BLOCK DIAGRAM FUNDAMENTALS &

REDUCTION TECHNIQUES
 Introduction
• Block diagram is a shorthand, graphical representation of a physical system, illustrating
the functional relationships among its components.
OR
• A Block Diagram is a short and pictorial representation of the cause-and-effect
relationship of a system.

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 Introduction

• The simplest form of the block diagram is the single block, with one
input and one output.
• The interior of the rectangle representing the block usually contains a
description of or the name of the element, or the symbol for the
mathematical operation to be performed on the input to yield the output.
• The arrows represent the direction of information or signal flow.

d
x y
dt

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 Introduction
• The operations of addition and subtraction have a special representation.

• The block becomes a small circle, called a summing point, with the
appropriate plus or minus sign associated with the arrows entering the
circle.
• Any number of inputs may enter a summing point.
• The output is the algebraic sum of the inputs.
• Some books put a cross in the circle.

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 Components of a Block Diagram for a Linear Time Invariant System
• System components are alternatively called elements of the system.
• Block diagram has four components:
• Signals
• System/ block
• Summing junction
• Pick-off/ Take-off point

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 Example-1
• Consider the following equations in which x1, x2, x3, are variables, and a1,
a2 are general coefficients or mathematical operators.

x 3  a 1 x1  a 2 x 2  5

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 Example-1
• Consider the following equations in which x1, x2, x3, are variables, and a1,
a2 are general coefficients or mathematical operators.

x 3  a 1 x1  a 2 x 2  5

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 Example-2

• CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING EQUATIONS IN WHICH X1, X2,. . . ,

XN, ARE VARIABLES, AND A1, A2,. . . , AN , ARE GENERAL
COEFFICIENTS OR MATHEMATICAL OPERATORS.
x n  a 1 x1  a 2 x 2  a n 1 x n 1

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 Example-3
• DRAW THE BLOCK DIAGRAMS OF THE FOLLOWING EQUATIONS.

dx 1 1
(1 ) x 2  a1   x1 dt
dt b
d 2 x2 dx 1
(2) x 3  a1 3  bx 1
dt 2 dt

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 Topologies
• We will now examine some common topologies for interconnecting subsystems and
derive the single transfer function representation for each of them.
• These common topologies will form the basis for reducing more complicated systems to
a single block.

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 CASCADE
• Any finite number of blocks in series may be algebraically combined by multiplication of
transfer functions.
• That is, n components or blocks with transfer functions G1 , G2, . . . , Gn, connected in
cascade are equivalent to a single element G with a transfer function given by

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 Example

• Multiplication of transfer functions is commutative; that is,

GiGj = GjGi
for any i or j .

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 CASCADE:

Figure:
a) Cascaded Subsystems.
b) Equivalent Transfer Function.

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The equivalent transfer function

is
 Parallel Form:
• Parallel subsystems have a common input and an output formed by the algebraic sum of
the outputs from all of the subsystems.

Figure: Parallel Subsystems.

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 PARALLEL FORM:

Figure:
a) Parallel Subsystems.
b) Equivalent Transfer
Function.

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The equivalent transfer function is
 Feedback Form:
• The third topology is the feedback form. Let us derive the transfer
function that represents the system from its input to its output. The typical
feedback system, shown in figure:

Figure: Feedback (Closed Loop) Control System.

The system is said to have negative feedback if the sign at the summing
junction is negative and positive feedback if the sign is positive.
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 Feedback Form:
.

Figure:
a) Feedback Control System.
b) Simplified Model or Canonical Form.
c) Equivalent Transfer Function.

The equivalent or closed-loop

transfer function is
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 CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION
• The control ratio is the closed loop transfer function of the system.

C(s) G(s)

R( s ) 1  G ( s )H ( s )

• The denominator of closed loop transfer function determines the

characteristic equation of the system.

• Which is usually determined as:

1  G ( s )H ( s )  0
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 CANONICAL FORM OF A FEEDBACK CONTROL
SYSTEM

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The system is said to have negative feedback if the sign at the summing
junction is negative and positive feedback if the sign is positive.
 1. Open loop transfer function B( s )
 G( s ) H ( s )
E( s )
2. Feed Forward Transfer function C( s )
 G( s )
E( s )
C(s) G(s) G(s )
3. control ratio 
R( s ) 1  G ( s )H ( s )

B( s ) G ( s )H ( s ) E
4. feedback ratio  B
R( s ) 1  G ( s )H ( s )

E(s) 1 H (s )
5. error ratio 
R( s ) 1  G ( s )H ( s )
C(s) G(s)

6. closed loop transfer function R( s ) 1  G ( s )H ( s )

1  G ( s )H ( s )  0
7. characteristic equation

A. Dey 8. closed loop poles and zeros if K=10. 21

 Parametric Uncertainty & Disturbance Rejection

C(s) G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)

------ = -----------------------------------
R(s) 1+ G2(s) G3(s) H2(s) H1(s)

If G2(s) G3(s) H2(s) H1(s) >> 1 => C(s)/R(s)≈G1(s)/ H2(s) H1(s)

+ Disturbance, W(s) C(s) G3(s)
------ = -----------------------------------
W(s) 1+ G2(s) G3(s) H2(s) H1(s)
If G2(s) G3(s) H2(s) H1(s) >> 1
=> (s)/R(s)≈1/G2(s) H2(s) H1(s)

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 UNITY FEEDBACK SYSTEM

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 Reduction techniques
1. Combining blocks in cascade

G1 G2 G1G2

2. Combining blocks in parallel

G1
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G2
 Reduction techniques

3. Moving a summing point behind a block

G G

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 Reduction techniques
3. Moving a summing point ahead of a block

G G
1
G

4. Moving a pickoff point behind a block

G G

5. Moving a pickoff point ahead of a block

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G G 26
 Reduction techniques
6. Eliminating a feedback loop

G
G
1  GH
H

G
G
1 G

H 1

7. Swap with two neighboring summing points

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A B B A
 BLOCK DIAGRAM TRANSFORMATION THEOREMS

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The letter P is used to represent any transfer function, and W, X , Y, Z denote any transformed signals.
 TRANSFORMATION THEOREMS CONTINUE:

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 TRANSFORMATION THEOREMS CONTINUE:

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 REDUCTION OF COMPLICATED BLOCK
DIAGRAMS:

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 EXAMPLE-4: REDUCE THE BLOCK DIAGRAM TO CANONICAL
FORM.

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 EXAMPLE-4: CONTINUE.

However in this example step-4 does not apply.

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However in this example step-6 does not apply.

 EXAMPLE-5: SIMPLIFY THE BLOCK DIAGRAM.

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 EXAMPLE-5: CONTINUE.

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 EXAMPLE-6: REDUCE THE BLOCK DIAGRAM.

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 EXAMPLE-6: CONTINUE.

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 EXAMPLE-7: REDUCE THE BLOCK DIAGRAM. (FROM NISE:
PAGE-242)

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 EXAMPLE-7: CONTINUE.

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 Example-8
Example-8: For the system represented by the following block diagram determine:
1. Open loop transfer function
2. Feed Forward Transfer function
3. control ratio
4. feedback ratio
5. error ratio
6. closed loop transfer function
7. characteristic equation
8. closed loop poles and zeros if K=10.

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 Example-8: Continue

• First we will reduce the given block diagram to canonical form

K
s 1

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 Example-8: Continue

K
s 1

K
G
 s 1
1  GH K
1 s
s 1

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 Example-8: Continue
B( s )
1. Open loop transfer function  G( s ) H ( s )
E( s )
C( s )
2. Forward path Transfer function  G( s )
E( s )
C(s) G(s) G(s )

3. control ratio R ( s ) 1  G ( s ) H ( s )

B( s ) G ( s )H ( s )

4. feedback ratio R ( s ) 1  G ( s ) H ( s )
E(s) 1 H (s )

R( s ) 1  G ( s )H ( s )
5. error ratio
C(s) G(s)

R( s ) 1  G ( s )H ( s )
6. closed loop transfer function
1  G ( s )H ( s )  0
7. characteristic equation
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 Example-10: Reduce the system to a single transfer function

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 EXAMPLE-10: CONTINUE.

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 EXAMPLE-10: CONTINUE.

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 EXAMPLE-11: SIMPLIFY THE BLOCK DIAGRAM THEN OBTAIN
THE CLOSE-LOOP TRANSFER FUNCTION C(S)/R(S)

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 EXAMPLE-11: CONTINUE.

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 Example-12: Reduce the Block Diagram.

H2

R _ C
+_ + G1 + G2 G3
+

H1

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 Example-12:

H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1 G2 G3
+

H1

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 Example-12:

H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1G2 G3
+

H1

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 Example-12:

H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1G2 G3
+

H1

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 Example-12:

H2
G1
R _ G1G2 C
+_ + G3
1  G1G2 H1

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 Example-12:

H2
G1
R _ G1G2G3 C
+_ +
1  G1G2 H1

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 Example-12:

R G1G2G3 C
+_ 1  G1G2 H1  G2G3 H 2

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 Example-12:

R G1G2G3 C
1  G1G2 H1  G2G3 H 2  G1G2G3

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 Example 13: Find the transfer function of the following block
diagrams.

R (s ) Y (s )
G1 G2

H1 H2

H3

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 Solution:

1. Eliminate loop I

R(s) I Y (s)
A B
G1 G2
H1 H2

H3
G2
2. Moving pickoff point A behind block
1  G2 H 2

R(s) A G2 B
Y (s)
G1
1  G2 H 2

1  G2 H 2 II
H1 1  G2 H 2
G2 H 3  H1 ( )
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H3 Not a feedback loop

 3. Eliminate loop II

R(s) G1G 2 Y (s)

1  G2 H 2

H 1 (1  G 2 H 2 )
H3 
G2

Y ( s) G1G2

R(s) 1  G2 H2  G1G2 H3  G1H1  G1G2 H1H2

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 SUPERPOSITION OF MULTIPLE INPUTS

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 EXAMPLE-14: MULTIPLE INPUT SYSTEM. DETERMINE THE OUTPUT C
DUE TO INPUTS R AND U USING THE SUPERPOSITION METHOD.

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 EXAMPLE-14: CONTINUE.

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 EXAMPLE-14: CONTINUE.

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 EXAMPLE-15: MULTIPLE-INPUT SYSTEM. DETERMINE THE
OUTPUT C DUE TO INPUTS R, U1 AND U2 USING THE
SUPERPOSITION METHOD.

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 EXAMPLE-15: CONTINUE.

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 EXAMPLE-15: CONTINUE.

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 EXAMPLE-16: MULTI-INPUT MULTI-OUTPUT SYSTEM.
DETERMINE C1 AND C2 DUE TO R1 AND R2.

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 EXAMPLE-16: CONTINUE.

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 EXAMPLE-16: CONTINUE.

When R1 = 0,

When R2 = 0,

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 SKILL ASSESSMENT EXERCISE:

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 ANSWER OF SKILL ASSESSMENT EXERCISE:

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SIGNAL FLOW
GRAPH
 Outline
• Introduction to Signal Flow Graphs
• Definitions
• Terminologies

• Mason’s Gain Formula

• Examples

• Signal Flow Graph from Block Diagrams

• Design Examples

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 Signal Flow Graph (SFG)
• Alternative method to block diagram representation, developed by
Samuel Jefferson Mason.

• Advantage: the availability of a flow graph gain formula, also called

Mason’s gain formula.

• A signal-flow graph consists of a network in which nodes are connected

by directed branches.

• It depicts the flow of signals from one point of a system to another and
gives the relationships among the signals.

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 Fundamentals of Signal Flow Graphs

Consider a simple equation below and draw its signal

flow graph:
y  ax

The signal flow graph of the equation is shown below;

a y
x

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 Important terminology :
• BRANCHES :-
LINE JOINING TWO NODES IS CALLED BRANCH.
a y
x

Branch
• Dummy Nodes:-
A branch having one can be added at i/p as well as
o/p.

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 Input & output node

• Input node:-
It is node that has only outgoing branches.

• Output node:-
It is a node that has incoming branches.
f
c
x0 a x1 d x2 g x3 h x4

b e

Input node
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 Forward path:-
• ANY PATH FROM I/P NODE TO O/P NODE.

Forward
path

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 Loop

• A closed path from a node to the same node is called loop.

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 Self loop:-

•A feedback loop that contains of only one node is

called self loop.

Self loop

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 Loop gain:-

THE PRODUCT OF ALL THE GAINS FORMING A

LOOP

Loop gain = A32 A23

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 Path & path gain
Path:-
A path is a traversal of connected branches in the
direction of branch arrow.
Path gain:-
The product of all branch gains while going through the
forward path it is called as path gain.

Path & path gain

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 Feedback path or loop

• it is a path to o/p node to i/p node.

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 Touching loops

• when the loops are having the common node that the loops are called
touching loops.

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 Non touching loops

• when the loops are not having any common node between them that
are called as non- touching loops.

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 Non-touching loops for forward paths

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 Chain Node

• it is a node that has incoming as well as outgoing branches.

Chain node

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 SFG terms representation
transmittance
branch
input
x4 node (source)
Chain node
Chain node
node d
x1 a b path x3
1
forward
x2 path
loop x3
c

input node (source) Output node

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 Mason’s Rule (Mason, 1953)
• The block diagram reduction technique requires successive
application of fundamental relationships in order to arrive at the
system transfer function.

• On the other hand, Mason’s rule for reducing a signal-flow graph to a

single transfer function requires the application of one formula.

• The formula was derived by S. J. Mason when he related the signal-

flow graph to the simultaneous equations that can be written from
the graph.

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 MASON’S RULE :-

• THE TRANSFER FUNCTION, C(S)/R(S), OF A SYSTEM

REPRESENTED BY A SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPH IS;

n
 Pi  i
C( s ) i 1

R( s ) 

• WHERE

• N = NUMBER OF FORWARD PATHS.

• PI = THE I TH FORWARD-PATH GAIN.
• ∆ = DETERMINANT OF THE SYSTEM
• ∆I = DETERMINANT
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∆ is called the signal flow graph determinant or characteristic
function. Since ∆=0 is the system characteristic equation.
n
 Pi  i
C( s ) i 1

R( s ) 
∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of the products of
the gains of all possible two loops that do not touch each other) –
(sum of the products of the gains of all possible three loops that
do not touch each other) + … and so forth with sums of higher
number of non-touching loop gains

∆i = value of Δ for the part of the block diagram that does not
touch the i-th forward path (Δi = 1 if there are no non-touching
loops to the i-th path.)
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 Example1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function
of the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

Therefore, C P11  P2  2

R 
There are three feedback loops

L1  G1G4 H 1 , L2  G1G2G4 H 2 , L3  G1G3G4 H 2

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 There are no non-touching loops, therefore

∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)

  1  L1  L2  L3 

  1  G1G4 H 1  G1G2 G4 H 2  G1G3G4 H 2 

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 Eliminate forward path-1

∆1 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...

∆1 = 1

Eliminate forward path-2

∆2 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...

∆2 = 1

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A. Dey 95
 From Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graph Models
H1
• EXAMPLE2
R(s) E(s) X － X3 C(s)
G1 1 G2 G3 G4
－ X
－
2
H2

H3

－H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G 2 X2 G3 G4 X3 1 C(s)

－ H2

－ H3

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 － H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G 2 X2 G3 G4 X3 1 C(s)

－H2

－H3

  1  (G1G2G3G4 H 3  G2G3 H 2  G3G4 H 1 )

P1  G1G2G3G4 ; 1  1

C ( s) G1G2G3G4
G 
R( s ) 1  G1G2G3G4 H 3  G2G3 H 2  G3G4 H 1
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 EXAMPLE#2: APPLY MASON’S RULE TO CALCULATE THE TRANSFER FUNCTION
OF THE SYSTEM REPRESENTED BY FOLLOWING SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH

P1

P2

1. Calculate forward path gains for each forward path.

P1  G1G2G3G4 (path 1) and P2  G5G6 G7 G8 (path 2)

2. Calculate all loop gains.

L1  G2 H 2 , L2  H 3G3 , L3  G6 H 6 , L4  G7 H 7

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3. Consider two non-touching loops. 98
L1L3 L1L4
L2L4 L2L3
 EXAMPLE#2: CONTINUE

4. Consider three non-touching loops.

None.

5. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4.

  1  L1  L2  L3  L4   L1 L3  L1 L4  L2 L3  L2 L4 

  1  G2 H 2  H 3G3  G6 H 6  G7 H 7  
G2 H 2G6 H 6  G2 H 2G7 H 7  H 3G3G6 H 6  H 3G3G7 H 7 

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 Example#2: continue
Eliminate forward path-1

1  1  L3  L4 
1  1  G6 H 6  G7 H 7 

Eliminate forward path-2

 2  1  L1  L2 

 2  1  G2 H 2  G3 H 3 
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 Example#2: continue

Y ( s ) P11  P2  2

R( s ) 

Y ( s) G1G2 G3G4 1  G6 H 6  G7 H 7   G5G6 G7 G8 1  G2 H 2  G3 H 3 


R( s ) 1  G2 H 2  H 3G3  G6 H 6  G7 H 7   G2 H 2 G6 H 6  G2 H 2 G7 H 7  H 3G3G6 H 6  H 3G3G7 H 7 

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 Example#3
• FIND THE TRANSFER FUNCTION, C(S)/R(S), FOR THE SIGNAL-
FLOW GRAPH IN FIGURE BELOW.

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 Example#3
• THERE IS ONLY ONE FORWARD PATH.

P1  G1 ( s )G2 ( s )G3 ( s )G4 ( s )G5 ( s )

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 Example#3
• THERE ARE FOUR FEEDBACK LOOPS.

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 Example#3
• NON-TOUCHING LOOPS TAKEN TWO AT A TIME.

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 Example#3
• NON-TOUCHING LOOPS TAKEN THREE AT A TIME.

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 Example#3

Eliminate forward path-1

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 DESIGN EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE 3

1
V1 ( s )  I1 ( s )  I1 ( s ) R
Cs CsV1 ( s )  CsV2 ( s )  I1 ( s )
V2 ( s )  I1 ( s )R

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 EXAMPLE 4

F  M 1s 2 X 1  k1 ( X 1  X 2 ) 0  M 2 s 2 X 2  k1 ( X 2  X 1 )  k 2 X 2

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Continue……
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