Downloaded 05/03/13 to 132.203.235.189. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/ GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 43.
. 43. NO. 1 (JUNE lY7X): P. 78X-803. 23 FIGS., I TABLE
INVERSION OF TWO-DIMENSIONAL RESISTIVITY
AND INDUCED-POLARIZATION DATA
W. H. PELTON*, L. RIJOZ, AND C.
A fast ridge regression inversion technique has
been devised for the interpretation of simple two-
dimensional resistivity and induced-polarization
data. The program will determine the rectangular
source under a single layer of overburden which best
fits the observed data.
Several advantages are derived from using the
ridge regression method; they include convergence
from very poor initial guesses, stability in the pres-
ence of high-frequency geologic noise, readily ob-
tained estimates of parameter statistics, and the
ability for simultaneous inversion of multiple data
sets. Unfortunately, each ridge regression inversion
requires a great many forward problem evaluations;
thus in order to achieve speed and reasonablecost, it
is essential to reduce the calculation time for the
forward problem to an absolute minimum. One
method of achieving this is to store in the computer
a data bank containing solutions for the entire range
of expected parameter combinations. The forward
problem then reduces to numerical interpolation
between these precalculated data sets.
For compilation of the data bank of forward solu-
tions, two main numerical methods were investi-
gated: the finite element and transmission-surface
INTRODUCTION
Several recent papers (Inman, 197.5; Rijo et al,
1977; Petrick et al. 1977) have demonstrated the
simplicity, stability, and flexibility of the ridge re-
gression algorithm in the inversion of one-
dimensional resistivity data. The method is general;
basically it allows inversion of any data, as long as
(I) there is a fast forward algorithm for calculating
at the 46th Annual International
Presented SEC Meeting,October26, 1976in Houston. Manuscript received by the Editor
FebruaryI. 1977;revised manuscript received September 6, 1977.
*Phoenix Geophysics Ltd., 200 Yorkland Blvd., Willowdale, Ont. M2J lR6 Canada.
$Nucleo de Geofisica e Geologia. Universidade Federal do Para, Belem. Para 66000, Brazil.
PChevron Resources Co.. 320 Market St., San Francisco, CA 9411 I.
0016.8033178/0601-0788$03.00. @ 1978 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.
788
M. SWIFT. JR.5
algorithms. Although these algorithms are con-
ceptually quite different, the resulting matrix equa-
tions are very similar. The efficiency of either method
depends mainly on the scheme chosen for solving the
resultant large system of linear equations.
Once the data bank has been created, it is possible
to obtain inverse solutions for less cost than the
computation of one finite elemenl or transmission-
surfaceforward problem. Tests on theoreticaldata and
field data show the inversion technique to be reason-
ably accurate, stable, and fast.
The statistics estimated by the inversion program
provide additional useful information on the uncer-
tainty in the parameters of the derived model and on
high correlations between parameters. The most
highly correlated parameters arc. as might be
anticipated, the resistivity and the width of thin
conductive bodies. Two practical methods for carry-
ing out inversion in spite of highly correlated param-
eters are, preferably, to add extra data sets which
provide more information on some of the parameters
or, alternatively, to fix some of the parameters at
geologically reasonable values and invert to a more
restricted model.
theoretical data from input parameters, and (2) there
is a means for calculating derivatives of the data with
respect to the parameters.
Unfortunately, these two requirements are not
readily met for 2-D geophysical problems. Forward
algorithms exist, but they are slow, and the discrete
mesh used in numerical modeling techniques does
not readily allow derivatives with respect to body
 Resistivity and Induced Polarization 789

-a+
geometry. The purpose of this paper is to outline one
method for 2-D inversion which circumvents the ax
= -pJ,,
above two difficulties. No claim is made that it is an
-a+
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optimum method, but it is inexpensive and reason-

dy
= -pJ,,
ably effective.
The method is simple. We first calculate a data
bank containing forward problem solutions for the
complete range of anticipated parameter combina-
tions. It is then possibleto replace the time-consuming and
numerical forward problem by spline interpolation
between the various stored models. The resulting 2 +2 +$$=I,S(x)S(y)S(z). (6)
new forward problem is many times faster, and is
continuous with respect to all parameters, so that The dc point source problem differs from those 2-D
derivatives with respect to body geometry may easily problems treated by Swift (1971) in that three com-
be obtained. ponents of the field variable are involved. As out-
Although the method may be extended to various lined by Madden (1971), the variation in the y-
2-D and 3-D geophysical problems, we limit our dis- direction (strike direction) fortunately can be Fourier
cussion in this paper to the inversion of 2-D induced- transformed out, so that the resulting equations
polarization (IP) and resistivity data. simplify to

THE FORWARD PROBLEM (7)

Numerical techniquesfor solving the 2-D resistivity
and IP forward problem have been in existence for a
number of years. They include the integral equation
method (Hohmann, 1975), the transmission surface
and
method (Madden, 1971), and the finite element
method (Coggon, 1971). We investigated the latter
two techniques and ultimately selected a program
tg + !g = $4, +I$(x)S(z), (9)
written by Swift (197 I) which uses the transmission
surface method for compiling the necessary data where A is the Fourier transform variable.
bank of forward solutions. A finite element program These equations for +,, and Jh are directly anal-
recently developed by Rijo (I 977) was used for an ogous to the equations governing voltage V and cur-
independent check on the accuracy of the numerical rent I about a point source in a 2-D transmission
results. line or “transmission surface”:

av
Transmission surface algorithm - = -ZI,, (10)
dX

The transmission surface algorithm, or network

av
solution technique, was first applied to geophysical - = -ZI,, (11)
dZ
problems by T. R. Madden (Madden and Thompson,
1965). This algorithm has been presented in detail and
for a plane-wave source and a line electromagnetic
~JI, al,
source (Swift, 1971), but has been presented only in - = -w + 1,6(x)6(z), (12)
outline for the dc point source (Madden, 1971). ax+ a2
The basic equations descirbing the potential 4 and
where Z and Y are the distributed impedance and
current density J around a point current sourceI,$ are
admittance parameters per unit length and I,s is the
04 = -pJ, (I) impressed current source. The “network analogy”
is then achieved by the following associations:
and
4xevV, (13)
V. J = 1,6(x)~(y)S(z). (2)
Jh-1, (14)
These equations expand to: P =z, (15)
 790 Pelton et al

z, = $T’
Z

I
(18)
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as defined in transmission line theory.

z Basically, however, the transmission surface
analogy is merely a convenient method for obtaining
the finite difference system of equations given in
(17). The banded, sparse, symmetric, diagonally
dominant K matrix is essentially the same as that
which would be obtained by the traditional finite
difference method or the newer finite element
method (Rijo, 1977). The exact dimensions and
form of the resulting matrix depend upon the number
of nodes in the mesh rather than the particular
technique used (Figure 2).
FIG. 1. A small section of the transmission surface
Since the solution of the system of equations
showing the discrete circuit elements for a square
mesh. for the various d~~xcomprises about 90 percent of
the necessary computer time the particular matrix
inversion scheme selected for the problem is very
important. Where multiple source positions are
involved, as in most geophysical problems, consid-
and erable savings in computer time can result if the ma-
trix is inverted in such a way that additional sources
“e
‘P r. (16) can be handled by simple manipulations with dif-
ferent right-hand source vectors S. The scheme we
Thus once the 2-D resistivity section has been dis- employed in this paper has been applied to geo-
cretized into a lumped network, a systemof equations physical problems by Greenfield (196.5) and is
essentially a Cholesky decomposition algorithm in-
K+h = S, (17)
can immediately be constructed from Kirchoffs
second law, which requires that the sum of currents
entering any node of a network be zero. In (17), K is
a sparse banded matrix operator, 4h is the unknown
vector of transformed potentials, and S is the vector
describing the known sources of current.
The discrete impedanceswhich are usedto simulate
the resistivity continuum must, of course, be pro-
portional to the length between nodes and inversely
proportional to the number of parallel conduction
paths per unit width. Similarly, the discrete ad-
mittances must be proportional to the surface area
surroundingeach node. Figure 1 shows a small part
of the network illustrating the admittance to ground
and distributionof impedancesfor an equidimensional
mesh section.
Perhaps the most important advantage of the net-
work solution technique is that it allows physical
insight’ into the construction of the mesh and the
application of boundary conditions. For example, to
simulate an infinite continuum extending beyond the t------804-
edges and bottom of the mesh, so that no reflections
FIG. 2. Form of symmetric, sparse,banded diagonally
are generated, the boundary is terminated by the dominant matrix arising from rectangular mesh with
characteristic impedance dimensions 67 x 12.
 Resistivity and Induced Polarization 791

Execution time for a typical dipole-dipole profile

involving 8 transmitting electrode pairs and 63
pseudosection apparent resistivities from II = 1 to
n = 6. totalsone minute on the University of Utah
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Univac I 108 computer for a total cost of S I .30 on

overnight priority.

Finite element method

In order to check independently the results ob-

tained by the transmission surface algorithm. we
Ti-- IO’
x reran several models with the finite element PI-ogram

X' developed by Rijo ( 1977). The finite element method

z was
problem
first applied
by Coggon
to the two-dimcn~ional
( I Y7 I ). In recent years enpincers
resistivity

IO0 and mathematicians have successively refined the

method so that it has emerged as an extremely
powerful and general tool for solving complex
boundary value problems.
16’ t We start with Poisson‘s equation.

L I I

162 IO- IO0 IO'

x and Fourier transform out the variation in the x-

FIG. 3. Plots showing typical behavior of the trans- direction (strike direction) to ohtain
formed potential as a function of the Fourier transform
variable X. Since the function is very smooth, only
seven calculated values are required to predict ac-
curately the behavior of the function over its entire A

range In (20) y represents the transformed y.

Since the Laplacian operator is elliptic and self-
volving inversion of a number of small blocks of
adjoint positive-definite, it is possible to use either
the original matrix, rather than inverting the whole
the Ritz minimization of energy technique or the
matrix.
Galerkin method of weighted residuals for arriving
In order to calculate the inverse Fourier transform
at the same tinite element algorithm. We use the
and thus obtain the potential +. the matrix inversion
Galerkin method here xmce it is more general,
must be carried out for various different values of
yielding a solution even when the operator is not
A. Figure 3 illustrates typical +h for several receiver
self-adjoint.
positions around a point source near a vertical
If 5, is an approximate function representing
conductive dyke. The $h are, in general, smooth
(bh. the residua1.R is given by
monotonically decreasing functions which approach
exponential behavior for large h. We have found that
(21)
only seven values of A are usually adequate to predict
the behavior of the function over its entire range.
When $h is exactly equal to (bh, this residual is equal
Since the resulting potential is entirely real for a dc
to zero. The general method of weighted residuals
point source, the inverse Fourier transform reduces
produces a numerical algorithm by assuming that
to a cosine transform, and for potentials in a plane
the inner product between a weighting func;i: I and
perpendicular to the strike we have v = 0, so that the
the residual is exactly zero. For the Galerkin method
transform further reduces to simple integration.
this weighting term is simply the function itself.
Considering a typical 2-D mesh of 67 nodes by 12
Thus our algorithm is
nodes, and taking advantage of the symmetry and
banded nature of the matrix, the required data storage
is less than 10,000 words for the 804 by 804 matrix.
The total storage requirements including the pro-
gram and other data arrays amount to 28,000 words.
 792 Pelton et al

I I I I
+ &1.<6(.~)6(;) dA = 0. (24)
1

It is interesting to note that application of the above

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algorithm throughout our discrete domain leads to

essentially the same sparse, banded. symmetric
162 system of equations (I 7) which we obtained through
the simple application of Kirchoff’s laws in the pre-
ceding section. Details of the assemblage of the
system of equations from (24) are given by Rijo
-iii-. Id3 (1977).
x Perhaps the main difference between the two

- x’
computer programs arose when we used the finite
element routine to solve for the secondary potential.
-iY
Ia4 If we use the subscriptsr, p, and s to denote total,
primary, and secondary potential, respectively, we
may write

K,,+,,, = S> (25)

Id5 i

,,’ 01

Knd~i,, = Wb,,. (26)

16’ loo IO'
x for the potential due to the same source distribution
on a homogeneousearth. Since the total potential is
FIG. 4. Plots showing typical behavior of the trans-
formed secondarypotential. The function has a local the sum of the primary plus the secondary potential,
maximum and is therefore more difficult to interpolate we have
accurately.

This same equation would result if we obtained a

variational statement using the Ritz method and then
NETWORK SOLUTION
differentiated it and set it equal to zero, to accomplish
“minimization of energy”.
Since it is expedient to use simple approximating
functions, it is desirable to eliminate the second
derivative in (22) by integration by parts, which gives

(23)

After discretization of the domain, we note that the

second integral in (23) becomes trivial. All the FINITE ELEMENT SOLUTION
internal element boundaries are traversed twice in
opposite directions, so that the only remaining con-
tribution is on the external boundary. If the boundary
is far away from all sources, or if we solve for the
secondary potential, this contribution can be made
negligible, so that (23) reduces to
FIG. 5. Dipole-dipole apparent resistivity pseudo-
sections calculated by the network solution tech-
nique and by the finite element method for the same
resistivity section. The results agree within 7 percent.
 Resistivity and Induced Polarization 793

or MODEL PARAMETERS
K4~s = -K,,+iu. (28)
CENTER
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where K,, is the anomalous matrix obtained by sub-

tracting K,, from K,. We now note that the entries of
6 7 8 9 IO II 12 13 14 I5 16

K,, are everywhere zero except for those associated DEPTH OVERBURDEN
4
with nodes in the inhomogeneity. Thus, in order to .R. ,BODY
solve for the secondary field we need only calculate THICK R HOST
.‘.:,@.., BQRY
4 h/Jwhere the inhomogeneity exists. +-WIDTH--( IP HOST
As a consequence.of solving for the secondary
potential, the 4hs shown in Figure 4 are much smaller FIG. 6. Diagram showing the nine parameters used
in magnitude and different in form from the I#Qshown in the inversion.
in Figure 3. Since the functions are no longer
monotonically decreasing, it is slightly more difficult
to obtain a highly accurate interpolation from a The fast forward routine
limited number of calculated points. As a result of the good agreement between the
There are perhaps two main numerical advantages two pseudosectionsshown in Figure 5, we were rea-
to solving for the secondary potential. The most sonably confident that no major programming errors
important of these is that a fine mesh is not required had been made and that the two routines produced
near each source, since the actual point sources are results of acceptable accuracy for our inversion re-
replaced by fictitious sources, quirements. The next step was to compile a data bank
S, = -Ko4hp, (29) of dipole-dipole pseudosectionsin order to implement
the fast forward routine desired for ridge regression.
distributed throughout the inhomogeneity. The sec- Our first task was to identify all parameters which
ond numerical advantage is realized when r#~*,~is are truly important in characterizing a resistivity and
small relative to 4hf. Any relative inaccuracy in the IP section. As shown in Figure 6, we arrived at nine
calculation of $J*,~will be diminished by the addition model parameters. Notably absent from these is the
of the analytically known (bhp to form 4*,. Of
course, when 4hp and 4i,q are of nearly the same
magnitude with opposite sign, the addition processis
Id_ ,
disadvantageousand a small percentage error in 4hr I I I

can cause a large percentage error in 4hf.

7-
5-
Another main difference incorporated in the finite
3-
element program involved the use of Gaussianelimi-
nation to solve the system of equations, Since most : 2-
5
of the entries in the matrix are zero, Gaussian
F lo21D
elimination can be made comparable in speed to v) 7;
Cholesky decomposition. For multiple sources it is 3 5,
necessary to carry out the forward reduction just r 3
once; each additional source vector requires only I- 2 _B
back substitution.
i5
Figure 5 shows a dipole-dipole apparent resistivity u Id,
pseudosectioncalculated by the transmissionsurface $ 7 \

program and the same calculated by the finite element s 5:

program for comparison. Partly because a smaller 3-+

mesh was used (only 59 X 12) instead of (67 X 121, 2-

and partly because the matrix was inverted for only

I I I
six values of A instead of seven, the finite element I8 ’
.25 .50 1.0 2.0
program was faster and cheaper by about a factor of
two. It required only 24,000 words of core and 24 set DEPTH
execution time on the University of Utah Univac FIG. 7. Typical variation in apparent resistivity for
1108, for a total cost of about $.60 on overnight changesin depth. Each curve correspondsto only one
priority, pseudosectiondata point.
 Pelton et al

in position can produce a dramatic change in apparent

resistivity. In order to predict accurately this change,
we compiled an additional 192 pseudosections. As
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shown in Figure 8, the increaseddensity of calculated

apparent resistivities ensured adequate control for
the cubic spline interpolation.
Considering that the compilation of 768 apparent
resistivity pseudosectionsalone had required a large
amount of computer time we were understandably
reluctant to repeat the processin order to compile 768
apparent polarizability pseudosections. We avoided
this by interpolating between the stored apparent
resistivity pseudosectionsfor various target resistiv-
ities (illustrated in Figure 9) and differentiating. The
dilution factor, given by

B /ago,
2
a logo,
(Seigel, 1959) where p,, is the apparent resistivity
c‘ d ’ I I I I I I
and p2 is the true resistivity of the body, is all that is
5 6 7 8 9 IO II
required in order to calculate the apparentpolarizabil-
CENTER ity anomaly caused by a polarizable body. To handle
FIG. 8. Typical variation in apparent resistivity for accurately host rock and overburden IP effects, this
changes in the horizontal location of the body. Each process should have been repeated for the host rock
curve relates to one pseudosectiondata point. resistivity and the overburden resistivity. We were
running into rather large storage requirements, how-
ever, and the host rock and overburden polarizability
dip of the target. It turns out that dip is not at all well usually provide rather small additional contributions
resolved in most dipole-dipole pseudosection data. to the total apparent polarizability. As a result we
However, even with this omission, we still ended calculated and stored only those dilution factors per-
up with enough different parameter combinations in taining to the target, and simulated the effect of a
compiling the data bank to keep our Univac 1108 “background polarizability” by the simple expedient
computer busy for 13 straight hours! of adding a small constantto the apparentpolarizabil-
Once we had stored 576 apparent resistivity ity pseudosection.
pseudosectionson file, we immediately converted all With this last modification the fast forward routine
values to logs. This conversion aided in two ways: was essentially complete. When nine model param-
(1) it became very easy to accommodate changes in eters are specified, the routine immediately locates
background resistivity by simple addition of a con- the nearest stored pseudosection, then by spline
stant, and (2) the interpolation in logarithmic space interpolation it determines the necessary corrections
became smooth and accurate. As illustrated by to both the dilution factor and log apparent resistivity
Figure 7, three typical pseudosection data points, in order to compensate for the slight difference be-
corresponding to the three curves, are well-behaved tween the input model parameters and those of the
functions of depth. Consequently, pseudosections nearest stored pseudosection. The corrected dilution
calculated for only four different values of depth are factor is then multiplied by the polarizability of the
all that are required in order to ensure that the cubic source and added to the background polarizability to
spline interpolating function accurately approxi- give the apparent polarizability. The log apparent
mates the true apparent resistivity versus depth resistivity is formulated first in terms of contrasts,
dependence. then the backgroundlog apparentresistivity is simply
The model parameter which gave the most diffi- added. The resulting forward problem is more than
culty in accurate interpolation was the one deter- 100 times faster than the transmission surface
mining horizontal position along the line. For the algorithm which was used to compile the data bank
particular case of a large resistivity contrast, shallow and, in addition, readily provides all the derivatives
depth, and no conductive overburden, a slight shift required by ridge regression inversion.
 Resistivity and Induced Polarization 795

to”
7
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IO2
7
5

3
2

IO’
7
5

R BODY
FIG. 9. Typical variation in apparentresistivity for changes in the resistivity of the body. Each curve relates to
one pseudosectiondata point.

THE INVERSE PROBLEM

Since the ridge regression algorithm used in this
paper has been described elsewhere (Pelton et al,
1974; Rijo et al, 1977; Petrick et al, 1977), we will
only outline the method here.
Virtually any continuous geophysical functional
can be linearized so that the matrix B, containing
derivatives of each data point with respect to each
model parameter, predicts the small perturbation in
data Ag due to a small change in parameters Ap
through the relationship
BAp = Ag. (30)
in order to compensate for the difference in error
between each data set. When the data errors are
independent, as is usually assumed,the weight matrix
W reduces to a diagonal matrix u’hose elements are
inversely proportional to the error in each data set.
For example, when resistivity data with 5 percent
error are inverted simultaneously wiith PFE (percent
frequency effect) data containing errors of 0.6, the
appropriateweighting factor correspondingto the log
resistivity data is 0.61 log (1.05).
The appropriately weighted relationship is then
AAp = Ay. (33)

In the case of simultaneousinversion of several data Since we always have more data than parameters,
sets, it is necessaryto obtain first a weighted deriva- the matrix A is overdetermined and cannot be inverted
tive matrix, readily in its present form; thus, we first multiply
both sides of (33) by AT, where T denotestranspose,
A=WB,
to obtain
and a weighted data difference vector, ATAAp = ATAy. (34)
Ay = WAg, (32) The matrix AT A is now square, symmetric, and posi-
 796 Pelton et al

THEORETICAL DATA associatedwith the more well-determined parameters.

PLUS 22% RANDOM NOISE If k is very large, (36) approaches the gradient
method of inversion which is stable but slow; where-
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as if k is near zero, (36) approaches the Newton-

Raphson method which is fast but may diverge. In
practice it is desirable to try several values of k on
a logarithmic scale in attempting to minimize the
least-squaresresidual. Techniques such as this which
carefully adjust the value of k while iterating towards
a solution are known as ridge regression methods.
Once a solution has been found, the next question
is what is the error in the data, and how well are the
parameters resolved. If we assumethat the data error
is normally distributed and that the model we have
INVERTED DATA chosen is the true model, we can obtain an estimate
for the variance of the data error from the reduced
chi-square
335
3
(37)

FIG. IO. Theoretical data obtained by the trans- where n is the number of data points and m is the
mission-surface algorithm were contaminated by the number of parameters. If we have assumed relative
addition of 22 percent random noise (top pseudo-
section). Although the initial guess differs greatly
from the theoretical model, the inversion converged

O
‘ l’
stably to yield the best least-squaresfitting data shown
in the bottom pseudosection.

tive definite. If our problem is well-posed and the

initial guess is very close to the final answer, we
could merely invert AT A to obtain the desired param-
eter change Ap. However, often it is difficult to
make an extremely accurate initial guess, and often
our problem includes parameters which are poorly
determined. As a result, ATA may be nearly singular
and the algorithm

Ap = (ATA)-‘ATAy, (35)
could produce a parameter change which may in-
c‘reuse instead of decrease the least squares re-
sidual A yTA y.
41
In order to stabilize ATA and prevent divergence,
CONVERGENCE
we resort to a technique described by Levenberg
(1944). Foster (1961), and Marquardt (1963). We
add a small positive constant k to the diagonal
terms of ATA before inversion, so that our algorithm lG3- I I I I
becomes 0 2 4 6 8 IO

Ap = (ATA + kI)-‘AT A y, ITERATIONS

(36)
where I is the identity matrix. The constant k has
the desired effect of damping the small eigenvalues
of ATA which cause instability, while at the same
time it has minor effect on the larger eigenvalues
FIG. 11. The inversion of the theoretical data con-
verged in only four iterations for a typical reasonable
initial guess; it required seven iterations for an ex-
tremely poor initial guess, as shown by the plot of the
reduced chi-square value.
 Resistivity and Induced Polarization 797

weights, the reduced chi-square applies to those data

which had weights of 1.O. All other data have appro-
priate relative standard deviations.
36?eyfyj>
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From the reduced chi-square, we may now obtain 414 367 263 3w 343 306 242 276 333 29
the parameter covariance matrix NR 436 304 333 236 386 308 267 326 268 304

cov P = x;(ATA)-‘. (38)

An estimate for the standarddeviation of each param-

eter may be obtained by taking the squareroot of the
correspondingdiagonal elements of cov P, and appro-
priate normalization of the covariance matrix yields
the parameter correlation coefficients

cov P,,
car Pij = (39)
(cov Pii . cov P,)“”

We do not plan to dwell too heavily on the application

of these statistical estimates in this paper since the
subject is lengthy and has been treated previously in
the cited references on I-D inversion. We should,
however, mention that while lack of uniquenessand
poor resolution are problems in I-D resistivity inver-
sion, they are even larger problems in 2-D resistivity
inversion. As a result, estimatesof parameterstandard
deviations and parameter correlation coefficients pro-
vide very useful guidesto the accuracyand uniqueness
of the overall interpretation.
INVERSION OF THEORETICAL DATA
In order to test our program we decided to invert,
first, theoretical data. The “observed” data shown in
Figure 10 are theoretical data generated by the
transmission-surfaceprogram, to which 22 percent
random noise has been added. Routine tests with
this data using reasonable initial guesses showed
that our inversion program was indeed working
correctly and converging in three or four iterations.
We wished, however, to test the stability of the pro-
gram by deliberately choosing the extremely poor
initial guess shown in Figure 10. Despite this poor
FIG. 12. Observed and calculated apparentresistivity
data (p/2a in n-ft, x = 400 ft) from inversion of
field results (Fountain, 1972) over the Brenda
porphyry copper deposit near Peachland, British
Columbia. The shaded area in the top part of the
figure is an idealized outline of the actual sulfide
deposit. The shaded area in the bottom of the figure
is the rectangular 2-D body which gives the best fit
to the observed data.
guess, the inversion converged in seven iterations,
as illustrated in Figure 1I by the plot of the reduced
chi-square goodness-of-fit indicator.
Since we were inverting log resistivity data, the
value at convergence of 0.00685 for the reduced
chi-square suggeststhat the data error is 21 percent.
This estimated data standard deviation is in very
good agreement with the actual standard deviation
of 22 percent which was imposed on the theoretical
data.

Table 1. Parameters, percentage parameter standard deviations, and parameter correlation coefficients obtained
from the inversion of theoretical data contaminated by 22 percent random noise.

Percent
Theoretical Inverted standard Correlation
Parameters model model deviation coefficients

Center il.00 10.94 0.3 I.0

Depth .50 .52 4.0 .I0 1.0
Width 2.00 2.04 4.3 .05 .56 1.o
Thick .50 .47 28.7 -.03 .02 -.07 1.o
Rh0dY 3.00 2.25 29.6 -.03 .09 .03 .94 1.0
R host 300. 305.25 3.7 -.Ol .05 .50 .03 .03 1.0
 798 Pelton et al

dicates that only their difference may be determined.

Since the correlation coefficient relating the logarith-
mic resistivity of the body and its logarithmic thick-
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NR
ness is 0.94, it suggests that only the resistivity-
thickness quotient or conductivity-thickness product
is accurately known. All the other parameter corre-
lation coefficients are relatively small, indicating that
for this particular data set the remaining model param-
eters may be individually resolved.

IP MODEL INVERSION OF FIELD DATA

The inversion of the theoretical data was con-
structive in that it demonstrated that the ridge re-
gression algorithm was working correctly and that the
statistics provided by the routine were indeed rea-
sonable. Our major objective, however, was to create
a program which would invert data containing
344, 12ot abundant “geological noise” and which would yield
approximate dimensions and physical properties of
bodies which were by no means homogeneous and
FIG. 13. Observed and calculated apparent polari- certainly not rectangular in shape.
zability data (PFE 0.31 to 2.5 Hz, x = 400 ft) from
inversion of field results (Fountain, 1972) over the Brenda, B.C.
Brenda porphyry copper deposit near Peachland,
British Columbia. The first field data which we attempted to invert
were results from the Brenda porphyry copper deposit
near Peachland, British Columbia (Fountain, 1972).
As shown in Figures 12 and 13, there is a slight
As a result of the random noise which was added apparent resistivity low and a small apparent polari-
to the theoretical data, the final inverted model is not zability high over the deposit. Inversion of the
exactly the theoretical model, as demonstrated by
the values given in Table 1. The important point to
note here, though, is that the error in the inverted
model parameters is &curately predicted by the
estimated parameter standard deviations. For exam-
ple, the inversion suggeststhat the host rock resistivity
is 305. Since the estimated standard deviation is
3.7 percent, there is about a 67 percent probability
that the true resistivity lies somewhere in the range
294 to 316. Indeed, the actual host rock resistivity
is 300.
The parameters which were most poorly deter- RESISTIVITY MODEL
mined by the inversion are the thicknessand resistiv- II6 II6 II2 106 IO6 106 112 II6

ity of the body. We might well have anticipated

this uncertainty. Since the body is relatively thin com-
pared to an electrode interval, a slightly thinner but
more conductive body could reasonably be expected
to fit the data almost as well. This conclusion is 8
confirmed by the parameter correlation coefficients
shown in Table 1. Correlation coefficients whose
absolutevalues are near 1.O indicate a linear relation-
FIG. 14. Observed and calculated apparent resistivity
ship between two specific parameters. A value near
data (p/27r in R-ft, x = 200 m) from inversion of
- 1.O suggeststhat only the sum of the parameters field results (Hallof, 1972) over the Yalguaraz
may be determined; whereas a value near +l.O in- porphyry copper prospect near Mendoza, Argentina.
 Resistivity and Induced Polarization 799

apparent resistivity data produced a model which 568 310 \660/ 350 324 980 w 820

roughly corresponds to the location of the known y 63 “Ofl@ 36&4 565 530
427 550 437 296 390 462 380 329 431 NR
sulfide mineralization. Although the apparent re-
0
sistivity contours of the calculated data do not
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oRE_~ OVERBURDEN
exactly correspond to those of the field data, the
basic pattern of an apparentresistivity low of approxi- LIMESTONE

mately 250 in a background of 350 is repeated.

The statisticsobtained from the inversion suggest
that the center of the deposit and the depth are deter-
RESISTIVITY MODEL
mined to within 0.25 electrode interval (X = 400 ft).
The width of the deposit is less well-defined. since
its estimated standarddeviation is 29 percent or about
I .O electrode interval. Resolution of the true average
resistivity for the host rock and the body was rea-
sonable;the estimated standarddeviations were 5 and

I
28 percent, respectively. The thicknessof the deposit.
however. was essentially unresolved.
Using the body geometry and resistivity contrast
obtained from the apparent resistivity data, we then FIG. 16. Observed and calculated apparent resistivity
inverted the apparent polarizability data to obtain data (p/2n in R-ft, x = 200 ft) from inversion of
an average polarizability of 3.4 percent FE for the field results (Hallof, 1972) over strata-bound lead-
zinc mineralization near Pine Point, N. W. T
body and 2.0 percent FE for the host rock. Both the
apparent resistivity and apparent polarizability inver-
sions were stable and converged in four iterations
for a total cost of $.20 on the University of Utah
Univac 1I08 computer.

Mendoza, Argentina
A more difficult data set to interpret was obtained
6 4 IO 6 II 1.0 IO IO by Hallof (1972) from a porphyry copper prospect
near Mendoza, Argentina. Since the mineralization
is buried deeply beneath alluvial valley sediments,
it is difficult to obtain an accurate estimate of the
0
i ” ” c : 1’
true resistivity and polarizability of the deposit. In
addition to the complications of depth, it was ncces-
sary first to contend with a second anomaly appear-
ing on the left-hand side of the pseudosection.Since
our fast forward .problem was limited to calculating
effects due to a single causativebody, we effectively)
IP MODEL
ignored the second anomaly by setting equal to zero
12 12 13 14 13 14 I3 I2
II II I4 17 17 17 17 14 II
the elements of the weight matrix corresponding to
IO IO 14 the shaded portion of the pseudosection shown in
9 9 dsko9
15 Figures I4 and 15. We next constrainedthe horizontal
position of the deposit and its depth extent, since
these parameters were very poorly resolved. and
simultaneously inverted the apparent resistivity and
apparent polarizability data to obtain the sections
shown in the figures Since there is information on
both depth and resistivity contrast in the apparent
FIG. 15. Observed and calculated apparent polari- polarizability data, the simultaneous inversion of the
zability data (PFE 0.31 to 5.0 Hz, x = 200 m) from
data sets helped to resolve the model more accurately
inversion of field results (Hallof, 1972) over the
Yalguaraz porphyry copper prospect near Mendoza, than either data set alone. Computer costs for the
Argentina. combined inversion were again less than S I .OO.
 000 Pelton et al

Pine Point, N.W.T.

Another example of simultaneous inversion of
resistivity and polarizability data is shown in Figures
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I6 and 17. The data are from a strata-boundlead-zinc

deposit near Pine Point, Northw& Territories,
Canada (Hallof. 1972). Since the resistivity con-
trast between the ore and host rock is relatively
small, most of the information on the shape and
dimensions of the deposit is derived from the ap-
parent polarizability anomaly.
HESISTIVITY MODEL
Flambeau, Wisconsin
A data set for which simultaneous inversion was
not very successful is shown in Figures I8 and 19.
The data are from a massive sulfide deposit recently
discovered by Bear Creek Mining Co. near Lady-
smith, Wisconsin (Schwcnk, IY76). The ore body
is not vertical, but is steeply dipping. In order to
obtain good fit% to both the apparent resistivity and
apparent polarizability data, it was necessaryto shift
the horizontal locations of the interpreted bodies
FIG. 18. Observed and calculated apparentresistivity
so that the resistivity source and polarirability source data (p in R-m, x = 200 ft) from inversion of field
no longer coincide but instead bracket the dipping results (Schwenk, 1976) over the Flambeau massive
ore deposit. sulfide deposit near Ladysmith. Wisconsin. The
The conductivity-thickness product 01‘ 3-6 mhos conductivity-thickness product of 3-6 a-’ obtained
from interpretation of Turam results is in reasonable
obtained from interpretation of Turam results is in agreement with the value of 7.6 12-r obtained from
reasonable agreement with the value of 7.6 mhos the resistivity inversion.
obtained from the resistivity inversion,

IP MODEL
FIG. 17. Observed and calculated apparent polari-
zability data (PFE 0.31 to 5.0 Hz, x = 200 ft) from
inversion of field results (Hallof, 1972) over strata-
bound lead-zinc mineralization near Pine Point,
N.W.T.
Iso-Copperfields, Quebec
To illustrate further the range of applications of
the program, we inverted resistivity data from the
Iso-Copperfields massiv,e sulfide deposit near
Noranda, Quebec (Fountain, 1973). Dipole-dipole
pseudosections for both 100 and 200 ft electrode
spacings were available and were simultaneously
inverted to obtain the common model shown in
Figures 20 and 21. Although the model is relatively
complex, all four parameters which were included
in the inversion were relatively well resolved. The
estimated standarddeviations for the depth and over-
burden resistivity were less than IO percent, whereas
the estimated standard deviations for the host rock
resistivity and target resistivity were less than 35
percent.
Since the calculateddata are derived from a vertical
dike model, the very close fit to the measured data
obtained over the prominently dipping ore body
tends to confirm that dip is indicated by only re-
latively minor asymmetry in the anomaly pattern.
For most data sets this asymmetry is not recognizable
 Resistivity and Induced Polarization 801

above the effects generated by geologic noise or lack

of symmetry between the electrode array and the
target.
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49 39 39
NR iR 4.9 36 30 NR NR NR 25 NR NR Posiedon Orebody, W. A.
Our last example of inversion involves very noisy
field data shown in Figures 22 and 23 from the
Posiedon nickel sulfide deposit in Western Australia
(Hallof, 1972). Two anomalies arc evident in the
observed data: one due to a wide band of iron forma-
tion and the other apparently due to the pyrrhotite
and nicke! sulfide ore deposit. We first weighted tn
zero the anomaly due to the iron formation and then
inverted simultaneously the remaining apparent
resistivity and polarizability data. In spite of the noisy
character of the pseudosections, caused by small-
scale geologic inhomogeneities in the weathered
layer, the inversion converged in thme iterations to
yield reasonable estimates for the true resistivity
and polarizability of the nickel deposit.

FIG. 19. Observed and calculated apparent polari-
zability data (PFE 0. I5 to I .2 Hz, x = 200 ft) from
inversion of field results (Schwenk, 1976) over the
Flambeau massive sulfide deposit near Ladysmith,
Wisconsin.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
We have discussed a computer algorithm which
automatically interprets a certain class of 2-D dipole-
dipole apparent resistivity and apparent polarizability
pseudosections. The present program is limited in

RESISTIVITY MODEL RESISTIVITY MODEL

FIG. 20. Observed and calculated apparentresistivity FIG. 21. Observed and calculated apparentresistivity
data (p/2rr in a-ft, x = 200 ft) from inversion of data (p/27r in s2-ft, x = 100 ft) from inversion of
field results (Fountain, 1973) over the Iso-Copper- field results (Fountain, 1973) over the Iso-Copper-
fields massive sulfide deposit near Noranda, Quebec. fields massive sulfide deposit near Noranda, Quebec.
 802 Pelton et al

inversion. For example, when an anomaly is caused

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by a thin conductive dike, the depth extent of the

RESISTIVITY MODEL
FIG. 22. Observed and calculated apparent resistivity
data (o/2n in a-ft. x = 50 ft) from inversion of
field &ults (Hallof, ‘1972) over’the Posiedon nickel
sulfide deposit near Windarra, Western Australia.
application to interpreting sections which can be
grossly approximated by a single body lying imme-
diately below a single layer of overburden. However,
as has been demonstrated, this relatively crude model
can be applied to a variety of mineral deposits.
Some of the advantages derived from using the
ridge regression inversion algorithm are: (1) stability
in the presence of noise, (2) convergence from ex-
tremely poor initial guesses, and (3) parameter
statistics. The least-squares fitting inherent in the
method makes it particularly suited to handle the
high-frequency variations in dipole-dipole pseudo-
section data caused by small-scale geologic inhomo-
geneities. The additional ridge regression character-
istics of the program act to maintain stability in the
dike is usually very poorly resolved and the conductiv-
ity and width of the dike are highly correlated.
For widths much less than an electrode interval,
usually only the conductivity-width product for the
dike may be determined. An expedient interpreta-
tional procedure for such cases is to fix the width
at one-half an electrode interval and the depth
extent at perhaps two electrode intervals. The inver-
sion for the remaining parameters is then well-posed
and stable.
Unfortunately, there will always remain a great
deal of uncertainty in any scheme used for inter-
preting a single set of 2-D resistivity or IP data.
Virtually the only method for reducing this uncer-
tainty is the simultaneous inversion of multiple data
sets, including both resistivity and polarizability
data or data acquired with different electrode spac-
ings. The ridge regressionalgorithm described in this
paper allows this type of simultaneous inversion, but
requires many forward problem calculations. Until
order of magnitude reductions in the time and cost
for 2-D resistivity forward problems are made, inter-
polation between stored data sets, as outlined herein,
may remain the most cost-effective approach to these
IP MODEL
.6 .a~7~92.3i& .*
7 .7 .8 .6 .* ,6

presence of this noise, and at the same time allow .7 .7 6 xig72.628262.x.5 .7 .6 .8 .7 B .7

convergence from very poor initial guesses. Only
very casual inspection of the data is required to
generate an initial guess which will result in con-
vergence.
Once a solution has been found, estimates for the
parameter standarddeviations and correlation coeffi-
cients are available from the parameter covariance
matrix. The significance of these statistics is, of FIG. 23. Observed and calculated apparent polari-
zability data (PFE 0.31 to 2.5 Hz, x = 50 ft) from
course, dependenton how well our rectangularsource
inversion of field results (Hallof, 1972) over the
approximates the geoelectric section, and on how Posiedon nickel sulfide deposit near Windarra,
many parameters are left to be determined in the Western Australia.
 Resistivity and Induced Polarization
inversion problems. Certainly the method is fast,
inexpensive, and viable.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was conducted in the Department of
Geological and Geophysical Sciences at the Uni-
versity of Utah. We gratefully acknowledge the en-
couragement of Dr. S. H. Ward and the financial
support provided by the National Science Founda-
tion, RANN Division, under grant AER 76-l 1155.
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