BASIC SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Parts of Sentences: Subject, Predicate, Object, Indirect Object, Complement

Every word in a sentence serves a specific purpose within the structure of that particular
sentence. According to rules of grammar, sentence structure can sometimes be quite
complicated. For the sake of simplicity, however, the basic parts of a sentence are discussed
here.

The two most basic parts of a sentence are the subject and predicate.

SUBJECT
- The subject of a sentence is the person, place, or thing that is performing the action
of the sentence. The subject represents what or whom the sentence is about. The
simple subject usually contains a noun or pronoun and can include modifying words,
phrases, or clauses.

The man . . .

PREDICATE
- The predicate expresses action or being within the sentence. The simple predicate
contains the verb and can also contain modifying words, phrases, or clauses.

The man / builds a house.

The subject and predicate make up the two basic structural parts of any complete
sentence. In addition, there are other elements, contained within the subject or predicate,
that add meaning or detail. These elements include the direct object, indirect object, and
subject complement. All of these elements can be expanded and further combined into
simple, compound, complex, or compound/complex sentences. (See TIP Sheet on
"Sentence Type and Purpose.")

DIRECT OBJECT
- The direct object receives the action of the sentence. The direct object is usually a
noun or pronoun.

The man builds a house.

The man builds it.

INDIRECT OBJECT
- The indirect object indicates to whom or for whom the action of the sentence is being
done. The indirect object is usually a noun or pronoun.

The man builds his family a house.

The man builds them a house.

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT
 - A subject complement either renames or describes the subject, and therefore is
usually a noun, pronoun, or adjective. Subject complements occur when there is a
linking verb within the sentence (often a linking verb is a form of the verb to be).

The man is a good father. (father = noun which renames the subject)

The man seems kind. (kind = adjective which describes the subject)

Note: As an example of the difference between parts of speech and parts of a sentence, a
noun can function within a sentence as subject, direct object, indirect object, object of a
preposition, or subject complement.

Listening
- the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to a spoken
and/ or non-verbal message (International Reading Association)

Types of Listening
● Appreciative Listening
● Emphatic Listening
● Comprehensive/Active Listening
● Critical/ Analytical Listening

Appreciative Listening
- listening for pleasure and enjoyment, as when we listen to music, to a comedy
routine, or to an entertaining speech
- describes how well speakers choose and use words, use humor, ask questions. tell
stories, and argue persuasively.

Emphatic Listening
- listening to provide emotional support for the speaker, as when a psychiatrist listens
to a patient or when we lend a sympathetic ear to a friend
- focuses on understanding and identifying with a person’s situation, feelings, or
motives
- there is an attempt to understand what the other person is feeling
- listener does not necessarily agree or feel the same way with the speaker instead
understand the type and intensity of feelings the speaker is experiencing without
judgement

Comprehensive/Active Listening
- listening to understand the message of a speaker, as when we attend a classroom
lecture or listen to directions for finding a friend’s house
- focuses on accurately understanding the meaning of the speaker’s words while
simultaneously interpreting non-verbal cues such as facial expressions, gestures,
posture, and vocal quality

Steps in Active Listening

1. listening carefully by using all available senses
2. what is heard both mentally and verbally
 3. checking your understanding to ensure accuracy
4. providing feedback

- During a question-and-answer sessions, speakers use comprehensive listening skills

to accurately interpret the audience’s questions.

Critical/ Analytical Listening

- listening to evaluate a message for purposes of accepting or rejecting it, as when we
listen to the sales pitch of a used-car dealer or the campaign speech of a political
candidate
- focuses on evaluating whether a message is logical and reasonable
- asks you to make judgements based on your evaluation of the speaker’s arguments
- challenges the speaker’s message by evaluating its accuracy and meaningfulness,
and utility
- uses critical thinking skills

Proportions of time spent by college students in communication activities

SENTENCE PATTERN

ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE
● Subject – doer of the action/ topic of the sentence
● Predicate – states something about the subject
● Direct Object – receives the action done by the subject
● Indirect Object - precedes the direct object and tells to whom or for whom the action
of the verb is done and who is receiving the direct object
BASIC SENTENCE PATTERN

Subject – Intransitive Verb

- Maria cooperated voluntarily.
S IV

What is an intransitive verb?

● An intransitive verb is a verb without a direct object.

Examples of S-IV sentences

- I wrote legibly.
- Michael and Gabriel woke and
- yawned.
- He prays everyday.
- Students should study every night.
- She reads silently.

Subject-Transitive Verb-Direct Object

- The students helped the barangay.
S TV DO

What is a transitive verb?

● A transitive verb is a verb that requires both a subject and a direct object.

Examples of s-tv-do sentences

- Someone ate my sandwich.
- Mikko reads the dictionary for pleasure.
- The campers fear the bears.
- The board showed their approval.
- I played the piano.

Subject – Linking Verb – Subject Complement

- Teachers are our second parents.
S LV PN

What is a PN?
● A predicate nominative or a predicate noun completes a linking verb and renames
the subject.

Examples of s-LV-PN sentences

- Anne is the boss.
- Whales and sharks are mammals.
- The girl should be the captain.
- My mother is a teacher.
- Philippines is the “Pearl of the Orient Seas.”

Subject – Linking Verb –Subject Complement

 - Her pies are very sweet.
S LV PA

What is a P.A.?
● A predicate adjective follows a linking verb and describes the subject.

Examples of s-lv-pa sentences

- His behavior has been outrageous.
- Niña is so beautiful.
- That garbage on the street smells bad.
- He is dead.
- The man was very accommodating.

Subject-Transitive Verb-Direct Object- Object Complement

- He called the cashier beautiful.
S TV DO OC

What is an O.C.?
● An object complement is a noun, pronoun, or adjective which follows a direct object
and renames it or tells what the direct object has become.

Examples of S-TV-DO-OC sentences

- The class elected Nadine president.
- Cathy cut her hair short.
- The child made her mother happy.
- Many people find martial arts challenging.
- Some pet owners consider their dogs their children.

Subject-Transitive Verb-Indirect Object-Direct Object

- Liza gave the children gifts.
S TV IO DO

Examples of S-TV-io-do sentences

- Mom will paint Gabriel a picture.
- He will give Mrs. Perez the message.
- Yvann surprised his sister with a reward.
- I teach the students English.
- Pearl sent Tom a book.

NOTETAKING
● The practice of writing down or otherwise recording key points of information.
(about.com)
● Taking notes involves active listening, as well as connecting and relating information
to ideas you already know. It also involves seeking answers to questions that arise
from the material.
(Shelley O'Hara, Improving Your Study Skills: Study Smart, Study Less.
Wiley, 2005)
 ● Taking notes doesn't simply mean scribbling down or marking up the things that strike
your fancy. It means using a proven system and then effectively recording information
before tying everything together.
(Walter Pauk and Ross J.Q. Owens, How to Study in College, 11th ed. Cengage, 2013)

TAKING NOTES CAN HELP YOU TO:

● improve your understanding by making you convert difficult ideas into your own
words
● prepare for writing fuller, better connected arguments in your essays
● be more focused and time-efficient in your exam revision period
● assess your own progress as you study

EFFECTIVE NOTETAKING REQUIRES:

● recognizing the main ideas
● identifying what information is relevant to your task
● having a system of note taking that works for you
● reducing the information to note and diagram format
● where possible, putting the information in your own words
● recording the source of the information

READING AND NOTE-TAKING STRATEGIES

1. Be selective and systematic

- Think about your purpose for reading.
- Skim the text.
- Highlight or mark the main points and any relevant information you may need to take
notes from.
- read the relevant sections of the text carefully and take separate notes as you
read.Set out your notebooks so that you have a similar format each time you take
notes.
● Columns that distinguish the source information and your thoughts can be helpful.
● Headings that include bibliographic reference details of the sources of information
are also important.
● The use of color to highlight major sections, main points and diagrams makes notes
easy to access.

2. Identify the purpose and function of a text

● Read the title and the abstract or preface (if there is one)
● Read the introduction or first paragraph
● Skim the text to read topic headings and notice how the text is organized
● Read graphic material and predict its purpose in the text

3. IDENTIFY HOW INFORMATION IS

ORGANIZED

ORGANISING PRINCIPLES:
● Past ideas to present ideas
● The steps or stages of a process or event
 ● Most important point to least important point
● Well known ideas to least known ideas
● Simple ideas to complex ideas
● General ideas to specific ideas
● The largest parts to the smallest parts of something
● Problems and solutions
● Causes and results

4. INCLUDE YOUR THOUGHTS

- When taking notes for an assignment it is also helpful to record your thoughts at the
time. Record your thoughts in a separate column or margin and in a different colour
to the notes you took from the text.
• What ideas did you have about your assignment when you read that information?
• How do you think you could use this information in your assignment?

LISTENING AND NOTE-TAKING STRATEGIES

GENERAL TIPS
● Have a clear purpose
● Recognise main ideas
● Select what is relevant; you do not need to write down everything that is said
● Have a system for recording information that works for you

STRATEGIES TO INCREASE COMPREHENSION AND IMPROVE NOTE-TAKING

Before the lecture

● revise the previous lecture or tutorial
● pre-read about the topic
● check the pronunciation of any new words or discipline-specific language in the
pre-readings.
● rule up pages according to your note-taking system. This saves time in the lecture.

During the lecture

● be on time and sit near the front
 ● distinguish between main points, elaboration, examples, repetition, 'waffle',
restatements and new points by:
- Listening for structural cues (signpost/transition words, introduction, body and
summary stages)
- Looking for non verbal cues (facial expression, hand and body signals)
- Looking for visual cues (copy the content of any visual aids used (e.g. OHTs), note
references to names and sources)
- Listening for phonological cues ( voice change in volume, speed, emotion).
Generally with more important information the speaker will speak slower, louder and
they will direct their attention to the audience

After the lecture

● revise lecture notes within 24 hours. Tidy up your handwriting and fill in any missing
bits. Reviewing makes remembering lectures much easier.
● write a short summary of the lecture (1 paragraph) in your own words
● attach any handouts to your lecture notes.

STRATEGIES TO INCREASE COMPREHENSION AND IMPROVE NOTE-TAKING

1. Use symbols and abbreviations

● Develop a system of symbols and abbreviations; some personal, some from your
courses
● Be consistent when using symbols and abbreviations

ABBREVIATIONS
1. Common abbreviations
● Many are derived from Latin.
● c.f. (confer) = compare
● i.e. (id est) = that is
● e.g (exempla grate) = for example
● NB (nota benne) =note well
● no. (numero) = number
● etc. (et cetera)= and so on

2. Discipline-specific abbreviations
● In chemistry:
● Au for gold
● Mg for magnesium
● In the case of quantities and concepts, these are represented by Greek letters in
many fields.
● A or a (alpha) B or b (beta)

3. Personal abbreviations
● Here you can shorten any word that is commonly used in your lectures.
● diff =different
● Gov = government
● NEC = necessary

2. USE CONCEPT MAPS AND DIAGRAMS

● You can set down information in a concept map or diagram. This presents the
information in a visual form and is unlike the traditional linear form of note taking.
Information can be added to the concept map in any sequence.
● Begin in the middle of the page and add ideas on branches that radiate from the
central idea or from previous branches.
● Arrows and words can be used to show links between parts of the concept map.
● Colour and symbols are important parts of concept maps, helping illustrate ideas and
triggering your own thoughts.
NOTE TAKING SYSTEMS

THE CORNELL METHOD

- The Cornell method provides a systematic format for condensing and organizing
notes without laborious recopying. After writing the notes in the main space, use the
left-hand space to label each idea and detail with a key word or "cue."

METHOD:

Rule your paper with a 2 ½ inch margin on the left leaving a six-inch area on the right in
which to make notes. During class, take down information in the six-inch area. When the
instructor moves to a new point, skip a few lines. After class, complete phrases and
sentences as much as possible. For every significant bit of information, write a cue in the left
margin. To review, cover your notes with a card, leaving the cues exposed. Say the cue out
loud, then say as much as you can of the material underneath the card. When you have said
as much as you can, move the card and see if what you said matches what is written. If you
can say it, you know it.

Advantages
● Organized and systematic for recording and reviewing notes.
● Easy format for pulling out major concept and ideas. Simple and efficient. Saves time
and effort. "Do-it-right-in-the-first-place" system.

Disadvantages
● None
● When to Use
● In any lecture situation.

THE OUTLINING METHOD

Dash or indented outlining is usually best except for

some science classes such as physics or math.
1. The information which is most general begins at the left with each more specific
group of facts indented with spaces to the right.
2. The relationships between the different parts is carried out through indenting.
3. No numbers, letters, or Roman numerals are needed.

METHOD:
Listening and then write in points in an organized
pattern based on space indention. Place major points
farthest to the left. Indent each more specific point to
the right. Levels of importance will be indicated by
distance away from the major point. Indention can be
as simple as or as complex as labeling the indentations
with Roman numerals or decimals. Markings are not
necessary as space relationships will indicate the
major/minor points.

Advantages
● Well-organized system if done right. Outlining records content as well as
relationships. It also reduces editing and is easy to review by turning main points into
questions.
Disadvantages
● Requires more thought in class for accurate organization. This system may not show
relationships by sequence when needed. It doesn't lend to diversity of a review attach
for maximum learning and question application. This system cannot be used if the
lecture is too fast.

When to Use:

The outline format can be used if the lecture is presented in outline organization. This may
be either deductive (regular outline) or inductive (reverse outline where minor points start
building to a major point). Use this format when there is enough time in the lecture to think
about and make organization decisions when they are needed. This format can be most
effective when your note taking skills are super sharp and you can handle the outlining
regardless of the note taking situation.

Example:

Extrasensory perception
– definition: means of perceiving without use of sense organs.
• three kinds
– telepathy: sending messages
– clairvoyance: forecasting the future
– psychokinesis: perceiving events external to situation
• current status
– no current research to support or refute
– few psychologists say impossible
– door open to future

THE MAPPING METHOD

Mapping is a method that uses comprehension/concentration skills and evolves in a note

taking form which relates each fact or idea to
every other fact or idea. Mapping is a graphic
representation of the content of a lecture. It is a
method that maximizes active participation, affords
immediate knowledge as to its understanding, and
emphasizes critical thinking

Advantages
● This format helps you to visually track your lecture regardless of conditions. Little
thinking is needed and relationships can easily be seen. It is also easy to edit your
notes by adding numbers, marks, and color coding. Review will call for you to
restructure thought processes which will force you to check understanding. Review
by covering lines for memory drill and relationships. Main points can be written on
flash or note cards and pieced together into a table or larger structure at a later date.
Disadvantages
● You may not hear changes in content from major points to facts.

When to Use
● Use when the lecture content is heavy and well-organized. May also be used
effectively when you have a guest lecturer and have no idea how the lecture is going
to be presented.

THE CHARTING METHOD

If the lecture format is distinct (such as chronological),

you may set up your paper by drawing columns and
labeling appropriate headings in a table.

METHOD

Determine the categories to be covered in the lecture.

Set up your paper in advance by columns headed by
these categories. As you listen to the lecture, record
information (words, phrases, main ideas, etc.) into the
appropriate category.

Advantages
● Helps you track conversation and dialogues where you would normally be confused
and lose out on relevant content. Reduces amount of writing necessary. Provides
easy review mechanism for both memorization of facts and study of comparisons and
relationships.
Disadvantages
 ● Few disadvantages except learning how to use the system and locating the
appropriate categories. You must be able to understand what's happening in the
lecture

When to Use:

Test will focus on both facts and relationships.

Content is heavy and presented fast. You want to
reduce the amount of time you spend editing and
reviewing at test time. You want to get an overview of
the whole course on one big paper sequence

THE SENTENCE METHOD

Method

Write every new thought, fact or topic on a separate line, numbering as you progress.

Advantages
● Slightly more organized than the paragraph. Gets more or all of the information.
Thinking to tract content is still limited.
Disadvantages
● Can't determine major/minor points from the numbered sequence. Difficult to edit
without having to rewrite by clustering points which are related. Difficult to review
unless editing cleans up relationship

When to Use:

Use when the lecture is somewhat organized, but heavy with content which comes fast. You
can hear the
different points, but you don't know how they fit
together. The instructor tends to present in point
fashion, but not in grouping such as "three related
points."

Example 1:
A revolution is any occurrence that affects other
aspects of life, such as economic life, social life,
and so forth. Therefore revolutions cause change.
(See page 29 to 30 in your text about this.)

Sample Notes:
Revolution - occurrence that affects other aspects
of life: e.g., econ., socl., etc. C.f. text, pp. 29-30

Example 2:
Melville did not try to represent life as it really was.
The language of Ahab, Starbuck, and Ishmael, for
instance, was not that of real life.

Sample Notes:
Mel didn't repr. life as was; e.g., lang. of Ahab, etc.
not of real life

Example 3:
At first, Freud tried conventional, physical methods of
treatment such as giving baths, massages, rest cures, and similar aids. But when these
failed, he tried techniques of hypnosis that he had seen used by Jean-Martin Charcot.
Finally, he borrowed an idea from Jean Breuer and used direct verbal communication to get
an unhypnotized patient to reveal unconscious thoughts.

Sample Notes:
Freud 1st -- used phys. trtment; e.g., baths, etc. This fld. 2nd --used hypnosis (fr. Charcot)
Finally -- used dirct vrb. commun. (fr. Breuer) - got unhynop, patnt to reveal uncons.
thoughts.

MOOD

What is mood?
● LIFE DEFINITION
● How you are feeling at a given time
● LITERATURE DEFINITION
● The reader’s emotional response
● The atmosphere of a story

“Mood” in Grammar

●DEFINITION: The form a verb takes to indicate the ATTITUDE of the person using the
verb.

Tense, Voice, Mood

●TENSE – shows time (past, present, future)

●VOICE – shows who’s doing an action or having action done to them
●MOOD – shows attitude (telling a fact, giving a command, expressing a wish)
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Indicative Mood
● Express a fact, opinion, or question
It is 84 degrees in here.
I think I am going to pass out.
Can we please turn the heat down?

Imperative Mood
● Direct command or request

Show me the money.

Now give me the money.
Don’t call the police.

Subjunctive Mood

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE:
- To express a suggestion, a necessity, or an indirect command/order

PAST SUBJUNCTIVE:
- To express an untrue condition, or a wish or desire.

What does the subjunctive mood look like?

Common verbs:

ask, demand, determine, insist, move, order, pray, prefer, recommend, regret, request,
require, suggest, and wish.

What does the subjunctive mood look like?

Present Subjunctive:

The teacher recommended that I be in her class.

I recommend that you be on time the rest of the year.
The judge suggested that we be given first prize.

Present subjunctive cntd.

●I demand that he do the assignment.
●Her mom insisted that she not play tomorrow night.
●I insist that Michael come early.
●I strongly suggest that he cooperate with the police.

PAST SUBJUNCTIVE

I wish you were in my English class.

I wish Mr. McGowan weren’t so awesome.

If I were you, I wouldn’t do that.

What mood? Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive?
● Maria translates articles into Spanish.
● I wish you were here.
● Bring me the towels.
● I suggest that you be quiet now.
● Please be quiet.
● The coach asked that each player practice twice each day.
● The coach wishes the rugby team be more motivated.

Moods of the Verb

- Verb moods are classifications that indicate the attitude of the speaker. Verbs have
three moods—indicative, imperative, and subjunctive.

Indicative and imperative moods

The indicative and the imperative moods are fairly common.

You use the indicative mood in most statements and questions.

He walks every day after lunch.

Does he believe in the benefits of exercise?

You use the imperative in requests and commands. Imperative statements have an
understood subject of “you” and therefore take second‐person verbs.

Sit down. ([ You] sit down.)

Please take a number. ([ You] please take a number.)

Subjunctive Mood
- Verb tenses in the subjunctive mood are used in special kinds of statements. The
most common use of the subjunctive mood is in contrary‐to‐fact or hypothetical
statements. In your own writing, you must decide which statements should be in the
subjunctive mood. If something is likely to happen, use the indicative. If something is
hypothetical, or contrary to fact, use the subjunctive.

Present tense subjunctive

If I were king, you would be queen. (In the subjunctive, were is used for all persons.)

If he worked, he could earn high wages.

Past tense subjunctive

If I had been king, you would have been queen.

If he had worked, he could have earned high wages.

These contrary‐to‐fact statements have two clauses: the if clause and the consequences
clause. The forms of the verbs in these clauses are different from those of verbs used in the
indicative mood.

In the if clause, use the subjunctive.

Table 1 shows how it is formed. Note that the subjunctive present tense is the same as the
indicative past tense.

Table 1. Present Subjunctive

Verb to be: were

If I were king, If he were king.

Other verbs: worked

If I worked, If he worked.

Note in Table 2 how the subjunctive past tense is the same as the indicative past perfect
tense.

Table 2. Past Subjunctive

Verb to be: had been

If I had been king, If he had been king.

Other verbs: had worked

If I had worked, If he had worked.

In the consequences clause, use the conditional (Tables 3 and 4), which is formed with could
or would.

Table 3. Present Conditional

could, would + base form of verb

You would be queen.

He could earn high wages.

Table 4. Past Conditional

could, would + have + past participle of verb

You would have been queen.

He could have earned high wages.

Not all clauses beginning with if are contrary to fact. When an if clause indicates something
that is likely to happen, use the indicative, not the subjunctive.

If I study hard [likely to happen], I will pass the test.

If his fever continues to fall [likely to happen], he will recover.

IMPLICATION VS INFERENCE

Commonly Confused Words: infer / imply

Both imply and infer are verbs.

Both verbs have to do with the communication of information.

The difference between the two is that imply refers to giving information, while infer refers
to receiving information.

Imply
- Imply means to strongly suggest the truth or existence of something that is not
expressly stated.
- The speaker, or someone who is giving information, may imply something.

Infer
- Infer means to deduce or conclude information from evidence and reasoning rather
than from explicit statement of that information.
- The listener, or someone who is receiving information, may infer something.

Remember:

One who gives information implies.

but
One who receives information infers.

VERB TENSE

● Regular verbs - when a verb become past tense, it follows -ed.

● Irregular verbs - when a verb become past tense, it changes the word or certain
letters.

TENSES
SIMPLE
PROGRESSIVE
PERFECT
SIMPLE TENSES
● PRESENT TENSE
● PAST TENSE
● FUTURE TENSE
● PRESENT TENSE

Present tense
- action of the verb is happening now.
Ex: She talks now.
Ex: They speak well.

Past Tense
- Action of the verb has already happened.
- To make a verb past tense, add –ed if it is a regular verb.
•Ex: She talked yesterday.

Irregular verb—use past from the chart

Ex: They spoke well.
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Future tense
● The action of the verb has not happened yet, but it will.
● To make a verb future tense, add will or shall to the front of the verb.
•Ex: She will talk tomorrow.
•Ex: They will speak well.

PROGESSIVE TENSES
● Made up of a verb phrase
● Main verb uses—ing at the end of ALL progressive tenses.

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

● This tense is used to describe an action that is occurring right now (at this moment,
today, this year, etc.). The action has begun and is still in progress.
● Uses the helping verbs am, is, and are
• Am is used with the subject I
•Ex: I am talking to you.
•Is will be used if your subject is singular.
•Ex: She is talking to you.
•Are is used if your subject is plural.
•Ex: They are talking to you.

PAST PROGRESSIVE TENSE

● The past progressive is used to talk about an activity that was in progress at a
specific point of time in the past. The emphasis is on the duration of the activity in
the past.
● Uses the helping verbs was and were
 ● Use was if your subject is singular.
•Ex: He was talking to you.
● Use were if your subject is plural.
•Ex: They were talking to you.

PERFECT TENSES
● Is made up of a verb phrase
● Add –ed to the end of the main verb if the action verb is a regular verb.
● Use perfect tense chart if verb is irregular.
● Uses helping verbs have, has, or had BEFORE the main verb.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

● The present perfect is used to talk about an event that began in the past and
continues up to the present.
● Use has if your subject is singular.
•Ex: She has talked to you already.
● Use have if your subject is plural.
•Ex: They have talked to you already.
● Ex with irregular verb: She has known you for a while.

PAST PERFECT TENSE

● This tense describes completed events that took place in the past before another
past event.
● Uses the helping verb had plus the main verb with –ed on the end if it is a regular
verb.
•Example: She had talked to you before you ordered the gift.
•Example(irregular verb) They had known about the play.

20 Rules of Subject Verb Agreement

Can’t we all just get along?

1. Subjects and verbs must agree in number.

● Singular subject = singular verb
● Plural subject = plural verb
● Cow= singular, eats= singular
● Ducks= plural, quack= plural
● *Hint*= SVS- singular verbs have an S
● Singular yes?- the verb has an “S”!
● Singular no? The “S” has to go!

2. Don’t get confused by the words that come between the subject and verb.
● The detective who was called to the case is usually very good.

3. Prepositional phrases between the subject and verb usually do not affect the
agreement.
 - The biker in this race is very competitive.
- The bikers in this race are very competitive.

4. If a sentence starts with “there” or “ here”, the subject will always be placed after
the verb.

- There is a meeting today.

- Here are the results from this past month.

5. Subjects can come after the verb in questions.

● Does Betty always play with dolls?

● How are the Bosco sticks today?

6. If two subjects are joined by “and”, they typically require a plural verb.

● The puppy and the lady are friends.

7. If two subjects are separated by “and” refer to the same thing, the verb is singular.

● Spaghetti and meatballs is my favorite pasta dish.

8. If both subjects are singular and connected by or, nor, neither/nor, either/or and not
only/but also, the verb is singular.

● Sally or Bubba has stolen the scarecrow.

● Not only the guitar player but also the drummer was soaked with sweat.

9. If both subjects are plural and connected by the words or, nor, neither/nor,
either/or, and not only/but also, the verb is plural.

● Cookies or brownies are nice treats for your teacher.

10. If one subject is singular and one plural and are connected by the words or, nor,
neither/nor, either/or, and not only/but also, use the subject that is nearest the verb.

● Either my sisters or my mom has sent me a present.

● Not only Bob but also the Smiths want some hamburgers for supper.

11. Units of measurement usually use a singular verb.

● Six gallons of paint was used on the house.

● Five dollars is too much for a cup of coffee.

12. Collective nouns usually take a singular verb.

● The herd is stampeding.

● The class was ready for the test.
13. Titles of books, movies, novels, etc. are treated as singular.

● Holes was one of my favorite books.I want to see the movie.

14. Two infinitives separated by and take a plural verb.

● To run and to read are my two favorite “Free-time” activities.

15. Gerunds alone take a singular verb. Gerunds linked by and take a plural verb.

● Dancing is not something everyone can do as well as I can!

16. If the words each, every or no come before the subject, the verb is singular.

● Each boy and girl has to take the test.

● Every frog and toad turns into a prince.
● No paper and pen is required.
(But an apple would be nice!:)
● Dancing and singing come naturally to me!

17. Most indefinite pronouns take singular verbs.

Little One * Everybody is happy.

Another Neither * No one has a dime.
Much Either * Nothing was going to help.
Each

● one
● body
● thing
● someone
● somebody
● something
● anyone
● anybody
● anything
● No one
● nobody
● nothing
● everyone
● everybody
● everything

18. Both, few, many, others, and several take a plural verb.

● Several need to finish the race.

● A few have the right answer.
19. When the subject is all, any, more, most, none, or some, this is the ONLY time you
must look at the object of the prepositional phrase to determine whether it is singular
or plural.

● All of the chickens have laid eggs.

● Some of the milk has spilled.

20. Final rule- Remember, only the SUBJECT affects the verb!

QUIZ DRILL

Example:

1. indicative

Victor [enjoys] skating; however, he [doesn't skate] very often.

The indicative mood is used to make a statement about something factual or to ask a
question. In this example, the speaker is making a factual statement about an activity that
Victor enjoys.

2. imperative

Please [don't forget] to water the plants.

The imperative mood is used to give an order or direction, or to make a request. Here, the
speaker is using the imperative mood to make a polite request. Note that the statement can
be in the negative.

3. indicative

Today, I [am meeting] my friends for a coffee at the Corner Café.

The indicative mood is used to make a statement about something factual or to ask a
question. In this example, the speaker is making a factual statement about something that is
about to occur.

4. subjunctive

I suggest that you [dress] warmly because the temperature is dropping.

The subjunctive mood is used in “that” clauses following a verb that expresses a
suggestion or demand, such as the following: suggest, propose, recommend, advise, ask,
command, demand, desire, insist, request, urge.

5. indicative
[Do] you [know] where everyone has gone?

The indicative mood is used to make a statement about something factual or to ask a
question. In this example, the speaker is asking a question about what the listener knows.

6. imperative

[Watch out] for the puddle!

The imperative mood is used to give an order or direction, or to make a request. Here, the
speaker is using the imperative mood to give a direction.

7. subjunctive

To protect your head from a fall, it is important that you [wear] a helmet.

The subjunctive is used in a “that” clause following an expression of necessity or urgency,

such as the following: It is best (that), It is crucial (that), It is desirable (that), It is essential
(that), It is imperative (that), It is important (that), It is recommended (that), It is urgent (that),
It is vital (that).

8. subjunctive

If I [were] to be late, you would have to leave without me.

The subjunctive mood can be used to express an unreal, or non-factual, situation. In this
case, the unreal situation is an unlikely possibility. “If I were to be late…” means that the
person speaking does not really expect to be late but is acknowledging that it might happen.

9. imperative

Please [help] yourself to some homemade soup and crusty bread.

The imperative mood is used to give an order or direction, or to make a request. Here, the
speaker is using the imperative mood to make a polite request.

10. indicative

If they [were seen] breaking into the building, they will face charges.

The indicative mood is used to make a statement about something factual or to ask a
question. In this case, the "if" clause is describing a situation that may really have happened
(and is therefore factual), rather than an unreal situation; so the verb is in the indicative
mood.

What are “verb tenses”

 ● “Verb Tense” is a combination of “time” and “aspect” of an action.
● “time” refers to past and present--some
● would include future
● “aspect” refers to simple, progressive, and
● perfect

Time in Verb Tense

- The time in verb tense is mainly present and past.
- Future time is shown by using will (a modal) or be going to/be V+ing (progressive
forms)NOTE: The first word in the verb phrase will show time.

Present Time
Most present time verbs use the base form.
● walk→ I walk everyday.
● have→ We have seen it
He, she, and it subjects add an -s/-es to the verb.
● walk→ She walks everyday.
● be→ He is working right now.

Past Time
Past time phrases are noted by adding -ed (or
using an irregular form)
● walk→ walked
● run→ ran
● have→ had
● be→ was/were

Future Time
Future is usually noted by using the modal will
or the progressive be going to
● walk→ will walk
● [be] going to walk

Future Time pt 2
However, it is important to understand that future can be implied in a number of ways.

Other Modals
● We can go there tomorrow.
Present Progressive
● They are meeting next Wednesday

Aspects of Verbs
The three aspects of verbs include:
● Simple
● Progressive
● Perfect
NOTE: Perfect and Progressive may be used
together (i.e., “perfect progressive”).
Simple Aspect
Simple aspect will not modify the main verb.
Only the rules of time will apply.
● walk→ walk/walks/walked
This is used to state basic information such as
facts, beliefs, knowledge, opinions, etc.

Simple Usage
Present is used to talk about:
● habits/routine
● She studies two hours a day.
● They will meet on weekends.
● statements of fact/opinion
● We lived in Hawaii.
● The sun is a star.
● I like pizza.

Progressive Aspect
Progressive aspect focus on the action in the
verb. It refers to a state-of-being at the time of
the action.
● Form: [be] + main verb (present participle)
● walk→ am walking, is walking, are walking, were walking, was walking

Progressive Usage
Progressive is used to talk about:
● at the time:
o We are working on a project right now.
o Last night, they were dancing at the party.
● state of being:
o He is being so annoying!
o I was feeling kind of tired.

Perfect Aspect
Perfect forms focus on possible completion of
an action. Perfect verbs will have a start and
end point.
● Form: [have] + main verb (past participle)
● walk→ have walked, has walked, had walked

Perfect Usage
Perfect aspect is used to talk about:
● completion
o We have won!
o They have built a new headquarters downtown.
● events in the past
o After I had eaten lunch, my friends invited me to join them.
Perfect Progressive
Perfect Progressive combines focus on action
with a sense of possible completion.
● Form: [have] + been + main verb (present participle)
● walk→ have been walking, has been walking, had been walking

Perfect Progressive Usage

Perfect Progressive is used to talk about:
● recently completed
o I have been looking for you.
● incomplete
o She has been preparing for her driving test.
● new habits
o He has been running every morning.

Verb Order
● Verbs will always follow the same pattern.
● Any verbs that are used will have a specific effect on the verb that follows.
● All variants are optional, except the main verb.
● The first word will indicate the time frame

1. Modal (followed by the base form)

2. Perfect (followed by the past participle)
3. Progressive (followed by the present participle)
4. Passive* (followed by the past participle)
5. Main Verb

Examples of Verb Order

1. I walk.
2. I am walking.
3. I have been walking.
4. I could have been walking.

1. She jogs.
2. She can jog.
3. She might be jogging.
4. She would have jogged.
5. She may have been jogging

Key Points to Remember

● Tense = Time Frame + Aspect
● Verbs must be applied in a specific order.
● The first word in the Verb Phrase will indicate the Time Frame.

SUBJECT - VERB AGREEMENT TEST 2

1. Neither James nor his friends ARE there.
2.The poet and the statesman WERE awarded.
3. Rice and curry IS my favourite dish.
4. My friend and guide HAS come.
5. Each boy and girl MAKES a separate report. ( make)
6. Two times three IS six.
7. He is one of the men who ACT as advisers. (act)
8. This is one of those problems which HAVE many solutions. (has)
9. The store, in addition to the farms WAS sold.
10. The coach, together with his assistants WAS praised.
11. The husband as well as the wife NEEDS advice. (need)
12. The jury WERE divided in their opinion.
13. The jury IS finally complete.
14. The family HOLD an annual gathering. (holds)
15. The family HAS never been able to agree on a single issue.
16.Measles IS a complicated disease.
17.Three fourths of the house WAS constructed.
18. None but the brave DESERVE fair. ( deserves)
19. Which of those pens IS yours?
20. The value of the things IS not up to the mark.
21. Some of the water HAS gone.
22. Neither of the two traffic lights IS working.
23. Either IS fine with me.
24. Either my father or my brothers ARE going to sell the house.
25. IS either my father or my brothers responsible?
26. There ARE two reasons.
27. There IS no reason for this.
28. My glasses ARE on the bed.
29. A pair of plaid trousers IS in the closet.
30. A larger percentage of the older population IS voting against him.
31.Two- fifths of the troops WERE lost in the battle.
32. Two-fifths of the vineyard WAS destroyed by fire.
33. Two and two ARE four.
34. Four times four divided by two IS eight.
35. It is not the faculty members but the president who DECIDES this issue. (decide)
36.The department members but not the chairman DECIDE (decides) not to teach on
Sunday.
37.Fourty percent of the students ARE in favour of changing the policy.
38.Fourty percentage of the student’s body IS informed of changing the policy.
39.The colour of the books IS decent.
40. The members along with the president WAS invited to the party.

1. Who cooks food in your family when your Mom is away?

2. Where is John? He is repairing his car in the garbage.
3. I love this film. I have seen it four or five times already.
4. Have you visited any european countries? - Yes, I visited spain and italy two years
ago.
5. She was cleaning the living room when she heard a strange noise in the kitchen.
 6. I envy you. At five tomorrow you will be getting some tan on the beach at the
seaside.
7. You arrived two days ago. You are going to leave next sunday. By the time you leave,
you will have spent nine days here.
8. Where is he? I have been waiting for him since three o’clock!
9. I went to belgium last month. I had never been there before, it’s a beautiful country.
10. He said that his mother will be very upset when she learned that he had lost his job.

Skimming and scanning are reading techniques that use rapid eye movement and
keywords to move quickly through text for slightly different purposes.

Skimming is reading rapidly in order to get a general overview of the material. For example,
When you read the text only in order to understand the thesis statement, in one or two lines.

Scanning is reading rapidly in order to find a specific facts. For example, When looking up a
word in a dictionary or finding your friend's name in the contacts directory of your phone.

Types of Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions affect the meaning of your

sentence.
● “Or” is used to offer a choice.
Ex. Do I want popcorn or pizza?
● Nor” is used to offer a negative choice.
Ex. I do not want popcorn nor pizza.
● “Yet” is used to show a change. When it is used to combine two sentences, you must
put a comma before it.
Ex. I want popcorn, yet I also want pizza.
● “So” is used to show a relationship between things. When it is used to combine two
sentences, you must put a comma before it.
Ex. I want popcorn, so I made some.
● For” is also used to show a relationship between things. When it is used to combine
two sentences, you must put a comma before it.
Ex. I ordered a pizza, for I was hungry.

A subordinating conjunction- Connects a dependent clause (a clause that cannot be

written as a separate sentence) with an independent clause.

IF, WHILE, BECAUSE, ALTHOUGH, AFTER, BEFORE, UNLESS, WHEN, UNTIL, SINCE,
THEN, AS
● We celebrated after we won the game.
● Because our train was delayed, we arrived late.
● Watson listened quietly while Holmes explained his theory

Correlative conjunctions connect words, phrases, and

clauses, which are sentences.
 ● Correlative conjunctions connect things of equal value. (This means that they will
connect a verb with another verb or a sentence with another sentence.)Types of
Conjunctions
● Correlative Conjunctions are not single words. They work in pairs.

There are five pairs of correlative conjunctions:

● both....and
● whether....or
● neither....nor
● not only.... but also
● either....or

Examples of Correlative Conjunctions

● I saw both the Statue of Liberty and the Empire State Building.
● I don’t want neither pickles nor tomato on my hamburger.
● I don’t know whether to play baseball or to play basketball this year.
● Either the student or the teacher can answer the question.
● Not only do I play the flute, but I also play the clarinet.

What is an Interjection?
● An interjection is something that interrupts a sentence.
● It is something that also expresses your emotions like happiness, fear, anger, or pain.

Some examples of interjections are:

● ouch, wow, uh oh, oh no, gosh, shhhh

Punctuating Interjections
● If an interjection is spoken calmly, simply put a comma after it and continue the
sentence.

Ex. Shhh, the baby is sleeping.

Ex. Oh my, I dropped my pencil.

● If an interjection is spoken with more emotion, it is followed by an exclamation point.

The next word is then capitalized.

Ex. Ouch! I just cut my finger.

Ex. He scored the winning touchdown. Wow!

Cohesion and coherence

- terms used in discourse analysis to clarify the reliability of written discourses.

● Cohesion can be thought of as all the grammatical and lexical links that link one
part of a discourse to another. This includes use of synonyms, lexical sets,
pronouns, verb tenses, time references, grammatical reference, etc. For
example, 'it', 'neither' and 'this' all refer to an idea previously mentioned. 'First of
 all', 'then' and 'after that' help to sequence a discourse. 'However', 'in addition' and
'for instance' link ideas and arguments in a discourse.
● Coherence can be thought of as how meanings and sequences of ideas relate
to each other. Typical examples would be general> particular; statement>
example; problem> solution; question> answer; claim> counterclaim.

Coherent
● Coherent discourses make sense to the listener/ reader. Coherence in linguistics is
what makes a discourse semantically meaningful.

What does cohesion mean?

● You might think of cohesion as a means of establishing connections within a
discourse at all sorts of different levels, e.g., section, paragraphs, sentences and
even phrases.

How is cohesion different from coherence?

● It is difficult to separate the two. However, think of coherence as the discourse
making sense as a whole at an ideas level, and cohesion as rather more mechanical
links at a language level.
● You can imagine that it is possible for a piece of writing to contain plenty of cohesion
yet little coherence.
● Cohesion is the glue that holds a piece of writing together. In other words, if a paper
is cohesive, it sticks together from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to
paragraph.
● Cohesive devices certainly include transitional words and phrases, such as
therefore, furthermore, or for instance, that clarify for listeners/readers the
relationships among ideas in a piece of writing. However, transitions aren't enough to
make writing cohesive. Repetition of key words and use of reference words are also
needed for cohesion.

Coherence
● When sentences, ideas, and details fit together clearly, listeners/readers can follow
along easily, and the writing is coherent. The ideas tie together smoothly and clearly.
To establish the links that readers need, you can use the methods listed here.

Repetition of a Key Term or Phrase

● This helps to focus your ideas and to keep your listener/ reader on track.
Example: The problem with contemporary art is that it is not easily understood by most
people. Contemporary art is deliberately abstract, and that means it leaves the viewer
wondering what she is looking at.

Synonyms
● Synonyms are words that have essentially the same meaning, and they provide
some variety in your word choices, helping the listener/ reader to stay focused on the
idea being discussed.
Example: Myths narrate sacred histories and explain sacred origins. These traditional
narratives are, in short, a set of beliefs that are a very real force in the lives of the people
who tell them.

Pronouns
● This, that, these, those, he, she, it, they, and we are useful pronouns for referring
back to something previously mentioned. Be sure, however, that what you are
referring to is clear.

Example: When scientific experiments do not work out as expected, they are often
considered failures until some other scientist tries them again. Those that work out better the
second time around are the ones that promise the most rewards.

Transitional Words
● There are many words in English that cue our listeners/readers to relationships
between sentences, joining sentences together. Words such as however, therefore,
in addition, also, but, moreover, etc.

Example: I like autumn, and yet autumn is a sad time of the year, too. The leaves turn bright
shades of red and the weather is mild, but I can't help thinking ahead to the winter and the
ice storms that will surely blow through here. In addition, that will be the season of chapped
faces, too many layers of clothes to put on, and days when I'll have to shovel heaps of snow
from my car's windshield.

Sentence Patterns
● Sometimes, repeated or parallel sentence patterns can help the listener/reader follow
along and keep ideas tied together.

Example: (from a speech by President John F. Kennedy) And so, my fellow Americans: ask
not what your country can do for you--ask what you can do for your country.

"Cohesion is determined by lexically and grammatically overt intersentential relationships,

whereas coherence is based on semantic relationships."
-Connor

Usage - Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

● A pronoun is a word used to stand for (or take the place of) a noun.

● A word can refer to an earlier noun or pronoun in the sentence.

Example: President Lincoln delivered Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address in 1863.

We do not talk or write this way. Automatically, we replace the noun Lincoln's with a
pronoun. More naturally, we say
 President Lincoln delivered his Gettysburg Address in 1863.

The pronoun his refers back to President Lincoln.

President Lincoln is the ANTECEDENT for the pronoun his.

● An antecedent is a word for which a pronoun stands. (ante = "before")

● The pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number.

Rule: A singular pronoun must replace a singular noun; a plural pronoun must replace a
plural noun.

Thus, the mechanics of the sentence above look like this:

President Lincoln delivered his Gettysburg Address in 1863.

antecedent referent

Here are nine pronoun-antecedent agreement rules. These rules are related to the
rules found in subject-verb agreement.

1. A phrase or clause between the subject and verb does not change the number of the
antecedent.

Example:

The can of Lima beans sits on its shelf.

singular. singular

2. Indefinite pronouns as antecedents - Singular indefinite pronoun antecedents take

singular pronoun referents.

Singular:
● each, either neither one, no one, nobody, nothing, anyone, anybody, anything,
someone, somebody, something, everyone, everybody, everything.

Example:

Each of the clerks does a good deal of work around his or her office.

each and his/her are both singular.

● Plural indefinite pronoun antecedents require plural referents.

PLURAL: several, few, both, many

Example:
Both do a good job in their office.
plural plural

● Some indefinite pronouns that are modified by a prepositional phrase may be either
singular or plural.

EITHER SINGULAR OR PLURAL: some, any, none, all, most

when the object of the preposition is uncountable ——-> use singular referent pronoun.

Examples:

Some of the sugar fell out of its bag.

singular singular

● Sugar is uncountable; therefore, the sentence has a singular referent pronoun.

All of the jewelry has lost its glow.

singular.

● Jewelry is uncountable; therefore, the sentence has a singular referent pronoun.

When the object of the preposition is countable —-> use a plural referent pronoun.

Examples:

Some of the marbles fell out of their bag.

● Marbles are countable; therefore, the sentence has a plural referent pronoun.

All of the jewels have lost their glow.

● Jewels are countable; therefore, the sentence has a plural referent pronoun.

3. Compound subjects joined by and always take a plural referent.

Example:

Jones and Smith made their presentation.

plural

4. With compound subjects joined by or/nor, the referent pronoun agrees with the
antecedent closer to the pronoun.
 Example #1 (plural antecedent closer to pronoun):

Neither the director nor the actors did their jobs.

singular plural. plural

Example #2 (singular antecedent closer to pronoun):

Neither the actors nor the director did his or her job.
plural. singular. singular

Note: Example #1, with the plural antecedent closer to the pronoun, creates a smoother
sentence than example #2, which forces the use of the singular "his or her."

5. Collective Nouns (group, jury, crowd, team, etc.) may be singular or plural, depending on
meaning.

The jury read its verdict.

singular plural

● In this example, the jury is acting as one unit; therefore, the referent pronoun is
singular.

The jury members gave their individual opinions.

plural. plural

● In this example, the jury members are acting as twelve individuals; therefore, the
referent pronoun is plural.

The jury members disagreed among themselves.

plural. plural

● In this example, the jury members are acting as twelve individuals; therefore, the
referent pronoun is plural.

6. Titles of single entities. (books, organizations, countries, etc.) take a singular referent.

EXAMPLES:

The Grapes of Wrath made its characters seem real.

singular

The United States cherishes its democracy.

singular
7. Plural form subjects with a singular meaning take a singular referent. (news, measles,
mumps, physics, etc)

EXAMPLE:

The news has lost much of its sting two days ago.
singular

8. Every or Many a before a noun or a series of nouns requires a singular referent.

EXAMPLES:

Every cow, pig, and horse has lost its life in the fire.
singular

Many a girl wishes she could sing like Tina Turner.

singular

9. The number of vs A number of before a subject:

● The number of is singular.

The number of volunteers increases its ranks daily.

singular

● A number of is plural.

A number of volunteers are offering their help.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

Rules
● A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in both number and gender.
Ex. The Taylors landscaped their yard in an unusual way.

Ex. Kim regained her confidence after the

test.

Ex. The cheetah licked its chops.

Examples
● The doctor makes his or her rounds every day.
● Doctors make their rounds every day.

Collective Nouns
 ● When the antecedent of a pronoun is a collective noun, the number of the pronoun
depends upon whether the collective noun is used as singular or plural.

Ex. The class had its first meeting yesterday. ( Class is used as a single unit; therefore, the
singular pronoun is used.)

Agreement in person
● Incorrect: Henry lives in Tampa where you can sunbathe all year long.
● Correct: Henry lives in Tampa where he can sunbathe all year long.

● Incorrect: They like camping because you can be close to nature.

● Correct: They like camping because they can be close to nature.

Agreement with Indefinite Pronouns Antecedents

● When a pronoun’s antecedent is an indefinite pronoun, the pronoun must agree in
number with it.

Ex. Neither of the girls spent her entire allowance.

Ex. Several members missed their chance to speak with the president.

● When no gender is specified use both a masculine and feminine pronoun.

Ex. Each of the students should prepare his or her own homework.

● Use a singular pronoun to refer to each, either, neither, one, everyone, everybody, no
one, nobody, anyone, anybody, someone, or somebody.
Ex. Each of the teams had its mascot at the game.
Ex. One of the boys left his pen behind.

● The following indefinite pronouns are plural: both, few, many, and several

Examples:
● Many of the actors already know their lines.
● Both of the candidates clearly stated their positions on the issue.

● The indefinite pronouns all, any, more, most, none, and some may be singular or
plural depending on how they are used in a sentence. Most of these coins are rare,
but I don’t know what they are worth.

● Use a singular pronoun to refer to two or more singular antecedents joined by or or

nor.

Ex. Neither Heidi nor Beth took her umbrella with

her.

● Use a plural pronoun to refer to two or more antecedents joined by and.

Ex. The guide and the ranger wrapped their rain

ponchos in their saddle rolls.
 CONTEXT CLUES

The five types of context clues are:

1.) Definition/Explanation Clues

● Sometimes a word's or phrase's meaning is explained immediately after its use.

Example: "Haberdashery, which is a store that sells men’s clothing, is becoming more
common today.”

2.) Restatement/Synonym Clues

● Sometimes a hard word or phrase is said in a simple way.

Example: "Lou was sent to the haberdashery to find a new suit. He needed to wear one for
his uncle’s wedding."

● Because the sentence says that Lou would find a suit at the haberdashery, then it
must be a place where clothes for men are sold.

3.) Contrast/Antonym Clues

● Sometimes a word or phrase is clarified by the presentation of the opposite meaning
somewhere close to its use. Look for signal words when applying context clues.

Example: "Lou wanted to go to the haberdashery, but Ann wanted to shop at the boutique.”

● The signal word but tells the reader that an opposite thought is going to be stated.

4.) Inference/General Context Clues

● Sometimes a word or phrase is not immediately clarified within the same sentence.
● Relationships, which are not directly apparent, are inferred or implied. The reader
must look for clues within, before, and after the sentence in which the word is used.

Example: “The haberdashery was Lou’s favorite place. He loved shopping for nice suits.

● The people who worked there were so kind and helpful.”Readers can also use clues
of punctuation and type style to infer meaning, such as quotation marks (showing the
word has a special meaning), dashes , parentheses or brackets (enclosing a
definition), and italics (showing the word will be defined).

5.) Punctuation

Examples:
Tom's father was a haberdasher, or men’s shop keeper, in the story.
Tom's father was a haberdasher (men’s shop keeper) in the story.
In the story, Tom's father was a haberdasher-or men’s shop keeper.
Tom's father was a “haberdasher”. He had a clothing store for men.
Adjectives and Adverbs

Jacob ate slow, chewing his food thoroughly.

slowly. thorough

His mother was really impressed since she often accused him of bolting dinner.
real

Adjectives describe nouns.

The man lay on the couch.

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

The man flirted in a bold manner.

The man shamelessly flirted in an extremely bold manner.

What sounds right is not always correct!

Kenny thinks that he is really cool.

Totally hip people know that the adverb really needs to modify an adjective like cool!

QUICK TEST:

Farzana did poor on her algebra quiz. She

poorly
couldn’t concentrate well because her tablemate was chomping noisily on a piece of gum.

Lawrence cheated on the chemistry test, but he is still very happy with his A. (no change is
necessary.)

The excruciating long school day put Wanda in a bad mood.

excruciatingly
She was very tired and just wanted to go home to relax.

The horrifying news that Professor Anderson was assigning another 10-page paper made
his students complain bitter
bitterly
about his very hard requirements.
The duck quacked loud, hoping that we would throw it some
loudly
of our French fries.

Mr. Hodges says to quit gossiping about Veronica and finish typing his report real quick.
right now

We roasted in the very hot sun, sweat pouring profuse off our
profusely
skin. Thoughts of iced tea and lemonade plagued us mercilessly.

We moved into the new apartment real easy. Rebecca

easily
shamelessly flirted with some strong neighbors who were happy to help with the heavy
boxes.

Alex did good during his speeches, addressing his classmates

well
with confidence and poise. But he did poorly for the semester because he never submitted
homework punctually.

The incessant loud barks of her neighbor’s dogs kept Diane

incessantly
from getting a good night’s sleep. She did not feel well rested the next day.

ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS

RULES TO FOLLOW

ADJECTIVES
● Modifies Nouns
● Modifies Pronouns

Proper Adjectives: French fries, Spanish bread

Collective Adjectives: The rich of Connecticut are responsible

Possessive Adjectives: my , your, his, her

The bakery sold his favorite bread.

Children are neglected by their parents.

Demonstrative Adjectives this - these; that - those

● Pron. : This is my house.
● Adj. : This house is mine.

Interrogative Adjectives
● Pron.: What is your name?
● Adj.: What book are you reading?

Indefinite Adjectives
● Pron. Many attended the meeting.
● Adj: Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed.

DEFINITION OF AN ADJECTIVE:
● It tells what kind of person, place, or thing. A noun or a pronoun is.
● It may also point out which one or how many.

EXAMPLES:
● The ship was an English vessel. (what kind)
● This factory is mine. (which one)
● Many people enjoy the annual dinner. (how many, which one)

Order of Adjectives
● Determiners ( a, an, the)
● Observations (beautiful, interesting)
● Size and Shape (large, round)
● Age (young, old, new, ancient)
● Color (red, violet)
● Origin (Persian, Canadian, French)
● Material (woolen, metallic, wooden)
● Qualifier (rocking chair, hunting cabin)

Order of Adjectives in a Series

What’s the correct order?

● a glass Venetian ashtray
● a German brown beer-mug
● the three first days
● my two last jobs
● a black big cat
● the glass round table

ANS:
● a Venetian glass ashtray
● a brown German beer-mug
 ● the first three days
● my last two jobs
● a big black cat
● the round glass table

AN ADVERB:
● Modifies an active verb or a verb phrase by expressing manner, place, time, degree,
or number.

TYPES OF ADVERBS:
● Simple
● Interrogative
● Negative

EXAMPLES:
● SIMPLE:
– She moved quietly. (Manner and tell how)
– I waited there for an hour. (Place and tell where)
– You may leave soon. (Time, tells when)
– I called you once. (Number, tells how many)
– He sat very still. (Degree, tells how much)EXAMPLES:

Interrogative Adverb
● Introduces a sentence that asks a question
● where, when, why and how

EXAMPLES:
● Interrogative:
– When will you return?
– How is the trunk being sent?

Negative Adverb
● Denies or contradicts a statement
● no, not , never, only, scarcely and hardly

Note: two negative adverbs should not be used together.

EXAMPLES:
• Negative
- I can scarcely believe my eyes. ( correct)
- I haven’t no more sea shells. (incorrect)

Familiar Adverbs to Know

● almost
● finally
● seldom
 ● unusually
● certainly
● hardly
● quite
● so
● usually
● just
● rather
● very
● rather
● fairly
● nearly
● too
● scarcely
● well

Using Formal and Informal Language Appropriately

Art Imitates Life

● In writing, formal and informal language work in a similar way… to influence tone,
which, in turn, speaks to your audience.

Tone
● Tone is defined as the writer’s attitude toward the subject matter and his or her
readers.

Audience
● The audience is your reader or listener– the recipient of your verbal or written
communication.

Diction
● Diction is word choice
● Word choice is important in establishing tone

Three levels of diction:

1. high or formal diction
2. neutral diction
3. informal or low diction

Characteristic of Formal and Informal Language Informal

Formal
● serious
● objective
● impersonal
● reasoned
● controlled
 ● reserved

Informal
● light
● humorous
● personal
● casual
● offhanded
● "loose"
● plainspoken
● simple

Why does it even matter?

● Official or serious situations are often signaled by the use of formal language, while
ordinary or relaxed situations are signaled by the use of informal language.

What determines formal or informal:

● public versus private occasion,
● The size of the audience,
● The relationship of the speaker/writer with the audience,
● The ability to vary your language according to the situation is often considered a
mark of an educated person.

Certain Situations

Formal Situations
● job interview
● principal’s office visit
● business letter
● class essay

Informal Situations
● text message
● friendly letter
● “locker” conversation
● Journal-style writing

What makes INFORMAL language?

● Simple grammatical structure
● Personal evaluation
– Using first person
– Using forms of “you”
● Colloquial or slang vocabulary
– Contractions are considered slang

What makes FORMAL language?

 ● Formal language, even when spoken, is often associated with the conventions
expected of written standard English.
● Although you generally don’t worry as much about formality in speaking, it is
extremely important in writing because of the knowledge you are recording through
the written word.

Remember… when you are speaking, writing or analyzing language in a formal situation…

● Formal language does not use contractions

● Avoids personal pronouns such as: you, I, us, me, and we
● Includes more polysyllabic words—BIGGER words
● Complex, complete sentences
● Avoidance of colloquial or slang vocabulary
● Exclamation marks
● Needless words like “well” and “you know”
● First and second person point of view
● Beginning sentences with coordinating conjunctions
● Too many short, choppy sentences that could be combined to make more complex
sentence structures

What to avoid in formal writing…

● Avoid most shortenings in formal writing. In formal English, you talk on the
“telephone,” not the “phone”
● Know what acronyms may be used in your writing. In formal English, you should limit
your use of acronyms, abbreviations making use of letters that stand for certain
words
● Similarly, limit your use of absolute terms, such as "everybody," "always," "never"

Common Colloquialisms and Informal Words

•A lot, alot
•Ain't
•Alright, all right
•Anyways
•Anybody, anyone
•As
•Big, large great
•Buy
•Contraption
•Could of, would of, should of
•Cute
•Fellow
•For sure
•Get, obtain
•Get, understand
•Gonna, wanna
•Got
•How come
•How do you do
•Humongous
•Kid
•Kinda, kind of, sorta, sort of
•Let
•Like
•Most
•On the other hand
•Pretty
•Real, really
•Shall, will, should, would
•So
•Thus, thusly
•Until, till, ‘til
•Use
•Use to
•Yeah

Formal or Informal?

•The project will be completed next year. Formal

•We’ll finish this job next year. Informal
• We did some experiments. Infomall
•The students conducted an experiment. Formal
• The decision will be expected at 9:00 A.M. Formal
•You have to decide at 9:00! Informal
•The idea is better than mine. Formal
•I think your idea will help solve this problem. Informal
•Please place new items in the container near the door. Formal
•Put them by the door. Informal

PREPOSITIONS

- Preposition is a word, which is used before a noun, a noun phrase or a pronoun ,

connecting it to another word.

Kinds of Prepositions:
● Simple prepositions: Prepositions which consists only one word.
e.g. in, on, at, with, against etc..,
● Compound prepositions: Prepositions which consists of two or more words.
e.g. instead of, in the middle of, by the side of etc..,

Some prepositions
● on, through, behind, for, beneath, against, beside, over, during, without, abroad,
across, among, against, around ,at the end, at the bottom, between, behind, below,
 by , inside , corner, into, via, after , to , about ,in, on, at, since ,while, under, over,
right, left

Kinds of Prepositions
There are three types in prepositions

● Place of Prepositions
● Time of Prepositions
● Direction of Prepositions

Prepositions of Place
● Some prepositions show where something happens. They are called prepositions of
place.

Examples:
•Sanny was sitting under a tree.
•There’s a wooden floor underneath the carpet.
• Some geese flew over their house.
•John and Sarah were hiding inside the wardrobe.
•There was a tree beside the river.
•I have a friend who lives in America.

Prepositions of Place: AT, IN, ON

● In general, we use:

at - for a POINT
at the corner, at the bus stop, at the door
in - for an ENCLOSED SPACE
in the garden, in London, in my wallet
on - for a SURFACE
on the wall, on the ceiling, on a page

Notice the use in these standard expressions

at in on
at home in a car on a bus
at work in a taxi on a train
at school. in a helicopter on a plane
at university in a boat on a ship
at the top in a lift on the left
at the bottom in the newspaper on the way
at the side in the sky
at reception in Oxford Street
Prepositions of Time
● Some prepositions show when something happens. They are called prepositions of
time.

Examples:
•School starts at nine o’clock.
•We’re going to the zoo on Saturday.
•No, you can’t watch a video. It’s past your bedtime already.
•I visited my grandparents during the summer.
•You must finish the work by Friday.
•I’ll do my homework before dinner.

Prepositions of Time: AT, IN, ON

● In general, we use:

at - for a PRECISE TIME

at 3 o’clock, at noon, at dinnertime
in - for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS
in May, in summer, in 1990,
on - for DAYS and DATES
on Sunday, on 6 March, on Christmas Day

Notice the use in these standard expressions

at in on
at night in the morning on Tuesday morning
at the weekend in the afternoon on Sunday evening
at Christmas
at the same time
at present

Prepositions of Direction
● Some prepositions show where something is going. They are called prepositions of
direction.

Examples:-
•The boys chased after each other.
•The football rolled down the hill.
•A man was walking his dog along the riverbank.
•The freeway goes right through the city.
•We were travelling towards Miami.

Prepositions with special uses

● Our modules are full of real life examples.
 ● I ate a plate of rice and a quarter of milk.
● Would you like a glass of lemon juice?
● I need three pieces of paper.
● Most of the children in my class like Education.
● There are several ways of cooking Upma.

Usage of “FOR”
• I made this bookmark for Mom.
• Is there room for me on this seat?
• I’d like a new computer for Christmas.
• We’re going downtown for a meeting. I made this gift for my mother.
• Is there place for me on this seat?
• I’d like a new Laptop for Next year..

Usage of “WITH”
• He pounds nails with a hammer.
• Mix the flour with water.
• She painted the picture with her new paints.
• Would you like to come with us to the cinema?
• I can do difficult problems with help from Mom.
• Who is the man with the beard?

Usage of “EXCEPT” AND “INSTEAD OF”

•I like all kinds of food except Upma.
•Everyone likes chocolate except Tom.
•We go to school every day except Saturday and Sunday.
•You should eat fruit instead of candy.
•Dad is coming to the theater with us instead of Mom.
•We could watch TV instead of reading our books.

Usage of “LIKE”, “AS” and “THAN”

• Kathleen looks like her dad.
• Andrew smiles like his mother.
• Peter sings like a professional singer.
• Are these shoes the same as those?
• Sue is nearly as tall as the teacher.
• My backpack is bigger than John’s.
• Dad is taller than all of us.
• This painting is more beautiful than that one.
• The neighborhood streets are less busy than downtown streets.

Prepositions with Adjective ,Verbs .

 ● Prepositions are used with some adjectives. The adjectives in these examples are
printed in color.

• Dad was angry with us.

• We were afraid of the big dog.
• She’s not very interested in sports.
• John is very good at drawing.
• Mr. Lee is pleased with our work.
• The teachers are always kind to us.
• What’s wrong with the computer?

● Prepositions are used with some verbs. The verbs in these examples are printed in
color.

• I’m looking for my pencil. Have you seen it?

• Can you think of another word for ‘pleased’?
• Does this book belong to you?
• We’re listening to CDs.
• I agree with you.
• Tell me about the show you saw.
• Cut the cake into five pieces.
• They borrowed money from the bank.

● Prepositions are used with some nouns. The nouns in these examples are printed in
color.

• What’s the answer to this question?

• Is there a reason for this delay?
• What’s the matter with you?
• Here’s an example of good behavior.
• Congratulations on winning the competition!
• Traffic can cause damage to the environment.

Try:

1. A cat was sitting _______the roof of my car. (place)

2. Some people were talking ___the movie. (time)
3. A man was coming____ us on his bike. (direction)
4. The party starts_____ six o’clock. (time)
5. She put the book ____her bag. (place)
6. We walked____ the street to the park. (place)
7. She keeps her slippers____ her bed. (place)
8. We always wash our hands ____meals. (time)
9. She ran ____the dog because she was frightened. (direction)
Stress-Timed or Syllable-Timed?

What is a syllable?
● Sy-lla-ble = 3 syllables
● Or-ange = 2 syllables
● Foot = 1 syllable

What is stress?
● I don’t know what stress is, Rebecca!

Stress-Timed vs. Syllable-Timed Languages!

Stress-Timed Language
● English
● German
● Mandarin Chinese
● Swedish
● Norwegian
● Dutch

Syllable-Timed Languages
● Finnish
● Icelandic
● Cantonese Chinese
● French
● Italian
● Spanish

Discuss:
Is YOUR native language, or 2nd or 3rd language, stress-timed or syllable-timed? Does this
explain for any difficulties you have with intonation/word stress in English??

The MORE syllables in a sentence, the MORE time you need to pronounce the sentence.
^
FALSE! IT DEPENDS ON THE NUMBER OF STRESSED WORDS

1.Dogs chase cats.

2.The dogs chase cats.
3.The dogs chase the cats.
4.The dogs will chase the cats.
5.The dogs will be chasing the cats.

If the number (#) of stressed words is the same, you need approximately the same amount
of time!
Remember!
● English is a stress-timed language, NOT a syllable-timed language!
● If you can remember that English is stress-timed, then English will not be so stressful
for you. Ha, ha!

Not all of the words are stressed!

● Do you know how we classify/divide words in sentences in English?

● CONTENT words (stressed)

● Function / structure words (unstressed)

Rules for Sentence Stress in English

● The basic rules of sentence stress are:
•CONTENT words are STRESSED!
•Function / structure words are unstressed.
● The time between stressed words is always the same…

CONTENT words are STRESSED!

Function / structure words are unstressed.

An Exception to the Rule!

•Sometimes we can stress a word that would normally be only a structure word, for example,
to correct someone’s understanding.
“She speaks Spanish, doesn’t she?"
"No, she doesn’t, but SHE does.”

Function words (closed class words/grammatical words) are words that have little meaning
in the dictionary sense but which serve important functions to express grammatical
relationship with other words within a sentence.

KINDS OF FUNCTION WORD

● Articles
● Auxiliary verbs
● Conjunctions
● Determiners
● Intensifiers
● Prepositions
● Pronouns
● Intensifiers

ARTICLES
● Article is a type of determiner that precedes a noun.
There are two types of article in English:
1. definite article (the) - The definite article is a determiner that refers to a particular
person or thing.The may be used with a singular or a plural noun.
2. indefinite (a/an) - The indefinite article is a determiner which marks an unspecified
count noun. A/an is generally used with a single countable noun.

Cont…definite article
The can refer . . .
● back to another noun: She bought a car and a bike, but she used the bike more.
● to human institutions that we sporadically use, attend, observe, etc.

● I went to the theatre.

● I watched the news on TV

Cont…indefinite article
● Use a before a word that starts with a consonant sound ("a bat," "a unicorn")
● Use an before a word that starts with a vowel sound ("an uncle," "an hour").

AUXILIARY VERBS
● Auxiliary verbs are “helping” verbs that combine with various parts of other verbs to
make verb phrases.
● Kinds of auxiliary verb: be, have, do, modals

The verb "be"

● The verb be can be used as an auxiliary and a full verb. As an auxiliary we use this
verb for -ing present participle and the passive voice.

Note that be is an irregular verb:

● is, am, are
● was, were
● be, been

He is playing football. (aux. verb)

The house is/was built. (aux. verb)
He had been playing football. (aux. verb)
They are fifteen years old. (full verb)

The verb "have"

● The verb have can be used both as an auxiliary and as a full verb. As an auxiliary
we use this verb to form compound tenses (perfect tense) in active and passive
voice.
● he/she/it : has
● the/we/I/you : have
● he/she/it/they/we/I/you: had (past tense)

He has played football.

He had played football.
The house has/had been built.
I have a car. (full verb)

The verb "do"

● The verb do can be both an auxiliary and a full verb. As an auxiliary we use do in
negative sentences and questions for most verbs.
● Simple Present: I/we/you/they : do
● he/she/it : does
● Simple Past: I/he/she/it/we/you/they : did
● He does not play football.
● Does he play football?
● She does her homework every day. (full verb)

Modals
● Can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would.
● The modals can only be used as an auxiliary. Ex: He will not play football.
● Marginal modal can be used as either an auxiliary or a main verb : dare, need, ought
to, used to.

CONJUNCTIONS
● A conjunction is used to link words, phrases, and clauses.
● Kinds of conjunctions: Coordinating, subordinating, and correlative conjunctions.

Coordinating Conjunction
● A conjunction that joins two similarly constructed and/or syntactically equal words or
phrases or clauses within a sentence.
● FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
Ex:
● Dogs and cats are often do not get along. (comp. subject)
● The old woman slipped and fell on the pavement. (Comp. verb)
● The thief moved quickly and quietly. (comp. adverb)
● I can see you before two o’clock or after five. (comp. prep. Phrase)
● I cannot sing well, nor can I dance well. (comp. clause)

Subordinating Conjunction
● A conjunction that introduces a dependent clause.
● If I have much money, I will buy many books.
● Although I have many friends, I feel lonely.

Correlative Conjunction
● A paired conjunction that links balanced words, phrases, and clauses.
● The elements connected by correlative conjunctions are usually parallel--that is,
similar in length and grammatical form.
● These are the primary correlative conjunctions in English:
● both . . . and
● either . . . or
● neither . . . nor
● not . . . but
 ● not only . . . but also

Example
● Both Mark and I do the assignment.
● Not only the woman but (also) the man loved this strange little man.
● She will either pay for the ring or return it.
● Neither money nor power has made him arrogant.

DETERMINERS
● A word or a group of words that introduces a noun.
● Determiners include articles, demonstratives, quantifiers, and possessive
determiners.
● Article: the, a/an
● Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
● Quantifiers: all, some, much, many, a lot of, etc.
● Possessive determiners in English are my, your, his, her, its, our, and their

Demonstratives
● A determiner that points to a particular noun or to the noun it replaces. There are
four demonstratives in English: the "near" demonstratives this and these, and the
"far" demonstratives that and those.
● Example:
● That book is yours.
● These apples are rotten.

Quantifiers
● In grammar, a type of determiner (such as all, some, or much) that expresses a
contrast in quantity. It tells us how many or how much.
● Quantifiers usually appear in front of nouns (as in all children, five onions, a few good
men), but they may also function as pronouns (as in All have returned).
● Example:
● Few people visited him in hospital (= he had almost no visitors)
● He had little money (= almost no money)

Possessive determiner
● A determiner used in front of a noun to express possession or belonging (as in "my
phone").
● Example:
● Their bus was late.

INTENSIFIER
● A word that emphasizes another word or phrase.
● It's quite hot today.
● Ms. Stress is really busy right now.
● He's my very best friend.
PREPOSITIONS
● Prepositions are the words that indicate location. Usually, prepositions show this
location in the physical world.
Example:
The puppy is on the floor.
The puppy is in the trash can.
The puppy is beside the phone.

● Prepositions can also show location in time.

● Pay attention the next three examples:
● At midnight, Jill craved mashed potatoes with grape jelly.
● In the spring, I always vow to plant tomatoes but end up buying them at the
supermarket.
● During the marathon, Iggy's legs complained with sharp pains shooting up his thighs.
● Note: but means the same as except—Everyone ate frog legs but Jamie

PRONOUNS
● A word that takes the place of a noun, noun phrase, or noun clause.

Personal Pronouns
● A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to
indicate person, number, gender, and case.
● A subjective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as the subject of
the sentence. The subjective personal pronouns are "I," "you," "she," "he," "it," "we,"
"you," "they.“
● Example:
● I was glad to find the bus pass in the bottom of the green knapsack.
● You are surely the strangest child I have ever met.

● An objective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a

verb, compound verb, preposition, or infinitive phrase. The objective personal
pronouns are: "me," "you," "her," "him," "it," "us," "you," and "them."
● Example:
● After reading the pamphlet, Judy threw
● it into the garbage can.

● A possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of

possession and defines who owns a particular object or person. The possessive
personal pronouns are
● "mine," "yours," "hers," "his," "its,"
● "ours," and "theirs.“
● Example:
● The smallest gift is mine.

● A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun.

 ● "This" and "these" refer to things that are nearby either in space or in time, while
"that" and "those" refer to things that are farther away in space or time.
● Example:
● This must not continue.

● An interrogative pronoun is used to ask questions. The interrogative pronouns are

"who," "whom," "which," "what" and the compounds formed with the suffix "ever"
("whoever," "whomever," "whichever," and "whatever").
● Example:
● Whom do you think we should invite?
● Whoever told you to do such a thing?

● a relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause.
The relative pronouns are "who," "whom," "that," and "which." The compounds
"whoever," "whomever," and "whichever" are also relative pronouns.
● Example:
● The man who answered the phone was rude.
● You may invite whomever you like to the party.

● An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified

person or thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some.
● The most common indefinite pronouns are "all," "another," "any," "anybody,"
"anyone," "anything," "each," "everybody," "everyone," "everything," "few," "many,"
"nobody," "none," "one," "several," "some," "somebody,“
● Example:
● Many were invited to the lunch but only twelve
● showed up.

● A reflexive pronoun is used to refer back to the subject of the clause or

sentence.The reflexive pronouns are "myself," "yourself," "herself," "himself," "itself,"
"ourselves," "yourselves," and "themselves." Note each of these can also act as an
intensive pronoun.
● Example:
● After the party, I asked myself why I had faxed invitations to everyone in my office
building.

● An intensive pronoun is a pronoun used to emphasize its antecedent. Intensive

pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns.
● Example:
● They themselves promised to come to the party even though they had a final exam at
the same time.

INTERJECTION
● An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not
grammatically related to any other part of the sentence.
● In writing, an interjection is typically followed by an exclamation point.
Example:
Ouch, that hurt!
Oh no, I forgot that the exam was today.
Hey! Put that down!

What Is Descriptive Writing?

● Descriptive writing creates a picture of a person, place, thing, or event. Description
tells what something looks, sounds, smells, tastes, or feels like.

Elements of Descriptive Writing

● Good descriptive writing is comprised of five elements; Sensory Details, Figurative
Language, dominant impression, precise language, and Careful Organization.

1) Sensory Details
● Good descriptive writing includes many vivid sensory details that paint a picture and
appeals to all of the reader's senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste when
appropriate. Descriptive writing may also paint a pictures of the feelings the person,
place or thing invokes the writer.

2) Figurative Language
● Good descriptive writing often makes use of figurative language to help paint the
picture in the reader's mind. There are many ways to use figurative language, and it
is a talent that should be practiced until perfected.

A simile uses like or as to compare two unlike things.

Example: Her smile was like sunshine.

A metaphor compares two unlike things without using like or as:

Example: Her smile was a light that lit up the room.

Personification suggests comparison between a nonliving thing and a person by giving the
nonliving thing human traits.

3) A dominant impression
● When you plan a descriptive essay, your focus on selecting details that help your
readers see what you see, feel what you feel, and experience what you experience.
Your goal is to create a single dominant impression, a central theme or idea to which
all the details relate-for example, the liveliness of a street scene or the quiet of a
summer night. This dominant impression unifies the description and gives readers an
overall sense of what the person, place, object, or scene looks like(and perhaps what
it sounds, smells, tastes, or feels like). Sometimes_but not always_ your details will
support a thesis making a point about the subject you are describing.

4) Precise language
● Good descriptive writing uses precise language. Using specific words and phrases
will help the reader “see” what you are describing. If a word or phrase is specific, it is
exact and precise. The opposite of specific language is language that is vague,
general, or fuzzy
5) Careful organization
● Good descriptive writing is organized. Some ways to organize descriptive writing
include: of chronological (time), spatial (location), and order importance.

TRANSITION WORDS AND PHRASES THAT SIGNAL DESCRIPTION

Transitions used in descriptive writing vary depending on whether you are describing a
person, a place, or a thing. Here are some examples of transitions that might be used in
descriptive contexts:

TO SHOW SPATIAL ORDER OR DIRECTION:

TO SHOW ORDER OF IMPORTANCE:

TO SHOW TIME ORDER:

What Is Paraphrasing?
● When you paraphrase, you use your own words to express something that was
written or said by another person.
● Putting it into your own words can clarify the message, make it more relevant to your
audience , or give it greater impact.
 ● You might use paraphrased material to support your own argument or viewpoint. Or,
if you're putting together a report, presentation or speech, you can use paraphrasing
to maintain a consistent style, and to avoid lengthy quotations from the original text or
conversation.
● Paraphrased material should keep its original meaning and (approximate) length, but
you can use it to pick out a single point from a longer discussion.

What Is Summarizing?
● In contrast, a summary is a brief overview of an entire discussion or argument. You
might summarize a whole research paper or conversation in a single paragraph, for
example, or with a series of bullet points, using your own words and style.
● People often summarize when the original material is long, or to emphasize key facts
or points. Summaries leave out detail or examples that may distract the reader from
the most important information, and they simplify complex arguments, grammar and
vocabulary.
● Used correctly, summarizing and paraphrasing can save time, increase
understanding, and give authority and credibility to your work. Both tools are useful
when the precise wording of the original communication is less important than its
overall meaning.

How to Paraphrase Text

To paraphrase text, follow these four steps:

1. Read and Make Notes

- Carefully read the text that you want to paraphrase. Highlight, underline or note down
important terms and phrases that you need to remember.

2. Find Different Terms

- Find equivalent words or phrases (synonyms) to use in place of the ones that you've
picked out. A dictionary, thesaurus or online search can be useful here, but take care
to preserve the meaning of the original text, particularly if you're dealing with
technical or scientific terms.

3. Put the Text into Your Own Words

- Rewrite the original text, line by line. Simplify the grammar and vocabulary, adjust
the order of the words and sentences, and replace "passive" expressions with
"active" ones (for example, you could change "The new supplier was contacted by
Nusrat" to "Nusrat contacted the new supplier").
- Remove complex clauses, and break longer sentences into shorter ones. All of this
will make your new version easier to understand .

4. Check Your Work

- Check your work by comparing it to the original. Your paraphrase should be clear and
simple, and written in your own words. It may be shorter, but it should include all of
the necessary detail.

Paraphrasing: an Example
Original

Despite the undoubted fact that everyone's vision of what constitutes success is different,
one should spend one's time establishing and finalizing one's personal vision of it.
Otherwise, how can you possibly understand what your final destination might be, or
whether or not your decisions are assisting you in moving in the direction of the goals which
you've set yourself?

The two kinds of statement – mission and vision – can be invaluable to your approach,
aiding you, as they do, in focusing on your primary goal, and quickly identifying possibilities
that you might wish to exploit and explore.

Paraphrase

We all have different ideas about success. What's important is that you spend time defining
your version of success. That way, you'll understand what you should be working toward.
You'll also know if your decisions are helping you to move toward your goals.

Used as part of your personal approach to goal-setting, mission and vision statements are
useful for bringing sharp focus to your most important goal, and for helping you to quickly
identify which opportunities you should pursue.

How to Paraphrase Speech

In a conversation – a meeting or coaching session, for example – paraphrasing is a good

way to make sure that you have correctly understood what the other person has said.

This requires two additional skills: active listening and asking the right questions .

Useful questions include:

● If I hear you correctly, you're saying that…?
● So you mean that…? Is that right?
● Did I understand you when you said that…?
● You can use questions like these to repeat the speaker's words back to them. For
instance, if the person says, "We just don't have the funds available for these
projects," you could reply: "If I understand you correctly, you're saying that our
organization can't afford to pay for my team's projects?"

This may seem repetitive, but it gives the speaker the opportunity to highlight any
misunderstandings, or to clarify their position.

Note:

When you're paraphrasing conversations in this way, take care not to introduce new ideas or
information, and not to make judgements on what the other person has said, or to "spin"
their words toward what you want to hear. Instead, simply restate their position as you
understand it.
Sometimes, you may need to paraphrase a speech or a presentation. Perhaps you want to
report back to your team, or write about it in a company blog, for example.

In these cases it's a good idea to make summary notes as you listen, and to work them up
into a paraphrase later. (See How to Summarize Text or Speech, below.)

How to Summarize Text or Speech

Follow steps 1-5 below to summarize text. To summarize spoken material – a speech, a
meeting, or a presentation, for example – start at step 3.

1. Get a General Idea of the Original

- First, speed read the text that you're summarizing to get a general impression of its
content. Pay particular attention to the title, introduction, conclusion, and the
headings and subheadings.

2. Check Your Understanding

- Build your comprehension of the text by reading it again more carefully. Check that
your initial interpretation of the content was correct.

3. Make Notes
- Take notes on what you're reading or listening to. Use bullet points, and introduce
each bullet with a key word or idea. Write down only one point or idea for each bullet.
- If you're summarizing spoken material, you may not have much time on each point
before the speaker moves on. If you can, obtain a meeting agenda, a copy of the
presentation, or a transcript of the speech in advance, so you know what's coming.
- Make sure your notes are concise, well-ordered, and include only the points that
really matter.

4. Write Your Summary

- Bullet points or numbered lists are often an acceptable format for summaries – for
example, on presentation slides, in the minutes of a meeting, or in Key Points
sections like the one at the end of this article.
- However, don't just use the bulleted notes that you took in step 3. They'll likely need
editing or "polishing" if you want other people to understand them.
- Some summaries, such as research paper abstracts, press releases, and marketing
copy, require continuous prose. If this is the case, write your summary as a
paragraph, turning each bullet point into a full sentence.
- Aim to use only your own notes, and refer to original documents or recordings only if
you really need to. This helps to ensure that you use your own words.
- If you're summarizing speech, do so as soon as possible after the event, while it's still
fresh in your mind.

5. Check Your Work

- Your summary should be a brief but informative outline of the original. Check that
you've expressed all of the most important points in your own words, and that you've
left out any unnecessary detail.
Summarizing: an Example

Original

So how do you go about identifying your strengths and weaknesses, and analyzing the
opportunities and threats that flow from them? SWOT Analysis is a useful technique that
helps you to do this.

What makes SWOT especially powerful is that, with a little thought, it can help you to
uncover opportunities that you would not otherwise have spotted. And by understanding your
weaknesses, you can manage and eliminate threats that might otherwise hurt your ability to
move forward in your role.

If you look at yourself using the SWOT framework, you can start to separate yourself from
your peers, and further develop the specialized talents and abilities that you need in order to
advance your career and to help you achieve your personal goals.

Summary

SWOT Analysis is a technique that helps you identify strengths, weakness, opportunities,
and threats. Understanding and managing these factors helps you to develop the abilities
you need to achieve your goals and progress in your career.
Permission and Citations

If you intend to publish or circulate your document, it's important to seek permission from the
copyright holder of the material that you've paraphrased or summarized. Failure to do so can
leave you open to allegations of plagiarism, or even legal action.

It's good practice to cite your sources with a footnote, or with a reference in the text to a list
of sources at the end of your document. There are several standard citation styles – choose
one and apply it consistently, or follow your organization's house style guidelines.

PRONOUN USAGE
What's the difference between announce and notice?

Announce:
(v. t.) To give public notice, or first notice of; to make known; to publish; to proclaim.
(v. t.) To pronounce; to declare by judicial sentence.

Notice
Definition:

(n.) The act of noting, remarking, or observing; observation by the senses or intellect;
cognizance; note.
(n.) Intelligence, by whatever means communicated; knowledge given or received; means of
knowledge; express notification; announcement; warning.
(n.) An announcement, often accompanied by comments or remarks; as, book notices;
theatrical notices.
(n.) A writing communicating information or warning.
(n.) Attention; respectful treatment; civility.
(v. t.) To observe; to see to mark; to take note of; to heed; to pay attention to.
(v. t.) To show that one has observed; to take public note of; remark upon; to make
comments on; to refer to; as, to notice a book.
(v. t.) To treat with attention and civility; as, to notice strangers.

Announcement is one of the short functional text. In

English verb of announce had a meaning “make a formal
public declaration about a fact, occurrence, or intention.
● Announcement is an official notification about something, Whether written or spoken
which presented to the public.

The social function of Announcement:

● To make a formal written notice of certain events which has happened or going to
happen.

HOW TO MAKE ANNOUNCEMENT?

● Opening ( title )
● Content
● Closing

The content of announcement:

● To whom the announcement is for
● The purpose of announcement itself
● When the event will be held ( day, date , time )
● Where the event will take place
● Who makes the announcement

Language features:
● Simple Present Tense
● Simple Future
 ● No conjunction
● Date, time, place
● Event

TIPS AND TRICK TO WRITE ANNOUNCEMENT

● Straight forward and ease the readers to get information
● quickly
● Keep it short, inviting, and to the point.
● Clear and complete
● For a bad news, make a direct and no- nonsense statement.

Kind of announcement
● Business Announcement
● Funeral Announcement
● Graduation Announcement
● Birth Announcement
● Wedding and engagement Announcement
● Event
● etc

We can find announcement by :

● Audio : on radio
● Visual : on Newspaper, Magazine, Card and Billboard
● Audio visual : on television

A.Written
Example:

ENGLISH SPEECH CONTEST

For all students of SMPN 1 SIDOHARJO, we announce English Speech Contest.
Time : Sunday, 12 April 2012
Place : English Laboratory
Each class should register at least one student with one of these following topics :
1. The Advantage of Learning English
2. The Difficulties of Learning English
3. The Effective Ways of Learning English
For further information, visit the committee of this English Speech Contest in ENGLISH
STUDENT ROOM.

B. Spoken
Example:

Attention, please!
Continental executive bus will be leaving for Bukit Tinggi
through Pekan Baru at 14.40. would passengers now board the
bus?
Which bus goes to Bukit Tinggi?
Continental Executive Bus
What time is the bus leaving?
The bus leaving for Bukit Tinggi at 14.40

The characteristic of good announcement include the inform that tells what, when, where
and how. at the end of announcement, there should be a strong call to action.

ANNOUNCEMENT VS ADVERTISEMENT

Making announcement text is easier than making

advertisement because announcement text just tell what we
need to know. It’s different with make an advertisement, we
will be pressed to make the audience to interest

Using Active and Passive Voice

Would you rather?

Watch Lebron play basketball or some random person sitting in the stands?

Verbs and Voice

● Voice is the form a verb takes to indicate whether the subject of the verb performs or
receives the action.
● There are two types of voice: active voice and passive voice.

Active Voice
● Active voice is used to show that the subject of the sentence is performing or causing
the action.

Example:
Lebron threw the basketball before the buzzer.
Lebron shot the basketball from the free throw line.
Lebron scored three points.

Passive Voice
● Passive voice is used when the subject is the recipient of the action.

Example:
The ball was thrown by Lebron.
The basket was shot by Lebron.
The score was made by Lebron.

Why does it matter?

● STRONG WRITING USES ACTIVE VOICE!!!!
● Active voice is more direct and concise.
● Passive voice is usually wordier.
● Active voice is like watching Lebron play.
● Passive voice is like watching gum stuck on the bleachers in the stands.
 MOST OF THE TIME, YOU WANT TO USE ACTIVE VOICE!!!!

When would you WANT to use passive voice?

When intentionally trying to hide the subject of the sentence.

● For example, a politician might say, “The mistake was made by someone.” Hiding
the subject helps him/her hide the blame.
When intentionally trying to minimize the guilt of the subject.
● For example, a cheating boyfriend might say, “Cheating was committed by me.”
When passive voice better emphasizes the main point of the message,
● such as “Children were harmed by the drunk driver.”

Form of Passive Voice Verbs

● The passive voice requires a "double verb" and will always consist of a form of the
verb "to be" and the past participle (usually the "en/ed/t" form) of another verb.
Example:
Active: John baked the bread.
Passive: The bread was baked by John. (Was is a form of the verb “be”.)

Form of Passive Voice Verbs

● Writers should be familiar with the forms of "to be" , often called linking verbs, so that
they can easily identify the passive voice in their work.

•Review the forms of "to be":

•am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been

Form of Passive Voice Verbs

● Note the forms of "to be" in the examples of the verb "to kick" in various forms of the
passive voice:

is kicked----------------had been kicked

was kicked-------------is going to be kicked
is being kicked---------will be kicked
has been kicked-------can be kicked
was being kicked------should be kicked

Form of Passive Voice Verbs

Examples:
● Passive: The cookies were eaten by the children.
● Active: The children ate the cookies.

● Passive: The tunnels are dug by the gophers.

● Active: The gophers dug the tunnels.
 THE STRUCTURE OF A DESCRIPTIVE ESSAY

1)What Is Descriptive Writing?

● Descriptive writing creates a picture of a person, place, thing, or event. Description
tells what something looks, sounds, smells, tastes, or feels like.

2) Elements of Descriptive Writing

● Good descriptive writing is comprised of five elements; Sensory Details, Figurative
Language, dominant impression, precise language, and Careful Organization.

Sensory Details
- Good descriptive writing includes many vivid sensory details that paint a picture and
appeals to all of the reader's senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste when
appropriate. Descriptive writing may also paint a pictures of the feelings the person,
place or thing invokes the writer.

Figurative Language
- Good descriptive writing often makes use of figurative language to help paint the
picture in the reader's mind. There are many ways to use figurative language, and it
is a talent that should be practiced until perfected.
A simile uses like or as to compare two unlike things.
- Example: Her smile was like sunshine.
A metaphor compares two unlike things without using
like or as:
- Example: Her smile was a light that lit up the room.
Personification suggests comparison between a nonliving thing and a person by giving the
nonliving thing human traits.

A DOMINANT IMPRESSION
- When you plan a descriptive essay, your focus on selecting details that help your
readers see what you see, feel what you feel, and experience what you experience.
Your goal is to create a single dominant impression, a central theme or idea to which
all the details relate-for example, the liveliness of a street scene or the quiet of a
summer night. This dominant impression unifies the description and gives readers an
overall sense of what the person, place, object, or scene looks like(and perhaps what
it sounds, smells, tastes, or feels like). Sometimes_but not always_ your details will
support a thesis making a point about the subject you are describing.

PRECISE LANGUAGE
- Good descriptive writing uses precise language. Using specific words and phrases
will help the reader “see” what you are describing. If a word or phrase is specific, it is
exact and precise. The opposite of specific language is language that is vague,
general, or fuzzy.

CAREFUL ORGANIZATION
- Good descriptive writing is organized. Some ways to organize descriptive writing
include: of chronological (time), spatial (location), and order importance.

3)TRANSITION WORDS AND PHRASES THAT SIGNAL

DESCRIPTION.
● Transitions used in descriptive writing vary depending on whether you are describing
a person, a place, or a thing. Here are some examples of transitions that might be
used in descriptive contexts:
TO SHOW SPATIAL ORDER OR DIRECTION

TO SHOW ORDER OF IMPORTANCE

TO SHOW TIME OF VALUE

REDUNDANCY

re·dun·dan·cy /rəˈdəndənsē/

● the state of being not or no longer needed or useful.

● the use of words or data that could be omitted without loss of meaning or function;
repetition or superfluity of information.
● synonyms: superfluity, unnecessariness, excess
● the inclusion of extra components that are not strictly necessary to functioning, in
case of failure in other components.

Pleonasm
● a phrase that repeats itself

Expletive
● jhgjgjkghkjhk

Euphemism
● is a word or phrase that substitutes for language the speaker or writer feels is too
blunt or somehow offensive.

Cliché
● is an expression that was probably, once upon a time, an original and brilliant way of
saying something.
PRUNING THE REDUNDANT
● Avoid saying the same thing twice.
● Many uneducated citizens who have never attended school continue to vote for
better schools.
● A phrase that repeats itself—like "true fact," "twelve noon," "I saw it with my own
eyes"—is sometimes called a pleonasm.
● Redundant phrases are bad habits just waiting to take control of your writing.

Beware of these following redundancy expressions:

Avoiding Wordy Sentences

1. Reducing Clauses to Phrases, Phrases to Single Words

● Be alert for clauses or phrases that can be pared to simpler, shorter constructions.

Example:
● Citizens who knew what was going on voted him out of office.
 ● Knowledgeable citizens voted him out of office.

2. Beware of intensifiers that do not really intensify

● Avoid using words such as really, very, quite, extremely, severely when they are not
necessary.

3. Avoiding Expletive Constructions

● Expletive constructions begin with there is/are or it is.
Example:
● There are twenty-five students who have already expressed a desire to attend the
program next summer. It is they and their parents who stand to gain the most by the
government grant.
● Twenty-five students have already expressed a desire to attend the program next
summer. They and their parents stand to gain the most by the government grant.

4. Phrases You Can Omit

● for important sounding phrases that add nothing to the meaning of a sentence

Run-Ons, Comma Splices, & Fragments

Sentence Errors
- The majority of errors in sentence writing are in three specific areas:
● Run-ons
● Fragments
● Comma splices

Each of these errors is easy to correct.

Meet the FANBOYS

● Did you know that you can separate two complete sentences with a comma only if
you use one of the FANBOYS?
- For
- And
- Nor
- But
- Or
- Yet
- So

This is a great class the teacher never finishes on time.

- This is a great class, but the teacher never finishes on time.

It is now one o’clock let’s start the workshop.

- It is now one o’clock, so let’s start the workshop.

Prof. Velasquez talked about the history of the Mayans she discussed their art and music.
 - Prof. Velasquez talked about the history of the Mayans, and she discussed their art
and music.

Run-ons run on and on and on and...

● Run-ons are sentences that should be separated, but they are joined anyway without
proper punctuation.
● The global food crisis is a threat to Africa many children are dying of hunger.
● But what do you do if you want to join them as one complete sentence?

Fixing run-ons: there are options.

Option one: separate the two complete sentences using a period.

● The global food crisis is a threat to Africa. Many children are dying of hunger.

Option two: join them by using a semi-colon.

● The global food crisis is a threat to Africa; many children are dying of hunger.

Option three: Separate them by a comma and a FANBOYS:

● The global food crisis is a threat to Africa, and many children are dying of hunger.

Option four: Find ways to join them by subordination.

● As a result of the global food crisis in Africa, many children are dying of hunger.

Comma Splices
● Comma splices are sentences that should be separated, but they are joined with a
comma.
● College is hard, the expectations are higher than high school. (Comma splice)
● The professor assigns too much homework, I don’t have much free time.

Fixing comma splices

If you are guilty of comma splices, relax. They are easy to fix.

Option one: separate the sentences into two

- College is hard, the expectations are higher than high school.
- College is hard. The expectations are higher than high school.
Option two: change the wording so that they can become one complete sentence.
- College is hard, the expectations are higher than high school.
- College is hard because the expectations are higher than high school.
Option three: join the two sentences by a comma and a FANBOYS.
- College is hard, the expectations are higher than high school.
- College is hard, for the expectations are higher than high school.

Fragments
● Fragments are incomplete sentences.
● They are partial ideas, leaving the reader to think, “What does this mean?”
● They may lack a verb, a subject, or both.
Examples:
 - Whenever she asks.
- As this was a great opportunity.
- Finding nowhere to turn

Fixing Fragments

Option one: Add a subject or a verb until the sentence makes complete sense as a
stand-alone thought.
- Finding nowhere to turn.
- Ask yourself “Who am I talking about?”
- Finding nowhere to turn, the young man eventually turned to alcohol and drugs.
Option two: join them to the previous or next sentence.
- My uncle always gives Janet the car. Whenever she asks.
- My uncle always gives Janet the car whenever she asks.

Persuasive writing is writing that tries to convince a reader to do something or to believe

what you believe about a certain topic.
- It takes a position for or against something.

Persuasive Writing can be used to…

Purpose
● Support a cause
● Urge people to action
● Make a change
● Prove something wrong

Persuasive Statement
● “Please support my football team by buying discount coupons.”
● “Vote for Sarah!”
● “The principal should let us wear hats.”
● “Cell phones don’t cause brain cancer.”

Persuasive Writing can be used to…

Purpose
● Stir up sympathy
● Create interest
● Get people to agree with you

Persuasive Statement
● “If you don’t adopt this dog, it could have to live in a shelter.”
● “Better grades get you a better job and more money.”
● “I am sure you’ll agree that Milky Way is the best candy bar.”

Persuasive writing follows a certain format:

● INTRODUCTION with a “hook” and thesis statement
 ● BODY where the argument is explained
● CONCLUSION where main points are summarized and reviewed and the reader is
left with something to think about.

First…Know Your Audience…

Before you start writing, you should know your audience:

– Who will read your writing? Who do you need to convince?
– The audience may be your friends, your teacher, your parents, your principal, the readers
of a newspaper or the President of the United States!
– Will you be graded? On What?
– Should you be casual or professional?

Second… Pick a side!

● The writer must clearly state his/her position and stay with that position. Pick a side!
● Generally, the position is stated in the opening paragraph or introduction. (This is
your opinion sentence)

Three: Do Your Research…

- In order to convince the reader you need more than just an opinion; you need facts or
examples to back your opinion. So, be sure to do the research!

Four: MAKE A PLAN, then write!

The 6 Paragraph Essay:
1. Introduction/Hook/Thesis
2. Argument 1 with support
3. Argument 2 with support
4. Argument 3 with support
5. Show the counter-argument
and make an argument against it
6. Conclusion

DOS and DON’Ts of Persuasive Writing:

Do:
● Divide into 5 paragraphs (6 if you plan on adding a paragraph with a counter
argument)
● Have a thesis statement in your introduction
● Come up with 3 main points to support your argument—these will be your 3 body
paragraphs
● Show the “counter -argument”
● Have a conclusion that has a “clincher statement”
● Come up with a catchy title

Don’t :
● Don’t begin with “Hello my name is___ and I’m going to write about____”
● Don’t use the word “I “ (Instead of “I think we shouldn’t wear uniforms” say “Uniforms
shouldn’t be required.”
 ● Don’t be wishy-washy. Pick a side!
● Don’t forget to support your opinions with facts and example s

The Great Introduction…

What makes an good introduction?
● It grabs or “hooks” the reader’s attention by using one or more of the following
strategies:
–An anecdote or scenario
–A quotation
–An interesting fact or statistic
–A question
● It tells how the writing will be organized.
● The author’s position is clearly stated in a thesis statement.

Grabbing Your Audience…

Good strategies used in introductions:
● Use an Anecdote/ Scenario
–The writer provides a personal experience or made-up situation to introduce the position.
● Questioning
–The writer asks thought-provoking questions to capture the reader’s interest.
● Interesting fact or statistic
–The writer gives an interesting piece of information to grab the reader’s attention.

Creating a Thesis Statement

● A thesis statement is one sentence at the end of your introduction that states your
opinion. It needs to be strong.
● First, choose 3 main focus points to discuss in your essay. These points will become
the focus of three paragraphs in the body of your paper.
Let’s use fast food as an example again.
Fast food…(3 Discussion Points)
● rapidly increases weight
● causes high blood pressure
● leads to sluggishness

Writing the Thesis Statement

● Now take your three main focus points and summarize them. Put your completed
thesis statement at the end of your first paragraph.

THREE MAIN FOCUS POINTS

● I believe fast food is harmful because it rapidly increases weight, causes high blood
pressure, and leads to lethargy.

COMPLETED THESIS STATEMENT

● I believe fast food has negative health effects.

Our Introductory Paragraph:

● Fast Food Is Killing America!
 Did you know that a typical child needs 2,000 calories for an entire day and Burger King’s
Whopper with triple cheese has 1,230 calories? That is far more calories than anyone
needs in one day! Fast food consumption has risen 500 percent since 1970 and today
reaches nearly every part of society, including some public school cafeterias. Fast food is
harmful because it rapidly increases weight, causes high blood pressure, and leads to
sluggishness. Fast food is bad for your health!

CATCHY TITLE
HOOK THE READER
THESIS STATEMENT
YOUR THREE ARGUMENTS

Three Supporting Paragraphs:

● Use each of the main arguments you used in your introductory paragraph and
expand on each giving facts and reasons.
● In our example, you would write one paragraph on how fast food increases weight,
one paragraph on how it causes high blood pressure and one on how it leads to
sluggishness.

You’ll Need to Show “The Other Side…”

● How many of you have been in a discussion with someone and you remember
saying, “Yeah, that’s true, but…” This is called a counter-argument. It’s the “other
side” of the argument.
● You’ll need to tell your reader what the counter-argument is and prove why it
shouldn’t matter.
● Let’s take a look using our example of fast food…

The Other Side of the Story

● This is where you should explain why your opposition believes what they believe.
•For example:

“A fast food company wouldn’t agree with the points in this essay. They would have lots of
reasons why fast food is good. They may say…”it’s convenient” or “It’s fine if eaten in
moderation.” These arguments just don’t hold up when you take all the facts into
consideration!

Conclude or End Your Essay…

What makes an good conclusion?

·Last paragraph summarizes your main point.
·End using one or more of the following strategies:
–Call the reader to action
–Anecdote or scenario
–Make a Prediction
·The last paragraph wraps up the writing and gives the reader something to think about.

Strategies for Conclusions

 ● Call to Action
–Ask the reader to do something or to make something happen “I challenge you to watch
what you eat and to avoid fast food.”
● Provide a solution
–Provide an answer to the problem “Fast food doesn’t have to be “bad food.” Make better
choices like salads, fruit and low fat treats.”
● Make a Prediction
–Explain what might be the consequences of action or inaction “If people continue to eat lots
of fast food, they put their health at risk. If kids don’t make better choices today, they won’t
grow into healthy adults.”

Concluding Paragraph:
Restate your thesis.

End with…
–A comment (Don’t make your body suffer!)
–A question (Are you willing to risk your health?)
–A call to action (I highly recommend you consider your options the next time your faced
with a decision about what to eat.)
In closing, it’s important to remember that too much fast food can have negative effects on
your health. If not eaten in moderation, you can gain weight, suffer from high blood pressure
and become slow and sluggish. Is it worth the risk to your body? Eat Healthy and Make
good choices!

Review: The Persuasive Essay:

● A Catchy Title
● Introductory paragraph with a “hook”, three main arguments and a thesis statement.
● One paragraph for each of your three arguments.
● Address the “counter-argument”
● Closing paragraph that re-states your thesis and challenges the reader to think about
it.

Don’t Forget…
● Make sure to read over your work and edit for mechanics and spelling.
● Write neatly!
● Include detail and great vocabulary.
● Follow proper format: Proper heading and skip lines!

PARALLELISM

“A kiss can be a comma, a question mark, or an exclamation point.”

- Mistinguet

“This novel is not to be tossed lightly aside, but to be hurdled with great force.”
- Dorothy Parker

“In matters of principle, stand like a rock; in matters of taste, swim with the current.”
- Thomas Jefferson
Balance parallel ideas linked with coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS)

Wrong
● Theft, vandalism and cheating can result in suspension, or even being expelled from
school.
Correct
● Theft, vandalism and cheating can result in suspension, or even expulsion from
school.

Wrong
● David is responsible for stocking merchandise, all in store repairs, writing orders for
delivery, and sales of computers.
Correct
● David is responsible for stocking merchandise, repairing items in the store, writing
orders for delivery, and selling of computers.

Wrong
● After assuring us that he was sober, Sam drove down the middle of the road, ran one
red light, and two stop signs.
Correct
● After assuring us that he was sober, Sam drove down the middle of the road, ran one
red light, and went through two stop signs.

each item needs a verb: drove, ran, went through

Balance parallel ideas linked with correlative conjunctions (either…or, neither…nor,

not only…but also, both…and, whether…or)

● The shutters were not only too long but also were too wide.
● I was advised either to change my flight or to take the train.

Balance comparisons linked with than or as

Wrong
● It is easier to speak with abstractions than grounding one’s thoughts in reality.
Correct
● It is easier to speak with abstractions than to ground one’s thoughts in reality.

Wrong
● Mother could not persuade me that giving is as much as a joy as to receive.
Correct
● Mother could not persuade me that giving is as much as a joy as receiving.

NEEDED WORDS
● Do not omit words necessary for grammatical or logical completeness.
Add needed words to complete compound structure

Wrong
● I never have and never will accept a bribe.
Correct
● I never have accepted and never will accept a bribe.

Wrong
● Many of these tribes in the South Pacific still believe and live by ancient laws.
Correct
● Many of these tribes in the South Pacific still believe in and live by ancient laws.

Add words needed to make comparisons logical and complete. (Comparison between
like items)

Wrong
● Agnes had an attention span longer than her sisters.
Correct
● Agnes had an attention span longer than that of her sisters.
- it is illogical to compare attention span and sisters

Add the word if there is any danger in reading it.

● If there is no danger of misreading, the word “that” may sometimes be omitted when
it is introduce by subordinate clause.
● As Joe began to prepare dinner, he discovered the oven wasn’t working properly.
■ Joe didn’t discover the oven; he discovered that the oven wasn’t
working properly.

Add words needed to make comparisons logical and complete. (Comparison between
like items)

Wrong
● Henry preferred the restaurants in Makati than to Libis.
Correct
● Henry preferred the restaurants in Makati than to those in Libis.
- Restaurants must be compared with restaurants.

Sometimes the word other must be inserted to make a comparison logical

Wrong
● Manila is larger than any city in the Philippines.
Correct
● Manila is larger than any other city in the Philippines.
Sometimes the word as must be inserted to make a comparison grammatically
complete.

Wrong
● Geoffrey is as talented, if not more talented than, the other actors.
Correct
● Geoffrey is as talented as, if not more talented than, the other actors.

Comparison should be complete enough to ensure clarity. Readers should

understand what is being compared.

Wrong
● Brand X is a lighter beer.
Correct
● Brand X is a lighter beer than Brand Y.

Do not leave ambiguity on meaning.

Ambiguous
● Mr. Terso helped me more than Rick.
Clear
● Mr. Terso helped me more than he helped Rick.
- Mr. Terso helped me more than Rick did.

PROBLEMS WITH MODIFIERS

- Modifiers should point clearly to the words they modify

Put limiting modifiers in front of the words they modify (only, even, almost, nearly,
just)

Wrong
● You will only need to plant one package of seeds.
Correct
● You will need to plant only one package of seeds.

Wrong
● Our team didn’t even score once.
Correct
● Our team didn’t score even once.

Place phrases and clauses so that readers can see at a glance what they modify.

Misplaced
 ● The king returned to the clinic where he underwent heart surgery in 2000 in a
limousine sent by the white house
Correct
● Traveling in a limousine sent by the white house, the king returned to the clinic where
he underwent heart surgery in 2000

Misplaced
● There are many pictures of comedians who have performed at Punchline on the
walls.
Correct
● On the walls, there are many pictures of comedians who have performed at
Punchline.

Misplaced
● The robber was described as a six-foot-tall and with a mustache weighing 150
pounds.
Correct
● The robber was described as a fifty pound six-foot-tall man with a mustache.

Occasionally, the placement of a modifier leads to an ambiguity.

Ambiguous
● We promised when the play was over that we would take Charles to ice cream parlor.
Clear
● When the play was over, we promised that we would take Charles to ice cream
parlor.

DANGLING
● Deciding to join the navy, the recruiter enthusiastically pumped Joe’s hand.
● Upon seeing the barricade, our car screeched to a halt.
● To please the children, some fireworks were set off a day early.
● Though only sixteen, OLFU accepted Martha’s application.

To repair a dangling modifier, you can revise in one of two ways

1. Name the actor immediately following the introductory modifier; or
2. Turn the modifier into a word group that includes the actor.

Repair dangling modifiers

Wrong
● When watching a classic film such as Gone with the Wind, commercials are
especially irritating.
Correct
● When watching a classic film such as Gone with the Wind, I find commercials
especially irritating.
● When I was watching a classic film such as Gone with the Wind, commercials are
especially irritating.
Wrong
● Opening the window to let a huge bumblebee, the car accidentally swerved into an
oncoming car.
Correct
● When the driver opened the window to let a huge bumblebee, the car accidentally
swerved into an oncoming car.

Wrong
● After completing seminary training, women’s access to the pulpit has often been
denied.
Correct
● After completing seminary training, women have often been denied access to the
pulpit.

Do not split infinitives needlessly

Wrong
● Patients should try to if possible avoid going up and down stairs.
Correct
● If possible, patients should try to avoid going up and down stairs.

SHIFTS

Make the point of view consistent in number and person

Wrong
● One week our class met in a junkyard to practice rescuing a victim trapped in a
wrecked car. We learned to dismantle the car with the essential tools. You were
grade on you speed and your skill is extricating the victim.
Correct
● One week our class met in a junkyard to practice rescuing a victim trapped in a
wrecked car. We learned to dismantle the car with the essential tools. We were grade
on our speed and our skill is extricating the victim.

Maintain consistent verb tenses

Wrong
● My hopes rise and fall as Joseph’s heart started and stopped. The doctors insert a
large tube into his chest, and blood flows from the incision onto the floor. The tube
drained some blood from his lungs, but it was all in vain. At 8:35 pm, Joseph was
declared dead.
Correct
● My hopes rose and fell as Joseph’s heart started and stopped. The doctors inserted
a large tube into his chest, and blood flowed from the incision onto the floor. The
tube drained some blood from his lungs, but it was all in vain. Joseph died at 8:35
pm.

Make verbs consistent in mood and voice

Wrong
● The officers advised against allowing access to our homes without proper
identification. Also, alert neighbors to vacation schedules.
Correct
● The officers advised against allowing access to our homes without proper
identification. They also suggested that we alert neighbors to vacation schedules.

Avoid sudden shifts from indirect to direct questions or quotations

Wrong
● I wonder whether the sister knew of the murder, and if so, did she report it to the
police?
Correct
● I wonder whether the sister knew of the murder, and if so, whether she reported it to
the police?

MIXED CONSTRUCTIONS

Untangle the grammatical structure

Wrong
● For most drivers who have a blood alcohol content of .05 percent double their risk of
causing an accident.
Correct
● Most drivers who have a blood alcohol content of .05 percent double their risk of
causing an accident.

Straighten out the logical connections

Wrong
● The growth in the number of application is increasing rapidly.
Correct
● The number of application is increasing rapidly.

Avoid… is when…is where and reason… is because constructions.

Wrong
● Anorexia nervosa is where people, believing they are too fat, diet to the point of
starvation.
Correct
● Anorexia nervosa is a disorder suffered by people, who believing they are too fat, diet
to the point of starvation.

COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION

Coordination
 ● Coordination draws attention to two or more ideas
● Coordination conjunctions: FANBOYS
● Coordinate two independent clauses
● Grandmother lost her sight, but her hearing sharpened.

Subordination
● To give unequal emphasis to two or more ideas, express the major idea in an
independent clauses, and place any minor ideas in phrases or subordinate clauses.
Subordinate clauses – cannot stand alone, begin with:
after before unless whether whom
although if until which whose
as since when while
because that where who

Deciding which idea to emphasize is not simply a matter of right or wrong.

● Grandmother lost her sight. Her hearing sharpened.
○ As grandmother lost her sight, her hearing sharpened.
○ Though her hearing sharpened, grandmother gradually lost her sight.

Combine choppy sentences

Wrong
● The huts vary in height. They measure from ten to fifteen feet in diameter. They
contain no modern conveniences.
Correct
● The huts, which vary in height and measure from ten to fifteen feet in diameter,
contain no modern conveniences.

Avoid ineffective coordination

Wrong
● Closets were taxed as rooms, and most colonists stored their clothes in chests or
clothes presses.
Correct
● Because closets were taxed as rooms, most colonists stored their clothes in chests
or clothes presses.

Do not subordinate major ideas

Wrong
● I was driving home from my new job, heading down Quezon Avenue, when my car
suddenly overheated.
Correct
● As I was driving home from my new job, heading down Quezon Avenue, my car
suddenly overheated.

Narrative Writing
A Review – 10 Things to Remember When Writing a Narrative
Number 1 – Your Story Beginning
- Your story needs a strong beginning. You can achieve this using one of the following
methods:
●Dialogue (Conversation)
●A Question
●A Vivid Description
●An Interesting Fact
●Sound Effects

Dialogue
“ Hurry or you’ll be late!” called my mother from the bottom of the stairs. “Today of all
days you want to be on time.” If I had only known what that day would bring, I would have
stayed in bed.

A Question
Have you ever had a day when you wished you had stayed in bed? As I rushed to catch
the bus on what seemed to be a perfectly normal day, I had no idea what was ahead of me.

A Vivid Description
The sun was warm on my back as I raced toward the waiting yellow school bus. As I
nestled into the worn leather seat, I was greeted by the friendly voices of other excited
children. The look on my face was one of confidence and contentment. With a jerk, the bus
rumbled down the road, and I was on my way into one of the worst days of my life.

An Interesting Fact
Shock has been known to kill ten year olds. It can cause their brains to explode and
their heart to stop dead still. These facts raced through my mind as I stood dumbfounded in
front of my fifth grade classmates. I wish I had stayed in bed!

Sound Effects
“Buzzzzzz!” The sound of my alarm clock droned in my ears as I struggled to come
awake. With a start, I sat straight up in my bed. This was my big day, and I had to be on
time.

Number 2 - Paragraphs
- Be sure your story has paragraphs. They tell when you're switching time, place, topic
or speaker, and they help break the page up so it is not just a solid block of writing.

How Do I Know When To Start a New Paragraph?

There are a few standard times to make a new paragraph:
●When you start in on a new topic
●When you skip to a new time
●When you skip to a new place
●When a new person begins to speak
●When you want to produce a dramatic effect

Number 3 - Capitalization & Punctuation

●Capitalize
●Beginnings of Sentences
●Proper Nouns
●Punctuate
●End Marks (question mark, period, exclamation marks)
●Commas when joining two sentences with a conjunction, addressing a person, with
quotations, etc.

Number 4 – Use Rich Words

- Remember words such as said, went, and put are DEAD. Use words that describe
the action.

Number 5 - Wow Words

- Show your reader that you have a high-quality, first-class, superior, excellent,
exceptional, outstanding, brilliant, extraordinary, incomparable vocabulary by using
5th grade vocabulary words.

Number 6 - Show, Don’t Tell

- The Show, Don’t Tell method of writing is when the writer is able to create a picture in
the reader's mind, to get away from the repetition of such empty words like went, big,
or said.

Number 7 - Conversation
The Five Rules for Writing Direct Quotations
Conversation
Remember
- You must make a new paragraph every time a different person speaks!!!!

Number 8 - Sentences
●Vary your sentences.
●Are some of your sentences long and others short?
●Do you start the beginnings differently?
●Do some sentences start with a part of speech other than a noun or pronoun?

Number 9 – Figurative Language

- Use a little figurative language to add interest to your story.
●Simile
●Metaphor
●Alliteration
●Onomatopoeia

Simile
- comparison between two unlike things that have something in common using like or
as
Examples
●It's been a hard day's night and I've been working like a dog. - The Beatles
●My heart is like an open highway. - Jon Bon Jovi
●like two peas in a pod
like Christmas in summer
●as hungry as a bear
as nutty as a fruitcake
as quick as lightning

Metaphor
Metaphor– comparison between two unlike things that have something in common without
using like or as
Examples
● Patty was a raging tiger when she lost her lunch money.
● During the night, the forest was a dark, frightening battlefield.
Alliteration
- repetition of usually initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words or
syllables
Examples
● down in the dumps
● do or die
● right as rain
● sink or swim
● pay the price
● back to the basics
● green as grass
● live the life

Onomatopoeia
- the imitation of natural sounds in word form. These words help us form mental
pictures about the things, people, or places that are described
Examples
● buzz
● hiss
● roar
● woof
● bang
● pop
● hiss
● sizzle

Number 10 - Plot Structure

●a plot, including setting and characters

●a climax (This is when the plot is solved.)
● an ending

Beginning
● In the beginning of your story, you should introduce your characters.
● The reader should also know about the world your characters live in (the setting) and the
something about each of the characters in your story.
● The beginning of your story is also the place where your plot (the problem) is first
introduced.

Middle
- Your story needs to build to something exciting, the climax. Write about a simple
conflict, a task that must be completed, a question that must be answered, or a
barrier that must be overcome.
Include
●Actions
●Dialogue
●Sensory Details
●Thoughts and Feelings
●Suspense (Remember to build to a climax.)

Parallel structure adds both clout and clarity to your writing.

When you use parallel structure, you increase the readability of your writing by creating word
patterns readers can follow easily.

Understanding Parallel Structure

● Parallel structure (also called parallelism) is the repetition of a chosen grammatical
form within a sentence. By making each compared item or idea in your sentence
follow the same grammatical pattern, you create a parallel construction.

Example
Not Parallel:
- Ellen likes hiking, the rodeo, and to take afternoon naps.
Parallel:
- Ellen likes hiking, attending the rodeo, and taking afternoon naps.
- Ellen likes to hike, attend the rodeo, and take afternoon naps.

Using Parallel Structure

With Coordinating Conjunctions

- When you connect two or more clauses or phrases with a coordinating conjunction
(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so), use parallel structure.
Example
Not Parallel:
- My best friend took me dancing and to a show.
Parallel:
- My best friend took me to a dance and a show.

With Correlative Conjunctions

- When you connect two clauses or phrases with a correlative conjunction (not
only…but also, either…or, neither…nor, if…then, etc.), use parallel structure.
Example
Not Parallel:
- My dog not only likes to play fetch, but also chase cars.
Parallel:
- My dog not only likes to play fetch, but he also likes to chase cars.
- My dog likes not only to play fetch, but also to chase cars.

With Phrases or Clauses of Comparison

- When you connect two clauses or phrases with a word of comparison, such as than
or as, use parallel structure.
Example
Not Parallel:
- I would rather pay for my education than financial aid.
Parallel:
- I would rather pay for my education than receive financial aid.

With Lists
- When you are comparing items in a list, use parallel structure.
Example
Not Parallel:
- John Taylor Gatto criticizes public schools because they are compulsory, funded by
the government, and destroy students' humanity.
Parallel:
- John Taylor Gatto criticizes public schools because they are compulsory,
government-funded, and normalizing.
- John Taylor Gatto criticizes public schools because they require students to attend,
receive money from the government, and destroy students' humanity.