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Scientific Research Methods

HWRE 7042

Dr. Abebe Worku

4. Sampling and sample size

determination

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Introduction
• Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis
in which a predetermined number of observations
are taken from a larger population.
• Sampling technique differs from discipline to
discipline.
• The accuracy of your estimates largely rest on the
way you select your sample. The basic objective
of any sampling design is to minimize the gap
between the values obtained from your sample
and those prevalent or dominant in the population.
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Terms
• Population: all members of a specified group
– Target population- the population to which the
researcher ideally wants to generalize.
– Accessible population- the population to which
the researcher has access.
• Sample: A subset of population
• Subject: A specific individual participating
in a study.

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Sampling Design
• Sample is part of the target population, carefully
selected to represent the population.
• Generalization of the research finding depends
up on the sampling procedure followed.
• In physical science there is no problem of
sampling. Any fragment or piece of phenomenon
is the true representative. Therefore,
generalization based on a sample is true.

Census and sample survey

• All items in a field of inquiry constitute a
“universe” or “population.
• Census: is a complete enumeration of all its items
in the “population".
• No element of chance is left and high accuracy
is obtained.
• In census, high resource is needed, and there is
time limit. Only government is institution can
make a complete census.
• But if the population is small no need to have a
sample.
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Sample Design
• A Sample Design is a specific plan for obtaining
a sample to the technique of the procedure the
researcher would adopt in selecting items for the
sample.
• Sample design may as well lay down the number
of items to be included in the sample, i.e. the size
of the sample.
• Sample design is determine before data are
collected.
• Sample designs are relatively more precise and
easy to apply.
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Selecting a Sample

Sample:
SAMPLE
subset
of a larger
population. POPULATION

Why Sample ?
• Low cost
• Greater accuracy of result
• Greater speed of data collection
• Availability of population elements

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Method of sampling
• Probability sampling
• Non-probability sampling
• Mixed

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Classification of Sampling Methods

Sampling
Methods

Probability Non-
probability

Systematic Stratified Convenience Snowball

Simple
Cluster Judgment Quota
Random
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Sampling
• Who is to be sampled?
• How large should the sample be?
• How will sample units be selected?
– Probability Samples – every member of the
population has a known, nonzero probability of
being selected
– Non-probability Samples.

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Characteristics of good sample design

• It must result in a truly representative sample.
• It must be result in a small sampling error.
• It must be viable in the context of cost.
• The result of the sample can apply for the
universe with reasonable context.

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Step in sample design

• Type of universe: whether it is finite or infinite must
be clearly defined.
• Sampling unit: before selecting a sample, unit must
be decided(eg. state ,village, family.etc.)
• Source list or sample frame : - from which sample
is drawn –it contain the names of all items of a
universe
• Size of sample: number of items be selected from the
universe to constitute a sample. The size of a sample
should neither be excessively large nor too small.

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Bases of sampling design

• Sampling design is based on two factors:
• The representation basis: the sample may be
probability sampling (based on concept of
random selection) or it may be non-
probability sampling (non-random sampling).
• The element of selection Techniques basis:
the sample may be either unrestricted or
restricted.

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Probability sampling
• Probability sampling is also known as “random
sampling” or chance of sampling “.
• There are two laws of probability sampling:
✓Law of Statistical regularity:
A small sample may be good representative of the population,
if the subjects of the sample are elected at random.
The conclusion drawn from the sample may be generalized for
the population.
✓The Law of inertia of the large number:
Average sample is more stable or good representative as
compared with small sample.
The sample error is inversely in proportion to the size of the
sample.
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Types of probability sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling

2. Systematic Sampling

3. Stratified Sampling

4. Cluster Sampling

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Simple Random Sampling

• In which each element of the population has an

equal independent chance of being included
in the sample.

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Simple Random Sampling

Advantage:
• It requires a minimum knowledge of the population.
• It is free from subjective decisions.
• It provides appropriate data for our purpose.
• Least cost ,time and resources.
• Better than judgmental sampling.
Disadvantage:
• Representation of sample can not be insured.
• It does not use the knowledge about the population up to date
information.
• Inference is depend on the size of the population.

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Random Sampling
A sampling procedure is random if each member of
the population has an equal and independent chance
of being included in the sample
Ex.
• simple random sampling ,
• stratified random sampling
• systematic sampling

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Systematic Sampling
• It is by taking the Kth element of the
population(N/n).
• It is improvement of the simple random
sampling.
• It requires a complete information about the
population.

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Systematic Sampling
Advantage:
• More efficient and simple to select a sample.
• Sample may be representative and comprehensive.
• Observation of the sample may be used for drawing
conclusion.
Disadvantage:
• It is not free from error, subjective.
• Knowledge of population is essential.
• It cannot ensure representation.

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Stratified Sampling
• Most population can be segregated into several
mutually exclusive sub populations or strata.
• Stratified random sampling is the process by
which the sample is constrained to include
elements from each of the segment.
• After a population is divided into the
appropriate strata, a simple random sample
can be drawn within each strata.
• The sample results can be weighted and
combined into appropriate population
estimates.
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Reason for Stratified Sampling

• To increase a sample’s statistical efficiency
• To provide adequate data for analyzing of the various
sub-population
• To enable different research methods and procedures
to be used in different strata.
• Stratified sampling is more usually efficient
statistically than simple random sampling and at
worst it is equal to it.
Types of stratified sampling:
• Disproportional stratified sampling
• Proportionate stratified sampling
• Optimum allocation stratified sampling
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Stratified Sampling
• Advantage:
• It is a good representative of the population
• It is an improvement of the earliest methods
• It is an objective method of sampling
• Observation can be used for inferential purpose
• Disadvantage:
• It is difficult to decide the relevant criteria for
stratifying
• Only one criteria can be used for stratifying
• It is costly and time consuming
• There is a risk in generalization.
• Knowledge of the population is needed.
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Cluster Sampling
• Population can be divided into a number of relatively small
sub divisions which are themselves cluster of still smaller
units.
• It is to select the entire group as a whole for a sample.
Advantage:
• It may be a good representative of the population
• It is an easy method
• It is an economical
• Useful when we do not have list of population
Disadvantage:
• It is not free from error
• It is not comprehensive
• Areas may be dissimilar

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Random Sampling Error and Systematic Error

• Random sampling errors arise when the group selected

out of a population for the purpose of undertaking a
survey is not totally representative of the population, i.e. a
variation exists.
• Technically, a random sampling error is the difference
between the results of a sample and the result of a census
conducted using identical procedures.
• As the sample size is increased, the variation will
decrease
• Systematic error results from some imperfect aspect of
the research design which causes response error, or from a
mistake in the execution of the research
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Respondent Error
➢ Surveys depend on individuals responding to the
questions asked of them in written or verbal form.
➢ Respondents must thereby fulfill two preconditions:
– Be cooperative
– Be truthful
➢ If these two preconditions are not fulfilled, the survey
is unlikely to achieve its goal.
➢ Two major problems resulting from the non-
fulfillment of these two preconditions by respondents
are:
– Non-response Error
– Response Bias 30

Non-Response Error and Causes of

Non-Responding
➢ Non-Response error is defined as the statistical difference
between the results of a survey that includes those individuals
who responded, and a perfect survey in which all individuals
would have responded
➢ A consequent problem stemming from non-response error is
that the survey-based research results may be un-utilizable for
decision-makers if those individuals who did respond to the
survey are not representative of those who did not respond
➢ There are many reasons for not responding to surveys, for
example, lack of time and preoccupation with routine work,
absence from home, lack of interest in the survey, cultural
factors (e.g. Middle East)

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Response Bias
• A response bias occurs when survey respondents tend
to answer the questions posed to them in a certain
direction, thereby consciously or unconsciously, or
intentionally and inadvertently, misrepresenting the
truth
• Response bias has been found to depend on factors
such as the income or social class of respondents and
their ethnic background.
Example: Mayoral and gubernatorial elections in the
USA (white respondents and their supposed choice of
candidates)
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Other types of sampling

• Area sampling
• Multi-stage sampling
• Sequential sampling
• Etc.

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Non-random sampling
❖ It is a non-probabilistic sampling
❖ Non-randomised sampling techniques are forms of
sampling used by researchers who do not require
randomisation.
Types of non-random sampling
• Convenience sampling
• Purposive Sampling:
-Judgmental sampling
-Quota sampling
• Snowball Sampling

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Convenience sampling
• It is unrestricted non- probability sampling.
• Researcher have freedom to choose whoever
he find.eg., information from peers or friends
• It is the least reliable but the most cheapest
method.
• There is no control to ensure precision.

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Judgmental sampling
• Occurs when researcher selects sample
members to conform to same sample criteria
• In the earliest period of exploratory study,
judgmental sample is appropriate.
• It is also good when one wish to select a
biased group for screening purpose.

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Judgmental sampling
Advantage
• In this technique of sampling knowledge of the
investigator can be best used
• It is economical
Disadvantage
• This technique is subjective
• It is not free from error
• It includes uncontrollable variables

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Quota sampling
• The population is classified into several
categories on the basis of judgment or assumption
or the previous knowledge of the proportion of
population falling each category is decided.
• It aims at making the best use of stratification
without incurring highest costs involved in
probability methods.
• It composed both judgmental and probability
sampling.
• It is very arbitrary.

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Quota sampling
Advantage
• It is an improvement over Judgmental sampling
• It is an easy sampling technique
• It is most frequently used in social survey
Disadvantage
• It is not a representative sample
• It is not free from error
• Bias

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Snowball sampling
• In the initial stage individuals may not be selected
through probability methods.

• The group is then used to locate other who possess

similar characteristics and whom in turn identify
others.

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Characteristics of good sampling

• It is a true representative.
• A sample is a sub aggregate of a population.
• Free from bias.
• Should be objective.
• It should maintain accuracy.
• It should be comprehensive in nature.
• Easy approachable.

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Sample Size
• How large a sample is needed?
– The larger the sample the more accurate the results
(unless the response rate becomes very low)
– The larger the sample the more the cost/effort
• Sample size does NOT depend on the size of the population

Sample size = 2n
Standard error
of statistic

Sample size = n
Standard error
of statistic

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Cochran’s formula
(William, G. 1977. “COCHRAN.” Sampling Techniques (Third ed.). 1977.)

• The Cochran formula allows to calculate an ideal

sample size given a desired level of precision,
desired confidence level.

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