectus abdominus instead of
body wall)
o birds = need high power/efficiency, so lung is fused to bone/does not change in size, but
entire bird lung surface is attached to bellows & so is exposed to fresh air on both
inspiration (via regular breathing) and expiration (sacs or bellows control flow of air &
give air back to the lungs on expiration)
o snakes = same organs as any other vertebrate, just diff shape (+ one lung, not two)

o DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS are homologous, but modified according to what species ingests:
o Rabbits = don’t ruminate/ferment food in foregut (just extract available nutrients) and
then ferments via bacteria in the hindgut (thus huge cecum); rabbit need to eat their poop
as they get back some nutrients this way that were not available at foregut portion
o Sheep = elaborate stomach for fermentation (bacteria etc), looooong small intestine for
absorption, small hindgut
o Horse = simple stomach and small intestine, huge hindgut for hindgut fermentation

o Cows/wildebeest/sheep require moderately good grass as they need to process/ferment it

first, horses/zebras don’t care i.e. they can process a lot of food b/c they don’t have to
ferment it first (good quality food will be absorbed directly and everything else just
passed thru)

o Orangutang = large cecum and hindgut for foliage/etc, need bacteria for processing
o Cows have modified stomach with specialized chambers: esophagus attaches to
abomasum (near rumen where most fermentation occurs, omasum which makes
everything ready for processing, and reticulum which is a processing factory) and then
small intestine
o Alpaca (= new world camel) & pigs have spiral colon/large intestine to accommodate
high SA