FUNDAMENTALS OF

CONTROL SYSTEMS
(EEO 541)

INTRODUCTION

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 Course Objectives
• To get the knowledge of basic objectives of control system design
• To derive input-output relationship of systems using mathematical model
• To justify stability of systems based on their transfer functions, time
domain and frequency domain specifications
• Concepts on root locus with variable gains & its effects on stability
• Stability of closed-loop system based on open loop frequency response
• Designing controllers so as to meet design specifications both in time as
well as frequency domain
• To be able to realize the controller both in software simulation through
MATLAB coding as well as in real-time environment.

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 Text Books & Reference Books
• Text Books:
• J. Nagrath and M Gopal, Control system Engineering, New Age International Publishers
• K. Ogata, Modern Control Engineering, Prentice Hall.
• Norman S. Nise, Control System Engineering, John Wiley & Sons

• Reference Books:
• B. C. Kuo, Automatic Control Systems, John Wiley & Sons
• Dorf & Bishop, Modern Control Systems, Prentice Hall

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 INTRODUCTION

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 Control situations around you
• Lights and switches: ON-OFF control
• Sophisticated illumination: dimmer

• Fan: Speed control

• Continuous
• Discrete

• Air condition: ON-OFF control

• Automatic control, different from fan control
• Regulator type control where the desired temperature is fixed (set point)
• the set point in a regulator system, could be a temperature/ pressure/ voltage/ any
one of these areas physical quantities which engineers need to control

• Water level control of over head tank

• House hold use: mixer grinder, microwave oven, washing machine etc
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 Modern Engineering Applications of Control
• Flight control systems
• Modern commercial and military
aircraft are “fly by wire”
• Auto-land systems, unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs) are already in place
• Vehicle Control
• Engine control, transmission control,
cruise control, climate control
• Robotics
• High accuracy positioning for flexible
manufacturing
• Remote environments: space, sea,
non-invasive surgery, etc.
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• Chemical process control
• Regulation of flow rates, temperature,
concentrations, etc.
• Long time scales, but only crude models
of process
• Communications and networks
• Amplifiers and repeaters
• Congestion control of the internet
• Power management for wireless
communications
• Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learing
• And many more...
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 Some Application areas

• Space Vehicle
• Missile Guidance Satellite
• Pilotless Aircraft
• Process Control
• Industrial Control
• Biological Control
• Econometrics UAV

• Etc. Etc.

Industrial
process

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 Mars Exploration Rover

Ref: NASA

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 Artificial satellite navigation

Ref: www.twelve-paws.com

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 Combat aircrafts

Ref: ADA

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 Or their more benign cousins

Ref: www.majestictraveltours.com

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 Industrial Processes

Ref: www.albca.com.../oilrefinery.jpg

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 Biological control

e.g. Study of the

effect of the use of
a particular
fertilizer for
improving the
production of a
crop

Ref: wellington.vic.gov.au

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 Refrigerator

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 DVD Player

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 Automobiles

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 System – An interconnection of elements and devices configured for a desired purpose
which can be ensured with the help of a corrective control input. Otherwise the desired
response may not be achieved from the system.
Control System – An interconnection of components forming a
system configuration that will provide a desired response.

Process – The device, plant, or

system under control. The input
and output relationship
represents the cause-and-effect
relationship of the process.
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Control System

• Control is the process of causing a system variable to conform to

some desired value.
• Manual control automatic control (involving machines only).
• A control system is an interconnection of components forming a
system configuration that will provide a desired system
response.

Input Control Output

Signal Signal
System

Energy
Source

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 • The interaction is defined in terms of variables.
i. System input
ii. System output
iii. Environmental disturbances

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Purpose of Control Systems
i. Power amplification (gain)
• Positioning of a large radar antenna by low-power rotation of a
knob
ii. Remote control
• Robotic arm used to pick up radioactive materials
iii. Convenience of input form
• Changing room temperature by thermostat position
iv. Compensation for disturbances
• Controlling antenna position in the presence of large wind
disturbance torque

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Manual Vs Automatic Control
• Control is a process of causing a system variable such as temperature
or position to conform to some desired value or trajectory, called
reference value or trajectory.
• for example, driving a car implies controlling the vehicle to follow the
desired path to arrive safely at a planned destination.
i. if you are driving the car yourself, you are performing manual control of the car.
ii. if you use design a machine, or use a computer to do it, then you have built an
automatic control system.

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Control System Classification

Open-Loop Control System

Missile Launcher System

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Control System Classification

Closed-Loop Feedback Control System

Negative Feedback

Missile Launcher System

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Open Loop Control Systems:

v u
Input Controller Actuator Plant Output

Sensitive to changing in parameters and disturbance.

Closed Loop Control Systems: (Feedback Systems)

Control
(Actuation) Sensing
Error Signal Disturbance signal
Reference + u
+ + Output
Controller Actuator Plant Sensor
-

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Error signal= Reference – Sensing signal

 Control System Classification

Closed-Loop Feedback Control System

Initial wage + Cost Final wage

Wage
Calculation
+ Regulation of Production and Price
Workers
Regulation

Dissatisfaction
of workers
Positive Feedback

Economic Inflation Model

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 MIMO systems

Desired
Controller Process Output
Input
Variables
Response

Example:
Measurement
• Boiler Control
• UAV control
• Auto-throttle control
Multi Input Multi Output (MIMO) System

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Historical Developments

i. Ancient Greece (1 to 300 BC)

• Water float regulation, water clock, automatic oil lamp

ii. Cornellis drebbel (17th century)

• Temperature control
iii. James watt (18th century)
• Flyball governor

iv. Late 19th to mid 20th century

• Modern control theory

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 History of Control System Engineering
• 1770:
• James watt invented the Flyball governor to control the speed of steam engine.
• 1868:
• Maxwell was able to explain instabilities exhibited by the flyball governor using differential equations to describe
the control system.
• World war I:
• Importance of control system was greatly felt.
• 1920:
• Minorsky designed the system for automatic steering of ships and positioning of guns on the shipboards.
• 1934:
• Hazen first attempted to develop some general theory for “servomechanism”
• 1940’s:
• Mathematical and analytical methods were developed and practiced and control engineering was established as
an engineering discipline in its own right
• 1950’s:
• With the advent of computers (analog & digital) highly sophisticated control systems have been devised and
implemented.

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 Flyball governor
Earliest known
example of feedback
control system

Controls the speed

of an engine by
regulating the
amount of fuel (or
working fluid)
admitted, so as to
maintain a near
constant speed Wheel
whatever the load or
fuel supply Valve regulates fuel
conditions.

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 Flyball governor - 2
Earliest known example
of feedback control
system

Controls the speed

of an engine by
regulating the
amount of fuel (or
working fluid)
admitted, so as to
maintain a near
constant speed
whatever the load or
fuel supply
conditions.

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Watt’s Flyball Governor

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Human System

i. Pancreas
Regulates blood glucose
level
ii. Adrenaline
Automatically generated
to increase the heart rate
and oxygen in times of
flight
iii. Skin
Regulated temperature
of 36°C to 37°C

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Control System Components

i. System, plant or process

• To be controlled

ii. Actuators
• Converts the control signal to a power signal

iii. Sensors
• Provides measurement of the system output

iv. Reference input

• Represents the desired output

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General Control System

Disturbance
Controlled Manipulate
Set-point or Error Signal d Variable
Reference
input Actual
+ Output
+ Actuator +
+ Controller + Process
-

Feedback
Sensor
Signal

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 Pros and cons of Open Loop Systems
• From stability perspective, the open-loop control system is easier to
design
• Simple construction and ease of maintenance.
• Less expensive than a corresponding closed-loop system.
• Convenient when output is hard to measure or measuring the output
precisely is economically not feasible.
• Cannot compensate for any disturbances, parameter variation
• Output has no effect on the control action
• To maintain the required quality in the output, recalibration is necessary
from time to time

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 Pros and cons of closed loop systems Slide 1 of 3
• Use of feedback makes the system response relatively insensitive to
external disturbances and internal variations in system parameters

• It is thus possible to use relatively inaccurate and inexpensive

components to obtain the accurate control of a given plant, whereas
doing so is impossible in the open-loop case.

• Closed-loop control systems have advantages when unpredictable

disturbances and/or unpredictable variations in system components are
present.

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 Pros and cons of closed loop systems Slide 2 of 3
• Closed-loop systems, then, have the obvious advantage of greater
accuracy than open-loop systems. They are less sensitive to noise,
disturbances, and changes in the environment.

• Transient response and steady-state error can be controlled more

conveniently and with greater flexibility in closed-loop systems, often by a
simple adjustment of gain (amplification) in the loop and sometimes by
redesigning the controller.

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 Pros and cons of closed loop systems Slide 3 of 3
• Stability is a major issue in the closed-loop control system, which may
tend to overcorrect errors and thereby can cause oscillations of constant
or changing amplitude.

• Note that the output power rating partially determines the cost, weight,
and size of a control system. The number of components used in a
closed-loop control system is more than that for a corresponding open-
loop control system. Thus, the closed-loop control system is generally
higher in cost and power.

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 Important Definitions
• Linear/Nonlinear system
• Principal of superposition and homogeneity
• Time invariant/ time varying system
• System parameters changes with time
• Fixed Parameter / Parameter varying system
• System parameters changes with other physical condition
• Static / Dynamic system
• Depends on memory of states
• Causal/ Non-Causal system
• Depends on future inputs

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 Classification of Control Systems
Control Systems

Natural Man-made

Manual Automatic

Open-loop Closed-loop

Non-linear linear
Non-linear linear

Time variant Time invariant

Time variant Time invariant
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 Modelling

Ultimate
Design

Design Features

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 Control System Design Process
1. Establish control goals

2. Identify the variables to control

If the performance does
not meet specifications, 3. Write the specifications for the variables
then iterate the
configuration and 4. Establish the system configuration and Minding
actuator identify the actuator Stability
5. Obtain a model of the process, the
actuator and the sensor
6. Describe a controller and select key
parameters to be adjusted
Speed of 7. Optimize the parameters and analyze the
response performance
Steady state error If the performance meet the
Overshoot specifications, then finalize design
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 What is a Servomechanism?

Servomechanism is a feed back

control system in which the output is
some mechanical position, velocity
or acceleration that aim to precisely
meet the desired specification.

Servomotor

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 Servo Mechanism
• In control engineering a servomechanism is an automatic device that
uses error-sensing negative feedback to correct the action of a
mechanism.
• It usually includes position feedback mechanism to ensure the output is
achieving the desired effect.
• Applies to systems where the feedback or error-correction signals help
control mechanical position, speed or other parameters.
• An automotive power window control is not a servomechanism, as there
is no automatic feedback that controls position—the operator does this by
observation.
• By contrast a car's cruise control uses closed-loop feedback, which
classifies it as a servomechanism.
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 Servo Mechanism
• A common type of servo provides position control.
• Commonly, servos are electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic.
• Operates on the principle of negative feedback, where the control input is
compared to the actual position of the mechanical system as measured
by some type of transducer at the output.
• Widely used application of control theory. Typical servos can give a rotary
(angular) or linear output.
• Speed control via a governor is another type of servomechanism. The
steam engine uses mechanical governors; another early application was
to govern the speed of water wheels.

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 Servo Mechanism
• Positioning servomechanisms were first used in military fire-control and marine
navigation equipment.
• Today servomechanisms are used in automatic machine tools,
• satellite-tracking antennas,
• remote control airplanes,
• automatic navigation systems on boats and planes,
• and antiaircraft-gun control systems.

• Other examples:
• fly-by-wire systems in aircraft which use servos to actuate the aircraft's control
surfaces,
• Many autofocus cameras also use a servomechanism to accurately move the lens.
• A hard disk drive has a magnetic servo system with sub-micrometer positioning
accuracy.
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 Drawing Block Diagram of Physical Systems

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 Potentiometer

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 Temperature control by regulating the flow of fuel

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 Aircraft Attitude Control

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 Block diagram of a Grinder
• The vertical position of the grinding
wheel shown in Figure is controlled by a
closed-loop system.
• The input to the system is the desired
depth of grind, and the output is the
actual depth of grind.
• The difference between the desired
depth and the actual depth drives the
motor, resulting in a force applied to the
work.
• This force results in a feed velocity for
the grinding wheel.

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 Control of Anesthesia Level
• During a medical operation an anaesthesiologist controls the depth of unconsciousness
by controlling the concentration of isoflurane in a vaporized mixture with oxygen and
nitrous oxide.
• The depth of anesthesia is measured by the patient’s blood pressure. The
anesthesiologist also regulates ventilation, fluid balance, and the administration of other
drugs.
• In order to free the anesthesiologist to devote more time to the latter tasks, and in the
interest of the patient’s safety, we wish to automate the depth of anesthesia by
automating the control of isoflurane concentration.

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 Liquid Level Control

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 Volume Control of A Motorcycle’s Radio
• We can build a control system that will automatically adjust a motorcycle’s radio volume as the noise
generated by the motorcycle changes.

• The noise generated by the motorcycle increases with speed. As the noise increases, the system increases
the volume of the radio. Assume that the amount of noise can be represented by a voltage generated by the
speedometer cable, and the volume of the radio is controlled by a dc voltage. The dc voltage represents the
desired volume disturbed by the motorcycle noise

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 Pupil Diameter Control
• The human eye has a biological control system that varies the pupil diameter to maintain
constant light intensity to the retina.
• As the light intensity increases, the optical nerve sends a signal to the brain, which
commands internal eye muscles to decrease the pupil’s eye diameter. When the light
intensity decreases, the pupil diameter increases.

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 Orientation Control of a Personal Transporter
• A ‘Personal Transporter’ is a two-wheeled vehicle in which the human operator stands
vertically on a platform.
• As the driver leans left, right, forward, or backward, a set of sensitive gyroscopic sensors
sense the desired input. These signals are fed to a computer that amplifies them and
commands motors to propel the vehicle in the desired direction.
• One very important feature of the PTis its safety: The system will maintain its vertical
position within a specified angle despite road disturbances, such as up hills and down
hills or even if the operator over-leans in any direction.
• Draw the block diagram

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 Hybrid Car
• The use of hybrid cars is becoming increasingly popular. A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)
combines electric machine(s) with an internal combustion engine (ICE), making it
possible (along with other fuel consumption–reducing measures, such as stopping the
ICE at traffic lights) to use smaller and more efficient gasoline engines.
• Thus, the efficiency advantages of the electric drive train are obtained, while the energy
needed to power the electric motor is stored in the onboard fuel tank and not in a large
and heavy battery pack.

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 Block Diagram of Cruise Control

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 Hybrid Car
• The HEVs sold today are primarily of the parallel or split-power variety. If the combustion
engine can turn the drive wheels as well as the generator, then the vehicle is referred to
as a parallel hybrid, because both an electric motor and the ICE can drive the vehicle.
• A parallel hybrid car includes a relatively small battery pack (electrical storage) to put out
extra power to the electric motor when fast acceleration is needed.

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 Cruise Control

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 • Split-power hybrid cars utilize a combination of
series and parallel drives. These cars use a
planetary gear as a split-power transmission to
allow some of the ICE power to be applied
mechanically to the drive.
• The other part is converted into electrical energy
through the alternator and the inverter to feed the
electric motor (downstream of the transmission)
and/or to charge the high-voltage battery.

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 Cruise Control

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 Examples of Modern Control Systems

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 Examples of Modern Control Systems

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 Examples of Modern Control Systems

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 Prerequisites

• FOR CLASSICAL CONTROL THEORY

• DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
• LAPLACE TRANSFORM
• BASIC PHYSICS
• COMPLEX ALGEBRA
• USE OF ORDINARY AND SEMI-LOGARITHIMIC GRAPH PAPERS

• FOR STATE SPACE MODEL

• LINEAR ALGEBRA
• MATRICES

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