Radio

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION S1-1

ADVANCED HYDRAULICS PT 2

AHMAD KHAIRI ABD WAHAB

• Introduction to the course

• Further advancement and deeper insight into the fundamentals of
fluid motion and dynamics
• Student should already have some fundamental grasp on the basics
of hydraulics and fluid mechanics.
• Understanding the fundamentals → to wider range of applications in
the field of engineering relating to fluid kinematic and dynamics.

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION S1-2

This chapter introduces some basic terminologies and classifications

normally associated with the study of fluid flow and fluid phenomena.

From this chapter, you should

• Be able to explain the meaning of statics and dynamics in fluid and the
differences between solid, liquid and gas phases.

• Be aware of the no-slip boundary condition in relation to the formation of

velocity profiles.

• Have a knowledge of different types of fluid flow classifications such as

viscous/inviscid, internal/external, compressible/incompressible,
laminar/turbulent, natural/forced, steady/unsteady flows and single or multi-
dimensional flows.

• Have a general understanding of the concept of systems and control volumes.

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION S1-3

Mechanics – a physical science that deals with both stationary and moving
bodies under the influence of forces.

Statics – bodies at rest

Dynamics – bodies in motion
Fluid statics or Fluid dynamics - study of behavior of fluids at rest or in motion
respectively.
FLUID MECHANICS – the science that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest or
in motion, and the interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.

Phases of a substance – depends on its molecular construction

At very high
Increasing temperature temperature
SOLID LIQUID GAS PLASMA

Graphics source: purdue.edu

Tightly packed, Close together Well separated

usually in a with no regular with no regular
regular pattern arrangement arrangement

Fluid = Liquids and gases Advanced Hydraulics Part 2

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION S1-4
Difference between solid and fluid
Generally, fluid moves, ie can flow and take the shape of their container while
solid is rigid and has a definite shape and volume.
Fluid cannot resist deformation force (eg. shear or tangential stresses); it moves
and flows under the action of the force.
Solid can resist a deformation force while at rest. The force may cause some
displacement but the solid will not move indefinitely.
A solid resists an applied shear stress by deforming, whereas a fluid deforms
continuously under the influence of shear stress.

When a constant shear force is applied

- a solid eventually stops deforming at some fixed strain
angle.
- a fluid deforms continuously (elastic deformation) and it
approaches a certain value of strain rate
Deformation of a rubber
In solids – stress is proportional to strain (Hooke’s Law) eraser placed between two
parallel plates under the
In fluids – stress is proportional to strain rate influence of a shear force

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION S1-5

Normal stress – force per unit area that is exerted

normal to the surface on which it acts.
For eg. Pressure is a normal stress.

Shear stress force per unit area that is exerted

parallel/tangential to the surface on which it acts.

For a fluid at rest, the shear stress is zero and pressure

is the only stress acting on the surface (normal stress).

Liquid and gas:

Liquid has a free surface
Gas does not form free surface
It expands to fill the entire available space

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Summary of differences between gas, liquid and solid.
Gas
Assumes the shape and volume
of its container - no free surface
Flows easily - particles can move
past one another
Cannot have an abrupt
discontinuity in velocity – there is
always a transition region where
the velocity changes continuously
Compressible - lots of free space
between particles
Particles are well separated with
no regular arrangement
Particles vibrate and move freely
at high speeds
Cannot resist deformative forces
– moves and flow under action of
the force, deforms continuously
approaching a specific strain rate
Liquid
Assumes the shape and volume
of its container - has a free
surface
Flows easily - particles can
move/slide past one another
Cannot have an abrupt
discontinuity in velocity – there is
always a transition region where
the velocity changes continuously
Not easily compressible - little
free space between particles
Particles are close together with
no regular arrangement
Particles vibrate, move about and
slide past each other
Cannot resist deformative forces
– moves and flow under action of
the force, deforms continuously
approaching a specific strain rate
S1-6
Solid
Keeps a fixed volume and shape
Rigid – particles locked into place
Not easily compressible - little free
space between particles
Particles are tightly packed, usually
in a regular pattern
Particles vibrate (jiggle) but
generally do not move from place to
place
Can resist deformative forces –
experiences displacement up to a
specific strain angle
Advanced Hydraulics Part 2
1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION The No-Slip Condition S1-7

At the boundary between a solid body (eg a solid wall) and a flowing fluid, the fluid particles
at the boundary have zero velocity relative to the solid body. This is called the no-slip
condition.
ie -> the fluid velocity at all fluid-solid boundaries is equal to the speed of the boundary.
This applies to both normal and tangential velocities.
Fluid particles in direct contact with solid particles, “sticks” to the surface due to viscous
effects, thus there is no slip. It means also that the force of attraction between the fluid
particles and solid particles (adhesive forces) is greater than that between fluid particles
(cohesive forces)
The no-slip condition is used almost universally in modelling of viscous flow.

A fluid flowing over a stationary surface

comes to a complete stop at the surface
because of the no-slip condition

The no-slip condition is responsible for the development of the velocity profile.
The flow region adjacent to the wall where the viscous effect is significant is called the
boundary layer region.
The surface drag is the force that a fluid exerts on a surface in the flow direction.
Advanced Hydraulics Part 2
1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION Flow Separation S1-8

When a fluid is forced to flow over a curved surface, such as the back side of a cylinder at a
sufficiently high velocity, the boundary layer can no longer remain attached to the surface.
At some point it will separate from the surface – this process is called flow separation.
Eddies and vortices form in the separated region, increasing pressure drag. For this
reason, aerodynamic and hydrodynamic research look for ways to delay flow separation.
Eg. furs on tennis balls, dimples on golf balls etc.

Flow separation during flow

over a curved surface

Note that, even if the flow separates, the no-slip condition applies everywhere along the
surface, including downstream of the separation point.

Velocity profile approaching a separation point

Flow separation over an aircraft wing
Advanced Hydraulics Part 2
1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION Flow Separation S1-9

Initial separation
point

Bigger
wake
area
Higher drag
Modified
separation point

Smaller
wake
area
Lower drag

Flow separation over a smooth sphere and a dimpled ball (golf ball)

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION - Classification of Fluid Flows S1-10

Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow

When two fluid layers move relative to each other, a friction force develops between them.
The slower layer tries to slow down the faster layer while the faster layer tries to speed up the
slower layer.
The force is due to internal friction, quantified by the fluid property, viscosity.
Viscosity is a measure of internal stickiness of the fluid.
Viscosity is caused by the cohesive forces between the fluid molecules and by molecular
collisions in gases.
Dynamic viscosity, μ, (absolute viscosity) is a measure of the fluid’s internal resistance to flow.
Kinematic viscosity, ν, is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density.
All fluids are viscous.
Flows where the frictional effects are significant are called viscous flows.
However, there are regions where the viscous forces are Steep
negligible compared to inertial or pressure forces. velocity
gradient
In such regions, the viscous terms are neglected in order
to simplify the dynamic analyses without losing much
accuracy. flat plate
These are called the inviscid flow regions.

Flow of an originally uniform fluid stream over a flat

plate, and the regions of viscous flow and inviscid
flow. Advanced Hydraulics Part 2
1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION - Classification of Fluid Flows S1-11

Internal versus External Flow

Internal – the fluid is forced to flow in a confined channel, pipe or duct. (pipe flow, open channel flow)
External – flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, wire or a pipe.

Internal flows are dominated by the influence of viscosity throughout the flow field.

In External flows, the viscous effects are limited to boundary layers near the solid surfaces and
to wake regions downstream of bodies.

External flow over a

spherical object and
the turbulent wake
region behind it.

The flow in the pipe shown

here is internal flow

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION - Classification of Fluid Flows S1-12

Compressible versus Incompressible Flow

Depends on the level of variation of density during flow

Incompressible flow – if the density remains nearly constant throughout.

The volume of every portion of fluid remains unchanged over the course of its motion when the
flow is incompressible.
Generally, densities of liquids are essentially constant, thus liquid flow is typically incompressible.

Gases are highly compressible.

A pressure change of 0.01atm may cause a change of 1% in the density of atmospheric air.
(for water, it takes a pressure of 210atm to change the density at 1atm by 1%)

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION - Classification of Fluid Flows S1-13

Laminar versus Turbulent Flow

Some flows look smooth and orderly while some are chaotic.
The highly ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth layers of fluid is called laminar.
(comes from the word laminates – a description of the form of movement of adjacent fluid layers)
The flow of high viscosity fluids such as oils at low velocity are typically laminar.

The highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at

high velocities and is characterised by velocity fluctuations
is called turbulent flows. Laminar
The flow of low viscosity fluids such as air, at high
velocities, is typically turbulent.

A flow that alternates between laminar and turbulent Turbulent

is called transitional. (2300 < Re < 4000, typically)

The dimensionless Reynolds Number, Re, is the

key parameter for the determination of the flow
regime.
Laminar and turbulent flows

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION - Classification of Fluid Flows S1-14

Laminar versus Turbulent Flow

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION - Classification of Fluid Flows S1-15

Natural (Unforced) versus Forced Flow

Flow is called forced or natural depending on how the fluid
motion is initiated.
Forced flow – a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or
in a pipe by external means such as a pump or a fan.
Natural flow – fluid motion due to natural means such as
convection or buoyancy effect (warmer fluid rises, cooler
fluid falls)
Hot air

Natural
Convection

Cold air

PUMP FAN

Forced Hot air

Convection
1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION - Classification of Fluid Flows S1-16
Steady versus Unsteady Flow
Steady – no change in flow characteristics at any point of flow with time. (flow is independent of
time)
Unsteady – flow at a point varies with time – (periodic, non-periodic, random)

Transient– a developing flow, transition between two steady state

conditions. Unsteady flow is also sometimes called transient flow.
Uniform – no difference in the flow characteristics everywhere in
the flow path.
Steady flow

Periodic

Unperiodic

Random

Unsteady flow
1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION - Classification of Fluid Flows S1-17

One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows

A flow field is best characterised by how velocity in the flow field is distributed with
respect to the three principal axes. (x, y and z axes). The Cartesian or spherical
A flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-dimensional if the flow velocity varies in one, two,
or three primary dimensions respectively.
Fluid flow are almost always three-dimensional, where the velocity varies in all three
dimensions, making it more difficult to quantify. Some simplification to fewer number of
dimensions can be made, with caution.
The coordinates system normally used in hydraulics are Cartesian,
cylindrical or spherical.

V(r, θ, φ) in spherical
coordinates.

V(x,y,z) in rectangular or
Cartesian coordinates
V(ρ, φ, z) in cylindrical
coordinates ( ρ sometimes
replaced with r)
NOTE:
Spherical coordinates (r, θ, φ) as
commonly used in physics: radial
distance r, polar angle θ (theta),
and azimuthal angle φ (phi). The
symbol ρ (rho) is often used
instead of r.
1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION - Classification of Fluid Flows S1-18

One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows

To make the flow field simpler to analyse, we assume the variation of velocity in certain
directions to be smaller in relation to the variation in other directions and thus, the other
directions can be ignored.
In such cases, the flow may be conveniently modelled as being one- or two-dimensional.

The flow development in the pipeline below is an example.

Cylindrical coordinates V(r, φ, z)

Developing velocity Fully developed velocity

profile. V(r, z) profile. V(r)

The development r
of velocity profile
in a circular pipe.

Using a cylindrical coordinate system, flow is 2-dimensional at the

entrance region (variation in r and z).
It then becomes 1-dimensional (variation in r only) downstream when the
velocity profile fully develops.
1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION – System and Control Volume S1-19

A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region

in space chosen for study.

The mass or region outside the system is called the

surroundings.

The boundary is the contact surface shared by both the

system and the surroundings.
The boundary can be a real, or imaginary surface,
and it can be stationary or moving, contracting or
expanding. System, surroundings and boundary

Systems may be considered as open, closed or isolated

A closed system consists of a fixed amount of mass. It is
also known as closed mass system.
No mass can cross a closed system boundary.
Energy in the form of heat or work can cross the boundary.
The volume of a closed mass system does not have to be
fixed.

An isolated system is a special kind of closed system that

does not allow even energy to cross the boundary.
A closed system with a moving boundary

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION – System and Control Volume S1-20

An open system or a control volume is a suitably selected region in space that encompasses
the fluid flow being analysed
The region is usually called a control volume (CV).
Mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
A large number of fluid engineering analyses involve mass flow in and out of a control volume.

Any arbitrary region in space can be selected as a control volume.

CVs can be fixed in size and shape, have a real, imaginary
boundary and can involve a moving boundary.

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2

 S1-21
1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION – Fluid Measurements
A scientific measurement system – can be either
accurate and precise,
accurate but not precise,
precise but not accurate or
neither accurate nor precise.
A valid scientific measurement is when it has both accuracy and precision.

Accuracy error – the value of one

reading minus the true value.
The accuracy of a set of
measurements refers to how close is
the average reading to the true
value.
Inaccuracy is generally associated
with systematic errors
Precision error – the value of one
reading minus the average of all
readings.
Precision of a set of measurements
refer to the fineness of the
resolution and the repeatability of
the measurements.
Imprecision is generally associated
with reproducibility errors.
Advanced Hydraulics Part 2
EXERCISE 1 S1-22

1.1) Define internal, external and open-channel flows.

1.2) What is the no-slip condition? What causes it?

1.3) What is the velocity profile and why was it formed?

1.4) What is a boundary layer? What causes a boundary layer to develop?

1.5) What is forced flow? How does it differ from natural flow? Is flow caused by winds
forced or natural flow?

1.6) Define incompressible flow and incompressible fluid. Must the flow of a compressible
fluid necessarily be treated as compressible?

1.7) What are external and internal flows?

1.8) Define stress, normal stress, shear stress and pressure.

1.9) What are system, surroundings, and boundary?

1.10) When is a system a closed system, and when is it a control volume?

1.11) What is the difference between precision and accuracy?

1.12) Can a measurement be precise but inaccurate? Explain.

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2