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17AE52.INTRODUCTION TO

COMPOSITE MATERIALS MODULE -1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Definition, classification of composite materials, classification of reinforcement -
particulate, short fiber, whiskers, long fibers composites. Matrix materials – metals,
ceramics, polymers (including thermoplastics and thermosets), Carbon-Carbon
Composites

METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

MMC with particulate and short fiber reinforcement, liquid and solid state processing of
MMC – stir casting, squeeze casting. Properties of MMCs, Applications of Al, Mg, Ti based
MMC

DEFINITION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

• It is a material made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different
physical or chemical properties.
• Two or more chemically different constituents combined macroscopically to yield a
useful material.
• Composites consist of one or more discontinuous phases (reinforcement) embedded in a
continuous phase (matrix).
• A composite is basically a material that contains both a reinforcing material to provide
strength and stiffness and a matrix material to surround and hold the reinforcement
together.

Fig1. Definition of Composite Material

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Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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❖ Matrix phase

The primary phase, having a continuous character, is called matrix. Matrix is usually
more ductile and less hard phase. It holds the dispersed phase and shares a load with it.

❖ Dispersed (reinforcing) phase

The second phase (or phases) is embedded in the matrix in a discontinuous form. This
secondary phase is called dispersed phase. Dispersed phase is usually stronger than the matrix,
therefore it is sometimes called reinforcing phase

Functions of a reinforcement

1. Contribute desired properties

2. Load carrying
3. Transfer the strength to matrix

Functions of a matrix

1. Holds the fibres together

2. Protects the fibres from environment
3. Protects the fibres from abrasion (with each other)
4. Helps to maintain the distribution of fibres
5. Distributes the loads evenly between fibres
6. Enhances some of the properties of the resulting material and structural component (that fibre
alone is not able to impart). These properties are such as:
transverse strength of a
lamina Impact resistance
7. Provides better finish to final product

In general, the following conditions must be satisfied to be called a composite material:

• The combination of materials should result in significant property changes. One can see
significant changes when one of the constituent material is in platelet or fibrous from.
• The content of the constituents is generally more than 10% (by volume).
• In general, property of one constituent is much greater than the corresponding property of
the other constituent.

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Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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Why we need these materials?

There is unabated thirst for new materials with improved desired properties. All the desired
properties are difficult to find in a single material. For example, a material which needs high fatigue
life may not be cost effective. The list of the desired properties, depending upon the requirement of
the application, is given below.
• Strength
• Stiffness
• Toughness
• High corrosion resistance
• High wear resistance
• High chemical resistance
• High environmental degradation resistance
• Reduced weight
• High fatigue life
• . Thermal insulation or conductivity
• Electrical insulation or conductivity
• Acoustic insulation. Radar transparency
• Energy dissipation
• Reduced cost
• . Attractiveness

The list of desired properties is in-exhaustive. It should be noted that the most important
characteristics of composite materials is that their properties are tailorable, that is, one can design
the required properties

• Factors that contribute to the mechanical performance of the composites:

As is mentioned earlier, the characteristics of the composite materials depend on the
properties of both reinforcing phase as well as matrix phase. Therefore, it is important to know the
factors of the constituents of composite materials, which contribute to the performance of the
composite materials.

1. Factors that control the properties of fibers

(a) Length: The fibers can be long or short. Long, continuous fibers are easy to orient and process,
but short fibers cannot be controlled fully for proper orientation. Long fibers provide many benefits
over short fibers. These include high strength, impact resistance, low shrinkage, improved surface
finish, and dimensional stability. However, short fibers provide low cost, easy to work with, and
have fast cycle time fabrication procedures. Moreover, using randomly oriented short fibers the
isotropy behavior may be achieved and uni directional composites exhibit nonisotropic material
properties.

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Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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(b) Orientation: Fibers oriented in one direction give very high stiffness and strength in that
direction. If the fibers are oriented in more than one direction, such as in a mat, there will be high
stiffness and strength in the directions of the fiber orientations. Hence the fibers are usually
oriented in directions where high stiffness and strength are required.

(c) Shape: Due to easiness in handling and manufacturing fibers, the most common shape of fibers
is circular. But fibers are available in the form of square and rectangle also.

(d) Material: The material of the fiber directly influences the mechanical performance of a
composite. Fibers are generally expected to have high elastic moduli and strength than the matrix
materials. The fibers will also good functional properties like, high thermal resistance, fatigue
resistance and impact resistance.

2. Matrix factors
Matrix materials have low mechanical properties compared to those of fibers. Yet the matrix
influences many mechanical properties of the composite. These properties include
• Transverse modulus and strength
• Shear modulus and strength
• Compressive strength
• Inter-laminar shear strength
• Thermal expansion coefficient
• Thermal resistance and
• Fatigue strength

3. Fiber-matrix interface
When the load is applied on a composite material, the load is directly carried by the matrix and
it is transferred to the fibers from the matrix through fiber–matrix interface. So, it is clear that the
load-transfer from the matrix to the fiber depends on the fiber-matrix interface. This interface may
be formed by chemical, mechanical, and reaction bonding. In most cases, more than one type of
bonding occurs.
(a) Chemical bonding: It is formed between the fiber surface and the matrix. Some fibers bond
naturally to the matrix and others do not. Coupling agents are often added to form a chemical bond.
Coupling agents are compounds applied to fiber surfaces to improve the bond between the fiber and
the matrix.
(b) Mechanical bonding: Every material has some natural roughness on its surface. In composite
materials, the roughness on the fiber surface causes interlocking between the fiber and the matrix
leading to the formation a mechanical bond.
(c) Reaction bonding: It happens when molecules of the fiber and the matrix diffuse into each
other only at the interface. Due to this inter-diffusion, a distinct interfacial layer, called the
interphase, is created with different properties from that of the fiber or the matrix. Even though this
thin interfacial layer helps to form a reaction bonding, it also develops microcracks in the fiber.
These microcracks reduce the strength of the fiber and consequently that of the composite
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Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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Examples of naturally occurring composites

a. Wood: Cellulose fibers bound by lignin matrix
b. Bone: Stiff mineral “fibers” in a soft organic matrix permeated with holes filled
with liquids
c. Granite: Granular composite of quartz, feldspar, and mica.

Some examples of man‐made composites

d. Concrete: Particulate composite of aggregates (limestone or granite), sand, cement
and water
e. Plywood: Several layers of wood veneer glued together
f. Fiberglass: Plastic matrix reinforced by glass fibers
g. Cemets: Ceramic and metal composites
h. Fibrous composites: Variety of fibers (glass, kevlar, graphite, nylon, etc.) bound
together by a polymeric matrix

These are not composites!

• Plastics: Even though they may have several “fillers”, their presence does
not alter the physical properties significantly.
• Alloys: Here the alloy is not macroscopically heterogeneous, especially in
terms of physical properties.
• Metals with impurities: The presence of impurities does not significantly
alter physical properties of the metal.

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Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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Applications of Composites

1. Automotive industry: Lighter, stronger, wear resistance, rust‐free, aesthetics

▪ Car body
▪ Brake pads
▪ Drive shafts
▪ Fuel tanks
▪ Hoods
▪ Spoilers
2. Aerospace: Lighter, stronger, temperature resistance, smart structures, wear resistance
▪ Aircraft: Nose, doors, struts, trunnion, fairings, cowlings, ailerons,
outboard and inboard flaps, stabilizers, elevators, rudders, fin tips,
spoilers, edges
▪ Rockets & missiles: Nose, body, pressure tanks, frame, fuel tanks,
turbo‐motor stators, etc.
▪ Satellites: Antennae, frames, structural parts
3. Sports: Lighter, stronger, toughness, better aesthetics, higher damping properties
▪ Tennis
▪ Bicycles
▪ Badminton
▪ Boats
▪ Hockey
▪ Golfing
▪ Motorcycles
4. Transportation & Infrastructure: Lighter, stronger, toughness, damping
▪ Railway coaches
▪ Bridges
▪ Ships and boats
▪ Dams
▪ Truck bodies and floors
▪ RV bodies

5. And many more industry sectors

▪ Biomedical industry
▪ Consumer goods
▪ Agricultural equipment
▪ Heavy machinery
▪ Computer
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Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

There are two classification systems of composite materials.

A. Based on the type of matrix material

i. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

Polymer Matrix Composites are composed of a matrix from thermoset
(Unsaturated Polyester (UP), Epoxy (EP)) or thermoplastic (Polycarbonate (PC),
Polyvinylchloride, Nylon, Polystyrene) and embedded glass, carbon, steel or Kevlar
fibers (dispersed phase).

Thermoset polymers are polymers that are cured into a solid form and cannot be
returned to their original uncured form. Composites made with thermoset matrices are
strong and have very good fatigue strength. They are extremely brittle and have low

impact-toughness making. They are commonly used for high-heat applications because the
thermoset matrix doesn’t melt like thermoplastics. Thermoset composites are generally cheaper
and easier to produce because the liquid resin is very easy to work with. Thermoset composites
are very difficult to recycle because the thermoset cannot be remolded or reshaped; only the
reinforcing fiber used can be reclaimed.

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Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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• These polymers do not melt, but breakdown (decompose) when heated.

• Amorphous structure
• They have networked structures with strong covalent bonds linking all molecules.
• These networks permanently breakdown upon heating. Hence, these polymers, once “set”,
cannot be reshaped.
Examples: epoxies, polyesters, phenolic, urea, melamine, silicone, polyimides.

Key features of thermoset polymer:

1 Polyesters
• Used extensively with glass fibers
• Inexpensive
• Light weight
• Temperature range up to 100 degree centigrade.
• . Resistant to environmental exposures

2. Epoxy
• Expensive
• Better moisture resistance
• Lower shrinkage on curing
• Use temperature is about 175 degrees centigrade

3. Polyimide
• Higher use temperature about 300
• Difficult to fabricate

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Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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Thermoplastic polymers are polymers that can be molded, melted, and remolded
without altering its physical properties. Thermoplastic matrix composites are tougher and
less brittle than thermosets, with very good impact resistance and damage tolerance.
Since the matrix can be melted the composite materials are easier to repair and can be
remolded and recycled easily. Thermoplastic composites are less dense than thermosets
making them a viable alternative for weight critical applications. The thermoplastic
composites manufacturing process is more energy intensive due to the high temperatures
and pressures needed to melt the plastic and impregnate fibers with the matrix. The
energy required makes thermoplastic composites more costly than thermosets.

• Soften or melt when heated. This process is reversible.

• Their structure has long chains of molecules with strong intra‐molecular bonds, but weak
inter‐molecular bonds.
• When exposed to heat, these inter‐molecular bonds breakdown, and the material starts
“flowing”.
• Semi‐crystalline of amorphous in structure
Examples: polyethylene, PEEK, polyamides, polyacetals, polysulfone, PPS, nylon,
polystyrene.

The key features of the thermoplastic matrix materials are:

• . Higher toughness
• High volume
• Low cost processing
• The use temperature range is upto 225 degree centigrade.

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Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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Applications of Polymer(Aeronautical):
• Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS): These are mostly used in interior design parts
due to its high mechanical strength, durability and light weight.
• Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) : Applications include valves, seats and pump gears
• Thermosetting polyimide: Electrical standoffs (spacers) and insulators for threaded nuts
and other components.
• Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE): It is used for component that are outside or in
corrosive environment. Mainly it has been using in wings of airplane or jets.
• Polytetrafluoroethlene (PTFE) 0r Teflon: It makes a great material for insulating the
myriad wires and cables in an aircraft.

The problems with the use of polymer matrix materials

• Limited temperature range.
• Susceptibility to environmental degradation due to moisture, radiation, atomic oxygen
(in space)
• Low transverse strength.
• High residual stress due to large mismatch in coefficients of thermal expansion between
fiber and matrix.
• Polymer matrix cannot be used near or above the glass transition temperature.

• Metal:
The common metals used as matrix materials are aluminum, titanium and copper.
Advantages:
• Higher transfer strength
• High toughness (in contrast with brittle behavior of polymers and ceramics)
• The absence of moisture
• High thermal conductivity (copper and aluminum).
Dis-advantages:
• Heavier
• More susceptible to interface degradation at the fiber/matrix interface
• Corrosion is a major problem for the metals

The attractive feature of the metal matrix composites is the higher temperature use.
The aluminum matrix composite can be used in the temperature range upward of 300ºC
while the titanium matrix composites can be used above 800
Degree centigrade
..

• Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)

Ceramic Matrix Composites are composed of a ceramic matrix and embedded
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Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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fibers of other ceramic material (dispersed phase).

Ceramics can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic bonding in
general and in few cases covalent bonding. High melting points, good corrosion resistance,
stability at elevated temperatures and high compressive strength, render ceramic-based matrix
materials a favourite for applications requiring a structural material that doesn’t give way at
temperatures above 1500ºC. Naturally, ceramic matrices are the obvious choice for high
temperature applications.
High modulus of elasticity and low tensile strain, which most ceramics posses, have
combined to cause the failure of attempts to add reinforcements to obtain strength improvement.
This is because at the stress levels at which ceramics rupture, there is insufficient elongation of
the matrix which keeps composite from transferring an effective quantum of load to the
reinforcement and the composite may fail unless the percentage of fiber volume is high enough.
A material is reinforcement to utilize the higher tensile strength of the fiber, to produce an
increase in load bearing capacity of the matrix. Addition of high-strength fiber to a weaker
ceramic has not always been successful and often the resultant composite has proved to be
weaker.
The use of reinforcement with high modulus of elasticity may take care of the problem to
some extent and presents pre-stressing of the fiber in the ceramic matrix is being increasingly
resorted to as an option.
When ceramics have a higher thermal expansion coefficient than reinforcement
materials, the resultant composite is unlikely to have a superior level of strength. In that case, the
composite will develop strength within ceramic at the time of cooling resulting in microcracks
extending from fiber to fiber within the matrix. Microcracking can result in a composite with
tensile strength lower than that of the matrix.

Process of how Ceramic matrix composites are manufactured:

• One of the most common methods to manufacture ceramic matrix composites is called the
hot pressing method.
• Glass fibers in continuous tow are passed through slurry consisting of powdered matrix
material, solvent such as alcohol, and an organic binder.
• The tow is then wound on a drum and dried to form prepreg tapes.
• The prepreg tapes can now be stacked to make a required laminate. Heating at about
932°F (500°C) burns out the binder.
• Hot pressing at high temperatures in excess of 1832°F (1000°C) and pressures of 1 to 2
ksi (7 to 14 MPa) follows this.

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Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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Fig. Hot Pressing Method

Applications:

• Ceramic matrix composites are finding increased application in high-temperature

areas in which metal and polymer matrix composites cannot be used, especially
considering their high strength and modulus, and low density.
• Typical applications include cutting tool inserts in oxidizing and high-temperature
environments.
• Aircraft: Component of engine, exhaust system and brakes.
Advantage:
• The ceramic composites have very high temperature range of above 2000 degree
centigrade.
• High elastic modulus
• Low density
Disadvantages:
• The ceramics are very brittle in nature.
• Hence, they are susceptible to flows.

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Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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Carbon- Carbon Composites:

Carbon–carbon composites use carbon fibers in a carbon matrix. These composites are used in
very high-temperature environments of up to 6000°F (3315°C), and are 20 times stronger and
30% lighter than graphite fibers.

C/C composite are in a special subclass of composite materials .C/C composites are those special
composites in which both the reinforcing fibers and the matrix material are both pure carbon.

C/Cs are developed specifically for parts that must operate in extreme temperature ranges.
Composed of a carbon matrix reinforced with carbon yarn fabric, 3-D woven fabric, 3-D
braiding, etc.

Applications
C/C composites meet applications ranging from rockets to aerospace because of their ability to
maintain and even increase their structural properties at extreme temperatures.

1. Space shuttle nose cones:

• As the shuttle enters Earth’s atmosphere, temperatures as high as 3092°F (1700°C)
are experienced.
• Carbon–carbon composite is a material of choice for the nose cone because it has
the lowest overall weight of all ablative materials.
• High thermal conductivity to prevent surface cracking
• High specific heat to absorb large heat flux; and high thermal shock resistance to
low temperatures in space of –238°F (–150°C) to 3092°F (1700°C) due to re-entry.
Also, the carbon–carbon nose remains undamaged and can be reused many times.

2. Aircraft brakes: The carbon–carbon brakes however, the high durability (two to four times
that of steel), high specific heat (2.5 times that of steel), low braking distances and braking
times (three-quarters that of beryllium), and large weight savings of up to 990 lb. (450 kg)
on a commercial aircraft such as Airbus A300-B2K and A300-B4 are attractive.

3. Mechanical fasteners: Fasteners needed for high temperature applications are made of
carbon–carbon composites because they lose little strength at high temperatures.

Advantages

• Extremely high temperature resistance (1930°C – 2760°C).

• Strength actually increases at higher temperatures (up to 1930°C).
• High strength and stiffness.

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Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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• Good resistance to thermal shock.

B. Based on the form of reinforcement

Fgg 2 . Classification of Composites based on reinforcement

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Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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Particulate composites have one or more material particles suspended in a binding matrix. A
particle by definition is not “long” vis‐à‐vis its own dimensions.

➢ Random orientation: Orientation of particle is randomly distributed in all directions.

(ex: concrete)
➢ Preferred orientation: Particle orientation is aligned to specific directions.
(ex: extruded plastics with reinforcement particles)

Particulate composites in general do not have high fracture resistance unlike fibrous composites.
Particles tend to increase stiffness of the materials, but they do not have so much of an influence
on composite’s strength. In several cases, particulate composites are used to enhance
performance at high temperatures. In other case, these composites are used to increase thermal
and electrical properties. In cements, which are ceramic‐metal composites, the aim is to have
high surface hardness so that the material can be used to cut materials at high speeds, or is able to
resist wear.
Fibrous composites have fibers of reinforcing material(s) suspended in binding matrix. Unlike
particles, a fiber has high length‐to diameter ratio, and further its diameter may be close to its
crystal size. In general, materials tend to have much better thermo-mechanical properties at small
scale than at macro‐scale.
At macro‐scale, imperfections in material l have an accumulated effect of degrading bulk
mechanical properties of materials significantly. This is one reason why fibrous composites have
been developed to harness micro‐scale properties of materials at larger scales. Man‐made fibers
have almost no flaws in directions perpendicular to their length. Hence they are able to bear large
loads per unit area compared to bulk materials.

➢ Single‐layer: These are actually made of several layers of fibers, all oriented in the same
direction. Hence they are considered as “single‐layer “composites.
These can be further categorized as:
• Continuous and long fibers: Examples include filament wound shells.
These may be further classified as:
i. Unidirectional reinforcement
ii. Bidirectional reinforcement

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Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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• Discontinuous and short‐fibers: Examples include fiber glass bodies of cars.

These may be further classified as:
i. Randomly oriented reinforcement
ii. Reinforced in preferred directions

➢ Multi‐layer: Here, reinforcement is provided, layer by layer in different directions.

• Laminate: Here, the constituent material in all layers is the same.

• Hybrid laminates: These have more than one constituent material in the
composite structure.

WHISKERS

Whiskers are similar in diameter to fibers, but in general, they are short and have low
length‐to diameter ratios, barely exceeding a few hundreds. Thus, the difference in mechanical
properties of a whisker vis‐à‐vis bulk material is even more pronounced. This is because the
degree of perfection in whiskers is even higher vis‐à‐vis that in fibers.

• Whiskers are produced by crystallizing materials on a very small scale.

• Internal alignment within each whisker is extremely high.

FLAKES

Flakes are often used in place of fibers as can be densely packed. Metal flakes that are in
close contact with each other in polymer matrices can conduct electricity or heat, while mica
flakes and glass can resist both. Flakes are not expensive to produce and usually cost less than
fibers.
But they fall short of expectations in aspects like control of size, shape and show defects
in the end product. Glass flakes tend to have notches or cracks around the edges, which weaken
the final product. They are also resistant to be lined up parallel to each other in a matrix, causing
uneven strength. They are usually set in matrices, or more simply, held together by a matrix with
a glue-type binder. Depending on the end-use of the product, flakes are present in small
quantities or occupy the whole composite.
Flakes have various advantages over fibers in structural applications. Parallel flakes filled
composites provide uniform mechanical properties in the same plane as the flakes. While angle
plying is difficult in continuous fibers which need to approach isotropic properties, it is not so in

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Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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flakes. Flake composites have a higher theoretical modulus of elasticity than fiber reinforced
composites. They are relatively cheaper to produce and be handled in small quantities.

Types of reinforcements:

Fig. 3Types of reinforcement in a composite

1. Fibre: Fibre is an individual filament of the material. A filament with length to diameter ratio
above 1000 is called a fibre. The fibrous form of the reinforcement is widely used. The fibres can
be in the following two forms:
a. Continuous fibres: If the fibres used in a composite are very long and unbroken or cut then it
forms a continuous fibre composite. A composite, thus formed using continuous fibres is called as
fibrous composite. The fibrous composite is the most widely used form of composite.
b. Short/chopped fibres: The fibres are chopped into small pieces when used in fabricating a
composite. A composite with short fibres as reinforcements is called as short fibre composite.
In the fibre reinforced composites, the fibre is the major load carrying constituent.

2. Particulate: The reinforcement is in the form of particles which are of the order of a few
microns in diameter. The particles are generally added to increase the modulus and decrease the
ductility of the matrix materials. In this case, the load is shared by both particles and matrix
materials. However, the load shared by the particles is much larger than the matrix material. For
example, in an automobile application carbon black (as a particulate reinforcement) is added in
rubber (as matrix material). The composite with reinforcement in particle form is called a
particulatecomposite

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Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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3 Flake: Flake is a small, flat, thin piece or layer (or a chip) that is broken from a larger
piece. Since these are two dimensional in geometry, they impart almost equal strength in
all directions of their planes. Thus, these are very effective reinforcement components.
The flakes can be packed more densely when they are laid parallel, even denser than
unidirectional fibres and spheres. For example, aluminum flakes are used in paints.
They align themselves parallel to the surface of the coating which imparts the good
properties.

4 Whiskers: These are nearly perfect single crystal fibres. These are short, discontinuous
and polygonal in cross-section.

Advantages of Composites

Composites are engineered materials. We can engineer them specifically to meet our needs on a
case‐to‐case basis.
In general, following properties can be improved by using composite materials.
• Strength Electrical conductivity
• Modulus Thermal conductivity
• Weight Behavior at extreme temps.
• Fatigue Acoustical insulation
• Vibration damping Aesthetics
• Resistance to wear Resistance to corrosion

Limitations of Composites

Like all things in nature, composites materials have their limitations as well. Some of the
important ones are:
o Anisotropy: A large number of composites have direction dependent material properties.
This makes them more difficult to understand, analyze and engineer, vis‐à‐vis isotropic
materials.
o Non‐homogenous: Further, these materials by definition are not homogenous. Hence their
material properties vary from point‐to‐point. This factor as well makes them difficult to
model, and analyze.
o Costly: Composite materials are in general expensive. Thus, they are used only in
applications where their benefits outweigh their costs.
o Difficult to fabricate: Further, fabricating structures from such materials is difficult, time
taking, and expensive.
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Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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o Sensitivity to temperature: Laminated composites are particularly sensitive to

temperature changes. They come in with residual thermal stresses, because they get
fabricated at high temperatures, and then cooled. Such a process locks in thermal stresses
into the structure...

METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

j. Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)

Metal Matrix Composites are composed of a metallic matrix (aluminum,
magnesium, iron, cobalt, copper) and a dispersed ceramic (oxides, carbides) or metallic
(lead, tungsten, molybdenum) phase.

Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in research

fraternity, are not as widely in use as their plastic counterparts. High strength, fracture
toughness and stiffness are offered by metal matrices than those offered by their polymer
counterparts. They can withstand elevated temperature in corrosive environment than polymer
composites. Most metals and alloys could be used as matrices and they require reinforcement
materials which need to be stable over a range of temperature and non-reactive too. However the
guiding aspect for the choice depends essentially on the matrix material. Light metals form the
matrix for temperature application and the reinforcements in addition to the aforementioned
reasons are characterized by high moduli.
Most metals and alloys make good matrices. However, practically, the choices for low
temperature applications are not many. Only light metals are responsive, with their low density
proving an advantage. Titanium, Aluminum and magnesium are the popular matrix metals
currently in vogue, which are particularly useful for aircraft applications. If metallic matrix
materials have to offer high strength, they require high modulus reinforcements. The strength-to-
weight ratios of resulting composites can be higher than most alloys.
The melting point, physical and mechanical properties of the composite at various
temperatures determine the service temperature of composites. Most metals, ceramics and
compounds can be used with matrices of low melting point alloys. The choice of reinforcements
becomes more stunted with increase in the melting temperature of matrix materials.

Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in research

fraternity, are not as widely in use as their plastic counterparts. High strength, fracture toughness
and stiffness are offered by metal matrices than those offered by their polymer counterparts.
They can withstand elevated temperature in corrosive environment than polymer composites.
Most metals and alloys could be used as matrices and they require reinforcement materials which
need to be stable over a range of temperature and non-reactive too. However the guiding aspect
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Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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for the choice depends essentially on the matrix material. Light metals form the matrix for
temperature application and the reinforcements in addition to the aforementioned reasons are
characterized by high moduli. Most metals and alloys make good matrices. However, practically,
the choices for low temperature applications are not many. Only light metals are responsive, with
their low density proving an advantage. Titanium, Aluminum and magnesium are the popular
matrix metals currently in vogue, which are particularly useful for aircraft applications. If
metallic matrix materials have to offer high strength, they require high modulus reinforcements.
The strength-to weight ratios of resulting composites can be higher than most alloys. The melting
point, physical and mechanical properties of the composite at various temperatures determine the
service temperature of composites. Most metals, ceramics and compounds can be used with
matrices of low melting point alloys. The choice of reinforcements becomes more stunted with
increase in the melting temperature of matrix materials.

LIQUID STATE PROCESSING OF MMC

Liquid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites involves incorporation of dispersed

phase into a molten matrix metal, followed by its Solidification.
In order to provide high level of mechanical properties of the composite, good interfacial
bonding (wetting) between the dispersed phase and the liquid matrix should be obtained.

Wetting improvement may be achieved by coating the dispersed phase particles (fibers). Proper
coating not only reduces interfacial energy, but also prevents chemical interaction between the
dispersed phase and the matrix.

The methods of liquid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites:

1) Stir Casting
2) Infiltration
3) Gas Pressure Infiltration
4) Squeeze Casting Infiltration
5) Pressure Die Infiltration

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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Stir Casting

Stir Casting is a liquid state method of composite materials fabrication, in which a dispersed phase (ceramic
particles, short fibers) is mixed with a molten matrix metal by means of mechanical stirring. Stir Casting is
the simplest and the most cost effective method of liquid state fabrication. The liquid composite material is
then cast by conventional casting methods and may also be processed by conventional Metal forming
technologies
.

Fig.4 Stir Casting

Stir Casting is characterized by the following features:

• Content of dispersed phase is limited (usually not more than 30 vol.%).

• Distribution of dispersed phase throughout the matrix is not perfectly
homogeneous:
• There are local clouds (clusters) of the dispersed particles (fibers)
Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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• There may be gravity segregation of the dispersed phase due to a difference

in the densities of the dispersed and matrix phase.
• The technology is relatively simple and low cost.
• Distribution of dispersed phase may be improved if the matrix is in semi-
solid condition.
• The method using stirring metal composite materials in semi-solid state is
called Rheocasting.
• High viscosity of the semi-solid matrix material enables better mixing of
the dispersed phase.

Infiltration

Infiltration is a liquid state method of composite materials fabrication, in which a

preformed dispersed phase (ceramic particles, fibers, woven) is soaked in a molten matrix metal,
which fills the space between the dispersed phase inclusions.

The motive force of an infiltration process may be either capillary force of the dispersed
phase (spontaneous infiltration) or an external pressure (gaseous, mechanical, electromagnetic,
centrifugal or ultrasonic) applied to the liquid matrix phase (forced infiltration). Infiltration is
one of the methods of preparation of tungsten-copper composites.

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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The principal steps of the technology are as follows:

• Tungsten Powder preparation with average particle size of about 1-5 mkm.
• Optional step: Coating the powder with nickel. Total nickel content is about 0.04%.
• Mixing the tungsten powder with a polymer binder.
• Compacting the powder by a molding method (Metal injection molding, die pressing,
isostatic pressing). Compaction should provide the predetermined porosity level (apparent
density) of the tungsten structure.
• Solvent debinding.
• Sintering the green compact at 2200-2400F (1204-1315C) in Hydrogen atmosphere for 2
hrs.
• Placing the sintered part on a copper plate (powder) in the infiltration/sintering furnace.

Gas Pressure Infiltration

Gas Pressure Infiltration is a forced infiltration method of liquid phase fabrication of
Metal Matrix Composites, using a pressurized gas for applying pressure on the molten metal and
forcing it to penetrate into a preformed dispersed phase.

Fig 5 Gas Pressure Infiltration

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
MM
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Gas Pressure Infiltration method is used for manufacturing large composite parts.
The method allows using non-coated fibers due to short contact time of the fibers with the hot
metal. In contrast to the methods using mechanical force, Gas Pressure Infiltration results in low
damage of the fibers.

Squeeze Casting Infiltration

Squeeze Casting Infiltration is a forced infiltration method of liquid phase fabrication of

Metal Matrix Composites, using a movable mold part (ram) for applying pressure on the molten
metal and forcing it to penetrate into a performed dispersed phase, placed into the lower fixed
mold part.

Fig 6 . Squeeze Casting

Squeeze Casting Infiltration method is similar to the Squeeze casting technique used for metal
alloys casting.

Squeeze Casting Infiltration process has the following steps:

• A preform of dispersed phase (particles, fibers) is placed into the lower fixed mold half.
• A molten metal in a predetermined amount is poured into the lower mold half.
• The upper movable mold half (ram) moves downwards and forces the liquid metal to
infiltrate the preform.
• The infiltrated material solidifies under the pressure.
• The part is removed from the mold by means of the ejector pin.
• The method is used for manufacturing simple small parts (automotive engine pistons from
aluminum alloy reinforced by alumina short fibers).
Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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Pressure Die Infiltration

Pressure Die Infiltration is a forced infiltration method of liquid phase fabrication of Metal
Matrix Composites, using a Die casting technology, when a preformed dispersed phase
(particles, fibers) is placed into a die (mold) which is then filled with a molten metal entering the
die through a sprue and penetrating into the preform under the pressure o f a movable piston
(plunger).

Fig 7 Pressure Die Infiltration

SOLID STATE PROCESSING OF MMC

Solid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites is the process, in which Metal Matrix
Composites are formed as a result of bonding matrix metal and dispersed phase due to mutual
diffusion occurring between them in solid states at elevated temperature and under pressure.

Low temperature of solid state fabrication process (as compared to Liquid state
fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites) depresses undesirable reactions on the boundary
between the matrix and dispersed (reinforcing) phases.

Metal Matrix Composites may be deformed also after sintering operation by rolling,
Forging, pressing, Drawing or Extrusion. The deformation operation may be either cold (below
Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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the recrystallization temperature) or hot (above the recrystallization temperature).

Deformation of sintered composite materials with dispersed phase in form of short fibers
results in a preferred orientation of the fibers and anisotropy of the material properties (enhanced
strength along the fibers orientation).

There are two principal groups of solid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites:
1) Diffusion bonding
2) Sintering

Diffusion Bonding

Diffusion Bonding is a solid state fabrication method, in which a matrix in form of foils
and a dispersed phase in form of long fibers are stacked in a particular order and then pressed at
elevated temperature. The finished laminate composite material has a multilayer structure.
Diffusion Bonding is used for fabrication of simple shape parts (plates, tubes).

Variants of diffusion bonding are roll bonding and wire/fiber winding:

• Roll Bonding is a process of combined Rolling (hot or cold) strips of two different metals
(e.g. steel and aluminum alloy) resulted in formation of a laminated composite material
with a metallurgical bonding between the two layers.

• Wire/fiber Winding is a process of combined winding continuous ceramic fibers and

metallic wires followed by pressing at elevated temperature.

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
MM
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Fig 8 Diffusion Bonding

Sintering
Sintering fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites is a process, in which a powder of a
matrix metal is mixed with a powder of dispersed phase in form of particles or short fibers for
subsequent compacting and sintering in solid state (sometimes with some presence of liquid).

Sintering is the method involving consolidation of powder grains by heating the “green”
compact part to a high temperature below the melting point, when the material of the separate
particles diffuse to the neighboring powder particles.

Fig 9 Sintering
Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
MM
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In contrast to the liquid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites, sintering method
allows obtaining materials containing up to 50% of dispersed phase.

When sintering is combined with a deformation operation, the fabrication methods are
called:
a. Hot Pressing Fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites
b. Hot Isostatic Pressing Fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites
c. Hot Powder Extrusion Fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites
d. Hot Pressing Fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites
e. Hot Pressing Fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites

PROPERTIES OF MMCs
• Higher strength-to-density ratios
• Higher stiffness-to-density ratios
• Better fatigue resistance
• Better elevated temperature properties
• Higher strength
• Lower creep rate

Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) is a material consisting of a metallic matrix combined with a
ceramic (oxides, carbides) or metallic (lead, tungsten, molybdenum) dispersed phase.
• Aluminum Matrix Composites (AMC)
• Magnesium Matrix Composite
• Titanium Matrix Composite
• Copper Matrix Composites

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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Applications of Al based MMC

This is the widest group of Metal Matrix Composites. Matrices of Aluminum Matrix
Composites are usually based on aluminum-silicon (Al-Si) alloys and on the alloys of 2xxx and
6xxx series.
Aluminum Matrix Composites (AMC) are reinforced by:
➢ Alumina (Al2O3) or silicon carbide (SiC) particles (particulate Composites) in amounts
15-70 vol%;
➢ Continuous fibers of alumina, silicon carbide, Graphite (long-fiber reinforced
composites);
➢ Discontinuous fibers of alumina (short-fiber reinforced composites)

Aluminum Matrix Composites are manufactured by the following fabrication methods:

➢ Powder metallurgy(sintering);
➢ Stir casting;
➢ Infiltration.

The following properties are typical for Aluminum Matrix Composites:

➢ High strength even at elevated temperatures;
➢ High stiffness (modulus of elasticity);
➢ Low density;
➢ High thermal conductivity;
➢ Excellent abrasion resistance.

Applications:
➢ manufacturing automotive parts (pistons, pushrods, brake components),
➢ brake rotors for high speed trains,
➢ bicycles,
➢ golf clubs,
➢ electronic substrates,
➢ cores for high voltage electrical cables.

Applications of Mg based MMC

Magnesium Matrix Composites are reinforced mainly by silicon carbide (SiC) particles
(particulate composites).

The following properties are typical for Magnesium Matrix Composites:

➢ Low density;
➢ High stiffness (modulus of elasticity);
➢ High wear resistance;
➢ Good strength even at elevated temperatures;

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
MM
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➢ Good creep resistance.

Applications:
Magnesium Matrix Composites are used for manufacturing components for
➢ racing cars,
➢ lightweight automotive brake system,
➢ aircraft parts for: gearboxes, transmissions, compressors and engine.

Applications of Ti based MMC

Titanium Matrix Composites are reinforced mainly by:
k. Continuous monofilament silicon carbide fiber (long-fiber reinforced composites);
l. Titanium boride (TiB2) and titanium carbide (TiC) particles (particulate composites).

Powder metallurgy (sintering) is used for fabrication of Titanium Matrix Composites.

The following properties are typical for Titanium Matrix Composites:

➢ High strength;
➢ High stiffness (modulus of elasticity);
➢ High creep resistance;
➢ High thermal stability;
➢ High wear resistance.

Applications:
Titanium Matrix Composites are used for manufacturing structural components of
➢ F-16 jet’s landing gear, turbine engine components (fan blades, actuator pistons,
synchronization rings, connecting links, shafts, discs),
➢ automotive engine components,
➢ drive train parts,
➢ general machine components.

Prepared by,
Vishwaretha K R
Assistant Professor, Dept. Aeronautical Engineering,
Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering