TH E

THE O RY O F S TRU CT URE S

BY

C H A RL E S M S P OF F O R D
.
, S E . .

H A YW A RD P RO F E SS O R I I E N G I N EE R I N G A T T H E M A SS A C H U S E TTS
OF C V L

I N S TI T U T E O F T E C H N O L O G Y

M E M B E R O F T H E A M E R I C A N S O C I E T Y O F C IV I L EN G I NE E R S

F E L L O W O F TH E A M E R I C A N A C A D E M Y O F A R T S A N D S C I EN C E S

S E C O N D E D I TI O N — R I
EV S E D A ND E N L A RG E D
FI R S T IMP RES S I ON

—
M C G RA W H ILL B OOK C O M PA N Y ,
IN C .

239 W EST 3 9 TH S TR EE T, NEW Y OR K

I
6 B OU VE R E S TR E E T , L O N D O N , E . C .

1 91 5
 C o p yr i gh t . 191 1 . 19 1 5 ,

BY

C H A RLE S AI . S POFFO RD

TH E M A P L E P R E S S Y O R K P A
 P RE FA C E TO S E C O N D E D l TI O N

The F i rs t E diti on of t hi s b oo k h a s b ee n u se d by t he auth o r

f or t he la s t f ou r ye rs a s a a
t e xt b o o k in lar ge c l ss e s c ontainin g
- a
m any matur e s tud e nt s S uch e rr o r s and ob s curiti es as hav e
.

b ee n di s c ov e r e d durin g that p e ri o d hav e b ee n e liminat e d in thi s

e diti o n A dditi o n al m att e r includi n g an e xt e n s i on o f t h e tr e at
.
,

m e nt of s win g brid ges a n d chapt e r s up o n the T h e o r e m o f L e a s t

a a a
,

Wo rk E arth P r es s ur e M so n ry D m s and M so nry A rch e s hav e

a
, ,

b e e n in se rt e d A f e w n e w pr o bl e m s f or s oluti o n hav e l so b e e n
.

add e d .

Th e auth o r W i s h es t o e xpr e s s hi s appr e ciati o n o f t he valuabl e

a s s i s tanc e and s u gges ti o n s he ha s r e c e iv e d fr o m s o m e of th e pa s t
and pr es e nt m e mb e r s of t he C i v i l E n gin ee rin g I ns tructi n g S ta ff
at T e chn o l ogy and fr o m c e rtain graduat e s tud e nt s H e i s par
a
, .

t i c ula rly ind e bt e d t o M r H o w r d B L uth e r S B

. . D ipl Ing
,
. .
,
.
-
.
,

i n s truct o r in C i vi l E ngin ee rin g .

A u gu s t 1 5 , 1 9 1 5 .

C H A RL E S M . SP O F F O R D .
 P REFA C E TO F IR S T E D IT IO N

TH E purp ose thi s b oo k i s t o pr e s e nt in a th o r ou gh and

of

a
l ogi c l mann e r t h e fun dam ental th e o ri e s up on W hich t he d e s ign
o f e n gin e e rin g s tructu r e s i s b a s e d and t o illu s trat e th e ir a
ppl i c a
ti on by num e r ou s exampl e s N o att e mpt has b e e n mad e t o
.

tre at of t he d es ign of c om pl e t e s tructur es but the d es i gn o f t he

,

m or e im p o rtant e l e m e nt s of W hich all structur e s are c omp os e d

i s f ully c on s id e r e d .

The s ubj e ct matt e r i s c on fin e d alm os t e ntir e ly t o t he tr e at

-

m ent of s tati cally d e t e rmin e d s tructur es it b e in g th e writ e r s

,
’

pu rp os e t o d e al W ith ind et e rmin at e ca s es in an oth e r v o lum e ;

t he c omm o nly u s e d appr oximat e m e th o d s f or som e o f t h e m o r e
o rdinary typ es o f ind e t e rminat e s tructur e s ar e h ow e v e r in clud e d
, , .

W hil e th e th e o ri es pr es e nt e d are f or the gr e at e r p art only

s uch as hav e b e e n in c omm on u s e f or m any y e ar s t he m e th o d ,

o f tr e atm e nt fr e qu e ntly di f fe r s c on s id e rably fr om that f ou n d in

o th e r a a
b o o k s S pe c i l att e nti on may b e c ll e d t o t he e arly
.
1

i nt ro ducti on o f t he i n flu en c e lin e and t o i ts u s e in d e rivin g and

illu s tratin g analytical m e th od s as W ell as to the chapt e r up on
,

d e fle c t i on s .

The au th or Wi sh es pa rticularly t o ac kn owl e d ge hi s ind e bt e d

a
n es s t o P r ofess o r G e o r ge F S wain f or t he l o gi c l and in s pirin g
.

instructi on re c e ive d fr om him as a stud ent .

J uly 1 8 1 9 1 1
,
.

C H A R L E S M SP O F F O R D
. .
 C O N TE N T S

CH A P T E R I

OU T ER A ND I NNE R F O RCE S
A RT .

1 .

Li ve and D e ad L oad
F
2 .

3 O u te r o rce s
. .

e We i gh t of S t ruc t ure
m We i gh t o f R a i l r oad Bri d ge s
s A pprox i m a t e Tru s s W e i ght s
fl Wei ght of H i gh way Bri d ge s
w We i ght o f R o of Trusse s
p We i gh t o f S t e l f ram e B u i ld i n gs
e -

Hp Li ve L oad s f or R a i lr o ad Bri d ge s
Hr L i ve L o ad s f or H i ghw ay Bri d ge s
L i ve L oad s f or B ui ldin gs
1 3 W in d P re s su re
. .

1 4 S n ow L o ad
F
.

1 5 Ce n t ri f ugal o rc e an d F r i c t i on
.

1 6 Im pac t o n R a i l r o a d Br i d ge s
.

1 7 I m pac t o n H i ghw a y Bri d ge s a n d B u i ld i n gs

F
.

1 8 I n ne r orc e s
F
.

19 .ac t or o f S af e t y

CH A P T E R II

LAW S O F S T A T ICS , R EA CT I O NS , S H E A R S A N D MO ME NT S ,

I NF LU E NCE LINES

20 . L aws o f S t at i c s
21 . Re ac t i on s
22 . Co m pu t at i o n s of R e ac t i ons —Me t h od of P ro c e d ure
v iii TA BL E OF CON TE NTS

A RT .

Re ac t i on Con ve nt i on s
P oi n t of A ppli c a t i on of L oad s a nd R e a c t i on s
S olut i on Re ac t i on Pr ob le m s
of .

S h e ar a n d B en d in g Mom e n t D e fin e d
Me t h od of Com pu t a t i on Sh e ar an d B e nd i ng Mom e n t
,

S i gn s of S he ar and B e n d i n g Mom e n t
S h e ar an d Mom e n t Com m on Ca s e s
,

Cur ve s of S he ar an d Mom e n t D e fi ne d an d I llus t rat e d

,

S he ar an d Mom e n t D i s t ri b u te d L oad
,

S he ar an d Mom e n t U n i f orm ly V aryin g L oa d

,

Lo cat i on of S e c t i on of Maxi m um Mom e n t

Th e ore m f or Com pu t i n g Mom e n t s
F
B e a m s i xe d a t E n d s
E ff e c t o f F l oo r B e a m s .

Typi c a l Cu r v e s of S he ar an d Mom e n t
In fl ue n c e Lin e s a n d Ta ble s D e fi ne d
E x am ple s o f In fl ue n c e L i ne s
P rope rt i e s of In fl ue n c e L in e s
Ne ut ral P o i n t
P os i t i on of L oa d s f o r M ax i mum
S h e a r a n d Mo m e n t at a D e fin i t e

x mum
S e c t i on
Ma i Mom e n t s a n d She a rs S t ru c t ure s S uppo rt e d
xm
. at End s .

A pp r o x im a t e Me t h o d f o r M a i um S he ar

CH AP T E R III

CONCE NT R A T E D L OA D S Y S T E MS

She a r at a F i x e d S e c t i on . Gi r cle r W i t h ou t Fl oo r B e am s .

Mom en t at a Fix ed S e c t i on
She ar G i rde r w i t h F l oo r B e am s
mu
. .

F o r l a f or P os i t i o n of L o a d s f or Maxi m um She ar f o r I n t e rm edia e t

P an e ls G i rde r W i t h F l oo r B e am s
.

Maxi m um Mom e n t Gi rde r W i t h F l oo r B e am s

.

Mom e n t a n d She ar at t he Cri t i c al S e c t i on .

Mom e n t s an d S he a rs F l o o r B e am s and Trans v e rse

.

Mom e n t D i a gram

CH A P T E R IV

B EA M DE S IG N

53 . F orm ulas
54 . Me t h od of D e s i gn
 TA B L E OF CONTE NTS ix

ART

55 . W ood e n B e am s
S t ee l B e am s
xm
56 .

57 . E a pl e s of B e am D e s i gn
58 . Com po s i t e B e am s
59 . S t i ff ne s s

CH A P T E R V

P LA T E G I RD E R D E S I G N

Plat e Gi rd ers De fin e d
Pla t e Gi rd e r W e b The ory
P la t e Gi rde r Fl a ge n s
Th e ory
F mu
.

De gree o f A pproxi m at i on of la n ge F o r la
De gre e o f A ppr oxi m at i o n o f S h e a r F o r la mu
A llow an c e f or R i v e t H ole s
xm
E a ple of Gi r de r De si gn .

R i ve t s a n d R i ve t e d J o i n t s
F lan ge R i ve t s Ord i n ary Me t h od of Com put a t i on o f Pi t c h
.
'

F lan ge R i ve t s Pre c i se Me t h od of Co m put a t i on o f Pi t c h

xm
.

F lan ge R i ve t s E a ple i n Com put ati on o f Pi t c h

.

Di re c t W e b S t re s se s
W e b S t i ff e ne rs
F lange P lat e s
Conn ec t i on An gle s F i ll e r s
s
an d

W eb Sp i ce l .

Fl n g
a e - an gle S pl i c e
Co ve r pla t e S pli c e
-

CH A P T E R V I

S I MP L E T R USS E S

Trusse s De fin e d
Class i fi c at i on
The ory .

Me t h od s .

An alyt i c al Me t h o d of J o in t s D e s c ri be d
Charac t e r of S t re ss .

De t e rm in at e I nd e te rm i n a te Tru s se s
d
an d

Mod e of P r oc e ure An alyt i c al Me t h od o f

. J oi n t s
A ppli c a t i on of A n a lyt i c al Me t h od of J o i n t s .

Graph i c a l Me t hod of J oi nt s De sc ri be d
x TAB LE O F C O NTE NTS

Mod e of P r oc e d Graph i c al Me t hod of J o in t s

ure .

A ppli c a t i on of Graphi c al Me t h od o f J oi nt s
A m b i gu ous Cas e s Graphi c al Me t h od of J o i n t s
.

A na lyt i c al Me t h od of Mom e n t s De s c ri be d
d
Mod e o f P r oce ure Me t h od of Mom e n t s
.

A ppli c a t i on of Me t h od of Mom en s t .

Me t h od of S he ars De sc ri be d
d
Mod e of P r oc e u re Me t h od o f . She ars
Me t h od of S he a rs
u
A ppli c at i on
.

Ge ne ral R l e s f or De te rm i n a t i on of Trus s S t re s s e s

Type s of Trus se s
S ys t e m s o f L oad i n g .

I n de x S t re s se s .

Com put at i on of S t re sse s P ra tt Trus s

.

Com pu t a t i o n o f S t re s s es W a rre n Tr u s s .

Com put at i on o f S t re sse s S u b d i vi d e d W a rre n Trus s

u
.

Com pu t a t i on o f S t re s se s Bri d ge Trus se swi t h N o —pa r all e l Ch ord s

d
.

Uni f orm L oa . .

Com pu t at i on of S t re sse s Bri d ge Trus se s w i t h Non pa ralle l Ch ord s

.
-

Con c e n t rat e d L oad S ys t e m

Com pu t at i on o f S t re sse s Br i d ge Trusse s w i t h P ara b o li c Ch ord
.

CH A P T E R V II

T R U S S E S W IT H S E CO NDA RY W E B S Y S T E MS
B R I D GE ,

INCL U DIN G TH E B A L T IMO RE A N D P E TT I T T R U SS E S

S e c o nd ary S ys te m D e s c ri b e d
x mum ss
1 08 . s

1 09 . Com pu t at i on of Ma i S t re ss e s i n P e tt i t Tru .

CH A P T E R V III

T RU S S ES W I T H MU LT IP LE W E B S Y S T E MS LA T E RA L ,

A ND P OR TA L B R A CING T R A NS VE RS E B E NT S , ,

VI A DU CT T O W E RS

Trus se s wi t h Mult i ple W e b S ys te m s

x mum tr
1 10 .

111 . A ppro xi m at e D e t e rm i n at i on o f a M i S e s se s in a D o u b le S ys
W arre n Tru s s
M ax imu t r
tem 2 27
1 12 . A ppr o xi m t
a e D e t e rm i n at i o n of m S e s se s i n a Whi pple Trus s 23 5
1 13 . S ke w Bri d ges 23 9
1 14 . L at e ral an d P o rt al Brac i n g 24 0
 TA BL E OF CONTE NTS Xi

A RT. P A GE

Late ral b rac i n g Trus s e s

x mum
115 .
- 2 42
116 . A pproxi m at e De t e rm i n a t i on of M a i S t re sse s i n Lat e ral Brac in g 242
1 17 . P ort als A pprox i m a te S olut i on
. 24 4
118 . P o rt als Mi sc e llane ous
,
24 9
119 . Trans ve rse B en t s i n Mi l l B u i ld in gs 24 9
1 20 . 2 52

CH A P T E R IX

CA NT I L E V E R B R I DGE S

Type s S t r uc t ure s f or
of L on g—
s pan Bri d ge s

Can t i le ve rs De s c ri b e d
E q ua t i on s of Cond i t i on
A n c h ora ge
Re ac t i on s Cant i lev e r Truss e s
,

S he ars a n d Mom e n t s Ca n t i le ve r Tr u s se s
,

B ar S t re sse s Cant i le ve r Trusse s

,

CH A P T E R X

T H R EE -
H I NGE D A RC HE S
1 28 Cha rac t e ri s t i c s o f t he Ar c h
.

1 2 9 Type s of Ar c he s
.

R e ac ti ons Thr e e hi n ge d Me ta l A rc he s
x mum
1 30 ,
-

1 31 . Ma i S t re sse s i n Ela s t i c A rc h -
Ri bs
1 32 . Parab oli c Three -hm ge d A rc he s

CH A P T E R X I

DE S I GN O F CO L U MNS A ND T E NS I O N ME MBE RS

ns G r
C o l um r t
E nds
. e ne a l Con s i de a i on s
t
F o rmu l a C o l um
Co n d i i o n of .

Or d i n a ry L e n gt hs
F o rmu l a
s f or n s of

Ordi n ary Le n gt hs
F o rmu l a C o l um
Typi c a l s f o r Colum n s of

L s f or on g ns
Te s t s of S te e l Co lum ns
—
Cas t i ron C o lum
ns
ns

Ti m be r an d Con c re t e C o l um .
xi i TA BLE OF CONTE NTS

Typi c al Co l um n Se c t i ons
Gene ral Dim e n s i on s an d Li m i t i n g Cond i t i on s
Me t hod
ns
of De s i gn
De t e rm i n at i on of Cr oss -
se ct i on o f Typi c a l S t e e l C o lum .

Latti c e B a rs an d B att e n P lat e s

R i ve t Pi t c h
Ec c e n t ri c F o rce s .

E ff e c t o f Com b in e d F le x ure an d Th rus t

B ui ld i n g C o lum n s un d e r E e c e n t ri c L o ad s
De s i gn o f Cas t i ron Co lum n s
-

De si gn of I ron an d S te e l Te n s i on Me m be rs

CH A P T E R X II

P IN A N D R I V E T E D T R U SS J O I NT S

Bri d ge Pi n s De sc ri be d
Ar ran ge m e n t o f Me m be rs on Pi n
Min i m um S ize of Pi n s .

S t re sse s Ca u si n g Maxi m um Mom e n t an d S he a r

C om pu t at i on of Maxi m um Mom e n t an d S h e ar
Com pu t at i on of a Top Ch o rd Pi n f o r Tru s s S h own i n F i g 24 5 . .

Com put at i on of a B ott om Ch ord Pi n f or Trus s S h own i n F i g 2 4 5 . .

E ff ec t u pon P i n of Ch an ge i n A rr an ge m en t of Me m be r s
P i n P lat e Rive t s .

Pi n N ut s
P ac ki n g R i n gs
R i ve t ed Tru ss J oin t s

CH A PT E R X II I

GRA P H ICA L ST A T I CS

Graphi c al and An alyt i c al Me t h od s C om pare d

F F
.

o rc e an d un i c ula r P olygo ns

Ch ara c t e ri s t i c s o f t h e F
un i c ula r P ol g o y n .

R e ac ti on s "

Graphi c al Method of Mom e n t s “

Graphi c al Me th od of Mom e n t s w i tha Con ce n t ra te d L oad S ys te m .

Graph i c al Me t h od of She ar “
Fun i c ula r P olygon t h r ou gh Se ve ra l P o i n t s
 TAB L E OF C O N TE N TS xii i

CH A PT E R X IV

DEF LECT I ON A ND CA MB E R

Elas t i c a nd Non elas t i c Defl ec t i on

-
.

Tru ss De fl ec t i on Tri go n o m e t ri c al Me t h o d
.

Tru s s De fl ec t i on Me tho d o f R o t at i on
.

Trus s De fl e c t i on Me th od o f W ork
.

Tru ss I llu s t ra ted

d rs
De fl e c t i o n . .

D e fl e c t i on of B e a m s an d Gi r e .

Graphi c al Me th od of De fl ec t i on . W i lli ot D i a gra m

Co rre c t i on o f W i lli ot D i a gra m
Cam b e r Defi n e d
R ules f or Com put i n g Ca m be r

CH A P T ER XV

C O NT IN UOU S A N D P A RT IA L L Y CO NT I NU OU S G IR DE RS
A N D S W I NG B R I D GE R E ACT I O NS

ds
1 82 . Defini t i ons .

R ea c t i on s on Con t in uous Gi r e r Meth od of Com pu t at i on

q
183 .

“
D e ri vat ion o f t h e Th re e m om en t ”E u at i on
.

q
1 84 .
-

”
.

185 . A ppli c at i on o f t he Th ree m om e n t E u a t i on

-
.

1 86 . R e ac t i on s Shears and Mom en t s f or Com m on Case s of Co n ti n u ous

, ,

Gi rd ers 38 6

C H AP T E R X V I

T H E O R E M OF L EAS T W ORK

S ta te m en t of Theor e m
E xpr es s io n s f or I n t ern al W ork
E xa m ple s of A pplic a t io n s of The ore m o f Le as t Work
Re ac t ion s i n C o n tin u ou s Tru sse s .

S t ress e s i n Tru s se s w i t h Ru du n d an t Me m b e r s .

In flu e n c e L i n e s an d Tab le s f or I n de t e r m in a te S t ru c t u re s
S t re ss es i n I nde t e r m inat e S t ru c t ure due to c h ange s of Te m pe r a t u re
xi v TAB L E OF C O N TE N TS

C H A P T E R X V II

S W IN G B R I D G E S

M ov a b le B r i dg s Ge ne r al
dg s
e .

S t re s se s i n B a ul B ri
d s
sc e e .

G i r de rs an d Tru sse s f or S wi n g B r i ge
d s
Type s of .

Poi n t s o f S u ppor t f o r S w i n g B r i ge
q
.

S wi n g Br i d ge G ird e rs a n d Tru ss es E u a t i o ns f o r R e a c t i o n s
d
. .

D e t e r m i n a t i o n of Re ac t i o n s o n a P a rt i ally C o n t i n u ou s G i r e r
nd
.

In fl u e n c e of E S uppo r t s u po n S w in g Br i d ge Re a c t io ns
Tab les of R e a c t i o ns f or C on t i n u ou s a n d P ar t i ally C on t i n u o u s
G i r de rs Us e d f or Swi n g Bri d ge s
M axi m u m S t r esses i n S wi n g Br i d ges
S pe c i fi c a t i o ns f o r I m pac t a nd Re v e r s al of S t r es s
y
.

C o m pu t a t i on of M a xi m u m S t re sse s i n S w in g Brid ges b A pproxi

m a et M e t h od

C H AP TE R X V III

M AS O N RY D A M S

De fini t i o ns
As s u m p t i o n s f o r G r a v i t y D a m s
D i s t rib u t i on of S t r ess ov e r J o i n t s M as on r y D a m
q s
of s

A ppli c a t i on t ions
s
of E ua t o D am .

O ut e r F o r c e .

E c o n o m i c al C r o ss —
s e c t i on .

D e t e rm i n at i on o f P ro file of a Low D am
D e t erm i n at i o n of P ro file of a Hi gh D am
G raph ic al M e t h od of S olu t ion
G raph ic al and An alyt i c al Me th od s C om b i ne d

CH A P T E R X IX

E A R T H P R E SSU R E

215 . C oh es ion a nd Fri i

ct on

216 . A c t iv e a nd P assi v e P r ess ur e

217 M e th o d o f Tr i al
.

2 1 8 Ra nk i n e s M e t h o d
’
.

219 . S ur c h ar ge d W al l .
 TA B L E OF C O N T E N TS

C H A P T E R XX

EA R T H P R E SS U R E

D e s c ri p t i on
Pre li m i n ary D e t e r m i na t io n of C r oss
t i on
-
se c

L u t e n Me t h o d D e te rm i n i n g Trial Se c t io n s
F
of .

O u te r orce s
Th r y
o r mu l a
eo .

F f o r Ar c he s of C o ns t an t C r o ss - se c t i on
C o m parison o f A r c h a n d Fi x e d -e nd B e am
Te m pe ra t ure S t re s s es
Eff e c t of M ov em en t of Ab u t m t
en s

Eff e c t S i n gle
L oa d
m
of a

A c c u rac y of F o r ul a
Lin e of Re s is t anc e
D is trib u t i on of S t r es s ov e r C r oss —
s e c t i on

F
C o m pu t a t io n o f Exte rn al o rc e s b Appro xi m a t e Me th o y d .

I ND EX . .
 S TRU C TU RE S

CH AP T E R I

OUTE R A ND INNE R F OR ES C

1 . Defi ni ti ons t r uctu re as d e fin ed in t he

A s Ce ntury
D icti onary is a pr o ducti o n o r pie c e of w o rk arti fi c i ally built
’

up or c o mp os e d o f part s j oin e d t o g e th e r in so m e d e fi n i t e mann e r

” .
,

A s u s e d in this b oo k h ow e v e r i ts m e a ning will b e r e s trict e d

, ,

t o a part or c o mbinati o n of pa r t s c on s truct e d t o h old i n equi

li bri u m de fi ni te f or c es with s p e cial re fe r e nc e t o bridge s and
,

buil dings .

S t r uctur e s may b e e ith e r s ta ti ca lly d eterm i n ed or s ta ti ca lly

u ndeter m i n ed S tatically d e t e rmin e d s tructur es are th os e i n
.

W hich t h e re acti o n s and p 1 imary s tr esse s can b e c o mput e d by

s tatic s S tructur e s f or which th e s e functi o n s c ann o t b e obtain e d
cl
.

by s tatic s b e l o ng to the se c o nd ass .

A bri dge i s a s tructur e built t o pr ovid e tran s p o rtati on acr os s

so m e natural o r art i fi c i al o b s tacl e s uch as a riv e r ravin e s tr e e t, , ,

or railway The t e rm includ es n ot o nly t he s up e r s tructur e

.

o f w oo d m e tal or ma so nry but al s o t he s ub s tructur e W hi ch

, ,

may c on s is t of ma sonry pie r s and abutm e nt s o r of s t ee l t o we r s ,

.

Th e s up e r s tructur e may c on s i s t o f s impl e b e am s s upp o rt e d at

the e nd s dir e ctly on t he ma sonry o r in ca s e of l ong s pan s s up ,

p ort e d on cr oss b e am s which are th e m s e lve s s upp o rt e d at t he

1
e nd s by gird e r s tru s ses o r arch e s
,
I n t he latt e r ca s e t he l ongi
.

t u di n al b e am s are kn o wn as s tri ngers and t he cr oss b e am s as

floor beam s A s a cl e a r c o nc e pti o n o f t he functi on of t he s tringe rs

.

‘
Fo i
'

rt
a c le a r u n d e s an di n g o f gi rde rs an d t russe s se e s
Fi g . 1 to 4 a nd Art s .

60 an d 78 .
2 OU TE R A ND I N NER F O C ES R A RT . 1

and fl oo r b e am s i s e ss e n tial t o t he und e rs tan din g of t he matt e r

which f oll ows t he s tud e n t i s advi se d t o s tudy car e fully F i gs
,
.

1 2 3 and 4 and t o e xamin e s o m e of the brid ge s i n hi s vicinity

, , ,
.

De ck bridg es are th ose in which t h e fl o or i s at t he t op of t h e

m l b raci ng

Th e en d h an ge rs
e q ue nt l
y

b nac i ng s h o wn by
d otte d li ne s

t
Th e t w o r us ses are
(1 d a nd e j g h f loor be a m

Fl
wr d
End oo r

FIG . 1 .
-
F ram e o k of 3 Thr ough Railroad Tr us s B ri ge .

Gua rd
G ua r d Ra il

Mas o nry A b ut m e nt (S u bs t ru c t
ur e)

CROSS S ECT ON I G u ar d

I B ea m

S IDE ELEVAT IO N

FI G . 2 .
—I B eam
- B ri d ge f or S i n gle Tra c k Ra i lroad .

(A D ec k S t ruc t ure .
)

main s u pe rs t ru c t impl e I b e am b ri dge s h own i n

fir e in th e
ig
-
,
as s

F 2 . S uch b ri dg es if o f c o n si d e rabl e wi dth r e quir e th e u se of

.

fl oo r b e am s and s tring e r s which may o ft e n b e o mi tt e d f or ,

narr o w s tructur es .
4 OUTE R AND I NN E R FOR C ES A RT . 2

Thr o u gh brid ge s are th os e i n which the gr e at e r part o f t he

s up e r s tructur e i s ab o v e t he fl o o r l e v e l and in which o v e rh e ad
lat e ral braci n g may b e u s e d b e tw e e n t he tru s s e s t o obtain lat e r al
s tab ility S uch a b rid ge i s s h own by F
. 4 ig . .

W h e th e r a d e ck or thr o u gh bridge s h o ul d b e u s e d f or a giv en

l o cati on d e p e n d s up o n the e xt e rnal c o nditi on s I n ge n e ral .
,

brid ges of c on s id e rabl e s pan are built as thr o u gh s tructur e s

unl e ss the appr o ach es on e ith e r s id e are at c on s id e rabl e e l e va a
ti o n ab ov e t he ob s tacl e to b e cr oss e d The s oluti o n of thi s
a
.

q u e s ti o n f or give n cas e i s u s ually obvi o u s and W ill n ot b e c on

s i d e re d h ere .

2 . L iv e a nd D e a d L oad s . Th e f o rc e s t o
c on s id e r e d may b e be
divid e d int o t w o cla ss e s : ou ter an d i n n er Th e o ut e r f o rc e s c on s i s t .

o f t h e appli e d l o ad s and t h e r e s ultant r e acti o n s and may b e divid e d ,

in t o t wo di s tinct typ es : live o r m o vi n g l o ad s an d d e ad or q ui es

l
c e nt oads The inn e r f orc e s are t he m ol e cul ar f o rc e s whic h
.

are br o ught i n t o acti o n by t h e o ut e r f o rc es and h o ld th e m in

e quilibrium The d e ad l o ad includ es t he w e ight o f t he s tru c

.

ture it s e lf an d all of i ts p e rman e nt qui es c e n t l o ad s uch as t h e

,

pav e m e nt on hi ghway brid ge s ; t h e rail s and o th e r track appu r

t e n a n c es on railr o ad bridg e s ; t he fl oors wall s r o ofs an d par , ,

t i t i on s in b uild in g s Th e liv e l oad c o n s is t s of all f orc e s which are

.

appli e d in t e rmitt e ntly For bridg es the s e m ay b e lo c om oti ves and

.

cars ve hi cl e s p e d es trian s s n ow and wi n d ; f or building s th e y c on ;

, , ,

s i s t o f p e opl e s n o w w i nd o ffi c e furni shin gs and partiti o n s ; f or

, , ,

d ams and re ta i nin g wall s of wat e r pr e ss ur e an d e arth pr e s s ur e .

3 Ou te r F or c e s
. The d e t e rminati o n of t he int e n s ity d i s
.
,

t ri b ut i on and p oint o f applicati o n of t h e o ut e r f o rc e s i s o ft e n

,

d i ffi c ult an d r e quir e s matur e j ud gm e nt ba s e d up o n e xt e n s iv e

e xp e ri e n c e F o r s tructur e s o f gr e at magnitud e t h e qu e s ti o n i s
.

particul arly c o mplicat e d an d of V ital imp o rtanc e ; t he d es ign

o f s uch s truct ur e s s h ould n e v e r b e att e mpt e d with o ut a th o r o ugh

s tudy o f thi s pr o bl e m in i t s r e lati o n t o t h e s tructur e in qu e s ti o n .

I n t he f oll o wing articl e s s o m e of t he difficultie s in t he way o f an

e xact s oluti o n o f th e qu e s ti o n will b e pr e s e n t e d and data giv e n

f o r u s e i n t h e s oluti on o f t he m o r e c o mm o n ca s e s .

4 W e igh t of Stru c tu r e I t i s imp os s ibl e t o d e t e rmin e

a
. .

a c curat e ly t h e w e ight o f giv e n s tructur e b e f o r e t h e c o mpl e ti o n

o f t h e d e s i gn I t i s e qually imp os s ibl e t o d es ign t h e s t ructure
w
.

with pr e ci s i on until i ts w e ight i s k n o n I t i s th e r e fo r e ne c e s .

A RT . 5 WE I GH T OF RA I LROA D BR I D G ES 5

s ary m all ca s es t o mak e us e of app roximat e m e th o d s of s olu

ti on fi rs t a ss uming the w e ight n e xt d e s igni n g with t he a s s um e d
, ,

data th e n c om puti n g t h e w e ight an d r e vi s i n g t he d e s ign in th e

,

light of t h e n e w i n fo rmati on thu s o btain e d F or t he m o re .

c o mm o n typ e s o f s tructur e data accum ul at e d by e xp e ri e n c e may

b e u s e d by t h e d e s i gn e r and t he fi rs t a ss umpti o n mad e with
,

s uff i ci e n t a ccuracy t o mak e r e vi s i o n un n e c e s s ary F or s tructur es .

o u t of t he o rdi n ary an d particularly th ose in which t he w e i ght

,

of t he s tructur e it s e lf i s a larg e p e rc e ntag e o f t he t o tal l o ad ,

s e v e ral r e vi s i o n s a re s o m e tim e s n e c e s s ary and a fi n al c o mpu ,

t at i on of t he w e i ght aft e r t he c ompl e ti o n o f t he d e ta i l e d draw

ings and b e f o r e the c o mm e nc e m e nt of s h op w ork s h o ul d n e v e r ,

b e o mitt e d Th e failur e t o d o thi s f or t he hu ge Q u e b e c brid ge

.

which fail e d duri n g e r e cti o n in 1 90 7 r e s ult e d in s e ri o u s e rr o r s

,

in t he s tr e ss e s f or w hich th e s tructur e w as d e s ign e d .

I n all ca s es t he d es igne r s h o uld fi rs t d es ign c o mpl e t e ly t he

min o r p o r t i on s of t he s tructur e and d e t e rmin e th e ir we i ght
c ar e f ully s o as t o e limi n at e as m uch unc e rtai n ty as p oss ibl e .

F or e xampl e in t h e d e s ign of a railr o ad bridg e t h e s trin g e r s

, ,

s h o uld fir s t b e fi gure d and th e ir w e ight car e fully d e t e rmi n e d ,

t h e fl oo r b e a m s may th e n b e d es ign e d and fin ally t h e lat e ral ,

b racing thu s giving c on s id e rabl e inf o rmati o n as t o t he t ot al

,

we ight of t he brid ge and thr o wi n g t he unc e rtai n ty int o t he main

gird e r s or tru ss e s .

5 W e i gh t of Railr o ad B r i dge s
. I t i s p oss ibl e t o mak e a
.

m or e accurat e pr elimi n ary e s timat e of t he w e ight of s uch bridge s

than can b e d on e f or o th e r typ e s o f imp ortant s tructur es s inc e ,

th e r e i s l e s s variati o n in l o ad s and o th e r c onditi o n s Curr e nt .

p ractic e on fi rs t cl ass A m e rican rai lr o ad s diffe r s but littl e and it ,

i s b e li e v e d that t he dia gram s giv e n i n F ig s 5 t o 1 0 inclu s iv e give .

r e a s on abl e valu e s f o r t h e tota l wei ght of the s teel i n s u c h s tr u c

tu r es . Th e t ot al w e i ght o f t h e brid ge i n clud es al s o t h e w e i ght
o f t h e ti es rail s and o th e r ac c e s s o ri es which s h o uld b e add e d
, ,

t o t he valu e s giv e n in t he dia gram s F or t he o rdinary railr o ad

.

bridg e fl oo r with w o o d e n ti e s thi s w e i ght may b e tak e n in t he

l
-
,

l ack o f a spe c i fi c d e s ign as fr o m 4 00 t o 4 5 0 bs pe r line ar f eo t

,
. .

F o r s o lid balla s t e d fl o ors thi s w e ight i s o f c o ur s e much gr e at e r .

Th ese diagram s w e r e fur n i s h e d by t he He ath Milligan

Mf g Co P ai n t an d Col o r Mak e r s o f Chicag o
. .
, , U S A ,
. . .
,

f or wh o m th e y w e r e pr e par e d by c o n s ulting e ngi n ee r s c on

6 OUTE R AND I NN E R FOR CE S A RT . 5

n e cte d with one of lar ge railr o ad s yst e m s oi t he c ountry

t he -
,

an d are f or carb o n s t e e l bridg e s d e s ign e d f or t h e typical l o c o

-

m otiv e s s h own i n F i g 1 1 and are kn own as Coop e r s E CO

.
,
’

l o ading Wh e re o th e r l o adings are t o b e u se d th e se we ight s

.
,

I
FG . 5 .

may b e change d abproxi m ately in the rati o of t he l o c o m otive

we ight s .

F o r w e i ght s o f c a n til e v e r s pa n s an d nick e l s t ee l brid ge s t he

re ad e r i s r e fe rr e d t o t he pap e r by Dr J A L W add e ll e n titl e d
, . . .
A RT . 6 APP RO X I MATE m uss WE I GH TS 7

Nick e l S t e e l f or B ridges publis h e d in the Tran s acti ons of

’

t he A m e rican S o cie ty of Civil En gin e e r s , V ol L X III , pages .

1 65 t o 1 7 2 For bri d ge s d e s ign e d f o r e ithe r h e avie r or light e r

.

l o ad s th es e we i ght s may b e alt e re d in a s o m e what l ess pr op or

FGI . 6 .

ti on than t he live l o ad s in acc o rdanc e with t he d e s ign e r j udg

’
s

m e nt .

6 . t Tru ss W e i ghts B ridge s di ff e ri n g m at e rially

Appr o xi m a e .

fr o m th o se pr e vi ou sly c on s id e re d an d f or which o th e r data are

n o t avail abl e may b e e s timat e d by t he f o ll o wi n g rul e d e vi se d
8 OUTER AND I N NE R F OR C E S AR T 6.

by Clar enc e W H ud son Co ns ult i ng Enginee r , 4 5 B r o adway ,

rk
,

Ne w Y o .

FGI . 7 .

Le t L = maxim um liv e s tr e ss in b ott o m h o d c r .

I = i mpact in m e mb e r in W hich L o c curs .

D 1 = d e ad s tr e ss i n s am e m e mb e r d u e t o kn own we igh t of
”

fl oor .

D2 = d ead tr ess in s am e m e m b er due

s to we ight of t r us s
an d bracin g (gu e sse d) .

= o wabl e unit s t r ess i n t e ns i on

j} all .
A RT . 6 A P P RO X I M A TE TRU SS WE I GH TS 9

Le t A I = a re a in s qua re inch e s o f m e mb e r in which L o ccur s .

A 2 = ar e a in s q uar e inch e s pe r lin e ar unit of one tru ss .

W we ight per lin e a r f oo t of one t r us s and i ts bracing .

G
W EI HTS IG
O F S N LE T RA C K
THRO UGH PIN O R RIV ETED S PA NS .

L + 1 + D 1 + D2 5
ft
A 2 = 5A 1 and W=
£ AI
-
.

The ab o ve i s ba s e d up on an all owanc e of f o r t he

upp e r ch o rd 1 2 5 A 1 f or the web m e mb e r s A I f o r d e tail s and
,
.
, ,

5 A I f or braci n g
. The w e ight of s t ee l i s u se d in r ound fi gure s
.
10 OU TE R A ND I N N ER R
F O C ES A RT . 7
‘

as 10 l bs .
pe r sq ua r e in ch of cr os s se cti o n f or a bar one yard in
l e n gth .

This m e th o d i s s aid to give a v e ry cl os e appr o ximati o n to

th e actual w e i ght .

7 .W ei gh t of Hi gh w a y Br i dges Th e w e ight of highway

.

bridges i s l e s s e a s i ly d e t e rm in e d than that of r ailr o ad bridge s

s i n c e t h e width s pa n
,
fl o or c o v e rin g an d cha r act e r of l oad i ng
,

a re s ubj e ct t o wid e variati o n s F o rm ula s hav e b e e n d e duc e d

.
12 OU TE R AND I NN E R F OR C E S A RT . 8

city brid ge s Th es e brid ges are all m o d e rn s tructur es d es ign e d

.

h avy tr t car t ffi T h fl i all ca es c o n s is ts of

f or e s ee r a c e oo r n s .

y e llo w pin e un de rplan ki n g 5 o r 6 inch es in thickn e ss wat e r , ,

pr o o f e d o n t o p an d s upp o rti n g a 6 —i n ch s t o n e bl o ck pav e m e n t o n

,
-

a s a n d cu s hi o n .

Th es e v alu e s t oge th e r with th os e of pavi n g mat e ri al s w e r e

fur n i s h e d t h e writ e r by Mr F r e d e ri c H F ay f o r m e rly E ngi n e e r of
. .
,

B rid ges an d F e rri e s o f t h e P ublic W o rk s De partm e n t of t h e city o f

B os t on .

W E I GH T OF S TE E L IN Y T P I CA L H I GH WA Y B R I DG E S IN TH E
C I TY OF B O S TO N

rd
B i ge . Typ e .

Broa dway P la t e gi rd e r 6 7 f t 8 % i ns . . lb s
S u m m e r S t ree t 7 2 f t 0 in s to 8 5 f t Oi ns
. . . . 55 2 .

8 2 f t 1 1 ins . . 57 6 .

Cra i gi e (pr opo s e d ) 8 0 f t 0 in s . . 65 3 .

N ort he rn A ve n u e Pi n t r u s se s 1 46 f t 9% i ns. .

WE I GH T OF P A V I N G MA TE R I A L
N O TE —E M = B o a rd Me as ur e

s
. . . .

lb
H ard (ye llow )
r —
pi ne , 4 pe r f t B M (W he e p o t e c t e d b y
w a t e r pro o fi n g a nd a lw ays d ry
.

Othe r vnse u s e 4 1
.

48
bl
. .

sB
r '
r
7 lb s . lb s .
pe r cu . ft

r
r
C e o e s in a t e ye llow pi ne pa vi n g o c k
S p uc e a n d w hi t e pi ne , 2 %
Br k r
i c s , p e sse d an d p a v i n
pe r f t M
g
lb
.
s .
65
30
1 50
. .

r
P o t lan d c e m e n t c on c e te r 1 60
r
Ta r c on c e t e (b a se f or a s ph alt wa lk s , e t c ) 1 25 .

r k
S i li c i a n o c (S im ps on B r o s ) . 1 40
r B r r
T i ni d ad a s pha lt ( a b e A s pha lt Co ) re fi n e d 74 . .

A s la i d “
G ran oli t hi c or arti fi c l t o e ia s n
P a ve m e n t s (e x c lu s i ve o f sa n d c u s hi on )
.
1 40
1 50

6— i n c h gra ni t e b lo c k
4 i n c h b ri c k “
-

4— i n c h w o od b l oc (c re o k
R oa d wa y wa te rpro ofin g
l i i n s t hi c k (f e lt , r oo fi n g pi t c h , sa n d ,
. a nd roa d pi t c h ) 12
1 0 to 2 0
. lb s .
pe r sq . ft .

W eight of R o o f T ru ss e s The w e i ght o f r oo f tru ss es

8 . .

d e p e nd s up on t h e s pa n di s ta n c e apart of tru ss es r oo f c oye ri ng

, ,

an d r oo f pitch Th e c on diti on s are s o m e what m o r e unifo r m

.
A RT . 8 WE I GHT OF ROO F TRUSS E S 13

than highway bridges and f o rmulas f or appr oximat e w e ight s

f or ,

may b e u s e d with s o m e d e gr e e of s ucc e s s .

The f o rmul a 1
which f oll o ws was d e duc e d b y N Cli f fo rd .

R ick e r fr o m t he w e ight of 5 0 r oo f tru s s es d e s i gn e d f or s pan s

f 1 o m 2 0 t o 2 00 f t in l e n gth Th e di s tanc e apart o f tru ss e s vari e d
p
. .

fr o m 1 0 t o 30 f t and t he ri se fr o m TL.) m l t he s an The r oo fs

. .

we re a s s um e d as c o v e r e d with 37 i n s w oo d e n s h e athing carrying

l
.

pain t e d tin The s n o w l o ad was tak e n as 2 0 bs pe r h o ri z ontal

l
. .

s quar e f oo t a n d wi n d a s 30 bs pe r s quar e f o o t o n a v e rtical

r
.

plan e pr o p e rly re duc e d t o all o w f or pitch of oof Tru ss es of

,
.

y ell o w pi n e with s t e e l v e rtical s of whit e pin e with s t ee l ver ,

tic al s and e ntir e ly o f s t ee l we re i n clud e d

l
.
,

Le t W = w e i ght o f tru s s in bs pe r s quar e f o o t of h o ri z o ntal

r
.

pr oj e cti on of oof .

S = s pan i n f t .

tru s ses of s h o rt e r s pan s tha n 1 0 0 f t pr obably w e i gh

S te e l .

s o m e what m o r e than t he v alu e giv e n by t h e f o rmula an d whit e

pin e trus s es are s o m e what light e r than th o se of yell o w n pi e

,

F or r oof tru ss es u n d e r oth e r c o nditi on s t he valu e give n ,

by the f o rmula may b e m o di fi e d o r t he d e s ign e r may u s e h i s

j udgm e nt .

The f oll o wing tabl e giv es t he appr o ximat e w e ight s pe r s quar e

foo t of r oo f s urfac e f o r s o m e of t he r oo f c o v e rings i n c o mm on u se
(s ee al so latt e r p o rti o n of A rt 1 4 ) .

P i n e s hi n gle s “
Corru ga te d ll o ll , wi t h o u t s e a t hi n g
'
h
F e lt a n d a s pha lt , w i t h o u t s h e a t hi n g . .

F e lt a nd gra ve l, w i t ho u t s he a t hi n g .

S lat e , 4 i n t hi c k
.

Ti n , w i t h o u t she a t hi n g .

S kyli gh t glass , 135 t o 5 i h , i n c lud i n g f ra m

. es

W hi te pi ne s he a t hi n g, ii i n t hi c k .

Ye llow pi ne sheat hi n g, i n t hi c k . .

Ti le s , fl at
Ti le s , c o rru ga t e d “
Ti le s , o n c onc re t e s a s lb
P la s te re d c e i li n g

l
See
“B ulle ti n N o U n i ve rs i ty o f I lli n o i s E n gi nee ri n g E xpe ri
16 of t he
“
.
,

m e n t S t a t i o n e n t i t le d A S t ud y o f R oof Truss e s b y N Cli ff ord R i c ke r

"
.
, , ,

D A rc h P ro f e ss or o f A rc hi te c t ure
. .
,
.
 14 OU TE R AND I NN E R FOR CES AR T 9 .

9 W e i ght of Stee l f ra m e B u ild in g s The we ight o f s uch

.
-
.

buildi n gs i s largely d e p e n d ent up on t h e w e ight o f wall s fl o ors , ,

parti t i on s and fi re pr oo fi ng an d th es e can b e e s timat e d i n

pl
-

d e tail fr o m t he archit e ct s The w e i ght o f t he s t ee l i s

’
an s .
,

h o we v e r s o variabl e that n o att e mpt will b e mad e t o giv e valu es

,

f or i t but n o d i ffi c ultyn e e d ari s e in d e s i gni n g s i n c e t he w e i ght

, ,

of t he s t e e l i n any giv e n m e mb e r f o rm s but a v e ry s mall pe r

,

c e ntage of t h e l o ad which it h as t o carry .

The t abl e which f oll ow s may b e u s e d i n d e t e rmi n ing t he

we ight of h oll o w tile fl oors and w a s ll .

W E I GH TS OF H O LL O W TI LE FL OOR AR C HE S AND FIR EP ROO F

MATE R I A LS

H O L L O W B R I CK F OR F LA T AR C H E S ,
S I D E CO N S TR U C TI O N

W i d th of t
S pa n b e w e e n B e a m s . D ep h t of A r ch .

s
v
zf ifgifii
’
;

3 f ee t 6 i nc he s t o 4 f e e t 0 i n c he s
( l ( l ( l
4 0 4 6
4 6 5 0
5 6 6 0
6 O 6 6
6 6 7 0

PA R TI TI O N S

W ei gh tp er
Th i c kn e s s .

S q u a re F o ot .

H ollow b ri c k (c la y) pa rt i ti on s

P or o u s t e rra -
co tt a pa rt i ti o n s
l l

R e prod uc ed f rom Cam b ri a S t ee l b y pe rm i s s i o n or Cam b ri a S t ee l Co .

A RT . 10 L I VE L O A D S FOR R A I LROA D BR I D G E S '
15

E N D CO N S TR U C TI O N , F LA T AR C H

W i d th of S p a n b e w e e n B e am t s . D ep ht of A r ch .

8 3535 3 3:
11
6

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

F U R R IN G , R O O F IN G ,
AND CE I L I N G
W e i gh tp er
T h 1 c kn e s s .

S q u are Foot .

P o ro u s te rra c otta
-
f urri n g .

roo fing
l

o o o o o o o o o o o

6 -i n c h
8—
t r 2 6 % po u n d s pe r s u a r e o o t
se gm e n a l a c h e s ,

i n c h se gm e n t a l a rc he s 3 2 po un d s pe r s u a re o ot
q f
q f q f .

2 i nc h po rous t e rra—
.
,

-
c ott a part i t i on s 8 po un d s pe r s ua re oot , .

R p du d f
e ro ce C rom
”
b i St l b y p m is i am f C m b ri S t l C m p
r a ee er s on o a a ee o an y .

Concr e t e f or building w o rk may b e mad e with c i nd e rs b r ok e n

s t o n e or grav e l and i ts W e i ght m ay b e tak e n a s f o ll o w s

l
,

Cind e r c o ncr e t e 1 1 2 bs per cubic f oo t Trap r o ck o r grav e l

l
. .
,

c o ncr e t e 1 50 t o 1 5 5 bs pe r cubic f oo t
l
. .
,

F or c oncr e t e r e inf o rc e d with s t ee l add 4 bs per c ubic f oo t .

t o ab ov e w e ight s .

In practic e t he minimum w e i ght o f a fi re proof fl oor may b e

l
tak e n as 75 bs pe r s quar e f oot e xc e pt f o r o ffi c e buil di n gs wh e r e
l
.

1 0 bs s h o uld b e add e d t o pr o vid e f or m o vabl e partiti o n s

. .

Fi re proofi n g f or c olumn s o r b e am s m ay b e e ith e r of t e rra

c otta o r c oncr e t e The thick n es s s h ould b e n ot l ess than t w o
.

i nch e s Th e w e ight pe r f oot d e p e nd s up on t he s i z e of t h e m e mb e r

.

t o b e pr o t e ct e d .

1 0 L ive L oad s f or Ra il r oa d B r i d ge s
. I t i s p os s ibl e t o d e t e r .

m 1 n e d e fi nit e ly t he w e ight s o f t h e l o c o m o tiv es an d c ar s u se d

up on a giv e n railr o ad I n c on se qu enc e t he actual live l o a d s .

c r oss i n g a giv e n b r idg e can b e a s c e rtain e d with c o n s id e rabl e

16 OU TE R AND I N NE R FOR C ES AB T 1 0
.

e xactn es s th o ugh it i s n e c e ss ary t o mak e d ue allo wanc e f or t h e

,

e ff e ct of hi gh s p e e d irr egulariti es in tr ack an d oth e r dynamic

, ,

e f f e ct s w hi ch d o n o t o c cur wh e n t h e l o ad s are at r e s t Th es e .

dynamic f o rc e s are c on s id e r e d i n A rt s 1 6 an d 1 7 and W ill b e .

n e gl e ct e d f or t h e pr es e nt .

I n t he d e s i gn f or a n e w bridge it i s al so d es irabl e t o m ak e
d u e allo wa n c e f or p oss ibl e i ncr eas e in w e i ght of l o c o m otiv e s
and car s h e nc e t h e l o ad s f o r w h ich brid ges are d es i gn e d m ay b e
,

s o m e what h e avi e r than th os e which are in actual u s e at t h e tim e

of c on s tructi on th ough t h e fact or of s afe ty (s e e A rt 1 9) pr o vid e s

,
.

t o s o m e e xt e nt f or s uch incr e a se .

A s t o t h e typ e and num b e r of l o c o m otiv e s and charact e r of

train l o ad i ng A m e rican practic e i s fa i rly u nif orm
,
.

T w o c o mb inati on s are us ually c o n s id e r e d :

(a ) Tw o c on s olidati on l o c o m otiv es f oll o we d by a unif o rm
l o ad pe r f o o t .

(6) A pair o f axle s with l o ad s s o m e what h e avi e r than th os e

of t h e c ons olidati on e ngin e and n o uni f o rm o ad l .

Th e f o rm e r l o adin g giv e s t h e maximum st r e ss e s f or m os t c as e s ,

but t he l att e r i s s om e tim es t he c on tr olli n g fact o r f or s trin ge rs ,

s h o rt b e am s pan s and m i n o r tru s s m e mb e r s

,
.

I n d e s i gni ng t he e f f e ct o f rail s and ti e s i n di s tributing t he

,

l o c om o tiv e l o ad i s us ually n e gl e ct e d t he wh e e l l o ad s b e ing c on ,

s i d e re d as appli e d at p o i nt s .

A s t h e actual variati o n in wh ee l s pacin g and l o ad s f or l o c o

m otive s of dif f e r e n t mak es i s o ft e n s light it h as b e c o m e in r e c e nt ,

y e ar s t h e cus t o m o f many railr oad s t o s p e c i fy t he typical

l o c o m otiv e s fi rs t pr op os e d by Th e o d o r e Coop e r Co ns ulting
r
, ,

E ngin e e r o f 4 5 B r o adway Ne w Y o k
,
I n th e s e l o c o m otive s
,
.

t he d i s tanc e b e tw ee n axl e s are in e v e n f e e t and t he wh ee l l o ad s

p
in e v e n th o us and s o f o u n d s W hil e th e se l o ad s an d s pac es.

may n ot r e pr e s en t actual ca s es th e y a gree cl ose ly with ave rag e

l o c o m otiv e s and are much s impl e r t o d e al with than l o adin gs
,

i n o d d hun dr e d s of p oun d s an d axl e s pac i ng s in f ee t and i n ch e s .

Mo r eo v e r t he u nce rt ain d e v e l opm e nt s of t he futur e an d t he

,

unkn o wn e ff e ct o f impact mak e t h e us e of s uch typical l o ad s

but littl e l e s s ac curat e than t he u se of actual wh ee l oads l
ig
.

1 1 s h o w s Coop e r s E60 l o c o m ot iv e whic h i s s ui tabl e

’
F .
,

f or l oads ca rryi n g h e avy t r affi c F or o th e r c o n dit i o n s t yp e s

ec
.

k n own as E 50 E 40 E 30 ,
t are u se d th ese diff e ring fr o m
, ,
.
, ,
A RT . 11 L I VE L O A D S FOR HIGH WA Y BR I D G E S 17

the typ e in w e ight only ; f or e xampl e in t he E 40 typ e

E GO
l
,

t he driving w h e e l axl e l o ad s are bs in s t e ad of

l
-
.

bs W hil e t he oth e r l o ad s are pr o p o rti o nat e Thi s h as t he

.
,
.

advantage of all o wing tabl es of m o m e nt s and s h e ar s m ad e

f or on e typ e t o b e r e adily u se d f or an o th e r typ e by multiplying
by a s impl e r ati o S uch tabl es are n ow inc o rp o rat e d in num e r
.

o u s handb oo k s and s pe c i fi c at i on s .

Be f or e l e aving t he s ubj e ct a f e w w o rd s as t o oth e r m e th o d s

of l o ading s are d e s irabl e S o m e y e ar s ago th e r e w as c on s id e r .

abl e agitati on in fav o r of ad o pti n g a unif o rm l o ad in or d e r t o ,

s implify c o mputati o n The advantag e i s obvi o u s t o th os e w h o .

a re familia r with s uch w o rk b ut t he dis advantage i s that in ,

o rd e r t o obtain pr op e rly pr o p o rti o n e d tru s se s thi s l o ad mu s t

'
n e c e s s arily vary f or d i fi e re nt s pan s and f or diff e r e nt m e mb e r s
'

Loa ds are a xle load s .

o o

gf
6 o o

g g g g
o

g
o

o o
c
gE
cc o
c
8
f EE9
<
c;
C"
c» 6 000 1bs pe r F oo t
.

Uni f or m Lo a d
21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
’ ' ’ ’ ’
s 5 9 5 8 a 5

F 1 1 —Di a gram Co ope r EGO S t an dard L oad i n g

’
IG . . of s .

p
in th e sam e s an This o ff s e t s t o a c o n s id e rabl e e xt e nt th e
.

advantage gain e d Mo r e o v e r t he ad opti o n o f the ab o ve s tand

.
,

ard l o adings h as furth e r s i m pli fi ed t h e lab o r of c o mputati o n f or

actual wh ee l l o ad s s o that at t he pr e s e nt tim e it i s b e li e v e d that
,

f or o rdinary s tructur es t he advantag e in u s ing a un i fo rm l o ad

i s t oo s mall t o c on s id e r F o r c o mplicat e d tru s s e s a c o mbinati o n
viz
.

o f t he t w o m e th o d s i s p e rhap s b e s t ; t h e u s e of wh e e l c o n .
,

c e n t rat i on s f or we b m e mb e r s and of a unif o rm l o ad f or t he

ch o rd s s inc e t he appr oximati o n f or t he ch o rd s by u s ing a unifo rm
,

l o ad i s l e ss than f or t he w e b m e mb e r s .

1 1 L i ve Lo a ds f or H i ghw ay Br i d ge s
. The magnitud e and .

charact e r of s uch l o ad s d e p e nd alm os t e ntir e ly up on t he l o cati on

o f t he bridg e I f it b e a l arge city or in a di strict wh e r e h e avy
.

manufactur e d articl e s o r quarrie d s t o n e s of gre at we ight are t o

b e tra n s p o rt e d it i s quit e pr obabl e that wag o n l o ad s fr o m 2 0 t o
3 0 t on s may at tim e s pa s s o v e r t he brid ge El e ctric —c ar l o ad s .

o f fr o m 4 0 t o 60 t o n s s h o uld al s o b e a ss um e d a s s uch car s a re ,

alr e ady in use in s o m e p o rti on s of t he U nit e d S tat es whil e th e ,

c on s tructi on of int e rurban e l e ctric li ne s in many s e cti on s o f

t he c o untry i n dicat es a futur e wid es pr e ad e xt e n s i on of h e avy
 8 OU TE R A ND I NN E R F OR C E S A RT . 11

s tr e e t c ar tra ffic Th e am o u n t of f oo t trav e l an d o r dinary

.

v e hi cular t r a ffi c o n hi ghway b ri dg e s al so r e quir e s car e ful s tu dy .

Th e w e i ght pe r s quar e f o o t fr o m a c ro w d o f p e o pl e m ay r e ach t h e

l
hi gh fi gu r e o f 1 5 0 bs which i s pr o b ably h e avi e r than th e w e i ght
.
,

p e r f oo t fr o m h o r s es a n d wa g o n s o n t h e r o adway To a ss um e .
,

h o w e v e r th at s uch a l o ad i s lik e ly t o o c cur o v e r t h e e n tir e s urfac e

,

o f an o rdi n ary brid ge i s ab s urd and t h e l o ng e r an d wid e r t h e

,

bridg e th e l es s t h e l o ad th at s h o uld b e tak en In fact e v e ry .

,

c o n s id e rabl e hi ghway b 1i d ge i s i n it s e lf a pr o bl e m i n l o adin g an d

s h o uld b e c ar e fully s tu di e d Th e f o ll o wing clau s e fr o m t h e
.

Ma s s achu s e tt s P ubli c S e rvic e Co mmi s s i o n s S pe c i fi c at i o n s f o r ’

B ridg es Carrying E l e ctri c R ailway s

” pr e p ar e d i n 1 9 1 5 by Le wi s ,

E Mo o r e B ridg e an d S ignal En gin e e r o f t h e c o mmi s s i on may

.
, , ,

h o w e v e r b e u s e d as a br o ad ge n e r al guid e f o r t h e d e t e r minati o n
,

of l o ad s f or o rdi n ary hi ghway b ri dg e s :

(a) F o r c ity b ri dg e s s ubj e c t t o h e avy l o ad s

l
,

F or t h e fl o o r and i t s s upp o rt s a u n if o rm l o ad o f 1 0 0 bs pe r ,
.

s quar e f o o t of s urfac e of t h e r o adway an d s id e walk s o r t h e aut o ,

truck d e s crib e d u n d e r (d) I n c o mputi n g t h e fl oo r b e am s an d

.

s upp o rt s t h e railway l o ad s h all b e a ss um e d t o ge th e r with e ith e r

, ,

(1 ) thi s u n if orm l o ad e xt e ndi n g up t o withi n 2 f t of t h e rail s o r .

,

(2 ) t h e aut o truck d e s c ri b e d und e r (d)

l
-
.

F o r t h e tru s s e s o r gir d e r s 1 0 0 bs pe r s quar e f o o t of fl oo r s u r

l
.
,

fac e f or s p a n s of 1 0 0 f t o r l es s 8 0 b s f or s p an s of 2 0 0 f t o r o v e r
.
,
. .
,

an d pr o p o rti o nally f o r int e rm e diat e s p a n s Thi s u n if o rm loa d i s . .

t o b e tak e n as c o v e ri n g t h e fl oo r up t o withi n t w o f e e t o f t h e rail s .

(b) F o r s uburban or t o wn brid ge s or h e avy c o untry hi ghway ,

brid ge s :
“F o r t h e fl o or a n d i t s s upp o rt s a u n if o rm l o ad o f 1 00 bs e r
, p l .

s quar e f oo t o r t h e aut o—
,
truck d es crib e d und e r (d) th e se l o ad s t o
b e u s e d as d es crib e d u n d e r (a)
l
.

“F o r t h e tru s s es or gird e r s 8 0 b s e r s quar e f oo t of fl oor s u r

l
p ,
.

fac e f or s pa n s of 1 0 0 f t or l es s an d 60 bs f or s pa n s of 20 0 f t o r
.
,
. .

m o r e an d pr o p o rti on ally f or int e rm e di at e s pa n s ; t o b e u s e d as

,

d es crib e d und e r (a ) (S e e d)
. .

(c) F or light c o untry hi ghway bridg e s

F or t h e fl oo r and i t s s upp o rt s a u n if o rm l o ad o f 8 0 bs per ,
l .

s quar e f oo t o r t h e aut o truck d e s c ri b e d u n d e r (d)

-
thi s l o ad t o b e
u se d as d es crib e d u n d e r (a) (S e e d ) . .
20 OUTE R A ND I NN E R FOR C ES A RT . 13

lowe r fl o or r e duc e liv e l oad by 5 pe r c e nt , until 5 0 per c e nt of

the liv e l o ad s fi xe d by thi s se cti o n i s r e ach e d , wh e n s uch re d u c
t i on uch r e duc e d l o ad s s hall b e u s e d f or all r e mai n i n g fl o ors
or s .
”
Fo r furth e r inf o rm ati o n up on liv e l o ad s f or bu i ldings t he
s tud e nt i s r e fe rr e d t o t h e articl e by C C S ch n e id e r in t h e Tra n s . .

acti o n s o f t h e A m e rican S o ci e ty of Civil En gin e e r s V ol LIV ,

.
,

page 3 7 1 e t s e q with t he e n s ui n g di s cus s i o n

.
,
.

1 3 W in d P r es sure
. Wind pr e s s ur e i s a s ubj e ct up o n which
.

littl e e xact inf o rmati o n e xis t s alth o u gh ma n y e xp e rim e n t s hav e

,

b e e n mad e and much s tudy giv e n t o t he s ubj e ct by e ngin ee rs

and s cie nti s t s . A m on g t he un se ttl e d qu es ti o n s are
a The r elati o n b e twe e n pr e ss ur e an d v e l o city
. .

b The variati o n of pr es s ur e with s i z e an d s hap e of e xp ose d

.

plan e s urfac es .

0 The dir e cti on an d i n t e n s ity of pr e ss ur e up on n on v e rtical

.
~

s urfac es .

d The i n t e n s ity o f pr ess ur e up o n n o n pla n ar s urfac e s

.
-
.

The t o tal pr e s s ur e up on a numb e r o f parall e l bar s or oth e r

ie
6 .

m e mb e r s plac e d s id e by s d .

f The d e cr e a se o f pr e s s ur e up o n l e e ward s urfac e s

wi
. .

9 T h.e lifti n g p o w e r s o f t h e n d .

a I n c o mm e nt up o n thi s s ubj e ct it may b e s aid that t he

.

pr e ss ur e vari e s ab out as t he s quar e of t he v el o city and that t he

r es ult s giv e n by dif fe r e nt e xp e rim e nt e r s vary fr o m

P = 00 5 V2
. to P= . 003 2 V2 ,

of which t he latt e r valu e r e p rese nt s t he r es ult of un us ually care

1
f ul e xp e rim e nt s by S ta t on
n up o n t he int e n s ity of pr e ss ur e on
plat es varyin g i n s iz e fr o m 2 5 t o 1 0 0 s q f t and i s pr obably m ore . .

n e a rly c orre ct than the high e r v alue In th ese f o rm ula s .

2
P = pr e ss ur e in p ound s pe r s quar e f o ot ,
3
V = V e lo c i t y in mil es pe r h o ur .

See Mi n u te s of P roc e e d i n gs of t he I n s ti t u t e of Ci vi l En gi n ee rs , V o l s .

C LV I and C LXX I .

s r re s pe c ifi e d f o r b ri dge i n P hi li ppi n e s r e c e n tly w as a s b i gh

2 P es s u
as 1 60
lb pe r s q f t , a c c o r d i ng t o H o w a rd C B a i r d , o f B o i le r, H o dge &
. . . . B r a i d,
Co n s u lti n g E n gi n e e r s , Ne w
3

m i le s pe r h o u r .
o rk Ci ty Y .

W i n d ve lo c i t y i n Ne w Y o rk Ci ty o n F e b 2 2 , 1 9 1 2 , r e p o rt e . d as 1 20
A RT . 13 W I N D LOAD 21

I n the S tant o n f o rm ula t he values are r e duc e d t o c orr e s p on d

t o a t e mp e ratur e of 60 F and an atm os ph e r i c pr ess ur e o f
°

l
.

bs pe r s quar e inch
. .

b The variati on of pr ess ur e with s iz e and s hap e of e xp ose d

.

s urfac e i s imp o rtant and i s n o t w e ll und e r s t oo d alth o ugh it i s ,

s ur e that t h e r e s ultant pr ess ur e o n a larg e s urfac e may b e tak e n

as l e s s pe r s quar e f oo t than that o n a s mall s urfac e s in c e t he ,

maximum int e n s ity of t he wind i s d ue t o gu s t s of c o mparativ e ly

s mall cr os s s e cti o n
-
.

c The pr e s s ur e up o n v e rtical plan e s urfac e s may b e t ak e n as

.

n o rmal t o t he s urfac e a n d e qual i n i n t e n s ity t o t he as s um e d

W ind pr e ss ur e U p o n s urfac e s which are n ot v e rtic al t he pr e s

.
,

s ur e i s u s ually c o n s id e r e d t o b e n o rmal t o t h e s urfac e b ut l o w e r

in int e n s ity than up o n ve rtical s urfac es The variati on in pre s .

s ur e with r e s p e ct t o t he s l op e i s n o t we ll und e r s t oo d and a

numb e r of e mpirical f o rm ula s are in us e am ong which may b e ,

n ot e d the much u se d Duch e min f o rmul a

Pn = P

an d t he H utt o n f o rmula
i
Pn F (s in i ) c os

in which P n ==i n t e n s ity of n o rmal pr ess ur e up o n t he give n s urfac e ,

P = i nt e n s i t y of n o rmal pr e ss ur e up o n t he v e rtical s ur
fa ce .

1= angl e mad e by s urfac e with t he h o riz ontal .

A f o rmula m ay b e d e duc e d o n th e a ss umpti o n th at th e wi n d

alway s bl o w s in h o riz o nt al li n e s a n d that if t h e pr e s s ur e b e
,

r es o lv e d i n t o n o rmal an d t ang e ntial c o mp o n e nt s t h e t ang e nti al ,

c o mp o n e n t may b e n e gl e ct e d .

Th e d e m on s tr ati o n i s as f oll o w s
L e t th e wind b e a s s um e d as bl o wing h or iz o ntally again s t t h e
s urfac e a b of h e ight be and making an angl e 1 with th e h o riz o nt al .
22 OU TE R AND I NN E R F OR C E S A RT . 13

Le t t h e l e ngth of t he urfac e be one f oo t p e rp e ndicular t o t he

p per ig
s ,

plan e of t he a .
(S e e F .

Le t P = i n t e n s ity pe r quar e f oo t of t he h o riz o n tal wi n d f o rc e

s

o n a v e rtic al s urfac e .

P n = i nt e n s i ty pe r s quar e f oo t of t he n o rmal fo rc e acting

on s urfac e a b .

P , = int e n s ity pe r s quar e f o o t of t he tange ntial f o rc e acti n g

on s urfac e a b .

Th e t otal h o riz o n tal pr e s s ur e on s urfac e a b th e n e qual s Ph .

Th e n o rmal c o mp on e nt of thi s pr e ss ur e = P h s i n
Ph s n 1
Th e i n t e n s ity of t he n o rmal c o mp on e n t _
a g
B ut ab P 71 = P Si n
?
1 . (5 )
s 1n 1

Thi s f o rmula giv e s l o we r valu es than t he e mpirical f ormula s

3 n d (4 ) and pr o bably giv e s t oo lo w r es ult s s inc e it mak e s n o
() a

all owanc e f or t he r e ducti on in pr es

s ur e on t he l ee ward s id e which i s
kn o wn t o e xi s t and which may in ,

part b e attribut e d t o t he i n fl u e n c e o f
t he tang e n tial c o mp o n e nt I t s h ould .

al so b e n ot e d that t he wi n d d oes n ot bl o w
Fm 12 , ,
u n if o rmly i n h o riz on tal lin e s but m ay
d e viat e c o n s id e rably fr o m this dir e cti on .

The valu es giv e n by th e s e thr e e f o rmula s a re tabulat e d f or

c omparis o n on pa ge 2 3 u s ing an a s s um e d valu e of 30 bs pe r
,
l .

s quar e f oo t f o r P .

In t he ab se nc e of furth e r e xp e ri e n c e up o n thi s pha se o f wind

pr ess ur e it w o uld see m wi se t o us e one o f t he e mpirical f o rmulas
i n s t e ad of t h e th e o r e tical on e an d th e H utt o n f o rmula (4 ) i s
,

fr e qu e ntly u s e d by s tructural e n gi n e e r s i n En glan d an d t h e

U n it e d S tat e s .

Th e f oll owi n g th eo r e m r e lating t o t he w m d pr ess ur e up on

plan e s urfac es i s particul arl y u s e ful in d e t e rmining r e acti on s up on
r oo f trus se s :
Th e hori zon tal c o mp on e nt o f t he t otal n o rmal pr e ss ur e up o n
a plan e s urfac e e qua l s t he int en s ity of t he n o rmal pr e ss ure multi
pli e d by t he ar e a of t h e vert1 ca l pr oj e cti on of t he s urfac e an d
'

th e ver ti c a l c o mp o n e nt o f t h e t o tal n o rmal pr e ss ur e e qual s that

int e n s ity multipli e d by t he ar e a o f t he hori zontal pr oj e cti o n o f
t h e s urfac e .
A RT . 13 W I N D LOA D 23

Thi s th eore m appli es to any s urfac e s ubj e ct e d t o a unif o rmly

di stribut e d n orm a l pr ess ur e an d may b e pr o v e n as f oll o w s :
Le t P = int e n s ity of t he n o rmal f o rc e
n

acting up o n s urfac e a b .

P h = hori z on t al c omp o n e nt of

t otal n o rmal f o rc e u p on a b .

Pv = ve rti c al c o mp o n e nt of t o tal
n o rmal f o rc e up o n a b .

60 = v e rtic al pr oj e cti on of a b FIG 1 3 . . .

a o = h o ri z o ntal pr oj e cti o n o f a b .

0 = angl e b e tw ee n a b and h o riz o n tal .

A ss um e urfac e ab to b e of l e n gth unity p e rp e ndic ul ar to

p per
s

a .

Th e n t otal no rmal pr e ss ur e on a b = P n Xa b .

h en c e gm a bc
ab

dc
P ”= P n X a b >< c o s 0 Xa b _ _
ab

S inc e be an d th e v e rtical and h o riz o ntal pr oj e cti o n s

pr ve
a o ar e

o f a b, t he th e o r e m is o n

F OR W I N
.

TA B LE D P R ESS U R E . P = 30 LB S . P E R SQ FT . .

P sm 2 1 P
2 s i n 1:
‘ — p (s w c os 1 1)
fi si nH
D u c hem i n F o rm u la . Hu tt on F o rm ula .
24 OUTE R AND I NN E R FOR CE S A RT 1 3
.

I t will b e ob se rv e d that if 0 i s gr e at e r than P } will b e ,

la r g e r than P ” ; if l ess P wi ll b e t he l arg e r , I t i s obvi o us .

that t hi s i s c orr e ct s inc e t he s t ee p e r t he r oo f t he gr e at e r t he

h o riz ontal c o mp on e nt When . P v = 0 and wh e n
Ph = 0 .

The applicati on of t hi s m e th o d t o the s oluti on of a pr obl e m

i s giv e n in A rt 2 5 . .

d The pr ess ur e up on n on plana r s u r fac e s i s imp o rt ant in t he

.
-

c a se of chimn e y s s tand — pip e s and o th e r s imila r obj e ct s

, ,
.

I f th e a s s umpti o n s pr e vi o u s ly m ad e in th e d e ducti o n of f o r
mula (5 ) b e al s o m ad e f or curv e d s urfac e s t h e t o t al pr ess ur e up o n
s uch s urfac es c an b e e a s ily fi gu r e d Th e f o ll o wi n g d e m o n s tr a
.

ti on s h o w s t h e s oluti on f or t h e c as e o f a v e rtic al cylind e r

,
.

Le t P = int e n s ity of p r ess ur e o n a

— d1< v e rtical an pl e .

P n = i nt ens i t y of pr e s s ur e o n a
plan e m akin g an angl e
o f 90 —0 with t he d i r e c
°

ti on of t he w i n d = P s i n 2
(90
°

P t = t an ge n t i al c o mp on e nt of
pr es s ur e on s am e an pl e .

The n o rmal pr ess ure on t he dif

f e re n t i al ar e a a b s ubt e nd e d by t he

g
d
ang le dfi = P si n
2
(90
°
0) — dfi .

PI G 1 4 .

A s t he
tange nt i al c omp o n e nt P ,
i s n e gl e ct e d by hyp oth e s i s and t he c o mp o n e nt of P acting up o n n

s urfac e a b in a dir e cti o n parall e l t o ef i s b alanc e d by an e qual and

o pp os it e c o mp on e nt up o n c d t he f o rc e t e nding t o ov e rturn t h e
,

cyl i nd e r i s t h e s ummati on of t h e c omp on e nt s of P n pa r all el to gm .

and i s giv en by t he foll owi ng e xp r ess i on :

d
3
P si n 2
(90
°
0) h d t9 c os 0 c os 0d 0
§

os 0 (1 -
si n
2
em

t wo -
third s of t he t otal pr e ss ure on a plan e diam e trical se cti on .
AB T . 13 W I N D LOA D 25

I n a s imila r mann e r t he p res s ur e on a s ph e rical o r c o nical

s urfac e m ay b e c o mput e d .

Th e pr ess ur e s o btain e d by thi s m e th o d l ack e xp e rim e ntal

pr o of but are pr obably m or e n e arly c o rr e ct than t he pr e s s ur e
o btain e d by t he s am e m e th o d up o n plan e s urfac es Th e valu e
e
.

give n f or t he cylind e r i s quit e g e n e rally u s d .

6 W ith r es p e ct t o t he t otal pr es s ur e up on a numb e r of par al

.

lel ba r s plac e d s id e by s id e it m ay b e s tat e d that e xp e rim e nt s

pr e vi o u s ly r e f e rr e d t o indicat e that t he t otal pr es s ur e on a pair
o f circular plat e s plac e d 1 diam e t e r s apart i s l ess than that on
o n e plat e fr o m which t h e c o nclu s i o n i s drawn that t he pr e s s ur e ,

o n t he l ee ward plat e i s in a dir e cti o n o pp o s it e t o curr e nt W he n .

plat es w e r e plac e d diam e t e r s apart t he r e s ultant pr e ss ur e

o n t he t w o plat es w as f o und t o e qual that on a s ingl e plat e and

t he s hi e ldin g e f fe ct w as f o und t o b e w e ll maintain e d with wid e r

s pacing s inc e at a di s tanc e o f fi v e diam e t e r s t h e t o tal pr es s ur e
,

w as only that on a s ingl e plat e .

f T
. h e pr ess ur e u p o n t h e windward s id e of an e xp ose d s urfac e

i s a functi o n o f t h e d e n s ity and v e l o city of t he air curr e nt s .

The pr ess ur e on t h e l ee ward s id e i s al so a functi o n of t he s hap e

of t h e s urfac e and h as b ee n s h own by num e r o u s e xp e rim e nt s
,

t o b e l ess than t he s tatic pr es s ur e of t h e air curr e nt The r e s ultant

.

t o tal pr e s s ur e up o n a s urfac e i s in c o n se qu e nc e n ot o nly a functi o n

o f t he dir e ct pr e ss ur e o n t he windward s id e but al so o f t he pr ess ur e

o n t he l ee ward s id e which in tur n i s a functi o n of t h e f o rm o f

,

t he s urfac e I t i s th e r e f o r e d o ubtful i f an alge b raical f o rmula

.

c an b e d e duc e d which will giv e t he pr ess ur e on s urfac es of vary

ing s h ap e with any c o n s id e rabl e d e gr ee of pr e cis i o n .

g I
. n t h e c a s e of a v e ry rapid r e ducti o n o f atm os ph e ric pr es
s ur e as in a t ornad o it i s o ft e n ob s e rv e d that b uil di n g r oo f s are
, ,

lift e d and wall s bl o wn o utward T hi s ph e n o m en o n i s d ue t o

.

t h e air in t h e buildi n g which i s und e r m o r e o r l ess res traint

, ,

cha n ging pr ess ur e l e s s rapidly than t he o ut s id e air and th e r e by

pr o ducing a di ffe r e nc e in p re s s ur e Thi s lifting acti o n d oubtl e s s
.

o ccur s t o a gr e at e r o r l ess d e gr ee wh e n e v e r t h e e xt e rnal pr e ss ur e

i s r e duc e d and s h o ul d b e guard e d again s t by anch oring r oo fs

,

s e cur e ly t o t h e wall s .

The m any unc e rtainti es c onn e ct e d with wind pr e ss ur e mak e

w o rthl ess t he att e mpt s t o s p e cify with pr e ci s i o n i ts magn itud e
,

and dir e cti on I n t he lack o f additi onal info rmati on and fur
.
26 OUTE R A ND I N N E R F OR C E S A RT . 13

th e r th eor e tical s tudi e s th e r e s ee m s t o b e n o r e as on f or d e via

ti n g fr o m t he c o mm on rul es which hav e b e e n u s e d in brid ge
d es i gn i n t h e U n it e d S t at es f o r m an y y e ar s with s ati s fact o ry
r e s ult s Th e s e rul e s may b e s t at e d as f oll o w s
.

Th e p ortal v e rtical an d h oriz ontal bracing s hall b e pro

l
,

p o rti o n e d f or a wind pr es s ur e of 30 bs pe r s quar e f o o t on t he .

s urfac e of t h e appli e d l o ad and on th e e xp ose d s urfac es of t he

,

fl o o r s y s t e m an d b o th tru sses The pr ess ur e on t he appli e d .

l o ad s hall b e c on s id e r e d as a m o ving liv e l o ad and the o th e r

l
,

pr es s ur e as a d e ad o ad F o r s tructur es of o rdinary s pan s t h e

.

wi n d s tr es s es s hall al s o b e c o mput e d up on t he u nlo ad e d s tructur e

f or a pr e s s ur e of 5 0 bs pe r s quar e f oot l In t he d e s ign t he max
. .

imum s tr e ss c o mput e d by e ith e r o f t he ab o v e m eth o d s s hall b e

us e d .

Th e wind s tr es se s in main tru s s m e mb e r s s hall al so b e c om

pu te d but if t he c o mbi n e d s tr e ss in an y m e mb e r s d ue t o d e ad
,

l o ad v e r t ical liv e l o ad and wind l o ad d oe s n ot e xc e e d by m o r e

,

than 2 0 pe r c e n t the all o wabl e u n it s tr es s n o all o wanc e in t h e

mai n m e mb e r s n ee d b e mad e f or t he wind .

I n c o mputi n g t he ar e a of e xp os e d s urfac e tak e twic e t h e

fr o nt s urfac e of m e mb e r s c omp os e d of many b ar s and that ,

of bar s in pair s Th e pr ess ur e up o n t h e e nd s o f ti e s and up o n

.
,

t h e guard timb e r s s h o uld n ot b e n e gl e ct e d and m ay b e c on

s i d e r e d as on e s quar e f o o t pe r lin e ar f o o t of bridg e .

F o r wi n d pr e ss ur e o n r oo fs an d buildi ngs it i s c o mm on prac

l
tic e t o all o w 30 bs pe r s quar e f oo t acti n g h o ri z o ntally up on
.

t h e s id e s an d e nd s of buildi n gs o r on t he v e rtic al pr oj e c ti o n o f
,

r oofs I t i s al s o v e ry imp o rta n t t o fi gure t he win d s tr ess e s o n

.

t he s t e e l fram e c on s id e rin g it as an ind e p e nd e nt s tructur e

with o ut wall s fl oors or partiti on s s inc e failur es o ft e n o ccur in
, ,

e r e cti o n .

F or lat e ral pr e ss ur e on s t e am r ailr o ad b ridg es and tr es tl es ,

d ue a cc o unt s h o ul d b e tak e n of t h e s id e wi s e V ibrati o n of t he trai n

in additi on t o t h e wind f o rce
Th e f oll owi n g paragraph s fr o m
.

t he g e n e ral s pe c i fi c at i on s of t he A m e rican R a i lway E n gi n e e rm g

and Main t e nan c e of W ay A ss o ciati on f or s t ee l r ailr o ad bridge s
m ay b e u s e d as a guid e .

All s pan s s hall b e d e s ign e d f or a lat e ral f o rc e o n t h e l o ad e d

l
ch o rd o f 2 00 bs pe r li n e ar f oo t plu s 1 0 pe r c e n t o f t he
l
.

s pe c i fi e d trai n l o ad o n o n e track an d 2 0 0 bs pe r li n e ar f oot ,

.
28 OUTE R AND I NN E R FO R C ES A RT . 15

W h e r e n o s n o w i s lik e ly t o o c cur th ese value s are t o b e r e duc e d

l
by 1 0 bs but n o r oo f i s t o b e d es ign e d f or l e s s than 4 0 bs
'

l
l
. .
,

F o r r o o fs with o th e r cov e rin gs than th os e ab o v e use 30 bs .

pe r s quar e f oot of h o ri z o ntal pr oj e cti o n f or c o mbi n e d e f f e ct o f

s n o w and wind o n all s l o p e s .

1 5 Cen tr ifu gal F or c e and F r i c ti on

. F or railr o ad bridg e s o n
.

curv es th e ef f e ct of c e n trifugal f o rc e mu s t b e c o n s id e r e d This .

may b e c o mput e d by t he f oll o wing f o rm ula

C WD f or a curvatur e up to

wh e r e C = c e ntrifugal f orc e in p ound s ;

W = w e i ght of train i n p o und s ;
D = d e gree of curvatur e .

The c o e ffi c i e n t f or
c e ntrifugal fo r c e t o b e r e duc e d
f or e v e ry d e gr ee of curvatur e ab o v e
On tr e s tl e t ow e r s and s im i lar s tructur e s t he l ongitudinal
thru s t of t he train mu s t b e c on s id e r e d Thi s may b e tak e n a s .

havi n g i t s maximum valu e W he n t h e brak e s are s et and t h e

wh eel s s lidin g and may b e c omput e d a ss uming a valu e of
,

f o r t he c oe ffici e nt of slidin g fricti o n .

1 6 I m pac t on Ra i lr oad Br i dges

. I t i s e a s y t o d e t e rmi n e t he
.

w e ight pe r wh ee l a ppli e d t o a railr o ad bridge by t h e l o c o mo tiv e

or car s o f a giv e n train wh e n at r es t but wh e n in m o ti o n t h e
,

e f f e ct of unbalanc e d l o c o m o tiv e driv e r s r o u ghn ess of track flat

, , ,

irr e gular o r e cc e ntric wh e e l s rapidity of applicati on and c e n

, ,

t ri f ugal f orc e i n duc e d by de fl e c t i on of s tructur e cann ot b e d e t e r ,

min e d th eo r e tically and has n ot ye t b ee n pr e ci s e ly d e t e rmin e d

by e xp e rim e nt Ne ith e r i s t he di s tributi o n of th e s e l o ad s by
.

rail s and ties a matt e r which can b e e a s i ly a s c e rtain e d I n .

c on s e qu e nc e t h e e n gin ee r i s c o mp ell e d e ithe r t o us e a low i mit

s tr ess or t o incr e a s e t h e liv e s tr e s s e s by an all o wanc e f or impact ”
s u ffi c i e n t t o c o v e r th e s e unc e rtai n ti e s The latt e r m e th o d i s m o r e
e
.

s c i e n t i fi c and i s c o ming int o g e n e ral u s I mpa ct i s u s e d in

.

m e chanic s t o m e an t h e dynamic ef fe ct of a s udd e nly appli e d

l o ad but as u s e d in bridge en gin e e rin g it s tand s f or the incr e as e d
,

s tr e s s pr o duc e d in a m e mb e r n ot o nly by t he r apid a pplicati o n

o f t he l o ad but al s o by t he o th e r cau s es j u s t m e nti on e d an d

, ,

t he t e rm c oe ffi c i e n t o f impact i s giv e n t o t he fact o r b y which .

t he liv e s tr e s s mu s t b e multipli e d t o obtain t he imp act No .

AR T . 16 I M PA C T ON RA I LROA D B R I D GES 29

r ati onal f o rmula f or d e t e rmining thi s c oe ffi c i ent of impact h as

t b n d duc e d but s e v e ral e mp i r ical f o rm ula s ar e i n m o r e o r

e
y e e e e ,

l ess c o mm o n u s .

I t i s pr o v e n in m e chan ic s that a l o ad wh e n i n s tantan e o us ly

appli e d t o a b ar pr o duc e s a s tr e ss e xactly d o ubl e t hat c au s e d
by t he s am e l o ad wh e n gradually appli e d I n t h e o rdinary .

s tructur e t h e maximum l o ad i s h o w e v e r n e v e r appli e d i n s tan

, ,

t an e ously th o ugh in s h ort railr o ad bridge s t h e l e n gth o f tim e

,

r e quir e d t o pr o duc e m aximum m o m e n t o r s h e ar i s v e ry s mall .

I n c on s e qu e nc e s udd e n applicati on al on e i s n e v e r s u ffi c i e nt t o
d oubl e t he liv e s tr e s ses as c omput e d f or quie s c e nt l o ad s Many .

e ngin ee r s h o w e v e r u s e f or s h o rt s pan s a c oe ffi c i e nt e qual t o

, ,

u n ity a ss uming that t he e ff e ct of vibrati on and o th e r un c e r

,

t ai n t i e s i s bala n c e d by t h e diff e r e nc e b e tw ee n t he s tr e s s d u e t o
i n s tantan e o us applicati o n and that d ue t o t he v e ry rapid but
n ot i n s tantan e o u s applicati on c au se d by a r a i lr o ad train F or .

l on ge r s pan s t he c oeffi ci e n t i s ge n e rally r e duc e d .

The t w o f oll o wi n g f o rmul a s r e pr e se n t t w o d i f f e r e nt typ es of

impact f o rmulas
F r o m S pe c i fi c ati on s of th e A m e rican R ailway En gin e e ri n g
and Maint e nanc e of W ay A s so ciati on ,

300
I =S '

1. + 3cc

F r o m Spe c i fi c at i ons of t he De partm e nt of R ailr o ad s and

Canal s Canada , ,

I _S
m
o

I n th e s e f o rmul as
I impa ct .

L = le n gt h in fe e t of di s tanc e which l oad e d

pr o duc e m aximum liv e s tr ess in
S = that maximum liv e s tr ess and ,

D = the d e ad s tr e s s .

I t will be n at o nc e that f or s h o rt s pan s the c oeffi c i e nt

se e

in t he fi rs t f o r m ul a i s v e ry n e arly unity and that thi s al s o appli e s

,

t o t he s e c ond f o rmula u nle s s t he bridg e i s un u s ually h e avy or

t he liv e l o ad s v e ry light The fi rs t f o rm ula has b e e n quit e
.

ge n e rally ad opt e d by A m e rican e ngi n ee r s an d while pur ely e m pi r

,

ical ag ree s r e a s onably well with s uch e xp e rim e nt s as have b ee n

30 OUTE R A ND I NN E R F OR CE S A RT . 17

mad e ,
an d i s i n a l o gical f o r m . It will be u s e d h e r e aft e r in thi s
b oo k .

For full di s cu s s i o n o f i mp act up o n railr o ad bri d ge s with e x

p e r i m e n t a l data s ee B u lle tin
,
N o 1 2 5 o f t h e A m e rica n R ailway
.

En gi n e e ri n g an d Mai n t e n a n c e o f W ay A s s o ciati o n .

1 7 Im pa ct on Hi gh w a y B ri d g es an d Bu i l d in gs
. A ll o wanc e f o r .

imp act up o n th e s e s tru ctur e s may u s ually b e l e s s tha n f or railr o ad

brid ges Th e Ma s s achu s e tt s P ubli c S e rvic e Co mmi s s i o n s S p e ci
.
’

fi c a t i o n s s p e cify 5 0 pe r c e n t all o wa n c e f or impact d u e t o aut o

tru ck d e s crib e d o n pa ge 1 9 f or s t e e l s tri n ge r s fl o o r b e am s , ,

h an ge r s an d t ru s s m e mb e r s r e c e ivi n g th e ir wh ol e l o ad fr o m o n e
,

pan e l p o i nt o nly F or o th e r liv e l o ad s th e s e s pe c i fi c at i o n s pro

.

V id e f o r 2 5 pe r c e n t imp act f o r s t e e l fl oo r b e am s an d s tri n ge r s 4 0 ,

pe r c e n t f o r fl oo r b e am h a n g e r s an d c o u n t e r s an d a unif o rmly
-
,

varyi n g fact o r f or m ai n gird e r an d oth e r tru ss m e mb e r s v aryi n g

fr o m 2 5 pe r c e nt f or a 2 o f t s p an t o 1 0 pe r c e n t f o r 200 f t an d
. .

l on ge r s p an s .

F o r buildi n gs it i s cu s t o mary t o mak e n o all o wa n c e f or imp act ,

e xc e pt wh e r e m o vi n g cra n e s o r o th e r s h o ck pr o duci n g m achi n e ry

e
-

are us d .

B e fo r e
l e avi n g th e s ubj e ct o f imp act it s h o uld b e n ot e d th at it
i s pr o b abl e th at t h e e ff e ct of imp act up o n w oo d e n b e am s i s l e s s
i nj uri o u s th a n up on s t e e l b e am s owi n g t o th e gr e at e r e la s ticity o f
th e w oo d an d th at u n it s tr e s s es f o r timb e r as g e n e rally s pe c i fi e d
,

ar e f or u s e with o ut impact .

1 8 Inn e r F o r c es
. Th e all o wabl e w o rkin g u n it s tr e s s e s f o r a
.

giv e n s tructur e d e p e n d up o n th e m at e ri al th e ch ar act e r of l o ad ,

i n g t h e pr e ci s i o n with which t h e s tr e s s e s can b e c o mput e d a n d

, ,

t h e u s e s t o which t h e s tructur e i s t o b e put If pr o p e r all o wa n c e .

f o r imp act b e mad e t h e ch aract e r o f l o ading m ay h o w e v e r b e , ,

n e gl e ct e d .

Th e f oll o wi n g u n it s tr e s s e s r e pr e s e n t go o d practi c e f or o rdi

n ary s tru ctural s t e e l s tru ctur e s pr o vid e d pr oper a llowa n c e f o r
e
,

i m pa c t b e m ad .
 U lt im at e te n si le s t re n gth f r o m t o 6 4 , 00 0 1b s pe r . sq . i nch

L I VE L OA D TO B E I N C R E A S E D TO A LL o w F OR I M P A CT
Te n s i o n o n n e t s e c t i o n a n d e x t re m e
fi b r e s tr e s s i n b e n d i ng
,

lb s .
pe r s q 1n . .

l
— 70 lb s pe r . s q 1n . .

7
Co m pre s si on c olu m n s 4 wi th
s
in
a m a xi m u m of

L lb .

S he a r o n n e t se c ti on of pla t e gi d e r r we b s a nd on

ri v e n s h op r i v e t s
m ac hi ne - d . 1 2 , 0 0 0 1b s pe r s q i n
. . .

B e n d i n g on e xt re m e fi b e r o f pi n s .

B e ari n g on pi n s an d shop d ri ve n ri ve t s -

B e ari n g on ha n d d ri ve n ri ve t s
-

S he a r on ha n d d ri ve n ri ve t s
-
. 9 000
Mo d ulus o f e la st i c i ty
Th ese u n i t s t r e s s es m ay b e i n c 1 e as e d b y 2 5 pe r c e n t i n c a se t o tal s t re ss
in m em b e r i s f ou n d b y com b i n i n g live , d e ad , i m pa c t an d W in d s t re s ses .

l
In th e e xp r e s s i on f o r t he c o mpr e s s i o n i n c olumn s = maxi mum
r

valu e o f r ati o of t he un s upp ort e d l engt h of c olumn t o radiu s o f gyra

ti on b o th valu e s b e ing e xpr es s e d in i n ch e s Thi s rati o s h ould b e re
,
.

s t ri c t e d by t h e f o rm o f t h e c o lumn s o that it will n o t e xc ee d 1 0 0 10 1

'

ma i n m e mb e rs and 1 2 0 f o r l at e ral and o th e r s e c o ndary m e mb e r s .

The f oll owing valu es with t h e exc e pti o n of th at f o r t e n s i on are

, ,

r e c o mm end e d f or timb er f or railr o ad b ridges by t h e A m e ri can R ail

w ayEn gi n ee ri ng and M aint e nanc e of W ayA s soc i ati on and m ay b e ,

u s e d f o r g ree n timb e r and wi th o ut all owanc e f or impac t F or hi gh .

way b rid ge s and tr e stl es th ese fi gure s m ay b e inc r e a se d by 2 5 per

c e nt and f or building s wh e n pr ot e ct e d f r om w e ath er and r e as onably
,

f r ee fr o m imp act by 5 0 per c e nt F o r th es e valu es and f or timb er

“
.

o th e r than y e ll o w pin e s e e P r o c e e di n g s of t h e A m e ri can R ailway

”
E n gin ee rin g and M aint e nan c e of W ay A s s o ciati on V ol 1 0 P art I .
, , ,

p 5 64
G S TRESSES F
. .

WOR K I N LONG LEA Y E L L O W P I NE

R
.
-
.

No A L L O W A N C E I MPA C T I
s
F OR EQ U RED

B e a ri n g alon g gra i n . lb .
pe r sq . in .

( )
Z
Co m pre ssi on i n c o lum n s , le n gt h ove r 1 5 d i am t r
e e s 1_
6( i T
Te n s i on paralle l t o grai n . lb s .
pe r s q i n . .

B e n d i n g, e xt re m e fi b re s tre s s .

S he a ri n g a lon g gra i n i n b e am s . 1 20
S he a ri n g a lo n g grai n i n c h o rd b lo c k s ,
e tc . 180
B e a ri n g ac ros s grai n . 2 60
Mod ulus o f e las t i c i t y
I
=m a xi m um value o f ra t io o f uns u ppo rte d le n gth o f c o lum n t o le a s t di am
E
e et r ,b o th v alue s b e i ng e xpre s s e d i n i n c h e s .

F o r d e fl e c t i on o f ye llo w pi n e b e a m -
s un d e r lon g c on ti nu e d
-
lo ad i n g, us e f or
m o d ulus o f ela s t i c i t y 8 00 0 00 1b s , .
32 OU TE R AND I NN E R FOR C ES A RT . 19

Th e f oll o wi n g valu es f or b e ari n g on ma s on ry r e pr e s e nt g oo d

practic e

WOR K I N G S TR ESSES . B E AR I N G ON MA S ONR Y

L IV E L OA D TO B E I N CREA S E D TO A L L ow FOR I M P A CT
G rani t e m a s on ry an d P o rt la n d c e m e n t c on c re t e
S a nd st one a nd li m t
e s on e
6 00
4 00
lb s .
pe r s q i n
. .

19 . F a ct or of S a fe ty . Th e
unit str es s es giv e n in th e pr e vi ou s
articl e are all much l e ss tha n t he br e aki n g s tr e n gth of t he mat e rial ,

t h e rati o b e tw ee n t h e br e aki n g s tr e n gth an d t he all o wabl e unit

s tr es s e s b e i n g k n o wn as t h e fact o r of s afe ty ” Th e n e c e s s it y .

f or u s i n g s uch a lo w valu e i s d ue t o t he f o ll o wi n g fact s :

1 Mat e rial c an n o t b e s tr e s s e d with s afe ty ab o v e t he e la s tic
.

limit which i s ge n e rally n ot m o r e than on e half t he b re aking

,

s tr e ngth .

2 Th e ma gn itud e p o int of applicati o n and di s tributi o n of

.
, ,

t h e liv e l o ad s as w e ll as t h e a ll o wa n c e f o r impact i s appr o ximat e .

3 Th e mat e rial i s variabl e in quality and may b e inj ur e d

.
,

in fabricati on .

4 Th e e ff e ct of chan gi n g c o n diti on s can n ot b e pr e dict e d

. .

Thi s appli e s t o charact e r and am o u n t of l o adi n g and t o de t eri

o rati o n o f mat e rial thr o u gh ru s t o r r o t .

5 The c o mm on th e o ri es giv e prima ry s tr e s s e s o nly and

.

n e gl e ct th e s e c on dary s tr e s ses d ue t o di s t o rti on of t he s tructur e ,

th e se additi onal s tr e s s e s b e in g s o m e tim e s of c on s id e rabl e i m

p o rtanc e .

P R OBLEM S
1 .
f ormul a d e t e rmi ne the hori z ontal and ve rti cal
Usi ng th e Hut t on ,

c omp onents o f the t otal wi n d fo rc e on the s ide L U o f roof t rus s A o z ,

f or an as s u me d wi nd pres su re of 3 0 lb s pe r s qu ar e fo ot on a v e rti c al .

s u rfac e Di re c t io n of wi n d s hown by arrows

q
. .

2 De t e rmi n e t h e h ori z on t al wi n d pr e s s u re pe r s u ar e f t re qu ir e d t o
.
.

t ip th e car ass um i ng the dire c t i on of th e wi n d t o b e pe rpe nd icu lar t o i ts

,

s i de. N e gl e c t wi n d pre s s ure on t ru c k s .

3 Compu t e th e i mpac t i n p o un ds by fo rmul a s (7) and (8 ) fo r a

.
“

bri dge membe r s ub j e c t e d t o th e following c on di t i o ns

Maximum li ve s t res s .

Dea d s tres s
L oaded l ength when s t ress i s a m a x i m u m . .
A RT . 19 PRO B LE M S 33

4 . S tate
wh e th e r e ach of th e be ams sh own i s s tatically de te rmi ne d
with re s pe ct to t he ou te r forc es an d give re as ons A s s ume that th e “

m a gn i t u d e an d p os i t i on of appli e d l o ads a n d p os iti on o f p oi n t s o f s u p

,

p or t are k n own i n all cases 1 .

4 a Es t imat e fr om t he d iagram o f Fi g 8 th e t o t al we i gh t o f s tee l i n a

. .

d ou bl e trac k thr o ugh pi n bri d ge o f 1 50 f t s pan an d d e t e rmi n e i ts t o tal

-
. .

c os t as s u mi ng th e s te e l to c os t four c e n t s pe r p ound e re c t e d an d
, ,

pai nte d .

4 b De t e rmi ne we i gh t pe r li n e al f oo t of track o f a railr o ad brid ge fl oo r

.

mad e u p as foll ow s :
— — ”
Ti e s ye ll o w pi n e 8 X 8 X 1 0 0 1 2 c t o c G uard timbe r ’ "

”
. .
, , ,

yell ow pine 8 X R ails and fas t e n i ngs 1 5 0 l bs per li n e al f t o f

, , . .

t rac k
4 0 De te rmi n e we ight o f b allas t pe r li n e al f oo t o f a s i ngle trac k s o lid
.
-

fl oo r bridge a ss u ming ave rage d e p th an d wid th of ballas t t o b e 1 4 i h .

a nd 1 3 f t r e s p e c t ive ly
. W e ight of ballas t pe r c u f t t o b e as su me d as
. . .

1 00 lb s .

P ROB . 1

c ,
40
0

Shoe to b e f as te ne d
to ab utm ent

S t an d a rd
PRO B 4 . P ROB . 2 .
G a u ge.

1
Read A rti cles 2 0 and 2 1 b e f ore s o lvi n g t h i s prob lem .
 CH A P T E R II

H EA R S S M O M EN T S
F
LA W S OF S TA TI C S , REA C TI ON S ,
AND ,

I N LUE N C E L I N E S

20 . La w s of S tatic s . The th e o ry of s tructur e s i s bas e d up o n

t he fu n dam e n tal pri n cipl es of s tatic s and th e s e t h e s tud e nt mu s t
,

th or oughly und e r s tan d .

F o r t h e pr e s e n t s tr u c tu r es i n pla n e a n d wi th the a ppli ed loa ds

a

a c ti n g i n the sam e pla n e a lo n e w i ll be c o n s i d er ed S uch s tructur e s

.

will in e q uilibrium if t he f oll o wing c o nditi on s are s at i s fi e d :

be
1 Th e alge braic s u m of t he c o mp on e nt s of all t he f o rc es
.

actin g parall e l t o any axis in the plan e of t he f o rc e s mu s t e qual

zer o .

2 .alge braic s um of t he m o m ent s of all the f o rc e s ab o ut

The
an y axi s at right a n gl es t o t h e pl a n e of t he f o r c es mu s t e qual z e r o .

I f t he f o rc e s b e r es olv e d i n t o c omp o n e nt s parall e l t o t wo

r e ctangul ar ax es 0 X and () Y and t he al ge braic s um of t he f o rc es
, ,

parall e l t o OX b e d e s ign at e d as EX an d of th e s e parall e l t o O Y

as Z Y t he fi rs t o f ab o v e c o nditi o n s will b e f ulfille d wh e n EX = 0
,

and E Y = O h e nc e the t wo principl e s s tat e d ab ove are f ully

,

c ompr e h e nd e d by the thr ee f oll o wing e quati on s

EX = 0 , 2r = o, EM = O .

If the
f orc es acting up o n a b o dy d o n ot s ati s fy all of th ese
thr e e e quati on s th e n t he b o dy cann o t b e in e quilibrium F or
,
.

exampl e if EX = O and E Y = O but EM d oe s n o t t he b o dy

, , ,

i s i n a c o n diti o n o f r o tati o n ab out a s tati o n ary axi s If E Y = O .

an d E M = 0 but E X d oes n o t th e n th e b o dy h as a m o ti o n of
, ,

tran s l ati on i n a dir e cti o n p arall e l t o t h e X axi s but n o o th e r

m o ti on .

I t i s o ft e n advantag e o u s t o u s e E M 0 m o r e th an o nc e u s i n g ,

di ff e r e nt ax e s I f u s e d thr ee tim es with o ut th e o th e r e qu ati on s

. ,

it will s ati s fy b o th EX = O an d E Y = O as w ell as 2 M = 0

In practic e it i s co mm o n t o u s e h o riz o ntal an d v e rtic al ax e s f o r
which ca s e t h e fi rs t t w o e quati o n s may b e writt e n

2 H =0 and 2 V =0 .
36 LA WS OF S T A TI C S R E AC TI O NS S H E A R S E T C
, , , . A RT . 22

F ig . r e p rese nt s t he o rdinary ma sonry arch in which e ach

15
re acti on i s u n k n own i n dir e cti on magnitud e and p oint o f appli
, ,

c ati on In c o n s e qu e n c e t h e s t ructur e i s i n d e t e rminat e with

ig
.

r e s p e ct t o the out e r f o rc e s in a th ree — f old d e gr e e F 1 6 s h ow s . .

a t wo hi n ge d arch which h as t he p oint of applicati on of b oth

-

r e acti on s d e t e rmin e d but the magn itud e and dir e cti on of n e ith e r
,

are kn o wn h enc e it i s ind e t e rminat e in t he fi rs t d e gr ee W it h

ig
,

r es p e ct t o t he o ut e r f orc e s I n F 1 7 a s et o f r oll e r s i s s h o wn
. .

at o ne e n d The fun cti on of th e s e r oll e r s i s t o mak e t he r e acti on

.

at that e n d p e rp e n dicul ar t o t he s upp o rting s urfac e s inc e t h e

r olle r s if in g o o d c on d i t i on c an o ff e r b ut littl e r es i s tanc e t o m o ti on
, ,

al ong thi s s urfac e Thi s s tructur e i s th e r e f or e s tatically d e t e r

.
, ,

m in e d with r e s p e ct t o t he o ut e r f o rc e s s i n c e t he p oint s o f appli

c ati o n of b oth r e acti on s an d t he dir e cti on of o ne are k n o wn
ig
.

In F 1 8 r oll e r s are s h o wn at b o th en d s h e nc e t he dir e cti o n of

w
.
,

b oth r e acti on s are k no n Unles s th e s e r e acti on s m e e t on t he

.

lin e o f acti on o f t he r es ulta n t of t he appli e d l o ad s e qu i librium ,

can n ot e xis t an d t he s tructur e will m o v e th e r e fo r e t he s tructur e ,

i s u n s tabl e .

22 . C o m p u ta ti o n o f R e a cti o n s — Me th od o f Pro c ed u r e It i s .

e vid e nt that if t h e h o ri z o n tal and v e rtical c o mp on e nt s of a r e a o

ti o n which i s unkn o wn i n dir e cti o n an d ma gnitud e or if e ith e r ,

c o mp o ne nt of a r e acti o n which i s kn o wn in d i r e cti o n b ut n o t

in magni tud e b e d e t e r m in e d t h e r e acti on it s e lf may b e at on c e
,

o btain e d I n c on se qu e nc e the d e t e rminati on of t he r e acti o ns

.

in a s tructur e which i s statically d et e rmi n e d with r e s p e ct t o

t he o ut e r f o rc e s and h e nc e h as but thr e e u n k n o w n s may b e ,

ac c o mpli s h e d by c omputi n g t he h oriz on tal and v e rt ical c om

pone n ts of o n e r e acti o n and e ith e r c o mp o n e nt of t h e o th e r .

Thi s m e th o d o ft e n th o ugh n ot alway s s i m pli fi es t h e soluti on

, ,

of r e acti o n pr obl e m s and will b e u s e d h e r e aft e r Its ad o pti on .

mak e s it d es irabl e t o u se t he h o ri z o ntal an d v e rtical c o mp on e nt s

o f t h e o ut e r f o rc e s and t he s e al s o c an fr e qu e n tly b e c o mput e d

m or e e as ily than t he actual f o rc es W ith th e se c omp on e nt s of .

-

th e o ut e r f o rc e s k n o wn t he s oluti o n o f the pr o bl e m may b e

acc ompl i s h e d by the applicati on of t he thr e e s tatic al e quati o n s .

The f oll o wi n g m o d e o f pr o c e dur e i s s ug ge s t e d f or the us e

o f t he b e gin n e r w h o i s advi s e d t o f ollo w it e xactly until h e h as
,

ma s t e re d t he m e th o d th o r o ughly F or s tructures in which t he .

r e acti on s are n ot parall e l t o the f o rc es or in which the charact e r

 A RT . 22 C O M P U TA TI ON O F R E A C TI ON S 37

of t he u nknown re acti on s can n o t b e e a s ily pre dict e d e v e n the ,

e xp e ri e nc e d c o m pu t o r s h ould n ot o mit an y of t h e s t e p s i n t he

pr o c e ss :
1 D raw a car e ful s k e tch o f t he s t ructur e and s h o w o n it t h e
.

h o riz o ntal and v e rtical c o mp on e n t s o f t he o ut e r f o rc e s Thi s .

s k e tch n e e d n o t b e t o s cal e but s h o uld n o t b e mat e rially d i s

t o rt e d .

2 .I ndicat e on the s k e tch by arr o w s and by t he l e tt e r s H ,

and V t he a ss um e d c o mp on e nt s of t he r e acti on s u s i ng l e tt e r s
H
, ,

R and L as s uffi xe s o f and V t o i n dic at e right and l e ft r e acti o n s .

The d i r e cti o n of t h e c o mp on e nt s of t he r e acti o ns w hi ch are

unkn own in dir e cti o n may b e a s s um e d at rand o m e g t he hor ,
. .
,

i z ont al c o mp o n e n t may b e a s s um e d as acti n g e ith e r t o t he right

o r t he l e ft an d t h e v e rtical c o mp o n e nt e ith e r up or d o wn but ,

t he c o mp o n e nt s o f t he r e acti o n t he dir e cti o n o f which i s k no wn

mus t b e s o a s s um e d as t o b e c on s i s t e nt with this kn o wn dir e cti o n .

3 De t e rmin e t he u nk n o wn H and V c o mp o n en t s by t h e
.

s oluti o n o f t h e e quati o n s Z H = O E V = O an d 2 M = O c o n
, , ,

s i de ri n g as p os itiv e f orc es a ctin g upward s or t o t h e right and

,

cl o ckwis e m o m e nt s .

A p os itiv e r e s ul t s h ow s that t h e c o mp on e nt i n qu es ti o n
act s in t he dir e cti on ori gi n a lly a s s um ed and n ot n e c ess arily ,

that it act s up or t o t he ri ght W ith t he m agnitud e of all .

c o mp o n e nt s kn o wn t he ma gnitud e of e ith e r r e acti o n may b e

,

o bta i n e d by c o mputing t h e s quar e r o ot of t he s um s of the

s quar e s of i t s t w o c o mp o n e n t s It s dir e cti on i s d e t e rmin e d
.

by th e dir e cti on of t he c omp o n e nt s The b e g i nn e r i s m o r e .

lik ely t o mak e e rr or s by o mitting s o m e of t h e f o rc es than in any

o th e r w ay P articular att e nti on may w e ll b e c all e d t o t he fact
.

that h o ri z ontal f o rc e s may p r o duc e ve rt ical r e a cti on s a n d vi ce versa .

I f t he l o ad o r an y p o rti on o f i t b e di s t rib ut e d o ve r a c o n
, ,

si d e rab le di s tanc e in s t e ad o f b e i ng appli e d at a p o int t he r es u lt ,

ant of thi s p orti on of t h e l o ad may o rdinar ily b e u se d in t he c om

p u t a t i o n s as a c o nc e n trat e d o ad Th l
i s m e th o d h o w e v e r s h o uld
.
, ,

b e u s e d on ly in r e acti on c o mput ati on s ; i t w o uld in ge n e ral b e inc o r

r e ct f or the d e t e rminati on of s h e ar s m o m en t s and tru s s s tr e ss es
, , .

I t i s al s o inc o rre ct f o r t he d e te rminati o n o f r e a cti on s i n thr ee

hinge d ar ch e s .

I t i s always d e sirabl e t o obtai n a ch e ck by twic e applying

the e quati o n EM = O o n c e ab o ut e ach p oi n t of s upp o rt
, ,
Thi s .
38 LA W S OF S T A TI C S R E AC TI ONS S H E A R S
, , ,
E TC .
Am . 23

giv e s an i n d e p e nd ent ch e ck f or at l e a st one o f the r e acti o n c o m

o n e n t s which in t h e ca s e of a s impl e b e am with v e rtical l o ad s
p ,

i s s uffi c i en t an d c o n clu s iv e .

2 3 R eac ti on Co nv e nti on s
. H e r e aft e r in b oth t e xt and .
,

pr obl e m s s tructur e s s upp o rt e d at o ne e n d up o n a s et of r oll e r s

,

or by a t i e r od will b e c ons id e r e d as havi n g t he r e acti o n at that

-

p oint fi xe d in dir e cti on Th e r e a so n s f or thi s in t he c a s e of

.

r oll e r s i s s tat e d in A rt 2 1 For t he t i e ro d it i s s uffi c i ent t o

. .
-
,

r e call that s uch a r o d i s littl e b e tt e r than a s tif f r op e and i s

i n capabl e o f carryi n g b e ndi n g or c ompr es s i o n h e nc e t he r e acti o n ,

which it carri es mu s t act al on g i ts axi s and pr o duc e t e n s i o n in

t he r od .

R oll e r s will b e indic at e d by thi s c onv e n ti onal s ym b o

and th e r e acti on in this c as e i s always t o b e c o n s id e r e d as per
pe n di c ular t o t he s upp o rting s urfac e wh e th e r t he s urfac e b e ,

h o ri z on tal inclin e d or v e rtical

,
.

W h e n t he p o i n t of applic ati o n of a r e acti on i s fi xe d but n ot

i ts dir e cti o n thi s s ymb ol A w ill b e u se d Thi s i s n ot int e nd e d .

t o r e pr e s e n t a k n if e e dge b e aring s inc e t he r e acti on may act in

any dir e cti on i e u p d own h o riz o ntal o r incli n e d I f thi s
,
. .
, , ,
.

s ymb o l b e c o mbi n e d with r oll e r s th e n b o th p o int o f applicati o n ,

and dir e cti o n of r e acti o n are t o b e c o n s id e r e d as fi xe d I f t he

‘
.

r e acti on b e carri e d b y a t i e r o d t he r od will b e s o mark e d ; in -

,

thi s c as e t h e p o int of applic ati on s h ould b e tak e n at t he p o i n t

wh e r e t he ro d i s fa s t e n e d t o t he s tructur e .

2 4 P o int of App li c a ti on of L oa ds a nd R eac ti on s

. I n practic e .

it i s s e ld o m that th e p o i n t of appli cati o n o f l o ad or re acti on i s

d e fi n it e ly fi xe d ; it i s h o we v e r in ma n y ca s es fi xe d within s uch
, ,

s mall limit s that n o e rr o r ari s es in c o n s id e ri n g it as l o c at e d at a

d efi n i t e p oi n t T hi s i s t he cas e wh e n t he s tructur e i s s upp o rt e d

.

o n s t e e l pi n s as in m os t bridg e s o f c o n s id e rabl e s i z e ; t h e r e acti o n

,

in s uch a c as e pass es thr o u gh t he pin which i s ge n e rally but a ,

f e w inch es in diam e t e r and i t s r es ultant will pa ss thr o u gh t he

pin c e ntr e o r n e arly s o unl es s t he pin b e badly turn e d or t he
, ,

b e aring s urfac e up on which it r e s t s imp e rfe ct W ith wh ee l l oad s .

the l o ad act s at t he poi nt of ta n g e ncy of wh e e l an d b e ari n g s urfac e ,

which i s practically a p o i n t but as t he wh e el d oe s n ot r es t dir e ctly

,

on t h e s tructur e but h as i t s l o ad di s tribut e d by rail s and t i e s ,

or by t h e fl oor if a highway brid ge it i s n o t appli e d t o t he s t r u c ,

A RT . 25 S OLU TI ON OF R E A CTI ON P RO B L E MS 39

t ur e it s e lf at a p o i n t th o u gh it i s g e n e r ally s o c o n s id e r e d as t h e
,

e rr o r thu s ari s i n g i s s mall a n d o n t h e s af e s id e .

For o rdin ary b e am s which r e s t at t he e nd s up o n Ste e l b e aring -

plat e s i nse rt e d t o dis tribut e t he l o ad o v e r t he ma so nry s upp o rt s ,

t he a ss umpti o n that t he r e acti o n i s appli e d at t he c e ntr e o f

b e aring i s by n o m e an s an e xact o ne Th e actual dis tributi on .

o f t he re acti o n in s uch a ca s e i s a fu n cti o n of t he r e lativ e e la s ticity

of t he b e am and s upp o rt I f b oth b e am and s upp o rt we r e t o

.

b e ab solut e ly r igid — an imp os s ibl e ca s e — t he r e acti on w o ul d pa s s

thr o ugh th e c e ntr e of b e aring ; if t he s upp o rt al on e w e r e t o b e
r igid t he re acti o n w o ul d pa ss th r o ugh t he e dg e of t he b e ari n g
plat e ; in t he actual ca se wh e r e b oth b e a m and b e ari n g s urfac e
yi eld t o so m e e xt e nt t he r e acti on i s dis tribut e d o v e r t he e ntir e
,

s urfac e and i t s i n t e n s ity vari es unif o rmly or n e arly s o as s h o wn

ig
,

in F 19 . I t wi ll b e n o tic e d that th e r es ultant pr es s ur e act s

.

at a p o int b e tw ee n th e c e ntr e of b e aring and

i n n e r e dge of t he mas onry The c o mm o n .

a s s umpti o n f o r s uch c a s es i s t o a ss um e th e
r e acti o n as appli e d at t h e c e ntr e of b e ari n g .

Thi s a s s umpti o n i s on t he s afe s id e in d e s ign

ing the b e am as a wh ol e but on t he u ns afe ,

s id e in pr o p o rti o ning t h e ar e a of b e ari n g .

H o we v e r t he e rr o r f or s h o rt b e am s which
, Fm 19 , ,

d e fl e c t but littl e i s n ot s e ri o u s,
F o r l o ng .

gird e r s which d e fl e c t c o n s id e rably t he e n d b e ari n g i s u s ually

mad e by a pin which i s s upp o rt e d up o n a s h oe which in turn
r e s ts up o n r oll e r s thu s e n s uring a unif o rm di s tributi on of t he
,

r e acti on .

25 S o lu ti on of R eac ti on Pr ob l em s
. The applicati on o f th e .

m et h o d s of A rt 2 2 i s illus trat e d in the pr obl e m s of thi s art icl e

.
.

P rob lem Compute hori z ontal a nd ve rtical c omp one nts of re ac

.

tions on beam shown i n Fi g 20 N e gle c t we igh t of beam i t se lf

. .
.

S olu ti on Fi rs t apply E H = 0 This give s the e qua t i on H L = 0,

. .

s i n c e the applie d l oad s are all ve rtical a nd i n c o ns e que nc e have n o

hori z ont al c omp one nt s .

N ow apply EM = O taki ng f o r origi n of mome nt s the p oi nt of appli

,

c ation of e i t he r re action thus e limina t ing one unk nown The e quat io n
, .

whic h follows i s de rive d by ta king m ome nts about the right e nd .

1 6 VL =
=3 4 0 00 0 11
, .
-
lb s . an d VL = + 2 1 , 2 5 0 1b s .
 40 LA WS OF S T A TI C S R E A C TI O NS S HE A R S E T C
, , ,
. A RT 2 5 .

Si nc e the va l u e of VL i s p osi t ive the re ac t i on ac t s i n th e dire c t i on

me d
ass u i n t he fi gure .

The app lic a t i on of E V = 0, u s i ng t he val ue of VI ,

j us t o b t ain e d ,

FIG . 20 .

give s t he val ue of VR an d c ompl e t e s t he l t i on

so u of the proble m . The
e quation foll ows
—5000 + 3 75 0 1b s .
,

an d ac t s upward as shown .

To che c k t hi s val ue apply EM = 0 u s ing t he l e f t p oi n t ,

of su pp ort
f or the o ri gin o f m ome nts The e xpre ss i on t h us o b t ai ne d i s
.

1 0, 000 X 14 -
1 6 VR 0; V3 + 3 75 0 1b s .
,

which che c k s t he val ue ob t aine d by the applic at i on of 2 V = 0 an d he n c e

che c k s the value of VI sin c e t hi s was use d i n t he ori gin al de t e rmi n at ion
,

Of VR .

P r o ble m . Comp u t e hori z on t al an d ve r t ic al c omp one n t s of rea c

tions on be am , sh own i n Fi g 2 1 , n e gle c t i ng we i gh t of be am

. .

1 0 to ns
1 0 t ons 1 4 11 to ns

fi fi
1
h fi — K—
1
Q nl

FIG . 21 .

S oluti on . t hi s pr oblem VL and H L are i ndepende nt of e ach

In
othe r i n m agni t u de an d dire c t i on a n d e ach m ay b e a ss ume d as ac t i ng

i n e i t he r dire cti on VR and H R are howe ve r mu t ually re late d b ot h i n

.
, ,
A RT . 25 S OLU TI ON O F REA C TI ON P RO B LE M S 41

dire c ti on magnitude si nc e the ir re sultant must act at right angle s

a nd

t o the s upp o r t i ng s urface an d he n c e ma k e a n a ngle o f 60 w i t h the

°
,

hori z ontal To f ulfil t his c on di t ion if VB i s ass ume d as upward H R

.
,

mus t b e a ssum e d t o t he le f t The rat i o of t he ir m agni t ude e qual s t he .

ratio of the s ides of a 30 triangle as i ndica t e d by Fi g 22 he nce VR H R

°

,
.
,
.

(30 1. 1 7 3 HR
. .

Tolve t his probl em apply the e qua t i on E M = 0 t ak ing m ome nt s

so ,

ab ou t the p oi nt of application of t he right— han d re ac t i on The foll ow .

i ng e quat i on r esult s ‘

The l tion of this gives VL = + 2 7 5 7 t on s ;

so u VL act s upward a s
a ssume d .

I t will b e n otice d t hat the le ver arms ab out the ori gi n of m oment s
of all the h ori z o n t al force s a re z e r o he n c e t he s e te rm s d o n o t app e ar ,

i n t he e qu ati on Had t he i n cline d force bee n r e solve d at t he top i ns t e ad

.

o f t h e bottom of t he b e am t his c on di t i on would not have e xi s te d b ut

, ,

t he value of the r e ac t i on wo uld not have be e n cha n ge d s i n ce t he m ome n t

of th e hori z ontal c omp one nt wo uld have b ee n n e u t rali z e d by t he ch a n ge

h
in t e m om e n t o f t h e v e r t ic a l c omp o n e n t d u e t o i t s al t e r e d l e ve r a rm
1
.

The e quati on s E V = 0 may now b e u se d This give s the followi ng .

e xpre s si on ,
—1 0 VR 0,

henc e VR t on s a nd a c ts as s hown .

F ro m it vide n t t hat HR =
X
Fi g 2 2 . is e

V R t an 0 5 77 VR ;
. HR
t ons .

The applica t i on of EH = 0 c omple t es

t he s oluti on by givi n g t he val ue of HL .

Th e e q u a t i o n i s HL = 0 ; h e nc e
HL c t s t o t he right
t o ns an d a .

To che c k t he val ue of VR t a k e
m ome nt s ab out the le ft p oi nt of s upp ort .

Thi s give s t he following e xpres si on : FIG . 22

—2 0 V =0
R ,

1
The d e vi c e of re s olvi n g a f orc e i n t o i ts c om pone n t s a t a poi n t whe re
r pone n t s i s z e ro i s a ve ry u se f u l o ne , a n d
q
t he le ve a rm of o ne of t he c om

f re t ly c on si de ra ble r rre c tn e ss t
q
ue n s a ve s la b o It s c o
. is e vi d e n si nc e t he
e ff e c t of a f orc e u po n a b ody a s a wh ole alwa ys e t ha t o f i ts c o m pone n t s
u a ls

no m a tte r at wh at poi n t t he f orc e i s re solve d ,

n o r wha t m a y b e t he d i re c t i on

or le n gt h o f t he le ve r a rm s o f t he c om pon e n t s he n c e i f t he le ve r
q
, a rm o f on e

o f t he c o m pon e n t s i s z e ro t he m om e n t of t h e fo rce e ua ls the m om e n t of

the o t he r c o m pone n t .
42 LA W S OF S T A TI C S R E AC TI ONS S H E A R S E T C
, , , . A RT . 25

whe nc e VR = + 6 5 7 t ons thus che c king

,
the val ue previously obtaine d ,

an d c on se que n ce the val ue of VL

in .

A s an i n de p e n de n t che c k of H R an d H L can no t r e adily b e mad e

a s e c on d c omp u t at i on of t he ir val ue should b e carrie d t hrough or t h e ,

o ri gi n al c omp uta t i on s car e f ully r e vie we d t he forme r be i ng t he s afe s t ,

me t h o d .

P r o ble m Compute h ori z on tal an d ve r t ical c omp one nts of t he

.

re a c t ion s f or th e t russ shown i n Fi g 2 3 f or an a ss ume d wi n d pre ss ure

q
.

of 3 0 lb s pe r s u ar e fo o t o n a ve r t ical s urfac e
. .

S olu ti on S i n c e t he s l op e of t he r oof s urface i n thi s problem i s ab o ut

.

i t will b e ass ume d t hat t he normal i nt e nsi t y of the win d pre ssure i s
2 0 lb s pe r s quare foo t (Se e table i n A rt 1 3 H u tt on s formula ) The
’
. . .
, .

r oof t ru s se s a re 2 0 f t be t we e n c e n t re s h e n c e th e p orti on of th e are a of

.
,

t h e wi n d wa r d s i d e o f th e b u ildi ng s upp o r t e d by o n e tr uss h as a l e ngt h o f

FIG . 23 .

2 0 f t f or .i n t e rme diate t ru ss es an d 1 0 f t f or e n d t r u ss e s The r e ac t i ons

,
. .

u p o n a n i n t e rme d i at e tr us s will b e c o mp u t e d .

U s i ng t h e me t h od of A rt 1 3 th e h ori z on t al and ve r t ical c o mpo ne n ts

.

f th e t o t al wi nd pr ess u re o n th e wi nd w ard s i d e are f o und t o b e as

? ll w
o o s

P h = i n te n si ty of n ormal press ur e mul t i plie d by t he e r t ic al V

o f r o of s u rfa c e = 2 0 X 30 >< 2 0 =

P v = i n t e ns i t y o f n o rm al pre s s u re m ul t i li e d by th e h ori z o n t al
lb s .
proj e c t ion

p proj e c ti on
o f s urfa c e 20 X5 0 20 = s lb .

The t russ m ay n o w b e c ons ide re d as loade d wi t h t he t wo f orc es

of lb s a nd .
lb s ac t ing at c en t re of windwa rd s urfac e
.

,
a nd t he re ac t i ons d ue t o the se forc e s c ompu t e d i n the followin g wa v :
A pplyi ng EM = 0 ab out right e nd give s
X 75 , whe n c e VL = lbs ac ti ng up as assume d
—HR O whe nce HR
.
, .

A pplying ve s EH = 0 gi
, lbs .
,
ac t ing to l e f t a s ass ume d .

A pplyi n g E V = 0 give s VR 0, he n c e VR 68 00
lb s ac ti ng up as a ssume d
.
, .

A pplyi ng 2 M = 0 ab out le f t e nd as a che c k give s —1 00 V

R
44 LA W S O F S TA TI C S , R E AC TI O NS S H E A R S E T C
, , . A RT . 26

This val ue l bs . approxi m a m

si n
°
45
This sho uld e q ua l x/ VL 2
+ HL
2
,
whi ch m ay be us e d as a che c k .

26 . S hea r an d Be n d ing Mo m e nt De fi n e d . S hea ri n g forc e or

s hea r at any s e cti o n of a b o dy i s t h at f o rc e which t e n d s t o

pr o duc e s lippi n g al on g t h e giv e n s e cti on .

The ben di ng m om en t at any s e cti o n o f a b ody d ue t o a s e t

of c o pla n ar f o rc e s i s t h e r e s ultant m o m e nt ab o ut a n axi s pa s s ing
-

thr ough t he c e n tr e of gravity o f t he s e cti on of all t he f o rc es ,

o n e ith e r s id e of t he s e cti o n it b e ing und e r s t oo d that t h e s e cti on

,

an d t h e axi s a re p e rp e n dic ular t o t h e pla n e o f t h e f o rc e s .

F ractur es d u e t o s h e ar are d ue e ith e r t o tran s v e r se fracture

of t h e gr ain s or fi b re s or t o t h e s lippi n g o f t h e fi b res up on
,

e ach o th e r .Oi t h e o rdin ary s tructur al mat e rial s w oo d i s t he

o nly on e of a fib rou s charact e r and s h e aring failur es in this
mat e rial o rdinarily o ccur by l on gitudinal s lipping of t he fi b re s .

F ractur es d ue t o b e ndin g are c au s e d by l ongitudi n al fa i lur e

o f t h e fib re s e ith e r by t e n s i on o r cru s hi n g
,
.

2 7 Meth o d of C om putati on , S h e a r and B end in g Mom e nt

. .

Th e magnitud e of t he s h e ar up on a giv e n s e cti o n d ue t o a s e t

of c c — planar f o rc e s may b e r e adily c o mput e d as f oll ow s : Re s o lv e
e ach f o rc e i n t o t w o c o mp on e nt s parall e l an d p e rp e n dicul ar ,

r e s p e ctiv e ly t o t he giv e n s e cti o n Th e alge braic s u m of t he

,
.

c omp on e n t s parall e l t o t he s ec ti on of all the f o rc es up on e ith e r

s id e of t h e s e cti o n e qu al s t he s h e ar That e ith e r s id e of t he .

se cti o n may b e c on s id e r e d i s e vid en t fr o m t he fact that f or

s tructur es i n e quilibrium Z Y = 0 h e n c e the alge braic s um o f
,

t he f o rc es o n on e s id e o f t h e s e cti o n and parall e l t o t he Y axi s -

mu s t b e e qual i n magn itud e and o pp os it e in dir e cti on t o t he

c orr e s p on di n g t e rm f or the o th e r s id e of t he s e cti on .

Th e ma gn itud e of the b e n di n g m om e nt up o n a giv e n s e c

ti on d ue t o a s e t of c o plan ar f o rc es may b e c o mput e d by r es olving
-

t he f o rc e s i n t o h o riz ontal and v e rtical c omp o n e nt s F o r thi s .

ca se h o w e v e r it i s n e c es s ary t o includ e t he m om e n t s of b oth

, ,

se t s o f c o mp o n e nt s th ough again it i s immat e rial which s id e

,

of t h e s e cti o n i s c on s id e r e d i n c o mputing t he m o m e nt .

2 8 S ign s o f S h e a r an d B e n din g Mom e nt

. The s i gns f or .

s h e ar s a n d b e ndi n g m o m e nt s mu s t b e u s e d with car e or e rr o r s

will o u cc r A ny r e a sonabl e c on v e n ti o n may b e ad opt e d but it

.
,
AR T . 29 S H E A R A N D M O M EN T , C O M M ON CA E SS 45

s h ould b e ca refully ob se rve d that p os itiv e s h e a r may r e pr e s e nt

f o rc e s acti n g i n e xactly o pp os it e dir e cti o n s an d that p o s itiv e
b e n di n g m o m e n t may r e pr e s e n t e ith e r cl o ckwi s e o r c o unt e r
cl o ckwi s e m o m e nt d e p e n di n g i n b o th c a s e s up o n t h e s id e of t h e
,

s e cti o n c o n s id e r e d in makin g t h e c o mput ati o n Th e di s ti n cti o n .

b e tw ee n th e m o m e n t of f o rc e s i n g e n e ral as u s e d f o r e xampl e in , ,

d e t e rmi n i n g r e acti o n s an d t h e m o m e n t up o n a cr o s s —
,
s e cti o n o f a

b e am s h o uld b e c ar e fully o b s e rv e d In t h e f o rm e r c a se cl o ckwi s e

.

m o m e n t s s h o uld alway s b e t ak e n as of th e s am e s i gn s i n c e t h e ,

e ff e ct of s uch m o m e n t s up o n t h e b o dy a s a wh o l e i s t h e s am e n o

m att e r up o n wh at p art of t h e b o d y th e y may act In a b e am .

,

h o w e v e r cl o ckwi s e m o m e n t up on t h e l e ft of a giv e n s e cti o n pro

,

du c es th e s am e e f fe ct up o n t h e fi b r e s as d o e s c ou n t e r—cl o ckwi s e
m o m e nt up o n th e ri ght I n b o th c as e s c o mpr e s s i o n i s pr o duc e d
.

in t h e fi b re s of t h e upp e r p o rti on of th e s e cti on an d t en s i o n in

th o s e of th e l o w e r p o rti o n .

2 9 S h e a r an d Mom e nt Com m o n Cas e s

. In o rdi n ary practic e
, .

it i s s e ld o m n e c e s s ary t o c o mput e s h e ar s o r m o m e n t s e x c e pt ,

f o r V e rti cal s e cti on s of h o ri z o n tal b e am s a n d tru s s e s carrying

ver ti c a l l o ad s F or s uch c a se s t h e f o ll o win g c o nv e nti on s may b e
.

ad o pt e d .

S hear The s h e ar up on a v e rtical s e c ti o n of a b e am o r tru s s

.

e qual s t h e al ge braic s u m o f all t h e o ut e r f o rc e s (i n cludi n g r e a o

ti o n s) up on e ith e r s id e of t h e s e cti on I t i s p os itiv e wh e n t he .

r e s ulta n t i s u pward on t he left of t he s e cti o n or down wa r d on

t he ri ght .

M om ent Th e m o m e nt up on a v e rtical s e cti on of a b e am

.

o r tru ss e qual s t h e alg e brai c s u m of t he m o m e nt s o f all t h e

o ut e r f orc e s (i n cludi n g r e acti o n s) up o n e ith e r s id e of t h e s e cti o n ,

ab o ut t h e n e utral axi s of that se cti on I t i s p os itiv e wh e n the .

m o m e nt of the f orc es on t he l e ft of t he s e cti o n i s clockwi s e o r ,

wh e n t he m o m e nt of t he f o rc es on the ri ght of t he s e cti o n i s

‘

c ou n ter - c lockun s e .

30 . Cu r v e s Mom e nt Defi n e d a n d Ill u stra te d A

of S h ea r an d .

curv e o f s h e ar s o r o f m om e n t s i s a curv e the o rdinat e t o which

at an y s e cti on r e pr es e nt s t he s h e ar or m om e nt at that se cti o n
d u e t o t he appli e d l o ad s I f t he l o ad b e unif o rmly dis tribut e d
.

the c u rv e may b e a c on ti n u o u s s m o oth curv e a s e ri e s of s m oo th ,

cu rv es o r a s e ri e s of s traight lin e s I f t he l o ading c o ns i st s o f

,
.

a se ri e s o f c on c e ntrat e d l o ad s t he curv e will alway s b e c o m

46 LA W S O F S TA TI CS , RE A C TI O NS S H E A RS E T C
, , . AR T . 30

p os e d of a s e rie s o f s traight lin es I f the l o adi n g b e a c o mbi

.

n ati o n o f c on c e n trat e d a n d di s tribut e d l o ad s t he curv e s may b e

c omp os e d of a c ombinati on of s trai ght and curve d lin e s .

I t s h ould b e th o r oughly und e r s t oo d that th ese curv e s repre

s e nt t h e e ff e ct of l o ad s which are fi xed in m agn i tu de and pos i ti on .

Th e s h e ar and m o m e nt d ue t o a s e t of m oving l o ad s c ons tantl y

I
C URVE O F S HEA RS
.

W eig
h t o f b e a m ne gle c te d

I
f :
c um e O F S HEA RS
(Ne gle c t ng w e igh t of beam )
i

V
C U R E O F MO MENTS
W e i g ht of b ea m n e g lec te d
V
C U R E OF MO MENTS
(Ne g le c ti ng we i g ht of be a m )
C ur ve a b i s a pa r abo la
Eq u a t i o n i s y=
Cur ve b c d i s
— para bo la
—
a

Eq uat i on i s y= 500 +1 2 1 00 (41 5 )

FIG . 25 . FIG 2 6
. .

(Re ad A rt 3 1
. b e f o re s t ud yi n g t hi s fi gure ) .

vary and h e nc e cann ot b e r e pr e s e nt e d by s uch c u rv es e xc e pt

f or a c e rtain d e fi ni t e p os iti o n o f t he l o ad s Th e e ff e ct of m ovi n g
.

l o ad s i s s h own m o r e cl e arly by i n fl ue n c e lin es which are e xplain e d

l at e r Typical curve s of s h e ar s and m o m en t s are s h own in the
ll
.

fi gure s which f o ow .

I t s h o ul d b e n otic e d that in all c as e s t he o rdi n at e t o th e curv e

A RT . 31 S H EA R AND MO ME N T 47

of s h e ar s at any s e cti o n e qual s t he al ge braic s u m of t he f o rc es

acting o n e ith e r s id e of the se cti on and that t he curv e of m o m en ts
,

r e ach e s i ts m aximum p o s itiv e an d maximum n e gativ e valu e s at

p o i n t s wh e r e t h e curv e o f s h e ar cr o s s e s t h e axi s .

Thi s latte r relati on alway s e xi s t s and i s d e m on s trat e d i n “

Art 3 3
. .

The c o mput ati on of t he valu e s of t he rdinat e s t o the curv e

ig
o

of mo m e nt s at p o in t s a ,
b, c, and d of F . 2 5 are giv e n b e l o w f or
illu st rati on .

At a
, X5 + 3 8 1 0 1t . .
-
t on s .

b, 7 6 2 X 1 3
.
+ 59 0 6
c
,
7 62 X 1 9 —5 X 1 4
.
—1 0 X 6 =
d, —5 X 8

Not e that a p o int o f maximu m o r mi n imu m m o m e nt o ccur s in

all c a s e s wh e r e th e curv e of s h e ar s cr o s s es th e axi s an d th at t h e
m o m e n t curv e i s a s trai ght lin e o v e r any p o rti o n of b e am wh e r e
s h e ar i s c on s t a n t .

3 1 S h ea r an d Mo m en t
. Di s tr i bu te d L oad
. I n d e t e rmi n ing .

r e acti o n s it h as b ee n s tat e d that a di s tribut e d l o ad may b e

re plac e d by i t s r e s ultant an d t he latt e r u se d as a c on c e ntrat e d

l o ad This m e th o d i s i n c orr ec t f or s h e ar an d m o m e n t and s h o uld
.
,

n e v e r b e u s e d f or s uch cas es u nless t he di s tribut e d l o ad li e s

wh olly on on e s i de of t he s e cti on und e r c on s id e rati on Th e .

re a s on f or thi s may r e ad i ly b e s e e n B oth s he ar an d m om e nt .

are functi on s of t he f o rc e s on on e s i d e only of a s e cti o n and ,

all s uch f o rc e s mu s t b e includ e d in t he d e t e rmi n ati o n of e ith e r

of th e s e quantiti e s I t i s e vid e nt that if t he s tructur e b e l o ad ed
.

with a dis tribut e d l o ad i t s r es ultant may act o n e ith e r s id e of

a giv e n s e cti o n s ay o n the r ight wh i l e a c o n s id e rabl e p o rti o n
, ,

of t h e actual l o ad may b e on t he l e ft I f t he s h e ar or .

m om e n t b e c omput e d f or t he f orc es on t he l e ft of t he s e cti on

with t he dis tribut e d l o ad r e pla c e d by i ts r e s ultant t he s e ri o u s ,

e rr o r o f n e gl e cti n g a c on s id e rabl e p o rti o n o f t h e l o ad s w i ll b e

mad e F o r r e acti on s o n the oth e r hand it i s t he i nfl ue n c e of

.
, ,

t he l o ad as a wh ol e which i s t o b e c o n s id e r e d h e nc e t he r e s ult ,

ant m ay p ro p e rly b e u se d To illus trat e the diffe r e nc e b e twe e n

.

t he c o rr e ct curv e s of s h e ar and m o m e nt f or t he c a s e of a b e am
c arrying a unif o rmly di s tribut e d l o ad an d t he s am e c urv es if ,

drawn in acc o rdanc e with t he e rr on e o u s a s s umpti on that t he

l o ad may b e r e plac e d in ma gnitud e an d p os iti on by a c o n c e n
48 LA W S O F S TA TI C S , REA C TI ON S , S H E AR S E T C , . A RT . 32

32 . S h ea r and Mom ent ly Varyin g L oa d I t i s

. U nif or m .

fr e qu en tly n e c es s ary t o d e t e rmin e s h e ar s an d m o m e n t s f or a

b e am or gird e r l o ad e d with a u n if o r m ly varyi n g l o ad S uch .

a c on diti on may o c cur with a v e rtical m e mb e r s ubj e ct e d t o

at po m t o f appli c
a
t i o n of i t s r e s ult a nt

at po m t of a pph c

F IG . 27 .

hydr os tatic pr e s s ur e as i n a canal o k or i n a diag onal fl oor

,
lc ,

gird e r in a build i ng .

The curv es of s h e ar and m o m e nt f or s uch a gir d e r are s h own

ig
in F 2 8 an d th e n e c e ss ary c o mputati on s f o o w
.
,
ll .

Le t t h e l o ad b e r e pr e se n t e d in int en s ity by the trap e z oid

a bc d t h e ar e a of wh ich r e pr e se n t s th e t o tal l o ad o n t h e b e am If .

t h e tr ap e z o id b e divi d e d i n t o t w o p art s by a li n e c e parall el t o t h e

axi s a d t h e e f f e ct o f e ach p or ti o n m ay b e t re at e d s e p arat e ly an d
t h e pr obl e m s i m pli fi e d .
AR T 3 2
. S H EA R A ND MO ME N T 49

00
y
— x

Note th t a t h e c ur v e o f s h e ars
c or r es p o n d s t o i n t e gr a l o f t h e lo a d
i n g c ur v e , hen c e
= f
f yd 1 : (2 0 0
é
r 2 0 0 x + 2 0 x2 + c i
CI 4 6 6 7 = v alu e o f 2 w h e n 2: o

z 4 6 67

No t th t t h
e a e c ur v e o f m o m e n t s

c o rr es p o nd s n u m e r i c a lly t o 1 n t e gr a l
o f c ur v e o f s h e ar s , henc e
= 4 66 7 z
v
f zdx

FIG . 28 .

Magnitud e of f o rc e re pr e s e nt e d by triangl e bc e =
8 0 00 l bs .

Magnitud e of f o rc e r e pr e s e nt e d by r e cta n gl e a dc e =

200 x2 0

T o tal l o ad l bs
c
.

ar e a of trap e z o id ab d .
50 LA W S O F S TATI C S , R E A C TI O NS S H E A RS E T C
, , . A RT . 32

Reac ti on .
c omputati o n of the r e actio n s s h ould b e
The
divid e d int o t wo o p e rati on s : the d e t e rminati on of the re acti on s
d ue t o t he l o ad r e pr e s e nt e d by t he r e cta n gl e a ec d and the d e t e r
minati on of t he re acti on s d ue t o the l o ad r e pr e se n t e d by t he
triangl e bec .

F or t he fi rs t case b oth r e a c t lo n s
200 X 2 0
2
— 2 00 0 lbs . V .

Tod e t e rmi n e t he r e acti on s d ue t o the l o ad r e pr es e nt e d by

tri an gl e bce it i s advis abl e t o d e t e rmin e t he p os iti on o f t he
r es ultan t of thi s l o ad T h is pas s e s thr o u gh t he c e ntr e of gr avity
.

o f t h e triangl e and h e nc e i s f t fr o m t he li n e a h an d 430 f t fr om

”
. .

cd . The l e ft r e acti o n VL d ue t o thi s l o ad m ay n o w b e d e t e r

mi ne d by applyi n g EM = O ab o ut right hand e n d of b e am
”
.

The f oll owi n g e xpr ess i o n r e s ult s — 8000 x 3 + VL x2 0 = 0

4 0

l
-

,
"
h e nc e VL 533 3 bs The t otal l e ft r e acti o n VL th e r e f o r e
l
.
, ,

e qual s V + V = 7 333 bs
L
.

To o btai n t he right r e acti o n apply E V = O Thi s giv e s .

73 3 3 h e nc e VR = 4 667 Ib s which may b e .

,

ch e ck e d by applyin g EM = 0 ab o ut the l e ft e n d o f t he b e am .

Th e curv e o f s h e ar s may n ow b e draw n It s e quati o n r e fe rr e d

.

t o r e cta n gular ax e s pa s s ing thr o ugh p o i n t d with 1: p os itiv e t o

t he l e ft and 2 p os itiv upward s i s z
e = — 4 66 7 + 2 00 1: + 2 0 1 2
,

in which the t e rm 2 001: e qual s the ar e a o f a r e ct an gl e of h e ight

c d a n d l e ngth x and t h e t e rm
,
e qual s t h e ar e a o f that

p o rti on of t he trian gl e bc e c o mpr e h e nd e d b e twee n i ts v e rt e x 6

, , , ,

an d a v e rtical lin e drawn at a dis tanc e x fr o m t he v e rt e x .

This curv e cut s t he axi s at a p o int f t fr o m right e n d as .

,

m ay b e se e n by placing z = 0 and s olving f or x .

The curv e o f m o m e n t s may b e o btain e d in a s imila r ma n n e r .

It s e quati o n r e fe rr e d t o t he s am e Origin i s v = 4 66 7x
2 3
Thi s e quati on m ay b e writt e n dir e ctly fr o m the s h e ar e quat i o n
by multiplyi n g e ach t e rm in th e latt e r which r e pr e se n t f o rc e s , ,

by t he di s tanc e of the particular f o rc e fr o m the s e cti o n Thu s .

,

4667 e qual s t he right r e acti o n and h e nc e s h o uld b e multipli e d

by x ; 2 002: e qual s th at p o rtion of t h e l o ad r e pr es e nt e d by a
r e cta n gl e e xt e n ding a d is tanc e x fro m th e right r e acti o n an d
, , ,

x
h e n c e s h o uld b e multipli e d by e qual s that p o rti on o f t h e
"
a

Q :
52 LA WS O F S TA TI C S , R E AC TI O NS S HE A R S E T C , , . AR T . 35

L e t S a = sh e ar at
cti on a
se .

M = m o m e n t at s e cti on a
a .

M b = m om e nt at se cti on b .

x = d i s t an c e b e tw ee n s e cti on a and se cti o n b m e a s ur e d

at right angl es t o t he lin e o f acti on of t he f o rc es .

M = m o m e nt ab o ut b of f o rc es b e tw e e n a an d b .

Th e n M b = M i S x i Ma a I
.

FIG . 29 .

This may b e pr o v e n i n t he f oll o wi n g ma nn e r :

fi
”
g .

+ 15 ) + P 3 (f + 9 + 33)

by s ubtracti on

Jll b — M a = — P 1 7: —P 2 1 + P 3 :v
.

P 3 — P I — P 2 — wg = S a an d

AL, = lll a + S a x — Af x .

This s oluti on i s p e rfe ctly ge n e ral s inc e n o r es tricti on s w e r e

imp os e d up on charact e r o r p os iti on of t he l o ad s .

3 5 Beam s F ixed a t En d s
. Th e b e am s hit he rt o d e alt with
.

hav e b ee n s upp o rt e d at t w o p o i n t s and hav e b e e n s tatically

d e t e rmi n e d S o m e tim e s h ow e v e r b e am s are u s e d which are
.
, ,

fi xe d at b oth e nd s by b e ing built i n t o t h e ma s on ry o r o th e rwi s e

a n d a re s tatically und e t e rmi n e d Co mpl e t e tr e atm e n t o f s uch
.

b e am s m ay b e f ou n d in s tan dard b ook s on m e chanic s a n d will

n ot b e r e p e at e d h e r e alth ou gh att e nti on s h o uld b e call e d t o
,

t he fact that s uch b e am s are much s tr o n ge r tha n b e am s of t h e

s am e s iz e which ar e m e r ely s upp o rt e d at t he e nd s .
A RT . 36 E FF E C T O F FL OOR B EA M S 53

A b e am fi xe d at on e e n d i s al s o ind e t e rmi n at e with r e s p e ct

t o t h e r e acti on s but t h e m o m en t and s h e ar at an y s e cti o n of
,

t h e pr oj e cting e n d can b e c omput e d with o ut di f ficulty .

S uch a b e am i s s h o wn in F i g 3 0 i n which an a s s um e d d i s
viz
.
,

t ri b ut i on of t h e r e acti o n s i s i n dicat e d a u n if o rmly varying ,

.
,

d own ward r e acti on t he r es ultant of which i s R2 an d a n othe r

, ,

unif o rmly varyi n g upward r e acti on t he r e s ultant of whi c h

e qual s R1 I t i s e vid e n t that
. an d

that t he m o m e nt of R2 ab o ut t he p o i n t of applicati o n of RI
mu s t e qual t he m om e nt ab o ut t he s am e p oint of P I P 2 and , ,

W The actual di s tributi on of the r e acti on d e p e n d s up o n the

.

W e i g h t of be am 10 pe r f t .

Tot al w e i gh =W t

FIG . 30 .

r e lativ e e las ticity of b e am an d mas on ry and will n ot b e d i s

cu s s e d The maximum b e nding m o m e nt and s h e ar o c cur at
.
,

or v e ry n e ar t he e dg e o f t h e ma s o n ry an d c a n b e c o mput e d with
,

n o gr e at e r e rr o r than f or o rdinary b e am s r es ting o n ma s o nry

abutm en t s h e nc e a b e am of thi s s o rt can b e d e s i gn e d with c o m

,

parat i v e c e rtainty pr o vid e d r e a s on abl e pr o vi s i o n i s mad e at

,

t he e nd s f or c arrying t h e r e acti on s .

36 Eff ec t of F l oo r B eam s
. Re acti on s m o m e nt s and s h e ar s
.
, ,

up on a s tructur e a s a whole are un i n fl ue n c e d by t he i n t e r n al

'

c o n s tructi o n F or e xampl e t he r e acti o n s at t he e nd s o f a s tru c

.
,

tur e d ue t o a giv e n l o ading are t he s am e wh e th e r it i s a s impl e

b e am o r i s mad e up of tru s se s fl o o r b e am s a n d s trin ge r s Thi s
, ,
.

immunity h ow e v e r d oes n ot e xt e nd t o t he i n dividual m e mb e r s

, ,

o f t h e s tructur e which a re i n flu e nc e d t o a mark e d d e gr ee by t he

c ons tr u cti o n ad opt e d I n t he ca se of an o rdi n ary bridge c o m

.

p os e d o f tru ss e s or gird e r s fl o o r b e am s an d s tri n ge r s t he s h e ars

, , ,

an d m o m e nt s o n t he tru ss e s vary c on s id e rably fr o m th os e which

54 LA W S OF S TA TI C S R E AC TI ONS S HE A RS E T C
, , , . AR T . 37

w ould xi s t i f th e r e w e re n o fl o or b e am s and thi s appli es al s o

e ,

t o t he r e acti on s if fl oo r b e am s b e n ot u se d at t he e nd s .

The e f fe ct of fl oo r b e am s i s t o l o ad t he main gird e r s o r tru ss es

with l o ad s at d e fi ni te p o int s Thi s i s cl e arly s h o wn by t he .

fi gure s acc o mpanying A rt 1 The l o ad r e ach e s t he s tring e r s

. .

thr o ugh t he fl o o r i s carri e d by th e m t o t he fl oo r b e am s and

, ,

th e nc e g oes t o t he main gird e r s I n c on s e qu en c e t he gird e rs .

carry only c onc e ntrat e d l o ad s e xc e pt f or th e ir own we ight, and

t he curv es of s h e ar a n d m o m e nt f or t he appli e d l o ad s are c om
p os e d of s traight lin e s .

3 7 Typical Cu rv e s of S h e a r a nd Mo m en t
. A f e w curv e s o f .

s h e ar a n d m o m e nt hav e alr e ady b ee n drawn t o illu s trat e t he

1 000 lb s .

W e i g ht of be am 30 lb s pe r li ne a r f t
. .

G uw e of S he a rs c o nc e u t m te d lo ud o n ly
:
I

S t ra i gh t li ne

I C un e of S he a ls we i g ht of be a m o nly

I
I
I

C ur ve of S h e a r , we i g h t of be a m an d c once nt ra te d loa d com bi ned

FIG . 31 .

t e xt I n t he fi gures which f oll ow t he att e mpt h as b e e n mad e t o

.
,

c ov e r a wid e ran ge of cas es The b e ginn e r s h o uld draw curv es

.

f o r s imilar ca s es c hangi n g t h e data t o av oid c o pying until h e

, ,

und e r s tand s the s ubj e ct th o r oughly .

AR T . 37 S HE A R A N D M O M E N T C URVES 55

1 000 lbs .

‘Ve i gh t of be a m , 30 lbs per li n

. .

RV E O F MO MENTS
Co n c e nt ra te d load

— 2

V
30
P a r a b ola .
y ?
C U R E O F MO MENTS
W e i gh t o f be a m only

—y 30 127
2

V
P a ra b ola 1 000 (x 2

C U R E O F MO MENTS
W e i gh t of b ea m t
and c o nc e n ra t e d

load c om b lned

FI G . 32 .
56 LA WS OF S T A TI C S R E A C TI O NS S HE A R S E T C
, , , . A RT . 37

I
FG . 33 .
A RT . 37 SH EA R AND M O M E N T C U RV E S 57

0
— ’
> i< — 8
’

V
C U R E O F S HE A R S V l
C U R E O F IS HEA RS
W e i gh t Of 5 0 84 11 0 111 1 t l
Co nc e htr ate d lo ad s only

ft .
1 00 a .

1 5 000 f t lb s
. .

000 f t lbs
.

MO MENTS C U R V E O F MO MENTS
Co nce ntr a te d loa d s o nly W e i g h t Of be a m om i tted

FIG . 34 .
58 LAW S OF S T A TI C S R E AC TI O NS S HE A RS
, , ,
ETC .
AR T 3 7
.

FIG . 35 .
60 LA W S OF S TA TI C S R E AC TI O NS S H E AR S E T C
, , , . AR T . 37

IH < —
10
’ —<—
>l 3
'
I 1
2 9k —5 ’
1

300 f t .

1 1
qunvs o r MOMENTS
i

:C : o n c e nt ra t e d lo ads bnly

25 f t lb s
. .

A ll th es e c u r ves

a re pa ra bo las

C onc e n t t
ra ed lo ad s
V
C U R E O F NIO MENTS
and w ei gh t of b eam c om b i ned

FGI . 37 .
A RT . 38 S HEA R AND M OMEN T R
C U V ES 61

FIG . 38 .

No t e .
—
F lo o r b e am s a r e o rd i n a r ily r i v e t e d to s i d es o f gi rd ers . A b ov e t
c o n s ru c ti on is
t
a d o p ed h e re f o r s a ke o f c le a rn e s s .

38 . Tab l e s Defi n ed I n the d e t e rmin a

In fl uenc e Li nes a nd .

ti on of maximum s h e ar s m o m e nt s r e acti on s an d oth e r functi on s

, , ,
'

d ue t o m o vi n g l o ad s it i s fr e qu e ntly u s e ful t o s tudy t he e fi e c t o f

,

a l o ad of unity as it m ov es al ong t he s tructur e Thi s may b e .

d o ne graphically by pl otti n g a lin e c all e d _an i n fl ue n c e lin e o r ,

analytically by pr e paring an influ e nc e tabl e in which are s e t .

 2 LA WS or S TA TI C S R E A C TI ONS S H E A R S
, , ,
E TC . A RT . 38

d own th e valu es of the functi on und e r c o n s id e rati on wh e n the

l o ad i s at vari ou s g ov e rni n g p o in t s s uch as t he pan e l p oi nt s of a
,

tru ss bridge Th e f oll o wi n g s impl e illu s trati on s h o w s cl e arly t h e

.

charact e r of lin e and tabl e .

t
D i s an c e of
L o a d f ro m R i gh t S he ar at a.
R eac i ont .

In fl ue n c e t ab le f or sh e ar a t a of FIG . 39 .
— In fl ue n c e lin e f o r
b e am s h own i n F i g 39
. . sim ple be am . S he a r at a .

Th e i n fl u e n c e li n e in thi s c a s e i s th e l o cu s of th e valu e s in the

s e c o n d c o lumn o f t h e i n fl u e n c e tabl e a n d i s m e r e ly t h e graphic al

r e pr e s e n tati on of t h e e qu ati on f or th e s h e ar at a d u e t o a l o ad o f
u nity p a s s in g al o n g t h e b e am I f x b e th e di s tanc e of th e l o ad
.

fr o m t h e l e ft r e acti o n and y t h e o rdi n at e t h e e qu ati o n s of th e ,

i n fl u e n c e li n e will b e as f oll o w s :

as varyi n g b e tw e e n 0 an d 2
’

x varyi n g b e twe e n 2
’
and

The dif fe r e nc e b e twe e n an i n fl u e n c e lin e and the cu rv es give n

i n t h e pr e c e di n g articl es s h o uld b e car e fu lly o b s e rve d A curv e .

o f s h e ar s or
,
m om e nt s i s a c u rve t he o rdinat e t o wh ich at
, ,

an y p o int s h o w s t he s h e ar o r m o m e n t at that p oi nt caus e d by

, ,

a s et of l o ad s fi xe d in ma gn itud e an d p os iti on Th e o rdinat e

, .

t o t he i n fl u e n ce li n e s h o w s in s t e ad t he s h e ar o r m om e n t at t he
s e cti o n f o r which t he i n fl u e n c e li n e i s drawn d u e t o a l o ad of unity
,

acti n g at t he p o i n t wh e r e t he o rdin at e i s m e a s ur e d The e xampl e s .

in A rt 3 9 s e rve t o illu s trat e i nfl u e n c e li n e s f or th e m o r e c omm o n

.

ca s e s of s impl e b e am s an d gird e r s .
A RT . 39 E XA M PLE S OF F
I N LUE N C E L I N ES 63

The actual e mpl oym e nt of i nfl ue n ce lin es and tabl es in prac

tic e s e ld o m o ccur s e xc ept f or c o mplic at e d s tructur es wh e r e th e y
are fr e qu e ntly alm os t indi s p e n s abl e I n thi s b oo k t he i n fl ue n ce .

li n e will h ow e v e r b e u s e d with fr e e d o m partly f or purp oses of

, , ,

ill u strati on and d e m on s trati o n and partly that t he s tud e nt

may b e tt e r familiari z e him self with the b e havi or of vari o u s
s tructur es und e r m o ving l o ad s .

39 Exam pl es of In flu en c e Li nes
. a S i m ple B ea m s a nd . .

Gi rd ers .

FIG . 40 .
—Infi ue nc e li ne f o r she a r FIG . 41 .
—
In fi ue n c e li n e f o r m o m e nt

a t sec t i o n a .
a t se c t i o n a .

F IG . 42 .
— Infi ue n c e li ne f or shear FIG . 43 .
— In fl uen c e li n e f o r m om e n t
a t se c t ion a . a t se c t i on a .

FGI . 44 .
— In fl uen c e lin e f o r s he a r a t s ec ti o n a .

FIG . 45 .
-
Infl uence li ne f or m om en t at se c t i on a .

b Gi rd ers wi th L oa ds A ppli ed through F loor B ea m s , a s 111 F i g

. .

46 .Not e that t he u s ual f o rm of c on s tructi o n f or s uch bridg es

64 LA WS OF S TATI C S R E A CTI ONS S HE A R S E TC
, , ,
. AR T . 39

is that in which t he fl oo r b e am s are riv e t e d t o the gird e r w eb s

a n d t he s tr i ng e r s t o t he fl oo r b e am w e b s . Th e typ e s h own i n

C ROS S S E CT IO N

é
y
— 4 pane i s p
1

S IDE ELEVA ION T

FIG . 46 .

FI G . 4 7 —Infi ue n c e
. lin e f o r s hea r FG I . 48 .
—Infl uen c e li n e f or s he ar
i n pane l 1 .
i n pane l 2 .

I
FG . 49 .
—Infi uence li ne f or shear FG I . 50 .
—Infl ue nc e lin e f or s hear
i n panel 3 . i n pane l 4 .

F IG . 51 .
— Infl uenc e li n e f or m om en t FIG . 52 .
—Infl uen ce lin e f or m o m en t
at pane l poi n t a . at pane l poi n t b .
A RT . 40 P RO PE RTI E S O F TH E F
I N LU E N C E L I N E 65

t he fi gure i s ch ose n h e r e f or cl e arn e ss in pr es e ntati on The .

i nfl ue n c e lin e s m o m e nt s s h e ar s e t c w ould b e id e ntical in the

, , ,
.
,

t wo ca ses .

I
FG . 53 .
—In fl uen c e li ne f or m om en t FG I . 54 .
— Infi uen c e l in e f or m om e n t
a t pa n e l poi n t c . at c en e t r of pan e l 2 .

40 . Pr ope r ti e s of th e Infl u en c e L in e . Th e f oll o win g th e o r e m s

may o ft e n u se d t o advantag e
be .

1 Th e valu e of a giv e n functi o n d ue t o a s ingl e l o ad in a

.

fi xe d p os iti o n e qual s t he pr o duct of t h e magnitud e o f t he l o ad

and t he o rdin at e t o t he i n fl uen c e lin e m e a s ur e d at t he p o int
wh e r e t he l o ad i s plac e d Thi s n e e d s n o pr oo f but f oll o ws dir e ctly
.
,

fr o m the d e fi n i t i on of the i n flu e nc e li n e .

2 The valu e of a giv e n functi o n d u e t o a unif o rmly d i s

.

tribut e d l o ad e qual s t he pr o duct of t he i n tensi ty of t he l o ad and

t he ar ea b ound e d by t he axi s o f t he b e am t he i n fl ue n c e lin e ,

and t he o rdinat es drawn thr ough the limit s of t he l o ad I f thi s .

ar e a b e partially p os itiv e and partially n e gative t he alg ebraic

s u m of t h e t w o s h o uld b e u s e d .

FG I . 55 .

This th e or e m may b e pr ov e n as f oll o ws

Le t bec r e pr es e nt an i nfl ue n c e lin e f o r a p o rti o n of a giv e n
s tructur e o f l e n gth L Le t w e qual t he int e ns ity of a uni f ormly
.

di stribut e d l o ad .
 66 L AWS OF S T A TI C S RE AC TI O NS S H E A R S E T C
, , ,
. A RT . 41

Th e n t he t otal l o ad on a s e cti on of l e ngt h dx = wdx and t he

e ff e ct o f thi s p o rti on of t h e l o ad up o n t h e giv e n f un c t i on = wydx .

I nt e gratin g b e twe e n the limit s 0 and L giv e s

f or t h e f ct
ef e of a l o ad c ov e rin g t he e ntir e di s tanc e L . B ut ydx

i s t he ar e a of t he i n fi ni t es i m al s trip s ubt e nded by dx, and ydx

i s t he ar e a a bec d , hen c e w ydx = w>< ar e a a bec d .

3 . Th e
valu e o f a giv e n functi o n d ue t o a s e t of c onc e n trat e d
l o ad s e qual s t he alge braic s u m of t he pr o duct of e ach l o ad and
i ts c o rr es p on di n g o rdin at e t o t he i nfl ue n ce lin e Thi s i s a c or olla ry .

of 1 .

41 . Ne utral P oi nt . Th e i n fl ue n ce
li n es s h ow n in Fi gs 4 7 .

t o 50 inclu s iv e cr oss t he axi s of t h e b e am in e ach ca s e e xc e pt

f or s h e ar i n t he e n d pa n el s The p oint of i n t e r s e cti on i s call e d
.

t he n e utral p o i n t s inc e a s i n gl e l o ad plac e d at thi s p o i n t pro

duc es n o s h e ar i n t he pan e l wh e r e t he int e r s e cti o n o ccur s .

The n e utral p oint f or t he e n d p an e l s i s at t he e nd s of t h e

b e am s .

4 2 P o s iti o n o f L o ad s f or Maxim u m S h e a r an d Mom ent a t a

.

De fi n i te S e cti on Th e f oll owi n g imp o rtant law s may b e d e duc e d

.

fr o m t he i nfl uen c e lin es giv e n in A rt 3 9 . .

1 For a s impl e b eam s upp o rt e d at t h e e nd s a s ingl e c on c e n

.

t r at e d l o ad cau se s maximu m s h e ar at a se cti on wh e n plac e d an

i n fi ni t es i m al di sta n c e on on e or t h e oth e r s id e of t he s e cti o n a n d ,

ma ximum m o m en t wh e n plac e d at t h e s e cti on A u n if ormly .

di stribut e d live l o ad pr o du c e s maximum s h ea r at a s e cti on wh e n

appli e d o v e r t he e n tir e dis t an ce b e twe e n t he s e cti on and on e o r
t h e oth e r e n d o f t h e b e am an d ma ximum m o m e nt wh e n appli e d
,

o v e r the e ntir e l e n gth o f t h e b e am .

2 In an e n d s upp o rt e d gird e r or t ru s s lo a d e d by m e an s of fl o o r
.
-

b e am s a s in gl e c o n c e ntrat e d l o ad pr o duc es maximum s h e ar in a

,

p a n e l wh en plac e d at t h e e n d of t h e p a n e l adj o i n i n g th e m o r e d i s
tant r e acti o n and maximum m o m e nt at a p an e l p o int wh e n pl ac e d
at t hat p o i n t A u nif o rmly di s tribut e d liv e l o ad pr o duc e s m axi
.

mum s h e ar i n a p an e l wh e n appli e d o v e r t h e e n tir e di s t anc e

b e tw ee n t h e n e utral p o i n t of that p an e l an d t h e m o r e di s t a n t re a c
68 LA WS OF S TA TI C S , R E A C TIO NS S H E A R S , ,
E TC . A RT . 43

Ca s e S am e as Ca se 5 , but
unif o rm l o ad w pe r foot f or
in s t e ad of c onc e n trat e d l o ad Maximum s h e ar o ccur s in e n d
'

pan e l s an d with a l o ad o ve r t he e ntir e s tructur e It s valu e i s .

11 0

3
—l =
(
n ) wh e r e p pan el l e n gth .

Ca s e 7 . S am e as Ca s e 5 ,
but maximum m o m e nt in s t e ad of
maximum s h e ar P lac e l o ad at pa n e l p o int n e ar e s t c e ntr e
. .

Maximum m o m e n t o c cur s at thi s pan el p oint an d e qual s

if n umb e r of pa n e l s is e ve n ,
an d
g
}: ( 11
2 —1
) if numb e r
of pan el s is odd .

Cas e 8 S am but maximum m o m e n t in st e ad of

Cas e 6,
‘

. e as

maximum s h e ar Maximum m o m e nt o ccur s at pan e l p oint

.

n e ar es t c e n tr e with l o ad o ve r e n tir e s pa n It s valu e i s %wL 2 .

,

wh e n numb e r of pa n e l s is e ve n an d 4; s 1 wh e n numb e r
is odd .

I n d e rivi n g th e s e two quan titi es t he f ollo w 1 n g th e o re m may

be us e d :
m o m e n t at a pan e l Th e
p oi n t of a gir d e r with fl oo r
b e am s e qual s that at t he c or
r e s p ondi n g p o int of a s impl e
b e am u n d e r t he s am e l o ad ” .

The pr o o f of t he th e o r e m i s
FIG 56 . .
a s f oll o w s :

Le t F i g 56 r e pr e s e nt a .

p o rti on of a gird e r carrying fl o or b e am s .

Le t Mb = m o m e n t at pan e l p oint b .

M “= m o m e n t at pan e l p o in t a .

S = s h e ar in pa n e l t o l e ft of giv e n pa n e l .

Th e n in ac c o rdanc e with rul e giv e n i n A rt 3 4 .

Mb = M a S —
+ p P p
= M , + p PS
S — : .

Thi s i s al s o th e valu e of t he m o m e n t at b with the l oad P appli e d

dir e ctly t o t he gird e r at the p o int (3 .

Of t h e f o rmula s i n thi s articl e t he s tud e nt i s advi s e d t o

A RT . 44 A PP RO X I M A TE M ETH O D FOR M AX I M U M SH EAR 69

m e m o riz e that f or maximum m o m e nt at t he c e ntr e d ue t o a

u n if o rm l o ad ,
viz .
,

M = §wL2 .

Thi s f ormul a i s applicabl e n o t o nly t o s impl e b e am s but al s o t o ,

girde rs with fl oo r b e am s pr ovid e d t he numb e r of panel s i s e v e n .

S inc e t he m om e nt at a pan e l p o int e qu al s that a t t h e c or

r e s p ondin g p o int of a s impl e b e am und e r t he s am e l o ad t he l o cu s ,

o f t he m o m e n t s at t he pan e l p o int s f o r a u n if o rm l o ad o v e r t h e

e ntir e b e am i s a parab ola with a c e ntr e o rdinat e e qual 410 1 2

,
1
,

h e nc e t he o rdinat e at any pan e l p o int of a gird e r with an o dd .

f pa r a bola

L oad 1 0 pe r f t . o ve r e nti re g i i de r

9 pa ne ls p =9 17 =L

FIG . 57 .

numb e r of pan e l s may b e d e duc e d fr o m this valu e by applying t he

e quati o n o f a parab o la Thi s i s illu s tr at e d by F
. 5 7 i n W hich ig .

t he o r dinat e , y, e qual s %wL 2

1 m axim um m om e nt
on gi rd e r .

44 . Approxi m ate Meth od f or Maxi m I n practic e it um Sh ea r .

i s c o mm o n t o d e t e rmi n e t he maximum s h e ar pr o duc e d by a

u n if o r m l o ad o n an end s u pported gi rd er wi th fl oor beam s b y t h e
-

f oll owing appr o xim at e but s af e m e th o d .

Co mput e t he m aximum p os itiv e s h e ar i n a pan e l as if all

pan e l p o in t s t o right w e r e l o ad e d with f ull pan e l l o ad s and
pan e l p oint s at l e ft with n o l o ad ; f or m aximum n e gativ e s h e ar
r e v e rse thi s pr o c es s .

Thi s m e th o d i s illu s trat e d by t he f oll owing e xampl e : Le t

t he pr obl e m b e th e d e t e rmin ati o n o f t h e m aximum p os itiv e s h e a r
in pan e l cd o f t he gird e r s h own in F 5 8 d ue t o a unif o rm liv e ig
l
"

l o ad o f 3000 bs pe r fo ot . .
70 LA WS or S TA TI C S , RE AC TI O NS S H E A R S , , ETC . A RT . 44

B y t he appr oximat e m e th o d th e s h e ar s h ould b e c omput e d

f or full pan e l l o ad s at d e and f an d n o l oad s at b an d c and
, , , ,

will th e r e f o r e e qual (
1+
6
1b s = 4 5 ,000
. l bs .

'
6 pan e ls 15

FIG . 58 .

B y t he xact m e th o d t he gi rd e r s h o uld b e l o ad e d fr o m
e t he
ri ght e n d up t o t h e n e utral p o i n t 111 in pan e l c d , ,
.

F r o m t he s im i lar triangl e o f F i g 5 8 it i s e vid e n t that .

m d 1d 4
11 k 111

m d=
’
but n k = cd h en c e t h e ar e a o f t he triangl e
9 ,

m i g= 54 S inc e t h e maximum s h e ar e qual s t h e ar e a

o f t h e tria n gl e m tg multipli e d by t h e int e n s ity o f t h e l o ad pe r lin e ar

f oot i t s valu e i s 3 000 x

,
lb s o r c on s id e rably l es s than
,

t h e valu e obtai n e d by t he appr o ximat e m e th o d a r e lati on which ,

will alway s o ccur f or t he i nt e rm e diat e pa n e l s of an e n d s upp o rt e d

gird e r F or t he e n d pan e l s t h e n e utral p oi n t o ccur s at t he e nd
.

o f t h e p an e l h e n c e f or s uch pan el s the e xact and appr o ximat e

,

m e th o d s giv e id e ntical result s .

A RT . 44 REAC TI ON P RO B LE M S 1

P R OBLE MS

In Probl em s 6 t o 22 i ncl us ive , c omp u te t he ho ri z ont al an d ve r t ical

c omp onent s of e ach re ac t ion .

50 to ns 1 0 to ns 20 to ns l O tons

P R OB . 6 . PR OB . 7 . P ROB . 8 .

lot ns IO to ns
2Oto nS

h —
5 -
’ —
k 5 l
fl — 10
'’—
E5
'
’ < -’
8
,
i 10
1
l
PR OB 9 . . P ROB . 10 . Pe o n . 11 .

Th i s t r us s is an in t e rm e d i a e t t rus s
’
of a s e ri e s . Tr uss e s spa c e d 20
t
b e we e n c en tr es .

20 ooof

10 one

P ROB . Pn o e . 13 .

5 tons

P R OB . 15 .

1 0 tons 1 0 tons 3

P ROB . 14 . P ROB . 16 .
72 LA WS OF S TA TI C S , R E AC TI O NS S H E A R S E T C , , . ART . 44

5 0 tons
l'é —S p ane ls

P R OB . 17 . PR OB . 18 .

Th i s t ru ss is o n e of th e en d t r us s e s o f a s e r i e s
“
Di s
q t t
.

t a n c e a p ar t of t r us s e s e u als 20
’
c e n re to c e n re .

W i nd pr essur e s am e

W i nd pre ss ure s am e
as i n P r ob 1 7 .

P ROB . 19 . P ROB . 20 . P ROB . 21 .

Thi s t us s i
r s one o f th e i n e r t Th i s t rus s i s an e n d us s o f tr
m e d t t
ia e r u s s es o f a s e ri e s a s e ri e s t
Di s a n c e a p ar o f t
t t t t q t
. .

Dis an c e ap ar of r us s e s r us s e s e uals 20 c e n re t o
’

e q u a ls 30
’
c e n re t to c en re t . c e n re t .

I nte nsi ty=2000

lb s per f t
. .

Intensi ty=1 000

P R OB . P a oe . 23 .

End of str i nge r is s upported an d not fi xed

s tan c e f rom a to po i nt of s upport z l2

Gi rde r

I
pane ls
- J
-
12 >

P ROB . 24 .

What i s the magni t ude o f t he she a r a t se c t io ns a an d wi th

“

23 . a . c

a c on ce n t r a t e d l oa d of lb s a t b? .

b Wha t i s the m a gn i t ude of t he s he a r at se c t i on s a b and wi th

‘

.
,
c

a u nifo rm l oa d of 1 000 lb s pe r li n e a r fo o t ove r t he e n t ire be am ? .

AR T . 44 S H EA R A N D M O M E N T P RO LE M S B 73

24 . 0 . Where should a si ngle c onc entrate d l oad be pl a c e d to cause

m a ximum she ar i n pane l de ? In pane l a b?
b W ha t i s t he ma gni t ude of t he she a r a t s e c t i on 0 o f the girde r
.

wi t h a s in gl e c onc e nt rat e d l oad of lb s applie d t o the s t ri nge r .

a t the c e n t re of p ane l bd ?
2 5 (In t h e followi ng pr obl em s r e la t i n g t o c u rve s o f mome n t s an d
.
,

s he ars an d t o i nfl ue n c e li ne s p os i t ive val ue s s h o uld b e pl o tt e d ab ove t he

, ,

axi s an d nume rical val ue s give n f or ordinate s at all p oint s whe re t he

,

curve s change d i re c t io n ) .

P l o t t he c urve of she ar s f o r b e am shown i n P r ob 2 3 w i t h a u n i .

formly varyin g l oad e xte n di ng ove r the e n t ire be am I n t e nsi ty of .

l oad a t free e nd of be am 2 000 lb s pe r foo t ; a t fixe d e n d 1 000 1b s pe r .

, .

foot .

2 6 (Se e P r ob 24 f or fi gur e f or t hi s pr oble m )

. . .

0 Pl ot t he c urves of she ar s and mome n t s f or a un i f orm li v e l o ad o f

.

1 000 l bs per foot e x t e n di ng fr om t he free e nd t o t he c e n t r e o f p a ne l a b

.

a n d appl e d t o t he s t ri nge r s
i .

b Compare t he m ome nt a t e ach fl oor be am f or the l oadi n g s t a t e d

.

i n a wi t h that whi ch wo uld e xi s t if t he re we r e n o fl oor be am s a n d the

s am e l oad we r e appli e d dir e c t ly t o t he gird e r a uniform l oad o f
1 000 lb s pe r f oot e xte ndi ng 4 2 f t from t he fre e e nd of t he girde r )
.
,
. .

2 7 (1 Draw c urves of s he ar an d m ome n t f or one girde r

. . .

b Draw similar curve s f or a uniform

.

load of 3 000 lb s per foot applie d to t he .

s t ri n ge r s and e xte n di ng ove r e n t ir e s pa n ,

a n d c ompar e the m ome n t s a t t he fl oor

be am s wi t h t hose which would o cc ur at

s imilar p oi n t s if t he l oad we r e applie d di

re c t ly t o t he girde r .

20 lbs 0 lbs .

0 De t e rmi ne p o s i t i on of a s i ngl e c on
.

c e ntrate d load f or maxi m um she ar a t

s e c t i on a F or maxi m um m ome n t a t
.

same se c t i on L oad t o be appli e d at the

.

s t ri nge r s .

d Draw the c u rve s of de ad m omen t

.

a n d she ar f o r foll ow i ng a ss um e d we i gh t s
5
— 4p l @ 14 = 56
I
< a ne s
’ ’

Stringe r s 3 00 1b s pe r foot pe r s t ri nge r

,
.

(t hi s i nclude s wei ght of bridge P11 0 3 2 7 . .

Fl
fl oor) .

oor be ams 1 00 lbs per li neal foot of fl oor be am

, . .

Girde rs 2 00 lb s pe r li ne al foot pe r gi rde r

,
. .

28 (Se e Pr ob 2 3 f or figure f or t hi s pr oble m )

. . .

a Pl ot t he i nfl ue nce li nes f or she ar a t s e c t i on s a a n d b

. .

b Pl ot t he i n fl uen c e li ne s f or m ome n t a t s e c t i on s a a n d b
. .

2 9 (Se e P r ob 2 4 f or fi gure f or thi s pr obl em )

. . .

0 Pl ot t he i n fl ue nce li ne s f or shear i n p a ne l a b a nd i n pane l ef

.
of

gi rd e r A ss ume girde r t o be dire ctly u nde r a s t ringe r a nd l oad t o

. be
appli e d a t t he s t ri nge r .
74 LA W S O F S TA TI C S , R E AC TI O NS S H E A R S E T C
, , . A RT . 44

b Pl ot the i nfl uen c e li ne s f or m omen t at ction s

F
.
se a an d d .

c .r om an in spe c t ion of t he i nfl ue n c e line de t e rmine ove r what

p or t ion of the be am a uniform l oa d shoul d e x t e n d i n o rde r t o pr o d uce

maximum she ar i n panel a b and c omp u t e the magni t ude of t hi s shear , ,

ass umi ng t he u nif orm l oad t o e q ual 1 0 00 lb s pe r li ne ar foo t an d t o b e .

applie d at the stringe r s .

d S ame as 0 e xc ep t s ub s t i t u t e m ome nt a t se c t i on a f or she ar i n

.
,

pane l a b .

30 a Pl o t the i nfl ue nc e li ne s f or she a r at s e cti on s a b and c

. . ,
.

b Pl ot t h e i n fl uen c e line s f or m ome n t at se c t i o n s a b an d c

F
.
. ,

c .r om an in spe c t io n of the influe n ce line s de t e rmine where a single

l oad should li e t o gi ve maximum she ar a t se c t ion 0 To give maxi mum .

d F
m ome n t a t se c t i on a .

r om a n inspe c t ion of the i nfl ue n c e lines dete rmine what p or t ions

.

o f t he b e am sho u l d b e l oa de d wi t h a u niform l oad per foot t o give maxi

m u m she ar a t s e c t i on c To give maximum mome nt a t se c t i on a

_ . .

k—
IO -P—IO L L -l
~
—7 p ane ls 1 24

P ROB . 30 . PR OB . 31 .

t
S e c i ons a an d c a r e t o b e as s dm e d at an i n fi n i
t e s i m al d 1s t an c e f ro m t h e ad 1 0 1 n 1 n g po i n o ft
s upp o r t
.

6 . Comp ute the m aximum s he ars a t s e c t i on s a and , c a uniform

due t o
live l oad of 2 000 lb s pe r foo t , an d s ta te i n e ach c a se
. wh e t he r the s he ar
i s p os i t ive or n e ga t ive .

f C o
. mp u t e t h e maxi mum m ome n t s a t se c t i on s a a n d b d ue t o t he

l oad give n i n e and st at e whe t he r p osi t ive or n e gat ive .

3 1 (1 Plo t i nfl ue n c e line s f or she ar i n p ane l s 0—

. . 1 an d 1 —2 Ma k e .

s ame ass um p t i o n a s t o r e la t ive p os i t i on of s t ri nge r s a n d girde r s as i n

P r ob 2 9 a n d a ss ume l oads t o b e appli e d a t s t rin ge rs

.
,
.

b Pl ot i n fl ue n c e line s f o r m ome n t a t s e c t i ons 1 an d 2

F
. .

c .r om an inspe c t ion of t he infl uen c e line dete rmine whe re a s ingle

c onc e ntra te d l oad should li e t o caus e maxi mum p osi t ive s he ar in pane l
1— 2 an d maximum p osi t ive m ome n t at s e c t i on 2
“
.

d Compu t e by the
. i nfl ue n ce li ne me t hod t he e xac t maximum
-

p osi t ive she ar produ ce d i n pane l 1 —2 by a uniform live l oad of 2 000 lb s .

p e r f oo t an d che c k t hi
,
s r e s u l t by c omp u t i n g t he s he a r a n aly t ic ally .

e Compu t e t he m aximum p os i t ive live she ar i n pan e l 1 —

. 2 by t he
approximat e me t hod given i n Art 4 4 . .
76 C ON C E N TRA TE D LOA D S Y S TE M S A RT . 45

To p rove that one of the l o ad s s h o uld li e an i n fi ni te si m al

di s tanc e t o t he r ight of the se cti on or practi c ally a t the s e cti on
, ,

pr o c e e d as f oll o ws : S upp ose the l o ad s t o b e on t he b e am as

s h o wn in F 61 ig . .

FIG . 60 .

A s the h e ar d ue to a s et of c onc entrat e d l o ad s in any p os iti on

s

e qual s t he s ummat i on o f t he pr o duct o f t he l o ad s and th e ir

o rdinat e s it i s e vid ent that s tarting with l o ad s in the p os iti on

,

FIG . 61 .

s h o wn in F ig
6 1 th e s h e a r at a will b e inc r e a s e d b y m oving
.

t he l o ad s t o t he l e ft until l o ad (1 ) r e ach es t he se cti o n I f t he .

l o ad s are m ov e d s till furth e r until l o ad (1 ) pas se s t o t h e l e ft

FIG . 62 .

of t he cti on th e r e; will b e a s udd e n d e cre a se in the s h e a r due

se

t o l o ad (1 ) c ros s i n g t h e s e cti on The n e w p os iti on i s s h own by

ig
.

F 62 fr om which it i s a gain e vid e nt that if the l o ad s b e m ove d

.
A m . 45 S HEA R AT A FI X E D S E C TI ON 77

s till furth e r t o t he l e ft th e r e will b e an incr e a se in s h e ar until

l o ad (2) c o m es t o t he se cti on an d that t he r e s ult of l o ad (2 )
,

cr os s ing th e s e cti o n w i ll b e an oth e r s udd e n d e cr e a s e in s h e ar ,

aft e r which the s h e ar will again in cr e a se till an oth e r l o ad r e ach es

t he se cti o n and so ou ,
I t i s al so cl e ar that t he e ff e ct of a l o ad
.

c oming on the s pan at t he right o r g o ing off at t he l e ft during

'
t he pr o c ess of m o vi n g up t he l o ad s will n ot afi e c t t he ab o v e
c o nclu s i o n s .

Fi g 63 i s a graphical illus trati o n o f t h e chang es in s h e ar at

ig
.

a of t he b e am s h o wn in F 6 0 as t h e l o ad s m o v e t o t h e l e ft
. .

The o rdinat es r e pr e s e nt thi s s h e ar with l oad (1 ) at t he p o int

FG I . 63 .

wh e r e the o rdinat e i s s h o wn I n c on se qu e nc e the lin e 1 —2 s h ows

.

t he incr e a s e in s h e ar at a du e t o m o ving l o ad (1 ) on t he s pan

until l o ad (2 ) r e ach e s the right e n d ; 2 —3 s h o ws the incr e a se due
t o m oving t o t he l e ft t he fi rs t t w o l o ad s until l o ad (3 ) r e ach e s
t he right abutm e nt and s o o n u p t o 9 —1 0 which s h o w s t he e f fe ct
, ,

o f m oving t he fi rs t 9 l o ad s i e
,
all t he l o ad s until the fi rst
. .
, ,

l oad r e ach es t he s e cti o n a W h e n the fi rst l o ad cr osses the

.

s ecti o n t h e s h e ar dr o p s s udd e nly by lb s and th e n incr e a ses

.

—
again as s h o wn by 1 1 1 2 until t he s e c ond l o ad r e ach es s e cti on
, ,

a. A s thi s l o ad cr os s es t he s e cti o n t he she ar i s dimini s h e d by

'

lb s and th e n i n cr e a se s as s h o wn by 1 3 —1 4 until t he fi rs t
.
, ,
78 C ON C E N TR A TE D L O A D S Y S TE M S A RT . 45

l o ad p a ss e s off t h e s pa n Thi s d o e s n o t pr o duc e a s udd e n ch an g e

.

i n s h e ar but ch a n ge s t h e s l o p e of t h e li n e as s h o w n by 1 4—
, 15 .

F r o m t h e pr e c e ding di s cu ss i on it i s e vid e nt that t he f oll owing

m e th o d m ay b e u se d t o d e t e rmin e t he l o cati on of l o c o m otive
l o ad s f or maximum p os itiv e s h e ar at any s e ctio n of a s impl e
b e am
S tarti n g with all t he l o ad s t o t he ri ght of t h e se cti on and
with l o ad (1 ) at the s e cti o n writ e an e xpr es s i o n f or t h e change
,

in s h e ar d u e t o m o vin g l o ad (2 ) t o t he s e cti on I f this e xpr es

’

s i o n s h o w s a d e cr e a s e it i s e vid e n t that l o ad (1 ) at t h e se cti o n

giv es t h e maximum s h e ar . Ii on t he oth e r hand t he e xpr es s i o n

, ,

s h o w s an i n cr e a se it will b e n e c e ss ary t o writ e a n o th e r e xpr e s

s i on f o r t h e i n cr e a s e d u e t o m o ving up l oad ( 3 ) and s o on until

a d e cr e ase i s fi n ally o bta i n e d .

I n practic e t he o p e rati on i s s impl e as i s s h o wn by t he f ol

,

l owi n g e xampl e f or t he b e am an d l oad s of this a rticl e I t will .

b e n otic e d that in s t e ad o f writi n g an e quati o n f or t he chang e

in s h e ar t he m e th o d u se d i s t o writ e an in e quality on e s id e of
which s h o ws the i n cr e as e in t he l e ft hand r e acti o n d u e t o m o ving
up th ose l o ad s whi ch ar e 0 11 the s pan to begi n wi th a n d r em ai n
o n o r which c om e on du ri n g the pr ocess of m ovi ng an d t h e o th e r ,

s id e o f which s h ow s t h e e f fe ct of a l o ad cr os s ing t h e s e cti o n o r

g o i n g off t he s pan t o the l e ft .

Th e n um e rical e xpr e ss i on s f or t he c a s e i n q ues ti on will n o w

b e giv e n.

W ith (1 ) at s e cti o n m ov e up
8
146 X 10 .

60

A s t hel e ft han d quantity i s gr e at e r than t he right it i s e vid e nt

that the s h e ar i s i n cr e a se d b y m o vi ng up l o ad
W ith (2 ) at s e cti on m o v e
5up
—
(1 4 6 5
20 .

S in c e in thi s c ase t he l e ft hand s id e of the in e quality i s l ess than

t he right hand it i s e vid e nt that th e r e i s n o furthe r incr e a s e
and that t he m aximum s h e ar will o ccur with l o ad (2 ) at s e cti o n a .

A s t he l e ft ha n d s id e of t h e ab o v e e xpr e s s i o n may n ot b e
e n tir e ly cl e ar a f e w w o rd s o f e xplanati o n may b e add e d The .

fi rs t t e rm s h o w s t he incr e a se in t h e l e ft hand r e acti on d ue t o

A RT . 46 M OM E N T AT A FI X E D S E C TI ON 79

m ovi n g up th os e l o ad s which are o n t he s pan t o b e gin with

an d which r e main o n t h e s pa n Th e s e c o n d t e rm 5 r e pr e se n t s
.
, ,

the s light incr e a s e i n t h e s h e ar at t he s e cti o n d ue t o l o ad s which

may hav e c o m e on t he s p an at t h e right e n d of t he brid ge
“

duri n g the pr o c e ss o f m ovi n g up t h e l o ad s Thi s t e rm i s alwa ys .

s mall an d may ge n e rally b e i gn o r e d It s valu e i n t h e pr e s e nt

.

ca se _i s 0 The third t e rm giv e s t he s h e a r cau s e d by l o ad (1 )

.

wh e n lo ad (2 ) i s at se cti o n a Thi s s h e ar b e i n g n e gative an d

.

di s app e ari n g duri n g t he m o v e m e n t on ac c o u n t of t h e l o ad g oi n g

0 6 t he s pa n an i n cr e a se i n s h e ar i s o btai n e d which i s th e r e f o r e
, , ,

plac e d o n t he l e ft ha n d s id e of the i n e quality

-
.

H avi n g i n ab o v e fa s hi on d e t e rmi n e d t h e p os iti o n of the l o ad s

f or maximum s h e ar it r e mai n s s imply t o c o mput e thi s s h e ar
,

in t he o rdin ary man n e r by fi guri ng t he l e ft —ha n d r e acti on an d

s ubtracti n g th e r e fr o m t h e l o ad s b e tw ee n i t and t h e s e cti o n .

46 Mo m e nt a t a F ixe d S e cti o n
. Th e m e th o d o f d e t e rmi n i n g
.

th e p os iti on o f l o ad s f o r maximum m o m e n t di f f e r s s o m e what

fr o m that u s e d i n d e t e rmini n g the p os iti on f or m aximum s h e ar
and i s as f oll ows :
Le t t h e o rigi n al p os iti o n o f t he l o ad s b e as s h o wn i n F 64 ig . .

a
l
— L—a
FIG . 64 .

L e t AM incr e a s e i n m o m e nt at 771 d ue t o m o vi n g all t he

:

l o ad s a s h o rt dis tan c e d t o t he l e ft .

Th e n s i n c e t he cha n ge in t he m o m e n t at m cau s e d by t he
,
'

m o v e m e nt of the l o ad s y s t e m e q u als t he s ummati o n of t h e

pr o duc t of e ach l o ad b y t he c ha nge i n l e n gth o f t he i n flu e n c e
‘

li n e o rdi n at e c o rr es p on di n g t o that l o ad t he f o ll o wing e xpr e s s i o n

,

f o r t he i n cr e a s e in m o m e n t m ay b e writt e n :

AM :
d tan 0 — (P 0 + P I ) d tan 6
h h

AM P2 +P3 + P 4 +P5 PO +P1

hd L —a a
80 C ON C E N TR A TE D LO A D S YS TE M S A RT . 46

Thi s e quati on s h o ws that t he m om e nt at 171 will b e incr e a s e d

by m o vi n g t he l o ad s t o t he l e ft if t he a verage loa d per foot o n
'

t he ri ght o f m b e gr e at e r tha n t h e a ver a ge loa d per foot on t he

left . Th e c o n v e r s e o f thi s pr o p o s iti on i s al so true I t s h o uld
.

b e n o t e d that if t h e av e ra ge l o ad pe r f oo t o n t he right e qual s

t h e av e ra ge l o ad pe r f oo t o n t h e l e ft th e r e will b e n o chang e
‘

i n m o m e n t c au s e d by m o vi n g t h e l o ad s .

The ab o v e e quati on s are tru e p r o vid e d t h e r e lativ e p os iti o n

,

o f t he l o ad s d oe s n o t cha n ge ; that i s if n o l o ad c o m es o n fr o m
,

th e ri ght o r g oe s o f f t o t h e l e ft o r pa ss es t h e s e cti o n
, ,
It may
.

b e r e adily s e e n h o we v e r that if t h e av e rag e l o ad pe r f o o t o n

, ,

t he ri ght e xc e e d s that o n t h e l e ft a m o v e m e n t t o t h e l e ft s u ffi
ci e nt t o b ri n g a n o th e r l o ad o n fr o m t h e ri ght or t o ca us e a l o ad
t o go o ff t o t h e l e ft s erv e s t o incr e a s e t h e m o m e n t m o r e rapidly ,

a n d h e n c e d oe s n o t vitiat e t h e c o n clu s i o n that t h e l o ad s s h o uld

b e m o v e d t o t h e l e ft . It i s al s o e vid e n t that t h e m o v e m e nt
t o t he l e ft s h o uld b e c o n ti n u e d u n til P 2 r e ach es t he s e cti o n ,

h e n c e w e hav e t he f oll o wi n g th e o r e m :
F o r maximum m om e n t at a ny s e cti o n o ne l o ad mu s t li e at
t h e s e cti o n an d t he l o ad s mu s t b e s o l o cat e d that with that
,

l o ad j u s t t o t he ri ght of t he s e cti on t he av e rage l o ad pe r f oo t o n

t h e ri ght i s gr e at e r than that o n t h e l e ft whil e with that l o ad
,

j u s t t o t he l e ft of t he s e cti on t he av e rag e l o ad pe r f oo t o n the

l e ft i s gr e at e r tha n that on t he right .

A s p e cial ca s e o f t he ab o v e i s wh e n t he av e ra ge l o ad pe r
f o o t o n on e s id e e qual s the av e ra ge l o ad pe r f oo t on th e o th e r
s id e . I n thi s ca s e a l o ad d oe s n ot hav e t o li e at t he s e cti on ,

but if it d o e s li e at t he s e cti o n t he m o m e n t will b e e qual t o t he

maximum h e nc e t he th e o r e m appli es f or thi s cas e al s o
,
.

I t s h o uld b e n o tic e d that t he pr oo f o f thi s th e o r e m w o uld

b e e qually applicabl e t o any c a s e wh e r e t he i n fl ue n c e li n e i s
c omp os e d of t w o s trai ght lin es a n d that in c ons e qu en c e t he
,

th e o r e m i s v e ry u se f ul f or man y ca se s o th e r tha n that of m o m e nt

o n a s impl e b e am .

Th e applicati o n o f thi s th e o r e m i s s impl e but it s o m e tim e s

,

happ e n s that s e v e ral l o ad s of t he s am e s ys t e m will b e f o und

This i s e xplain e d by t he fact
“

t o s ati s fy t he ab o v e crit e ri on .

that a diff e r e n t s e t of l o ad s may b e o n t he s pa n f or e ach p os iti on ,

a n d c o n se qu e n tly th e r e may b e s e v e ral maxima In such ca s e s

.

it i s u s ually n e c es s ary e ith e r t o c o mput e the value of e ac h

A RT . 47 SHEAR . G I R D E R W I TH FL OOR B EA M S 81

maximum or e l se t o c omput e t he change in m o m e nt d ue t o

,

m ovi n g t he l o ad s fr o m one maximum p os iti on t o a n oth e r .

A num e rical e x ampl e of t he d e t e rminati o n of t he p os iti on

.

f o r maximum m o m e n t w i ll n ow b e giv e n .

L e t t he l o ad s an d s p a n b e as i n A rt 4 5 an d le t t h e pr obl e m .
,

b e t o find t h e p os iti on giving maximum m o m e nt at a .

A v lo a d pe r
. A V loa d pe r
.

F ir s t try l o ad 2: f t o n le f t
. . f t o n ri gh t
. .

10 1 36
L o ad 2 to r lgh t o f s e c t lo n
10 50

?8
1 16
L o ad (2 ) to l e ft of se cti o n

L o ad (2 ) giv e s a maximum
A v lo a
. d pe r A v loa d pe r
.

Try l o ad f t o n le f t
. . f t o n ri gh t
. .

20 1 16
L o ad (3 ) t o ri ght of se cti on
10 50
40 96
L o ad (3 ) t o l e ft of se cti o n "

10 50

L o ad (3 ) al s o
a maximum gw e s .

I t i s s ee n by i ns p e cti on that in thi s cas e it i s u nn e c e ss ary

t o try l o ad (4 ) and that l o ad s (2 ) an d (3 ) are t he o nly on e s
givi n g maximum m o m e nt s To d e t e rmin e which of th e se i s t he
.

lar ge r it i s advi s abl e t o c o mput e b oth ind e p e nd e n tly an d th e n

ch e ck t he r e s ult s by c o mputi ng t he cha n ge in m o m e nt pr o duc e d
by s tarti n g W ith l o ad (2 ) at a a n d m o vi n g l o ad (3 ) t o a .

That t he maximum m o m e nt at a give n s e cti o n d ue to a

s e t o f c onc e ntrat e d l o ad s alway s o c cur s wit h a l o ad at t he s e cti o n

i s appare nt fr o m th e fact that th e maximum mo m e n t f o r a giv e n

p os iti o n of l o ad s o ccur s wh e r e the s h e ar curve c r os se s t he axi s ;
i e wh e re t h e s h e ar e qual s o r pa s s e s t hr o ugh z e r o and that thi s
. .
, ,

can n e ve r happ e n e xc e p t at on e of th e l oad s .

4 7 S h ea r . G i rd e r with Floor Be a m s
. F o r s uch gird e r s t he .

maximum s h e ar in e v e ry pan e l mu s t b e c omput e d The m e th o d .

o f d e t e rmi n i n g t h e p os iti o n o f t h e l o ad s di f f e r s in d e tail fr o m

that give n i n A rt 4 5 alth o ugh t he s am e ge n e ral m e th o d m ay

.
,

be use d
ig
.

To illu s trat e thi s ca se t he brid ge s h own in F 6 5 i s ch os e n . .

H e r e a gain f o r gr e at e r cl e ar n e s s t h e s tring e r s and fl o o r b e am s

, ,
82 C ON C E N TRA TE D LO A D S Y S TE M S A RT 4 7 .

are s h o wn ab ov e the gird e r s th o ugh as alr e ady e xplain e d s uch

, , ,

c on structi on i s u n c omm on End fl oo r b e am s are al so u se d but

.
,

thi s mak e s n o diff e r en c e in t he m e th o d or i ts applicati on .

Co n s id e r fi rs t t he p os iti o n of l o ad s f or s h e ar in pan e l 1 In .

thi s ca se it i s cl e ar that t he maximum s h e ar o ccur s with t he

s am e c o nditi o n which w ould pr o duc e maxim um m om e nt at pan e l

p o int (1 s inc e t he pr o of giv e n

,

in A rt 4 6 applie s e qually .

th l d
e °a 8
we ll h e r e I n c on se qu enc e .
,

o n e of t h e l o ad s mu s t li e at a .

To d e t e rm in e which e ith e r ,

t h e m e th o d of m ovi n g up t he
l o ad s e xplain e d in A rt 4 5 .

may b e u se d or that of ob ,

taining t he p os iti o n o f t he
l o ad s f or maximum m om e nt
at a I f t he latt e r plan b e
.

ad opt e d it may happ e n that

m o r e than on e p os iti on will
b e f o und t o giv e a maximum ,
”
i l i
h ‘i m
m ‘e ‘
s
and h e nc e an e xtra c o mputa

i 1 ti on will b e n ee d e d Thi s .

l att e r i s h o w e v e r u se ful as , ,

a ch e ck and i s n ot a c onclu
s iv e ar gum e nt again st the
m eth o d s i n c e an appr oximat e
I fl li
n ue nc e h nei l2s ear n pa ne
ch e ck c omputati o n with an
o th e r l o ad at t he se cti on
s h o uld invariably b e mad e .

The fact that t h e maxi

s im ultan eou sly i s imp ortant
mum s h e ar in the e n d pan e l
and t he maximum m om e nt at
t h e fi rs t pan e l p o int o ccur
I t f oll ows that s inc e n on e of t h e
.

liv e l o ad s c an b e applie d t o t he gird e r b e twee n pan e l p oi n t s ,

t h e maximum liv e m o m e nt at t h e fi rs t pan e l p oint e qual s t he

pr o duct of t h e maxi mum liv e s h e a r in t he en d pan el and the
l ength of that pan el .

F or int e rm e diat e pan e l s t h e l att e r m e th o d can n ot b e us e d

s i n c e it i s inc o rr e ct e xc e pt f or c a ses wh e re t he i n fl ue n c e lin e
,
84 C ON C E N TRA TE D L O A D S Y STE MS ART . 47

S hear 111 E n d P a n el . M ethod of M ovi ng up the L oads -

.

S tart with l o ad (1 ) at pan e l p o int 0 .

I n c re ase i n RL I n c rease in P 0
8
3
Mov e l o ad (2) to a, 1 46 x
6 3 +6 10 X
12

s h e ar i s in cr e a se d . in thi s c a s e .

Mo v e l o ad (3 ) to a
é+ 0
— 20 XE + 1 0 X X i i
60 12 12 5

s h e ar i s i n cr e a s e d . in thi s c a s e .

The fact that the incr e as e in m o ving up l oad 3 i s ve ry s li ght

and t hat t h e n e xt st ep of m o ving up l o ad 4 w o uld mat e rially i n
cr e a se the c hange i n P 0 with out i n cr e a s in g that i n P I mak e s it
e vid e n t that l o ad (3 ) at s e cti o n give s t he maximum s he ar .

Th e valu e of t h e m aximum s h e ar in t he e n d pan e l may now

b e c omput e d Th e e xpr e s s i on f or it i s
.

— 5 —
(53 + 4 8 + 4 3 + 3 3) + + 24 + 1 9 + 1 4) 20 x 73
6 12

(th o u s and lb unit s ) . .

To h ow that ab ov e c onclu s i on s
s are c o rr e ct the s h e ar with
l o ad (2) at a will b e c omput e d .

4 4
= 72 07
5

(th ou s and lb unit s ) . .

Th e v alu e of thi s i s l e ss than that f or l o ad (3 ) at secti o n and i s

th e r e f o r e i n ac c o rda n c e with t he c o nclu s i o n s of t h e pr e vi o u s
m e th o d .

Th e las t te rm i n t he a b o v e e xp essi o n r gi ve s t he s he a r d ue t o load (1 )

whe n loa d (2 ) i s at 0 . Its v a lue is t
o b ai n e d by c om pu t i n g t he fl oo r be a m
re ac t i on P and I
t he s he a r d ue t o i t . The re a c ti on P 0 m a y b e i gn o re d s i n c e

i t pro d u c e s n o s he a r
i n t he gi rd e r . The s am e re su lt s h o u ld be t
o b ai n e d

b y t he u s ua l m e t h o d o f c om pu t i n g RL a n d s u b t ra c t i n g P 0 f rom i t ; t hi s gi ve s

60
3
12 ) 1 0, whi c h e q ua ls t he v a lue a l e a d y r f nd
ou .
A RT . 47 S HEAR . G I R DE R W I TH F LOOR B EA M S 85

S hear 111 E n d P a n el . A vera ge L oa d M ethod .

A v loa d pe r A v loa d pe r
. .

f t o n le f t
. f t on ri gh t. . .

1 36
Lo ad (2 ) t o r i ght of pa n e l pt . (1
L o ad (2 ) giv e s
,
1 4 0

30 a max
L o ad (2) to l e ft of pa n e l pt
.

. 0 ,
1
20 1 16
L o ad (3 ) t o r i ght of pa n e l pt 0
L o ad (3 ) giv e s
.
,
1 4
40 96 a max
L o ad (3 ) t o l e ft p an e l
.

of pt . 0 ,
1 4
40 96 L o ad (4 ) d oe s
L o ad (4 ) t o r i ght o f pa n e l pt . (1
giv e a max
,
1 4 n ot .

F ro m th ese e xpr e ss i on s it i s s ee n that by t he applic ati o n

o f t he av e rag e l o ad crit e ri o n l o ad s (2 ) and ( 3 ) are f o u n d t o giv e
,

maxima and that it i s n e c es s ary t o c alculat e b o th t o d e t e rmin e

,

t he gr e at e r .

I t s h oul d b e n o t e d that in t he applicati on of t he av e rage

l o ad m e th o d t h e av e rag e s h ear pe r pa n e l in s t e ad of the av e rag e
s h e ar pe r f oo t h as b e e n u s e d Thi s i s s impl e r an d giv e s t he .

s am e r es ult wh e n t he p an e l s ar e o f e qual l e ngth a s in t h e bridg e

und e r c on s id e rati o n I f the pan el s are of un e q ual l e n gth thi s

.

m e th o d would b e i ncorrec t .

S hear 111 S econ d P a n el . M ethod of M 0 11111 9 up the L oa ds .

S tart with l o ad (1 ) at pan e l p oint b

.

I n c re a se i n RL I nc re as e in

8 8 S h e ar is ih
Move l o ad 2 to b 1 04 X +6
60 cr e a s e d
but it is e vid e n t that thi s valu e ne e d n ot hav e b e e n
c o mput e d s inc e it is t oo s m all to alt e r the
r es ult .

Mov e l o ad (3 ) t o b ,
.

I n c rea se i n RL I ncre as e i n (P o -i- P l)

5 4 5 L o ad (2 )
l3 2 x +5 o c

60 gi ve s a m am m u m
2
5 = 14 X (n e c e s s ary
0

c o mput e m c as e c
0

t h1 s
0

to Si n e o t he r w1 s e
60
r e s ult s w o uld be d o ubtful ) .
86 C ON C E N TR A TE D LOA D S YS TE M S A RT 4 8
.

Th e ri ght ha n d
-
s id e of ab o v e i n e quality may r e quir e so me
e xpla n ati o n .

Vi t h
Y l o ad (2 ) at b, P o = 0 and P1

‘VIt h l o ad (3 ) 0, P 0 10 an d P1

2 8 5
I n cr e a s e +P1) lo x —
1 11 (P 0 12
+
12
20 .

That i s t he i ncr e a s e i n (P 0 + P I ) wh en l o ad (1 ) i s m ov e d fr o m
,

t he s e c on d int o t h e fi rs t pa n e l e qual s t h e r e acti o n o n t he fl oor

,

b e am at b d ue t o l o ad (1 ) wh e n l o ad (2 ) i s at b plu s t he i n cr e a s e ,

in t he r e acti on o n t h e fl o or b e am at a d ue t o m ovi ng th e s e c ond

l o ad i n t o t he s e c on d pan e l .

Th e valu e o f t h e m aximum s h e ar i n t he s e c on d pa n e l e qual s

44 20 14 10 X8
9 o\
t

12
‘

(th ou s a n d -
lb . u n it s) .

As an appr o ximat e ch e ck th e c orr es p on di n g s h e ar with l o ad (3 )

at b h as b e e n c o mput e d an d f o und t o b e I f th e i n cr e a s e
in s h e ar as d e t e rmin e d fr om t h e e xpr e s s i on f or t h e i n cr e a se d ue
t o m o vi n g up l o ad (3 ) b e add e d t o thi s t he r es ult s h o ul d e qual
t h e s h e ar with l o ad (2 ) at b thu s givi n g an e xact ch e ck
,
.

Th e s tud e nt w ill ob se rv e that i n all ca s e s wh e r e n o l oad g oe s

o ff o r c o m e s o n t h e s pa n o r g oe s o u t o f t h e pa n e l t h e di s tanc e
, ,

which th e l o ad s are m o v e d app e ar s o n b oth s id es of t he in e qua lit y

an d m ay b e o mitt e d Mo r e o v e r t he d e n ominat o r o f t he l eft
.
,

hand t e rm e qual s t h e s pan l e n gth an d that o f t he right — hand t e rm

t h e pan el l e n gth H e n c e w e may s ay that f or t he s p e cial c ondi
.

ti on s n o t e d t he s h e ar will b e incr e a s e d by m ovi n g up t he l o ad s

wh en e v e r t h e av e ra ge l o ad pe r f oot on t he e ntir e s pa n e xc e e d s
that on t he giv e n pan el .

4 8 F orm ula f or Pos iti on of L oa ds f or Maxim u m S h ear f or

.

I nter m ediate Pan e l s Gi r der wi th F loor B ea m s The m e th o d o f

. .

m ovi n g up t he l o ad s as u s e d in t h e pr e c e di n g articl e i s s impl e

an d v e ry g e n e ral I t i s applicabl e n ot o nly t o t he d e t e rmi n a
.

ti on o f the p os iti on of l o ad s f or maximum s h e ar but t o t he

d e t e rmi n ati on of p os iti on f or many o th e r fun cti on s The s tud e n t .

s h o ul d und e r s tand it th o r o u ghly a n d apply it t o ma n y di ff e r e n t

88 C ON C E N TR A TE D LOA D S Y S TE M S A RT . 50

at any pan el p o i n t b d ue t o a c onc e ntrat e d l o ad s y s t e m F or

, ,
.

t he p os iti on pr o duci n g thi s maximum t h e m o m e nt curv e f or

t h e p o rti o n o f t h e gird e r b e tw ee n b and c w i ll b e t h e lin e A B ,

B c r e pr e s e nting t h e m o m e nt at c f or t h e p os iti on o f t h e l o ad s
giving maximum m o m e nt at b I f t he l o ad s b e n ow m ov e d s o
.

a s t o giv e a maximum m o m e nt at c w e s h all hav e c B

’
a n d bA
’

as t h e o rdinat es f o r m o m e nt s at c an d b r e s p e ctiv e ly f or thi s

n e w p os iti o n and B A will b e t h e m o m en t curv e b e tw ee n b and

’ ’
,

c . I t i s e vid e n t fr o m t he fi gure that i n t e rp olati o n b e twe e n t h e

maximum m o m e nt at b and that at 0 will giv e a s afe valu e f or
t he maximum m o m e nt at an y p o int i n t he pan e l s inc e t h e lin e ,

A B can n e v e r ri s e ab ov e A B n or t he li n e B A ab o v e B A ;
’ ’ ’ ’

'
th e r e f o r e t he o rdi n at e xx f or t he m om e nt at x can n e v e r b e l es s
,

than t he actual m aximum m om e n t at 55 I t will r e adily b e .

s e e n by drawi n g an i n fl u e n c e li n e f o r t h e m o m e n t at a: that f o r

maximum m om e n t so m e l o ad s h o uld li e at e ith e r p an e l p o i n t b

FIG . 66 .

or c ; that the m o m e nt at c with t he l o ad s in t he p os iti on n e c es

s ary f or maximum m o m e nt at b can n e v e r e xc e e d t h e maximum

m o m e nt at c an d will alm os t invariably b e l es s than that a n d

that this principl e h old s g oo d f or t h e c onditi o n wh e n t he m o m e n t
at b i s a maximum Thi s pr oo f i s p e rf e ctly ge n e ral and applic abl e
.

t o any pa n el .

5 0 Mom e nt an d S h ea r a t th e Cr iti c a l S e cti on

. The c a s es .

alr e ady tr e at e d hav e b e e n f or s h e ar an d m o m en t at s tat e d s e cti on s

o f s impl e b e am s an d f o r pa n e l s an d pa n e l p o in t s o f gird e r s with

fl oor b e am s . F or t he latt e r it i s n e c e s s ary an d s uffi c i e n t t o

c o mput e t h e maximum s h e ar in e ach pan e l and t he maximum
m om e n t at e ach pan el p o int s inc e th e r e by t he maximum valu es
,

o f th es e fu n cti on s will b e o btai n e d F or b e am s or gird e r s which

.

a re n o t l o ad e d by m e an s of fl o or b e am s it i s alway s n e c e s s ary t o

c o mput e m aximum valu e s of s h e ar s an d m o m e nt s and i n addi ,

ti on f or l o n g gird e r s t h e valu e s at int e rm e diat e s e cti o n s t ak e n

, ,

with s u ffi c i en t fr e qu ency t o i n s ur e a g o o d d e s ign .

 A RT . 50 MO ME N T A ND S H EA R A T TH E C R I TI C A L S EC TI ON 8 9

I n o rd e r t o d e t e rmin e t he maximum val ue s it i s n e c e ss ary

'

to l o cat e t he s e cti o n s at which th e y o ccur that i s t he c ri ti c a l , ,

s ec ti on s .

F or criti c al se cti o n i s an i n fi ni te s i m al dis tanc e

s h e ar t he
fr o m one of t he p o int s of s upp o rt Thi s n e e d s n o d e m o n s tra.

ti on as an ins p e cti on of influe nc e lin es f or vari o us se cti on s

pr
,

i n cludi n g one at t he e n d furnis h es s uffi c i e nt o of .

F or m o m e n t with unif o rm l o ad it h as alr e ady b e e n s h o wn

that t he maximum m o m e nt o ccur s at the c e ntr e and e qual s
2
w L wh e n w e qual s t h e l o ad pe r f oo t an d L t he s pa n
§
.

,
.

W ith a s y st e m of c o nc e ntrat e d l o ad s t he maximum m o m e nt

may n ot o ccur at the c e n tr e th ough t he critical se cti on will
b e v e ry n e ar t he c e ntr e To tr e at thi s ca se i t i s n e c e s s ary t o
.

L —> i

FIG . 67 .

mak e u s e of the alr e ady e s tabli s h e d pri n cipl e that f or maxi

mum m o m e n t at any se cti on of a b e am u n d e r a s y s t e m o f c on
c e n t rat e d l o ad s o n e of t he l o ad s mu s t li e at t he s e cti o n If .
,

th e r e f or e it i s p os s ibl e t o d e t e rmin e t he l o cati o n of t he s ys t e m

,

o f l o ad s as th e y cr oss t he s pan s uch that t he m o m e nt at any

o n e l o ad i s a maximum t he pr obl e m can b e s olv e d by tryi n g

,

a s uffi c i ent numb e r of l o ad s and c o mputi n g t he dif f e re nt maxima .

A s w i ll app e ar lat e r t he critical s e cti o n i s always n e ar t he c e ntr e

o f t he s pan h e nc e as a rul e only l o ad s n e e d b e tri e d which
, , ,

are f o und t o giv e a maximum m o m e nt at t he c e n tr e

ig
.

Co n s id e r t he s e t o f l o ad s s h o wn in F 6 7 and le t t he pr ob .
,

le m b e t he d e t e rminati o n o f t he p os iti o n o f thes e l o ad s in o rd e r

that t he m o m e nt at P 3 may b e a maximum Le t R b e t he .

r es ultant of t he l o ad s P I t o P 5 inclu s iv e and 11 i ts di s tanc e fr o m

t he la s t l o ad P 5 .
90 C ON C E N TRA TE D LO A D SYSTEM S Am . 50

Let x di s ta n c e fr o m P 5 t o t he right s upp ort wh e n

b e th e t he
l o ad s li e i n t he pr e p e r p os iti on f o r maximum m o m e nt at P 3 .

Th e n t he m o m e nt at P 3 i s giv e n by t he e quati o n
e +1 ) L
M 3 4 R, [ ( c + d + x) ] P I (a + b) -
s .

Fo r maximum valu e of M 3 d i ff e r e ntiat e with r e s p e ct to a:

put the fi rst d e rivativ e e qual t o 0 Thi s giv e s .

dM 3 R — — — — —O
-

Z[ n + L c d 2 x] .

The r e f o r e i n o rd e r t o hn d the maximum m om e n t

,
at P3 as

t he l o ad s cr oss t h e s pan P 3 mu s t b e s o l o cat e d that

,

—11 + L — c — d — 2 s
c = 0

That i s the r e s ultan t of t he l o ad s on t h e s pan wh e n t he maxi

,

mum m om en t at P 3 o c cur s mu s t li e as far fr o m t he right s upp o rt

as t h e l o ad it s e lf li e s fr o m t he l e ft s upp o rt o r in o th e r w o rd s (
,

t he c en tr e of t h e s pan mu s t li e ha lf wa y b e tw ee n t he r es u lta n t
and the loa d .

Th e f oll o wi n g e xampl es s e rv e t o illu s trat e t he applicati o n o f

thi s pri n cipl e :
P r o ble m Comp u t e t he ab s ol u t e max i m um
. m o me n t on a simple
b e am of 1 2 — f t spa n d ue t o two wh ee l l oa ds o f
. . lb s . e ach spac e d

6 f t b e t we e n c e ntr e s
. .

FIG . 68 .

S oluti on . In t hi s c ase t he re
qual l oads he nc e i t i s i mm a
a re two e ,

te ri al which l o ad i s c on s ide re d For maximum m ome n t a t l oad (1 )

.

t he l o ads sh oul d he a s sh own i n F i g 68 t he c e n t re of t he spa n b e i n g

.
,

half w ay be twee n l oad (1 ) and t he re s ul t an t of the t w o l oads The

m ome n t a t t he fi rst l oad will t he n e ua l q .

,
750 f t .
-
lb s .
,
92 C ON C E N TR A TE D L O A D S Y STE M S AR T 5 1
.

absolute maximum m ome nt By applyi ng the crite rion f or maxi mum

.

m omen t l oads (3 ) and (4) are foun d t o give maxima b ut i t i s cle ar

, ,

t ha t t he ce n t re m ome n t wi t h load (3 ) a t the ce n t re will e qual the ce ntre

mome n t wi t h loa d (4) a t t he c e n t re an d t ha t it mak e s no dif fe re nc e
,

whe t he r we u se one or th e o the r l oad L e t t he maxim u m m ome n t .

t he re fore b e de t e rmi ne d at l oad ass umi ng l oad s (2 5 ) i nclus ive on -

t he span The p ositi on f or m aximum m ome n t will the n b e as shown

.

i n Fi g 69 and t he m ome n t at l oad (3) will e qual

.

—
(1 0 1 1 1 0
7
2

ft .
-
lbs .

21

this case it i s im p oss ible t o get m ore t han four l oads on the span
In
at on c e I f t hree l oads are on the s p an the re su l t an t c oi ncide s wi t h
.

l oad he n ce f or a maxim um f or this a ssump t i on l oad (3 ) sho uld

li e at t he c e n t re b u t t hi s i s i n c on s i s t e n t wi t h t hre e l oad s bei ng o n
,

’
10 6 f
’
— i > < — 106”
1

FIG . 69 .

th e pan henc e a maximum a t l oad (3) wi t h only t hre e l oads on the

s ,

s pan ca nn o t b e ob t ain e d a n d t he c a s e c on s id e re d give s t he abs ol ut e

,

maximum m ome n t .

The m a ximum ce n tre m ome n t f or these l oad s o cc u r s wi t h e i t he r

l oad (3) or l oad (4 ) a t t he ce n t re an d e u al s q
i x 1 01 f t lb s
.
-
.
,
Ol

so t hat in t hi s case the diff e re n c e is on ly pe r ce n t .

51 . Mom e nts and S h e ar s . F loor B ea m s and Tran s vers e

Gi rder s a pr e limin ary s t e p in t he e xaminati o n of thi s ca se
. As
th e i n fl ue n c e lin e s s h o wn in F ig s 7 0 and 7 1 hav e b e e n drawn . .

Th es e are i nfl uen ce lin e s f or s tring e r r e acti on s on fl oor b e am s .

S inc e t h e s t ri n ge rs are s impl e b e am s of a l e n gth e qual t o o n e

w

pa n e l an d are s upp o rt e d at t he e n d s up on t he fl oo r b e am s it ,

i s e vid e n t that a l o ad m o vi n g al o n g t h e brid ge caus es n o r e acti o n

on a fl oo r b e am u n l e ss it i s o n t h e s tri n g e r s i n o n e o f t he pan e l s
A RT . 51 M O ME N TS AND SH EARS 93

adj o ining t he fl oo r b e am s in que s ti o n Fi g 7 0 r e pr e s e nt s the

ig
. .

s tring e r r e acti o n s on an int e rm e diat e fl oo r b e am and F 71 .

on an e n d fl o or b e am
"

ig
.

I t w i ll b e n otic e d that th e i nfl uen c e lin e s h own in F 70 .

has t h e s am e charact e ri s tic s as t he i n fl ue n c e lin e f or m o m e n t

FG I . 70 .
— In fl u e nc e li ne f or s t rin ge r re ac t i on on fl oor b e am at b .

at . an y s e cti o n of
a s impl e e n d s upp o rt e d b e am h e nc e the d e m on
-
,

s t r a t i o n o f A r t 4 6 i s applicabl e The c o nclus i o n may th e r e f o r e

. .

b e at o nc e drawn that f or maximum r e acti o n o n an i n t e rm e diat e

fl o or b e am on e l oa d mu s t li e at t he b e am and that l o ad mu s t ,

b e on e which wh e n plac e d j u s t t o t he right of t he giv e n fl oor

,

FIG . 7 1 — In fl ue n c e li n e f o r
. t
s ri n ge r rea c t i on on fl oo r be a m at a .

b e am mak e s t he ave rage l o a d pe r f oo t on the s tri n ge r s in t he

,

right hand pa n e l gr e at e r than on th ose in t he l e ft pan e l and ,

wh e n plac e d j us t t o the l e ft of the fl oo r b e am r e v e r s e s thi s

c o nditi on For t he e n d fl oo r b e am t he maximum r e acti o n o c cur s
.
,

f o r t h e l o adin g giving maximum s tringe r r e acti on and e qual s

that r e acti o n .

I t r e main s t o c o n s id e r t he actual m o m e nt s and s h e ar s o n

94 C ON C E N TRA TE D LO A D S YS TE M S A RT . 51

t he fl oo r b e am s Curv es of m o m e n t s and s h e ars f or a fl oo r

ig
.

b e am d ue t o s tring e r r e acti on s are s h own in F 7 2 . .

B o th s h e ar an d m o m e nt are dir e ct functi on s o f t he s tring e r

r e acti on s The maximum m o m e nt mus t o ccur at on e of t he
.

s tri n ge r s
,
s inc e t he fl o or b e am i s in t h e c onditi o n o f a gird e r

l o ad e d with c onc e ntrat e d l o ad s and t he curve of s h e ar s can

cr oss t he axi s o nly at a l o ad Th e ca s e illu s trat e d i s n ot the
.

u sual on e s inc e t he s tri n ge r s are un s ymm e trically plac e d with

,

r e s p e ct t o t he c e n tr e of the fl oor b e am W e r e the fl oor b e am .

s ymm e trical t h e m aximum m o m e nt w o uld o ccur at b o th s tring e r s

and at all p o int s b e twe e n S inc e in t he actual d e s ign t he d e ad

.
,

Cu rve lof She a rs

lCu r ve o f Mo m en st
F IG . 72 .

l o ad o f t he fl oo r b e am w o ul d al so have t o b e c o n s id e r e d th e ,

maximum c ombi n e d liv e an d d e ad m om e n t f or t he o rdi n ary

s ymm e tric al fl oo r b e am o ccur s at t h e c e ntr e .

Fo r fl oo r b e am s wh e r e t he s tri n g e r s in on e o f t he adj o ining

pan e l s are n ot of e qual l e n gth that i s wh e r e t he pan e l i s a s k e w
, ,

pan e l s p e cial tr e atm e nt i s n e c es s ary I t i s u s ually advi s abl e

,
.

t o tr e at thi s ca s e by m e an s of i n fl u e n ce li n e s with o ut att e mpting

t o apply s p e cial rul es .

Th e applicati on o f t h e m e th od s j u s t giv e n t o t h e d e t e rmi n a

ti o n o f t he maximum m om e nt an d s h e ar on a fl oor b e am (or
a tra n s ve r se gird e r s uch as a cr oss gird e r in an e l e vat e d ra ilr o ad
,

s tructur e ) w i ll n o w b e illu s trat e d

,
.
96 C ON C E N TR A TE D LO A D S Y S TE MS AR T 52
.

Be f or e c oncl udi ng thi s articl e th e b egin n e r s h oul d b e c auti on e d

t o avo id t h e mi s tak e that i s fr e qu e n tly mad e o f adding t he ma xi
mum live r e acti on s on t wo adj o i n ing s trin ge r s t o de te rmin e t he
fl oor b e am l oad at a p o i n t s uch a s m i n F 7 4 The fact that th e ig . .

maximum re acti on o n a s trin ge r o c cur s wh e n one o f the h eavy

l o ad s li e s at the e n d of t h e s t ringe r i s s u ffi c i en t t o s h ow that the
s am e c on diti on can n o t e xi s t on t he adj o i n ing s t ringe r in th e n e xt

pa n e l b e cau s e s uch a c o nditi o n w ould n e c e ss itat e t wo wh e e l

,

l o ad s o c cupyi n g p ractically t he s am e plac e at the s am e tim e .

D i agra m sho w n gi lo a d s on fl o or b ea m .

FIG . 74 .

52 . Mom e nt Di a gr a m . To
av e r e p e titi on of c o mputati on s f o r
s

a giv e n s e t of c onc e n trat e d l o ad s wh e n u s e d f or varyi ng s pa n s ,

it i s cus t o mary t o u s e a m o m ent diagram up o n which c e rtai n

qua n titi es fr e qu e n tly r e quir e d and unaf fe ct e d by t he l e ngth of
s pa n s a re plac e d o nc e f o r all U p o n thi s diagram t h e l o ad s
.

are pl o tt e d t o a c o nv e ni e n t s cal e at t op and b ott o m o f s h e e t

f o r c o nv e ni e nc e i n r e adi n g and t h e qua n titi e s d es i re d are plac e d

,

b e twe e n The diagram i s u se d in c o n n e cti o n with an oth e r s h e e t

.

up on which t he s pan i s drawn t o t he s cal e u s e d i n pl o ttin g t h e

l o ad s The diagram s h o wn in F
. ig
7 5 i s of a c o nv e ni e nt f orm
.

an d i s se lf— e xpla n at o ry .

Th e u s e of t h e diagram can b e r e ad i ly u n d e r s t o o d fr o m t he
s impl e e xampl e that f oll o w s L e t t h e pr o bl e m b e t h e c o mpu
.

t at i on o f th e m o m e n t at t he s e c on d pan e l p oint fr o m t he l e ft
o f a s pa n havi n g 5 pa n e l s at 2 0 f t wh e n l o ad (8 ) i s at t h e giv e n
.

pan e l p oint . P lac e t he pl o tt e d s pan on a s e parat e s h e e t s o

that l o ad (8 ) i s o ve r pan e l p o int 2 ; t he e nd s of t he s pan wil l
th e n b e i n t he p os iti on s s h o wn at b ott o m of F i g 7 5 S inc e t he . .

d es ir e d m o m e nt e qual s t h e m o m e n t of t he l e ft r e acti o n d ue t o
l o ad s (2 ) t o (1 7) i n clu s iv e ab o ut l o ad mi n u s t he m o m e nt
o f l o ad s (2 ) t o (7 ) i n clu s iv e ab o ut t h e s am e p o i n t it i s n e c ess ary ,
 AR T . 52 M O M E N T D IAG RAM 97

MOME N T D I A G R A M—C OO PE R S LO COMO TI VE

’
E 40
'
Di s t a nc e to re su It a nt o f loa ds
6 to 1 0 m a m “ t
L oa d s m h o us a n d s
0 ! lb s p e r w h ee !
.

FIG . 75 .

M om e n t s a re i n t h o us a n d s of f oo tp
-
ound s pe r r ai l a n d a re t h e s um m a ti o ns o f t he m o

m e n t s o f all t h e lo a d s t o t h e le f t of an d i n c lud i n g t h a t u n d e r wh i c h th e y a pp e a r ab o u t th e

lo a d i n d i c a t e d i n ri gh th -
and c o lu m n s ; e g. .
, t h e v a lu e 1 02 5 6 und er lo a d 1 0 a nd o pp i t
os e

lo ad 1 6 i n ri gh t -h a n d c o lu m n i s t he m om e n t ab o u tl o ad 16 of t h e lo a d s 1 t o 1 0 i n c lu s i v e .

M o m e n t s t o r i gh t o f z i g- z a g li n e are m o m e n s t ab o u tl oad u n d er w hi c h th e y ap pe a r of

a ll lo a d s t o le f t th e reo f .

A pp li c a i o n t of D i a g ra m . To fi n d m o m en t abo u t a gi ve n lo a d , say lo a d 1 4 o f a. c e r a i n t
n um ber of lo a d s t o le f t , say 6 t o 1 3 i n c lus i v e , p ro c e e d as f o llo w s : F i nd i n d i a g ra m , m om e n t
ab ou t 14 o f a ll lo a d s t o t t t
le f ; s u b ra c f ro m i t m o m e n a b o u 5 t t o f a ll lo a d s t o le f t 5 p lus
of

t h e p ro d uc t
'

of the s um of lo a d s 1 t o 5 i n c lus i v e a nd dis t anc e f ro m lo a d 5 t o lo a d 1 4 Th e .

‘

re s ul t w ill b e t h e d es i re d m om e n t . Th e th u d
e xp r e s s i o n s o b ta i ne = 8 7 28
= 2 8 58 Th e m o m en t of th e s am e l d b oat p i t b tw
s a 14 ou a o n e e en an d 15 a nd dis t t
an

d d i n g t q u n ti t y ju t b t i n d t h p
.

1: f t f ro m
. 14 can b e f o u nd b y a o a s o a e e ro d u c t of the s um of

t h e lo ad s 6 t o 1 3 a nd t he di s an c e t 2 . S e e A rt i c le 3 4 .
98 C ON CE N TR A TE D LO A D S Y S TE M S A RT . 52

to c omput e th es e t wo qua n titi es The m o m e n t of the le ft re acti on .

e qual s t h e m o m e n t of t he l o ad s o n t he s pan ab o ut t h e ri ght r e acti on

d ivid e d by 5 pan e l l en gth s an d multipli e d by 2 pan e l l e n gth s .

Thi s e qual s 990 1 0) X 4 ] = — 1 3 , 64 3 :

5 4 57 2 . .

Th e m om en t of l o ad s (2 ) to (7 ) i n clus iv e ab o ut pa ne l p oint
2 = 28 5 1 — 1 0 X 43 242 1
e ire
.

He e t
nc h e m o m e n t d s d = 5 4 5 7 2 —24 e xpr e ss e d .
,

in unit s of th o u s and s o f p o u n d s pe r rail or t o n s pe r track .

Thi s m e th o d involv es t he applicati o n o f t he pri n cipl e s tat e d

i n A rt 3 4 which s h ould b e th o r o ughly u n d e r s t oo d
.
,
.

P R OB LEMS

32 . Comp ute the m aximum p os itive she ar i n thou s a nd s

0 . of p o un d s
at se c t i on s a , b an d c f o r t he sys t e m of m ovi n g l oad s sho w n .

b Comp ut e m a ximum m ome n t i n f oo t p o und s a t b and

.
-
c f o r t he
s ys t e m
movin g l oads
of .

0 Comp u t e unifo rm live l oa d per foo t which wo uld give a m aximum

.

mome nt at se c t i on b e qual t o t ha t foun d f o r t he sys te m of movi ng l oa d s .

20 20

4 10 0 10 0 5 6 5 5
’ '
5’
’ ’ ’ ’
5 5 5 s 5’ 5 5

Le a ds i n th o usa nd s of lb s .

S ec ti on 1: is an i nfini tesi m al di s tan ce

F 1 0'
4
i—
4
20 —
' 4 ‘ —20'
’

L oa d s i n th ou sa n d s o f lb s .

PR OB 32 . PR OB 3 3. . .

33 Draw c urve s of she ar and m ome nt f or one girde r f or the c on

.

c e n tra te d l o a d s whe n pla c e d i n t he p o s i t i o n s h own i n the fi gu re (B ri dge

‘

ha s t wo girde r s l oca te d symme trically wi t h r e sp e c t t o t he l o ads ) .

(3 ) d

l" —7 p a u e ls 1 0’ -r 1

C RO S S S ECT IO N O F BRIDGE
P ROB . 34 .
 CH A P T E R IV

B EAM DE S I G N

53 . F or m l u as I n o rd e r t o d e t e rmin e the pr op er s iz e o f
.

b e am s r e quir e d t o c arry giv e n e xt e r n al b e n din g m o m e nt s and

s h e ar s it i s n e c ess ary t o mak e u se of f ormul a s e xpr e ss ing t he
,

r e lati o n b e tw e e n t he o ut e r an d i n n e r f o rc e s S uch f o rm ula s are .

d e duc e d in all s tan dard b ook s o n m e chanic s an d are as f oll ows ,

f or b e am s of h om og e n eo u s mat e rial and of o rdinary pr op o r t i o n s :

Th e t e rm s in th e s e f o rm ula s are a s f oll o ws f or an y cr oss

s e cti o n o f t h e b e am :

M = e xt e rnal b en di n g m o m e n t at s e cti o n i n i n ch p o u n d s -
.

I = m o m e nt o f in e rtia in inch e s 4 ab o ut t h e n e utral axi s o f

t h e s e cti o n .

= d i s t an c e in inch es fr o m n e utral axi s t o an fi b

y y re .

f dir e ct fi b re s tr ess at di s tanc e y fr o m ne utral axi s .

= s t at i c al m o m e n t 1 ab o ut t h e n e utral axi s o f t he cr os s s e c
Q -

ti on of that p o rti on o f t he s e cti o n lying e ith e r ab o ve or

b el o w an axi s p arall e l t o th e n e utral axi s and at d i s
ta n c e y fr o m i t .

v = i n t e n s i ty of t h e l on gitudinal s h e ar pe r s quar e inch al on g

any plan e parall e l t o t he n e utral plan e of the b e am

and at dis tanc e 1) fr o m i t .

V = e xt e rn al s h e ar in p o u n d s at t h e se cti on .

b = w i d th o f b e am at di s ta n c e y fr o m n e utral axi s .

S ta t i c al m om e n t of a gi ve n r
a ea ab ou t a n y a xi s e q u a ls th e r
a e a m ul

ti pli e d by t he di s t ance from i ts cen t re of ra vi ty t o t ha t a xi s

g .
ART . 53 FO R M U L A S 01

The applicati on o f th e s e f o rm ula s t o actual pr obl e m s of

d es ign r e qui re s t h e s e l e cti on o f b e am s s uch that at n o s e cti on
y—
Z?
y
s hall e xc e e d t he maximum all o wabl e valu e
I
of f ,
n or

e xc ee d t he all o wabl e valu e of

I t i s e vid e nt that und e r all c o nditi on s f will attain a maxi
mum valu e f or any giv e n cr oss s e cti o n at t h e fibr e farth e s t
-

r e m o v e d fr o m t he n e utral axis s inc e y will th e n b e a maximum

,
.

F or b e am s of unif o rm width t he large s t valu e o f v f or an y giv e n

se cti o n will o ccur at t h e n e utral axi s s i n c e t he s tatical m o m e n t

Q h as i t s maximum valu e ab o ut t he n e utral axi s and b i s c o n

s tant . Th e ab s olut e maximum valu es o f f an d v f o r a b e am
a re functi o n s o f t h e e xt e rnal m o m e n t and s h e ar and o f t he ,

cr os s s e cti on of t he b e am I f t he b e am i s of c o ns tant cr o s s
-
.

se cti o n thr o ugh o ut th e n th es e maximum valu e s will o ccur at

,

t he s e cti o n wh e r e M an d V r e s p e ctiv e ly hav e m aximum valu es .

I n a b e am of variabl e s e cti on f and 1) m ay attain m axi

,

mum valu e s at s e v e ral p oint s F or gr e at e s t e c o n o my o f mat e rial

.

t he m aximum valu e s o f f an d 1) f or t he di f f e r e n t cr os s e cti o n s s -

o f t h e b e am s h o ul d b e c on s tant thr o ugh o ut i ts l e n gth but it ,

i s s e ld o m or n e v e r att e mpt e d t o o btai n thi s c onditi on s s i n c e t h e ,

additi on al la bor c o s t w ould far e xc ee d t he s aving d ue t o econom y

of m a ter i a l .

S ub s tituti n g limiti n g valu es in fo rmula th e fo ll o wing

w o rkin g f ormula i s o btain e d :

which s = m axi m u m all owabl e w orkin g valu e of f in lb s .

pe r
sq . inc h .

c = d i s t a n c e in inch e s fr o m n e utral axi s t o t h e e xtr e m e

fi b r e of any giv e n s e cti o n ,

M = ma xi mum all o wabl e b e n ding m o m e n t on t he b e a m

in inc h lb s .

F or b e am s o f r e cta n gul ar cr os s -
se cti o n having a h e i ght h
an d a width b fo rmula (1 4 ) b e c om e s
1 02 BEA M D ES I G N A RT . 54

The maximum value o f 1) f or b e am s o f r e ctangula r cr oss se cti o n -

i s giv e n by f ormula (1 6) in which A = ar e a o f t h e cr os s s e cti on :

54 Me th o d of De s i gn
. F r e qu ently the d e s ign o f b e a m s re quir es
.

m e r ely t he applicati on of f o r m ula and the s h e ari n g s tr ength

n ee d n ot b e c on s id e r e d I n t he c a se o f c omparativ ely s h o r t
.

b e am s h o w e v e r t he s h e aring s tr e n gth i s m o r e imp ortant and

, ,

s h o uld b e inv es tigat e d I n w oo d e n b e am s thi s i s es p e cially

.

imp o rtant s inc e t he r es i s tanc e of w oo d t o l on gitudinal s h e ar

,

i s s mall and s uch b e am s may fa i l by s plitti n g l on gitudinally .

Th e d es ign of r e inf o rc e d c oncr e t e b e am s al s o r e quir es t he appli

cati on of f ormula
5 5 W ood e n Bea m s
. I n s e l e cting w ood e n b e am s car e s h o ul d
.

b e tak e n t o u se c o mm e rcial s iz e s only Th e f oll o wing tabl e .

giv es s uch s iz e s :

S pruc e
2 x 3, 2 X 4, 2 X 2 X12 .

3 X 4, 3X
4 X 4, 4 X 6, 4 X 4 x 12 .

6 X 6, 6 X 8,
8 X 8, 8 X 10, 8 X 12 .

1 2 f t to 22 f t
. . are o rdinary l e ngth s .

23 f t t o 2 6 f t
. . are l e ss c o mm o n .

27 f t to 32 f t
. . are obtain e d with d i ffi c ult y .

Y ll w
e o P in e : S iz e s ab out t he s am e as f or s pruc e al s o
,

2 x14, 2 x16 .

e x 14 , 3 >< l6 .

4 xi 4, 4 X16 .

ex14,
8 X 14 , 8 x 1 6 .

1 0 x 1 4 , 1 ox i e .

1 2 x 14 , i 2 x1 s .

l4 x 1 4 , 1 4 x 1 5 .

1exi e .
1 04 BEA M D E S I G N A RT . 57

57 Exam pl es of B eam D e s i gn
. .

P ro ble m De s ign woo de n an d s t ee l be am s f or 1 2 f t span

. Be am s -
. .

t o b e s upp orte d at e nd s a n d t o b e l oade d wi t h a t o t al un iform l oad

(liv e a nd d e ad ) of 1 000 lb s pe r foot A ll owabl e uni t s t re sses t o b e
F
. .

t hose given i n A rt 1 8 f or s t ee l an d ye ll ow pi ne
. ift y pe r ce n t o f t o t al .

l oad to b e adde d i n the c ase of the s tee l be am t o allow f or impac t .

S olu ti on Maxim um mome n t i s a t c e n t re o f be am a nd e qual s

.

1
12 x f t lb s .
-
.

Maximum she a r is a t e nd of be am an d e qual s 6000 lb s .

1
Fo r woode n be am M = s bh2
1 300 bh
€
1
,

t = 99 7

nh nh n hb
.

Ei t he r 6 X 1 4— m val ue
t hat r q ir d
an 8 X 1 2- i c ,
i c ,
or -
i c ea ha s a of

bh gre a t e r t h an
z e u e a n d m ay b e u s e d .

The are a o f cr os s s e c t i on n ee de d t o c a rry s he a r m

-
ay be de t e rmi ne d
by Eq (1 6) a nd i s give n by th e followi ng e xpre s sio n :
.

000
75 s q i n s . .

24 0

Evide n t ly the 4 X 1 6— i nch be am i s t oo s m all , and o ne o f the o the r be ams

sh ould b e se l e c t e d The 6 X 1 4 i nch i s the c he ape s t a nd s hould b e chose n
-
.

if c ondi t i on s p e rmi t The l onge r side should always b e pl ace d p ar alle l

.

t o th e pl a ne o f the l oads , i e , ve r t ic al if t he l o ads are ve r t ic al

. . This was .

2
the p os i t i on a s sume d i n solvi ng f or bh , a n d n one o f t he b e am s s e le c t e d
would b e str ong e n ough if not s o place d .

The b e aring are a on t he ab u tme n t sh o uld a ls o be de t e rmi ne d I f the .

re ac t ions we re uniformly dis trib u t e d ove r t he be ari ng s urfa ce t he re

would be n ee de d
6000
260
s q 1 ns. . To a ll ow f or u ne q ua l d i s t ri b u t i on
5 0 pe r c e nt will be adde d to t his , gi vi n g sq . i ns . Th e 6 X 1 4 i nc h ~

i ns .

be am wo ul d t he re fore ne e d to e x te nd o r , s a y, 6 i ns . o ve r t he
6
ab u tme n t .

F o r t he s t e e l be am t he mome n t aft e r allowa n c e f or imp a c t is made

f t lb s -
. .

I X 12 —
20 7
0

The t e rm is k no w n as t he se c tio n m o d u us l . V al u es of t his f or

vari ous be ams are gi ve n i n t he handbook s i ss ue d by s tee l m a k e rs a nd

t he li gh t e s t b e am havi ng a m od ul us e ual t o o r gre a t e r t h a n t he ab o ve q ,

fi gure s hould b e s e l e c te d A l o i n ch I be am we i ghi ng 2 5 lb s pe r foo t

.
- -
, .

h a s s u ffi c i e n t s t re ngt h an d will b e chos e n A 9 i nch 2 5 lb be a m i s als o .

-
,
-
.

s t r o n g e n ough b ut a s t hi s i s j u s t as e xpe n s ive as t he 1 0 i n ch be am

,
-
A RT . 57 EXA M P LE S O F BE A M D E S I G N 1 05

an d n ot so s tr ong the 1 0 i nch be am should b e s e le c t e d provide d c ondi

,
-
,

t i ons d o n ot re quire t he use of a shallowe r be am .

The di s t rib u t i on of she ar ove r an I be am i s mor e c omplicate d t ha n -

i n a r e c t a ngular be am I t will howe ve r b e show n la t e r t h at t he

.
, ,

s he ar i s prac t ically all carri e d by the we b ove r which i t i s di s t rib u t e d

almo s t u nifo rmly Maki ng t hi s a ss ump t i on t he are a re quire d i n t he

.

web would be of a s quare in ch ,

and as t he a c t ual are a i n t he

be am s e le c t e d i s far i n e xc e ss of t hi s the be am i s e vi de ntly s t r ong e n o ugh

t o c a rry the she ar an d he n c e may b e u se d w i t h safe t y .

The s i z e s se l e c t ed we r e b ase d up o n t he as s umpt i o n tha t th e b e am wou ld

have n o rive t or bol t hol es a n d no o t h e r red u c t ions i n th e cros s se c t ion ar ea -
.

I f such r e du c t i on s o cc u r the val ue of I sho uld b e c o rre c t e d t o all ow f or

the r e d u cti on i n se c t i on an d the val ue of 0 al so chan ge d if t he p os i t i on
,

of the n e u t ral axi s b e shi fte d by t he change i n ar e a Me t hods of ma k ing .

s uch c o rr e c t i on s wi ll b e give n i n f ull i n Chap t e r V

A n o t he r imp or t ant e leme n t t o b e c ons ide r e d i n s e l e c t i n g be am s

i s tha t o f ve r t ical an d h ori z o n t al s t i ff ne ss This will b e c o nside re d .

i n A rt 5 9 i t b e i ng a ss ume d f or t he pr e s e n t t h a t t he be am s d e si gne d
.
,

i n t hi s ar t icle are s upp or t e d la t e r ally whe re ne c e ss a ry an d t ha t t h e ir ,

ve r t ic al defle cti on i s n ot e xc e ssive .

P roble m .De s i gn woode n an d stee l be am s f or a si n gl e trac k e le ctric

railway bridge of 1 2 f t span carryi ng the e le c t ric car shown i n Fi g 76
-
. . .

FIG . 76 .

A s sume trac k (t ie s r ail s e tc ) t o we i gh 4 00 lb s pe r line al foo t (2 00 lb s

, ,
. . .

p e r f o o t pe r rail ) a n d e a ch b e am t o we i gh 4 0 lb s pe r li ne a l f oo t
,
A ll ow . .

a nc e f or impac t t o b e 2 5 pe r c e n t U n i t s t re sse s a s i n A rt 1 8
. . .

S oluti on :
MA X I MU M MO ME N T MA X I M U M S H E A R
De ad
é 12 X 12 f t lb s
.
-
. De a d 24 0 X 6 1 , 4 4 0 1b s .

Live X 1 5 , 8 3 0 1b s .

Imp ac t Imp act

To t al m ome n t = Total she ar =

S teel B eam . Fo r s te e l be am assu m i ng n o r e d u c t io n d u e t o b o l t h ole s

I 5 1 3 00 X 1 2
,

W e b a re a ne e de d f or she ar = s q 1 ns
m ®
. .
1 06 BEA M DE S I G N AR T . 58

A 1 2 -i n .
-
large en ough f or b e ndin g an d as i t h as a w eb
I 4 0 lb s i s .

a re a s q i n s i ts s t r e n gt h i n s h e ar i s far
of
gr e a te r t han n e c e ss ary
q
. . .

A s t he ac t ual we ight of the be am e uals t h a t o ri gin ally a ss um e d

n o r e c omp u t a t ion i s n e c e ss ary A c onsi de rable e rr or mi gh t howe ve r
.
, ,

have bee n made i n t he origin al ass ump t i on wi t ho ut re q uiri ng a re c om

p ut a t i on s i nce the mome n t an d she ar due t o the we igh t of be am i s a
ve ry small pe rc e n t age of t he t ot al m ome nt an d shear .

Wooden B eam For woode n be am n e gle c t i ng impact

.
, ,

4 1 , 9 00 X 1 2 1 3 00 bh
2
bh2 = 2 3 1 0 .

3
Ar e a n ee de d f o r s he a r — 216 s q 1 ns
. .

2 1 20

One be am 1 4 x 1 6 i n s wi t h 1 6 i ns . ide Ve r t ic al fulfi ls b o t h re q ui re

. s

men t s and wi ll be chose n Its . wei ght i s s omewha t i n e xc e ss of t h at

as sume d b ut a s i t s s t ren gt h i s als o i n e xce ss of t he r e quir eme nts n o
revi si on nee d b e m ade .

58 . Comp os ite Bea m s The ca s es j u s t tr e at e d are of s impl e

.

b e am s o nly but it s om e tim es happ en s that c omp os it e b e am s

,

are u s e d as f or e xampl e a s o call e d fi i t c h b e am c ons i s tin g

,
-
of -

t w o w oo d e n b e am s an d a s t ee l plat e b olt e d t o ge th e r an d us e d
a s o n e b e am A n oth e r e xampl e i s that o f t w o b e am s o f un e qual
.

s iz e laid s id e by s id e F or b oth of th es e ca s es t h e l o ad carri e d

.

b y e ach m e mb e r i s i n pr o p orti on t o t h e pr oduct of i ts m om e nt

of in e rtia and m o dulu s of e la s ticity and c an b e e a s ily c o mput e d .

S till a n oth e r ca se i s that of on e b e am laid o n t h e t op of an oth e r ,

but n ot riv e t e d t o i t S uch a b e am i s of s lightly gr e at e r s tr ength

.

than t w o b e am s laid s id e by s id e ; t he add i t i onl s tr e n gth i s d u e ,

h owe v e r t o fricti on b e tw ee n th e b e am s an d s h ould b e n e gl e ct e d

,

in d e s ign I f t h e b e am s are riv e t e d t oge th e r with a s uffi c i ent

.

numb e r o f riv e t s t o carry t he l on gitudinal s h e ar which w ould

e xi s t at t h e plan e of c o ntact a ss uming t h e b e am t o b e s olid
, ,

th e y may b e fi gu re d as on e b e am with a cr os s -se cti on c o rr e

s pon d i n g t o th at of t he c o mbi n ati on R e inf o rc e d c on cr e t e .
-

b e am s f orm t he m os t i mp orta n t cla ss of c o mp os it e b e am s but ,

th ese w i ll n ot b e c ons id e r e d in this b ook F or a full dis c uss i on .

o f th es e b e am s t h e s tud e n t i s r e f e rr e d t o t h e valuabl e an d

th o r ough tr e atm e nt of s uch b e am s in e ith e r Con cr e t e Plain

” “
,

and Re inf orc e d by Tayl or and Th omp son o r P rin cipl es of

”
, ,

R e inf orc e d Concr e t e Cons tructi on by Tur n e aure an d Maur e r ,

.

5 9 S tifi n e ss
. B e am s a re s e ld o m u s e d f o r bri d ge s pan s e xc e e d
.
~

ing 3 0 f t i n l e n gth s i n c e ab ov e that s pan t he rati o of l e ngth t o

.
,
 CHAP T E R V

P LATE G I R DE R D ES I G N

60 . pl at e gird e r i s e s s e ntially an I
P l ate Gi rd ers D e fi n e d . A
b e am m ad e n o t out of o n e s olid pi e c e of m e t al but o u t of a n u m
ig
, ,

b e r of pi e c e s riv e t e d t o g e th e r F 3 s h o w s a plat e gir d er

ig
. .

bri dg e and F , 7 7 s h o w s t h e cr os s s e cti o n of a typical pl at e

.
-

gird e r .

P lat e gird e r s a r e rar e ly mad e of gr e at e r d e pth tha n 1 0 f t 6 i n s . .

C ov er p la t es

F 1 G 7 7 — Cro ss - sec t i on
. . of a FI G 78 — C r os s-s ec t i o ns
. . of

Pla te Gi rd e r . Two B ox G ir d ers .

o wi n g difficulti e s in tran s p ortati on by rail an d a l e n gth of 1 0 0

to ,

f t i s s e l d o m e xc ee d e d f or th e s am e r e a s o n alth o ugh gir d e r s o f 1 2 5

.

f t in l e n gth h av e b e e n m ad e and s hipp e d in o n e pi e c e

. O c ca .

s i o n ally plat e gir d e r s are mad e i n s e cti o n s and s plic e d in t h e fi e ld ,

but thi s e xp e di e n t i s n ot c o mm o n and s h ould n ot b e ad o pt e d

e xc e pt t o m e e t s o m e unu s ual c o n diti o n .

A plat e gir d e r with m o r e tha n o n e w e b i s call e d a b ox gird e r .

It i s u s e d in s ituati ons wh e r e gr e at s tr e n gth with limit e d d e pth i s

r e quir e d .

6 1 P l a te G i rd e r W eb Th e ory P lat e gird e r w e b s may b e pr o

. .

1 08
A RT .
61 P L A TE G I R D E R W E B TH E OR Y 1 09

p o rti o n e d on th e a s s umpti o n that all th e tran s v e r s e s h e ar i s

unif o rmly di s tribut e d o v e r th e n e t ar e a of t h e w e b an d th at thi s ,

may b e t ak e n as thr e e f o urth s t h e gr os s ar e a with o ut mat e rial

-

e rr o r . Thi s m ay b e e xpr e s s e d by th e f o ll o wi n g f o rmula i n which

A ro ss ar e a o f w e b V = t ot al e xt e r n al sh e ar and v = all o w
g
z
, ,

abl e i n t e n s ity of i n t e rnal s h e ar .

4V
2

35 (1 6 a )
Th at t h e ab o v e f o rm ula i s e s se n tially c o rr e ct i s s h o wn by t h e
f o ll o wi n g d e m on s trati o n :
Le t Fi g 80 r e pr ese nt t he s qu a r e pri s m a bcd fr o m t he w e b
ig
.
, ,

o f t h e plat e gird e r s h o wn in F 7 9 and le t it b e a s s um e d that

.

FIG 79 . . FIG 8 0 . .

th e r e are s h e aring f o rc e s acting o n all f o ur s urfac e s and dir e ct ,

s tr e s se s on t he t w o v e rtical s urfac e s .

Le t t = it s t h i c kn e s s = t h i c kn e ss of w e b .

s = i nt e n s i t y of t h e s h e ari n g f o rc e o n t h e s urfac e a b
h .

= i nt e n s i t
’
of t he s h e aring f o rc e o n s urfac e c d
s
h y .

s = i nt e ns i t y o f s h e ari n g f o rc e on s urfac e bd
v .

= i ntens i t
’
s v y o f s h e ari n g f orc e o n s urfac e a c .

f int e n s ity o f t he dir e ct s tr es s o n s urfac e bd (a s s um e d

c ompr e s s i on f or c o n v e ni e nc e) .

= i nt e ns i t
’
f y o f t he dir e ct s tr ess on s urfac e a c (al s o
c ompr e s s i on) .

A pplicati o n o f t he e quati o n s of e quilibrium giv e t h e f o ll o wi n g

res ult s :
s vtd a = é ’
sv td x . sv = 3v
’
.

—
f) .

(s h td x ) Ax Ax 3h = sv +

A s t he di s tanc e Ax b e c om e s i n fi ni t e s i m al appr o ach es

z e r o h e nc e at
,
t he limit
1 10 P LA TE G I R DE R D ES I G N A R T 62.

I t th e r e fo r e f oll ows that th e int en s ity of the h o riz o ntal s h e ar i n

t he web o f a plat e gird e r at an y p o i n t o n a v e rtical plan e e qual s t h e
i n t e n s ity at t he s am e p o i n t on a h o riz o ntal plane .

S inc e t h e i n t e n s iti e s of t he v e rtical an d h o riz ontal s h e ar s

are e q ual it i s e vid e n t that t h e di s tributi o n o f t he v e rtical s h e a r
,

c an b e d e t e rmi n e d by t he applic ati on of f o rmula fr o m

W hich it at o nc e f oll o w s that t he v e rtical s h e ar i s di s tribut e d
o v e r t h e w eb W ith appr o ximat e unif o rmity s inc e Q i s t h e o nly

t e rm i n t h e e quati on aff e ct e d by t he di s tanc e fr o m t he ne utral

axi s and i t s valu e chan ge s much m or e s l owl y than d oes th e
,

di s ta n c e fr o m t he axi s The num e rical e xampl es giv e n in A rt

.
.

6 4 s h o w t h e d e gr e e o f appr o ximati o n o f thi s a ss umpti o n f o r

c e rtain typical gird e r s .

I n many gird e r s t he thickn es s of the web i s d e t e rmine d by

imp os in g r e s tricti on s up on i ts minimum thickn e s s t o pr e v e nt
u n du e c o rr os i on F or railr o ad bridge s it i s c o mm on t o s p e cify
.

that the w eb s hall b e n ot l e ss than thr ee e igh ths inch thick - .

62 Pl ate Gir de r F l a ng e s
.
,
Th e ory F o rmula (1 4 ) appli e s t o
. .

gird e r s as w e ll as b e am s I t i s h ow e v e r in inc o nv e ni e nt f orm

.
, ,

f o r u s e and may b e r e plac e d in practic e f or s ymm e tric al plat e

gird e r s by a l e ss accur at e but m o r e e a s ily appli e d f o rmula Th e .

f o rmula r e c o mm e nd e d f or plat e gird e r fl an ge s i s as f o ll ow s :

1
th 1 1
12
The d e rivati on o f thi s f ormula i s as f oll ow s
Le t A = n e t ar e a in s quar e i n ch es o f t e n s i o n fl a n ge (thr o u gh
riv e t h ol e s) .

h = d i s t an ce in inch e s b e tw e e n c e n tr e s o f gravity o f
t he t w o fl an ge s .

s all o wabl e u n it s tr es s i n b e n ding

= .

t = t h i c kn e ss of w e b in i n ch e s .

h 1 = d e pt h o f w e b in inch e s .

M = maximum b e n di n g m o m e nt on giv e n s e cti on in inch

p ound s
I = t o tal m om e n t of in e rtia o f gr o s s cr o ss s e cti o n ab o ut -

n e utral axi s .

A 1 = gr os s ar e a of e ach flang e .

TTh es e f o rm u la s sh o u ld n o t b e u s e d f o r u n sym m e t ri c a l gi rd e rs no r f o r
ve ry s h a llo w gi r d e r s w i t h h e a v
y fl a n ge s , w h e r e t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n c e n t r e s
o f gra v i t y o f fl a n e s i s m u c h le s s th a n t h e t o t a l d e th o f t h e
g p gi r d e r, nor f or
o t h er a b n o r m al c a s e s .
112 P LA TE G I R D E R D E S I G N AR T 62 .

it e qual gi v e s a s mall e r valu e f or A I than i s r e quir e d The .

e rr o r i n making thi s a s s u mpti o n i s lar ge s t i n s hall o w gird e r s

havi n g larg e fl anges as may b e s ee n i n t he n um e rical e xampl e s

giv e n lat e r .

B y maki n g t h e ab o v e appr o ximati o n t h e f o rm ula b e c o m es

Al l
sh 6

F or mat e rial in c o mpr e s s i o n it i s cu s t o mary t o mak e n o

d e ducti o n what e v e r f or riv e t h ol e s s i n c e it i s a s s um e d that t he
riv e t which i s driv e n whil e ho t an d o rdinarily u n d e r hi gh pr e s
s ur e fi lls t h e h ol e s o c o mpl e t e ly a s t o b e c o m e an int e gral p o rti o n

o f t h e mat e rial This i s o p e n t o s o m e d o ubt i n t he ca s e of

.

thick mat e rial 0 1 hand —driv e n rive t s an d may b e vitiat e d at

'

a n y s e cti o n by a l o ose riv e t but f or m o s t ca s e s thi s a s s umpti o n

,

i s pr obably a r e a s o n abl e on e F o r s e cti o n s in t e n s i o n f ull all o w

.

a n c e f or riv e t h ol e s mu s t b e mad e s inc e u n d e r n o circum s tanc es

,

can t e n s i on b e tran s mitt e d thr o ugh a rive t h ol e .

Th e la s t t e rm in f o rmula (1 7 ) r e pr e s e nt s t h e b e nding r e s i s t
a n c e o f t he w eb A s th e r e are u s ually v e rtical r o ws of riv e t s
.

i n t he w e b f o r fl oo r b e am c o nn e cti o n s s ti ff e n e r a n gl e s e t c
-
,
an d ,
.
,

as th es e may o c cur at t h e se cti o n c arrying maximum m o m e nt

th e y mu s t b e c o n s id e r e d .

To all o w f o r s uch h ol e s it m ay b e a s s um e d that a v e rtical

,

r o w o f h o l e s o n e i n ch in diam e t e r and 2 3 } inch es apa rt may o c cur

i n t he t e ns i o n half o f t h e w eb
-
This w ould d e cr e a s e t h e m o m e nt
.

o f in e rtia by f f appr o ximat e ly thu s makin g t h e la s t te rm in ,

t he e q uati o n 3 ? th l o r s ay thl
9
.

A ll o wa n c e f o r riv e t h ol es i n t h e t e n s i o n fl an ge mu s t al so b e
mad e Thi s may b e d on e by s ub s tituting A f o r A I which i s
.
,

i n r e ality e quival e nt t o p r oviding f or riv e t h o l es in b oth

fl an ges This may s e e m e xc e ss iv e but s om e e xc es s i s n e c e ss ary
.
,

s i n c e t h e se cti o n h as b ee n c on s id e r e d as s olid and wi th i t s n e utral

axis at mid h e ight wh e r e a s i n r e ality t he i n fl ue n c e o f t he rive t

-
,

h ol e s in t h e t e n s i o n p o rti on i s t o s hift t he n e utral axi s fr o m t he

c e ntr e th us dimin i s hing t h e m o m e nt o f in e rtia an d incr e a s i n g
,
'

t h e di s ta n c e f rom n e ut ral axi s t o e xtr e m e fib re Th e s ub s t i t u .

ti o n o f A f or A I i s h o w e v e r m o r e than s u ffi c i e n t f o r thi s pur

, ,

p os e an d h elp s to dimini s h t he e rr o r mad e in placi n g

% = u n ity .
AR T . 63 DE G EE R O F A P P RO X I MA TI O N 1 13

Thi s m odi fi c ati on give s the f o ll o wing f o rmula whic h i s ad opt e d

,

by many e n gi n ee rs :

The la s t t e rm in thi s e quati o n r e pr e s e n t s the re s i s tanc e of

t he w e b t o b e ndi n g Owi n g t o t he d i ffi c ulty i n s ati s fact o rily
.

s plicing t h e w e b ma n y e n i n ee r s di s r e ard i t s r e s i s ta n c e t o b e ndi n g

g g
an d u se t h e f o rmula

M
'
sh

I t i s b eli e v e d h o w e ve r that ampl e pr o vi s i o n h as b e e n m ad e

, ,

in f o rmula (1 7 ) f or i n s uffi c i e nt we b s plic es in l o ng gird e r s by

putti n g t he t e rm f or we b r e s i s tanc e as 1 17 th .

The a ss umpti on s m ad e in d e rivi n g f o rmula (1 7 ) a re of s uc h

a ch aract e r as t o mak e t he f o rm ula inac curat e f or gird e r s havi n g
gre at d e pth i n pr op o rti o n t o t h e ir l en gth S uch gir d e r s are n ot .

c o mm o n in bridge s but are s o m etim es u s e d in arc hit e ctural w o rk ,

and s h oul d b e s olv e d by the dir e ct applicati o n o f f ormula

I t s h o uld b e s tat e d furth e rm o r e t hat e xp e rim en tal kn o wl e d ge
, ,

o f th e di s tributi o n o f s tr e s s in plat e gird e r s i s i n s u ffi c i e nt t o

p e rmit a c on fi rm ati o n of t h e ac curacy o f f o rmula s o f t h e typ e
of F o rmulas of thi s charact e r hav e h ow e v e r b ee n in u se , ,

f o r many y e ar s with s ati s fact o ry r es ult s and may w e ll b e c o n ,

s i d e re d as s afe wo rki n g f o rmula s F o r mula (1 7) i s m o r e c on

.

s e rvat i v e than that u s ually e mpl o y e d .

63 De gr ee of App r oxi m ati on of Flange F o rm ula

. I n o rd e r .

t o sh ow t he d e gr e e of app r o ximati on of f o rmula in c om

pari s o n with f o rmula t h e pr o bl e m s which f o ll o w hav e b e e n
ins e rt e d .

P r o ble m Comp ute all owabl e be ndi ng mome nt , M f or the girder

.

s ho wn i n F i g 8 1 A ss ume n o i n te rme dia te w e b s t i ff e ne rs , a nd he n c e

. .

o nly one rive t h ol e (fla nge rive t) i n te n si on half of girde r A llowable .

un i t s t re ss = s .

A llowa ble m om en t by bea m f or m u la .

A re a i n sq . i ns .

Top angl e s 2 6 X 4 at
gros s
,

B o tt om a ngle s 2—6 X 4 Xi
”
vv at —O S) ne t
, .
,

We b , ne t

To t a l ef e f c t ive a rea of cr oss -

se c t i on sq . i ns .
1 14 P LA TE G I R DER DES I G N A RT 6 3
.

Di s t an c e of ce ntre of gravity of cross -

se c t i on above axis my

in .

h = 3 0 2 5 i ns
. . i ns = 2 6 2 7 i n s
. . .

Le t Ixy= m ome n t of i ne r t ia of gros s s e ction ab ou t axi s icy an d 1 0 g .

mome n t of i ne r tia of a ny pie c e abo u t an a xis parallel to xy a n d pas si ng

thro ugh t he c e ntre of gravi t y of t he pi e c e .

FIG . 81 . FI G . 82 .

1 33, of w e b s = 1
T2
-
w
} -
3 O-30 -3 O

I z y of a ngles =1c .
g of
.
angl es + 4 xl7 4 .

TO t ai I zzy ,

Ded u c t f or fl ange ri ve t h ol e 1 % x 1 X
I of n et s e c ti on ab o u t axis xy
To ob t a in I f or ne t s e c t i on ab out axi s pa ss i n
g t hr ough c e ntre
gravi t y de d uc t ,

I o f n et s e c t io n a b o u t ne u t ra l a xi s

I 4 1 99
c i ns .

M= s
c

A llowa ble M om en t by F orm u la By tran s forma ti o n of te rms in

t he fo rmul a ,
M i s foun d t o b e give n by t he e xpre ss i on

M = (A (3 ) 2 5 63 .

S in ce t he
allowable mome n t a s c omp u t e d by formu la
t han t hat give n by t he be am form ula t he formula f or thi s
’

t he safe s ide The appro xi ma ti on i s ab ou t 4 pe r c e nt

. .
 P LA TE G IR D E I D ES I G N A RT 63
1 16 L .

He n c e from ce n tre of gravity of angle s to c en tre of gravi t y of fl an ge

=
h 30 25
” .

A ll owan c e f or rive t holes 1 X H X 2 ; 3 sq . ins , he n ce ce ntre of

gr a vi t y of cros s -
s e c t i on ab ove axis xy

3 X (1 5 % 1
4 )
51
A llowa ble M om ent by B ea m F or m u la .

I W o f w eb
I m , o f a ngl es
I xy of pl a t es 2 0 x (1 59 2

T ot al I o f gross secti on ab o u t a xi s xy
Ded u ct f o r rive t h ol es 3 X 7 09
Corre c t io n f o r I abo u t neu t ral axis 41
'

cti on abo u t tral axis —8 603

I of n e t s e ne u

1 8 60 3
0 1 6 44- 0 9
fil = 5 05 3 .

A llowa ble M om ent by F or m u la (1 7)

M h h = () = 5 1 1 4s
( + 1 5 1)
A 1
t s 3 . .

H e re t he form ula e rrs on t he un s afe s i de , t he approxi m a t i on

s ligh t ly ove r on e per c e n t .

FIG 8 3 . .

P roblem Comp u t e all owabl e be n din g mome nt f o r gi rd e r s hown

.

i n Fi g 8 3 A ss ume a ve r t ic a l row of rive t s 3 i n s c e n t re t O c e nt re

‘

. .
.
, ,

at the p oi n t of m axi m um m ome n t a n d t hat all fl an ge ri v e t s s hown

,

o ccur i n t h e s am e cro ss se c t i o n as the w e b r i v e t s

-
.
ART 6 3
. DE G EE R O E A PP RO X I M A TI ON
. 1 17

1 web
2 t op angle s 6
Comp os i ti on of girde r 3 top plate s
2 bo tt om angle s
3 b o t t om plat e s

A llowa ble M om en i by B eam F or m u la .

A re a i n i ns
— ” at
sq . .

Top angle s 2 6 X6 X i , gros s

—2 X
,

B o tt om angle s 2 6 X 6 at -
ne t
”
,

—
Top pl a te s 3 1 6 X % at 1 0
, gross
B ot t om plate s 3 at (1 0
, n et

We b r i ve t h o l e s i n
lowe r half) ne t

To t al ef e f c t ive are a of cross -

se cti on sq . i ns .

Comp u t a ti o n of h .

Bac k angles t o c entre of gravity of angles

of i ns .

Mome n t of pl a t e s ab out c g of an gle s . .

G r oss are a of fl ange

h = 90 5 .

Mome n t ab ou t my of rive t holes in te n s i o n half of gir d e r i s as foll ows :

We b
Fla n ge 1 4 x4 3 i

Di s t an ce o f ne u t ral a x s a b o vc xy=
i
Maximum val ue of c

Ixy f or w e b
I“ , f o r a ngl e s
= 1 1 2 —
1
'

I, y f or pla t e s X SOX

I o f gr o ss se cti o n ab o u t axi s xy
Ded u c t f o r rive t hol es ,
1
-

I o f n e t s e c t i o n ab ou t axi s xy
Co rre c t i o n f o r I ab o u t n e u t ral axi s
I 0 1 ne t s e cti on ab ou t neu t ral axi s
}
3 992 M = 3 9 92 8
c
1 18 P LA TE G I RD E R D ES I G N AR T . 64

A llowa ble M om eni by F orm ul

a (1 7)
A — th 8 h 90 4 2 s = 3 96 7 8
IV ( + f 3 ,) . .

In t hi s c ase th e a ppr oxi ma t ion e quals about o n e- half per ce nt on the

f
sa e s ide .

The xample s t hat have be e n give n show t ha t form ula (1 7) give s f or

e

o rd i n ary gird e r s a ve ry cl ose appr o xi ma t i on t o t he v al ue ob t ai ne d by t he

sI
o rdi nary b e am form ula M It i s m uch m ore c onve n ient to us e ,
i c
s n e
0

by i t the re qui re d fl ange are a c a n b e di re c t ly c ompute d aft e r t he web ,

i s de t e rmi ne d by e s t i mat i ng t he val ue h which c an b e d o ne by t h e e xpe

,

ri e n c e d c om put or wi t h li tt l e e
rr or The ac t ual applicati on of the formula
.
,

t o the des ign of a girde r wi ll b e s hown la t e r .

64 . Degree ti on of Sh ear F or m u l a To sh ow the

of Appr oxi m a .

d e gr ee of appr o xim ation inv olve d in t he ord inary a ss umpti o n tha t

t he v e r tical s h e ar i s d is tribut e d unifo rmly o v e r t he n e t ar e a o f w e b ,

t he maximum int e n s ity o f s h e ar will b e c omput e d f or the gird e rs

in t he las t articl e Thi s o c cur s at t he n e utral axi s and will b e
.

c omput e d in e ach ca se u s i n g f or Q th e s tatical m o m en t of t he por

,

ti on of t h e gr oss ar e a of t h e gird e r ab o v e thi s axi s alth o ugh t h e ,

s am e num e ric al r e s ult w o uld b e o btain e d by c o n s id e rin g t h e po r

ti on b e l o w t h e axi s s inc e t h e s tatic al m o m e nt of t h e e ntir e s e cti o n

ab o ut t h e n e utral axi s e qual s o zer .

Problem . Compu t e
ma ximu m i n tens i t y of she ar i n the we b of the
gi rd e r s h ow n i n F i g 8 1 as s u mi ng a v e r t i cal row o f w e b rive t s t o o cc u r
.
,

a t s e c t i on of maxi mu m sh e ar .

S oluti on .
Q f or
Q f or w eb X

“
Tot al val ue of Q
10
F form u1a
—V
ro m (1 3) v 0 8 03 V

(Se e p age val u e o f I )

1 1 5 f or .

B y t h e a ss ump t io n t h a t t h e s he ar is f rmly dis trib ut ed over

un i o

three four ths the gros s area o f t he

-
w eb t h e foll owi ng r es ul t i s obtai ne d :

Th e v al ue thus obt ai n e d i s on t he s afe s id e by ab o u t t e n pe r c e n t .

P r oble m Comp u t e m aximum i n t e ns i t y o f s he a r i n t he we b of the

.

gird e r s h o w n i n F i g 8 3 , . ass umi ng tha t no c o ve r pl a t es occ u r a t se c t i o n of

maxi mum s hear .
1 20 P LA TE G I R DER D ES I G N A RT . 65

b e am s t he s h e ar may b e tr e at e d in s om e what
F or I -
t he s am e
m a nn e r The valu e s o btai n e d f or a 1 0 i h I 2 5 lb s
.
-
.
, .
pe r f oo t ,

are as f o ll o w s a s s umi n g n o riv e t h o l e s in c r o s s s e cti on :

,
-

B y c o mm o n a s s umpti on ,
v= O 4 SOV
. .

The rr o r in thi s cas e i s on the s afe s id e but had the gr oss we b

e ,

ar e a b e e n u se d t he e rr o r w ould hav e b e e n on t h e u n safe s id e .

F or a 24 i n I 8 0 lb s per f o o t t he c o rr e s p ondi n g valu e s w o ul d

-
.
, .
,

b e 0 97 V and 1 1 1 V t he e rr o r i n thi s c a s e b e i n g al s o o n t h e s afe

. .

s id e .

A s it i s se ld o m that t he s h e ar in I b e am s i s a c ontr olli n g fact o r -

in th e d es ign thi s app r o ximati on i s n ot of gr e at imp o rtanc e F or .

ca s es whe re t h e s h e a r c ontr ol s a lib e ral all owan c e s h o uld b e mad e

,

in d e t e rmi ning the w eb thick n e s s o r e l s e t he actual s tr es s s h o uld ,

b e d e t e rmin e d by t he m o r e e xact f o rmula .

65 All ow a nc e f or R iv e t Hol e s
. I n t he d e s ign of gird e r s it i s .

n e c es s ary t o make d ue all o wa n c e f or t he t e n s i on fi an ge rive t -

h ol es i n advanc e of t he c ompl e ti on of t he d e tail e d drawin gs .

No accurat e rule f or d o i n g thi s can b e giv e n s i n c e t he actual

r e ducti o n of s tr e ngth by riv e t h ol e s n ee d s m o r e th o r o ugh e xpe ri
m e ntal inve s tigati on than it h as yet r e c e iv e d The f oll o wi n g .

r ul es m ay h o w e v e r b e u se d as a guid e :
, ,

1 F or fl an ge s with c ov e r plat e s an d angl e s with l e gs wid e r

.
,

than 4 i n a s s um e that b oth ve rtical an d h o ri z o ntal rive t h ol es

.
,

may o ccur in t h e s am e s e cti on th es e h ol es b e i n g as s h o wn in ,

Fi g 84
. .

2 . with fl an ge a n gl e s o f 4 i n or l e s s in width
F o r fl an ge s .
,

and with c o v e r plat e s d e duct t w o h ol e s fr o m e ach s e cti o n as

ig
,

s h o wn i n F 85 . .

3 F or fl an ge s with o ut c o ve r plat es d e duct on e h ol e fr o m

ig
.

e ach s e cti o n a s s h o w n in F 86 . .

I n all ca s es t he rive t h ol e s h o uld b e a ss um e d t o have a diam

e te r i n m o r e than t h e n o mi n al diam e t e r of t h e riv e t
. This .

i s n e c e s s ary s inc e t he h ol e i s u s ually pun ch e d wit h a diam e t e r

1
1 7; i n gr
. e at e r tha n t h at o f t h e c o ld riv e t a n d t h e e d ges o f t h e
,

h ol e m ay b e dama ge d s o m e what in punchin g The rive t s c o m .

e

m only u s e d i n s tructural w o rk are i n diam e t e r h en c e f or .

, ,
A RT . 65 A LLOW A N C E FOR R I V
ET H OLES 12 1

th ese riv e t s t he h ol e s h o uld b e a ss um e d as on e inch in diam e t e r .

I n li ght w o rk i n or g i n rive t s are o cc a s i o n ally u s e d an d in

,
. .

v e ry h e avy gird e r s one inch rive t s are s o m e tim es e mpl oy e d .

I t s h o uld b e s tat e d that whil e it i s s e ld om that m or e tha n

_

thr ee riv e t h ol e s actually o ccur in t h e s am e s e cti o n of t h e t e n s i o n

fl an ge t h e fact that a zi g—
,
z ag s e cti o n thr o ugh h ol e s n ot in t h e
s am e r i ht s e cti on may hav e a l ess ne t ar e a than that in any
g

F IG . 84 . FI G : 8 5 .

giv e n right s e cti o n mu s t b e c o n s id e re d F or e xampl e t h e z ig

ig
.
,

z ag s e cti on A B in F 8 7 may hav e a mu ch s mall e r n e t ar e a

.

tha n the cr os s s e cti on A O and if t he di s tanc e B C i s s mall may

-
,

have a n e t are a but littl e if any gr e at e r than t hat on a s e ct i o n lik e

DE . I f d es irabl e t he actual n et ar e a o f a s e cti on lik e A B m ay
b e c o mput e d o r d e t e rmin e d gra phic ally alth o u gh e xp e rim e n tal ,

r es ult s are lacki n g t o s h ow that t he s tr e n gth of t h e fla n g e vari e s

FIG . 86 . FI G . 87 .

dir e ctly with s uch an ar e a I t i s h ow e v e r wi se t o mak e lib e ral

.
, ,

all o wanc e f or riv e t h ol es and if t he pitch CB i s l e ss than i ns .

t o o r dinarily all ow f or thr ee h ol e s i n t he s e cti on as s h o wn i n

‘

F ig . 84 .

h ould b e call e d t o the fact that whil e t he m aximum

A tt e nti on s

m om e nt on a gird e r o rdi n arily o ccur s at only on e s e cti on and ,

that at thi s se cti o n t he r ive t pitch may b e a m aximum a maxi ,

mum fl a n ge s tr es s i s d e v el op e d wh e r e v e r a c ov e r plat e e nd s and ,

t he r iv e t pitch at s uch a p oint m ay b e littl e if any large r than

t he minimum all owabl e pitch .
1 22 P LA TE G I R DE R D ES I G N A RT . 66

66 Exam . pl e of Girde r De s i gn . An e xampl e of t he c o mpl et e

d es ign of t he cr os s s e cti on
-
of a gir de r will n ow b e giv e n .

P ro blemDe t e rmi ne cr os s—
. se c t i on o f a girde r t o c a rry a maximum
be nding m ome n t of f t lb s an d a m axim um s he ar . . of

lb s .De p t h of girde r b a c k t o bac k of fl an ge a n gl e s i ns .

All owable i t s t resse s

s
un ,

B e ndi ng 1 6 , 000 lb .
pe r s q i n . .

S he a r 1 2 , 0 00

S olu ti on . Web . Ne t are a of cros s—s e c t i o n r equire d

ii i é
3
De p t h of we b 48 i ns . Thic kne s s of web = 0 37 i h . or gi n .

I
F la nge . Ass ume h t o eq u al d ep t h of w eb = 48 i n s .

— 1 25 0 ’
000 X 12 1
Tri al . 4
’
g sq . i ns .

1 6, 0 0 0 x4 8 1
Tri al c t i on :
se

2 angl es 6 X 4 X % at sq . i ns .

2 plat e s
” at 3

(Rive t s m fl ange ass ume d as i n Fi g 8 3) . 2

Compu t a t i on of h f or t hi s s e c ti on .

r r vi y a l fr m b c k l = handbook )
Ce n t e o f g a t o f n g e s o a o f an g es 1 . 03 (fr om .

Corr e c t 1 on t o a llow f or c ove r p l at e s 0 66

1 05 + 1

h = 48 5 .

He n c e , rigi n al as s umpt ion f o r val ue of h while sligh t ly

o , t oo large ,

is s uffi c i e n tlv a cc ur a t e a n d t he t ri a l s e c t i on m a y b e us e d .

67 . Rivets Jo ints The fl ange riv et s f orm t he

and R ivete d .

only c o nn e cti o n b e tw e e n t h e fl ang es and t h e w e b h e nc e t h e d e ,

t e r minati o n of th e pr o p e r s i z e and di s t a n c e apart of th e s e riv e t s i s

an e s s e n tial f e atur e i n gird e r d e s i gn Th e diam e t e r o f t h e r iv e t .

i s o rdinarily fix e d by pr actic al c o n s id e rati o n s t h e c o m m o n pra e ,

tic e f o r s tructur al w o rk b e i n g t o u s e 4 i n riv e t s Th e di s t a n c e . .

apart o f t h e riv e t s h a s t o b e c o mput e d Th e qu e s ti o n of rive t e d .

c o n n e cti o n b e tw e e n t w o m e mb e r s i s al s o of gr e at imp o rt a n c e .

Th or o ugh tr e atm en t of r iv e t s paci n g i s f o u n d in tr e ati se s

up o n m e cha n ic s an d will n ot b e giv e n h Th e e s se ntial p o i nt s ere .

wit h which t he s tructural d es i gn e r mu s t b e th o r o u ghly c on v e r s a n t ,

are as f o ll ow s .

A riv e t e d c o nn e cti o n m ay fail i n o n e o f t he f oll o wi n g way s

a B y t he s h e arin g o f t he riv e t s
. .
1 24 L
P A TE G I RD ER DES I G N A RT . 67

pl at e which c arrie s lb s v a l ue rive t i n be aring agai nst

q s
. The of t he
t hi s pl a t e e ual s x 4 >< lb .
,
and t h e n um be r re qu ire d
1 00 , 0 )
fl or 16 . As t hi s is l arge r t han t he nu mbe r n ee de d
6560
pre ven t s he ari ng 1 6 rive t s mus t s
e
to be u ed .

P r o bl m De te rmi ne n um be r
. of -
rive t s r e quire d t o c on ne c t
in .

pl at e s i n j oint shown by Fi g 8 9 s am e rive t val ues a s i n pr e vi ou s

e
. . Us e
pr obl
he r lb
m .

S olu ti on The m a xim um s . a = 1 00, 000 s . an d cc ur s be t wee n

o

pl at e s 2 an d 3 , o r 4 a n d 5 The . n um be r o f rive t s n ee de d t o c a rry t hi s

1 00 0 00
s he ar 22 o r , s ay, 23
4 5 00

150 000 lbs

1 0 0 000 1b8

Th i c knass of P la m # 1
11 2 55
”
-

4"34 A.

FIG . 89 .

be aring s t re ngt h i s evide n t ly limi te d by pl at e No 2 whi ch carrie s

The
s
.
,

lb and h as a thic k ne ss of 5 i n t his pr odu cing a gre at e r s t re s s

.
~
.
,

on t he rive t s t han wo uld b e the cas e f or the 116 i n pla t e c arryi ng .

lb s .

The n umbe r re q uire d f or be ari ng = or 23, h en c e f or

6 5 60
thi s j oi nt .
the nu mbe r of rivets is limi t e d by e i t he r she ar or be ari ng .

The xampl es j u s t giv e n illu s trat e m e th od s of c omputing

e

c onn e cti on rive t s f or plat es carryin g dir e ct s tr ess S om e tim es .

,

h ow e ve r it i s n e c es s ary t o tran smit t o r s i o n as w e ll as dir e ct str es s

,

by m ean s of rive t s S uch a c on di ti o n o ft e n o c curs in s t ee l fram e

.
-

buildin g c on s tructi o n whe r e t he c onn e cti on s of gird e r s to c o lumn s

mu s t b e give n c on s id e rable rigid ity t o pr ovid e pr op e r tran sm is s i o n
of t h e win d s tr e s s es .

The c ond iti on c o mm only o c cur ring in s u ch a ca se i s re pre s e nt e d

diag rammatically by F ig
90 in which t he l oad P i s appli e d at a
.
,

di s tanc e x fr o m t he c entr e of t he g r o up o f riv e t s t hu s pr o ducing ,

a t o r s i on P x wh i c h m us t b e ca rri e d by t h e rive t s in addi ti on t o

'

t he dire ct l o ad P
ig
.

If t h e t o r s i o n b e pr o duc e d by a c o upl e as i n F 9 1 th e n t h e ,
.
,

v e rtical l o ad up o n t h e riv e t s will b e z e r o an d a riv e t may b e le gi t i

A RT . 67 R I V E TS AND R I V E TE D JO I N TS 1 25

mat e ly a s s um e d t o o ff e r a r es i s t anc e t o t o r s i o n varying dir e ctly

with i t s di s t anc e fr o m t h e c e ntr e of gr avity of t h e gr o up of riv e t s ,

a n d acting at ri ght an gl e s t o t h e li n e c o nn e ctin g it with t he c e ntr e

o f gravity U p o n thi s b a s i s t h e riv e t s at a F

. 9 1 s h o ul d e ach ,
ig .
,

b e c o mput e d as e qually s tr e s s e d up t o t h e all o wabl e w o rki n g

l o ad whil e t h e o th e r riv e t s w o uld c arry s uch pr o p o rti o n o f t h e
,

FIG . 90 . FIG . 91 .

w o rkin g str e s s as th e di st a n c e cb i s t o ca wh e n 0 i s t h e c e ntr e of

gravity of t h e gr o up of riv e t s .

The r e s i s tanc e t o t o r s i on o f s uch a gr o up of r iv e t s may the r e

f o r e b e e xpr e s se d as f oll o ws :
Le t r = th e all owabl e w o rking valu e of t he m os t s tr e ss e d riv e t .

I = s um m at i o n o f t h e s quar e s o f t he di s tanc es fr o m t he
'

c entr e of gravity of t he gr o up of riv e t s t o e ach riv e t .

d = d i s t an c e fr om c e ntr e o f gravity of gr o up of r iv e t s t o
t h e m o s t s tr e s s e d r i v e t = a c F 91 ,
ig . .

R = re s i s t an c e t o t o r s i o n of t he gr oup of rive t s .

= 1 1 .

d
Fo r t he c ase s h o wn in F 90 ig .

t he ab o v e m e th o d mu s t b e m o di
fl e d t o all o w f or t he e f fe ct o f t he
l
v e rtical oad To m ak e thi s c orre c
.

ti on it i s o nly n e c es s ary t o d e t e r m in e
t he all o wabl e r e s i s tanc e t o t o r s i o n
c on s i st e nt with t he riv e t c arrying 2 0 00011

i ts s har e o f t he v e rtical o a d l .

This may b es t b e d on e graphi

c ally by t he m e th o d i n dicat e d
in F ig 92 I n thi s ca s e t he t o tal
l
. .

V e rtic al l o ad i s bs of

c rr
.
,

which e ach riv e t i s a s s um e d to a y

‘

25 0 0 all o w
1 26 P LA TE G I RD ER D ES I G N A RT . 68

abl e t otal w o rki n g valu e of s ay 7 500 b s pe r rive t the c om l .

,

p on e nt at a p e rp e n dicular t o the li n e a o i s fo u n d graphically t o

b e 5 8 0 0 1b s Th e c o rr es p onding all owabl e c omp o n e nt s o f t he s tr ess
.

in t he riv e t s at d b an d e are lar ge r h enc e t he rive t s at a furni s h

, , ,

t he mi n imum r e s i s tanc e t o t o r s i o n f or t h e give n w or king v alu e

and c on s e qu en tly giv e t he limiti n g valu e of r in e quati on
Tabl es giving t he r e s i s ta n c e t o t o r s i on of vari ou s gr oup s of
rive t s have b ee n pr e pare d by E A Re xf o rd and are publis h e d
. .

by t he En gin e e ri n g Ne ws P ubli s hi n g Co .

68 Fl an ge R iv et s Ordin ar y Meth o d of Com pu tati o n of P itc h

. . .

S inc e it i s thr ough the r ive t s that s tr e s s i s tra n s mi tt e d int o t he

fl an ge s it i s e vid e n t th at t h e numb e r of riv e t s n e e d e d vari es with
t h e rat e o f i n cr e a s e o f t h e fl an ge s tr e s s which d e p e nd s up o n t h e,

r at e of i n cr e a s e o f t h e m o m en t I t f oll o w s that t h e rive t pitch

. .

(th e pitch i s t o b e c o n s id e r e d t h e di s t an c e apart o f t h e riv e t s

m e a s ur e d al on g th e fl an ge i e i n th e dir e ctio n of th e s tr e ss) m ay
,
. .
,

i n cr e a s e in dir e ct pr op o rti on t o th e rat e of incr e a s e of t h e m o m e nt .

In a gird e r s upp o rt e d at th e e nd s and c arrying a unif o rm l o ad t h e

curv e of m o m e n t s i s a v e rtical parab ol a with i ts v e rt e x on t h e ,

v e rtic al li n e p a ss e d thr o u gh t h e c e ntr e of th e s p an h enc e th e ,

rat e of in cr e a s e of th e m o m e n t i s a maximum at th e e n d an d a
mi nimum at t h e c e n tr e and t h e variati o n in riv e t pitch s h ould
c o n f o rm t o thi s Thi s i s al s o appr o ximat e ly tru e f or s uch gird e r s
.

wh e n l o ad e d with oth e r th an u n if o rm l o ad s .

A kn o wl e dg e o f t he variati on of t he pitch i s h owe v e r i n s u ffi , ,

ci e nt ; it i s n e c es s ary t o d e t e rmin e t he pitch it s e lf The f ollowi ng .

m e th o d o f d oi n g thi s i s obvi ou s Comput e t he t otal s tr es s in

.

t h e fl an ge at an y s e cti o n an d c o mput e al s o t h e t otal s tr es s at

a s e cti o n on e i n ch fr o m t he fir s t ; t he di f fe r e n c e b e twe e n t he t w o
s tr ess e s giv es t he i n cr e a s e in fl an ge s tr ess per l o ngitudi n al inch

at that p o rti o n o f t he gird e r and thi s i n cr e ase mu s t b e carri e d

i nt o t he fl an ge s thr o u gh t he rive t s I f on e rive t can car ry p bs l
l
. .

an d if t h e i n cr e a s e i n fl an ge s tr e ss i s ft bs t he pr o p e r r iv e t pitch .
,

t o use in that p o rti on of t h e gird e r i s 2 .

x
I f t he p orti on of t he b e n di n g m om e nt carrie d by the we b
b e n e gl e ct e d i n t h e d e t e rmi n ati o n o f rive t pitch thi s e rr o r b e i n g ,

s mall a n d o n t h e s af e s id e t he i n cr e a se in fla n ge s tr es s in t he
,

o rdi n ary plat e gird e r may b e f o un d by dividing t h e incr e a se in

m o m e nt by t he di s tanc e b e twe e n t he c e ntr e s of gravity of the

1 28 P L A TE G IRD ER D ESI G N A RT . 69

pitch f or t he v e rtic al a s f o r t h e h o ri z on tal riv e t s 1 h e nc e t h e ,

m e th o d giv e n i s in ge n e ral all that i s n e c e s s a r y

, ,
.

69 F l an ge R ivets
. Pr e c i se Me th o d o f Com pu ta ti on of Pi t c h
. .

Th e m e th o d r e pr e s e n t e d by Eq (1 9) i s t h e appr o x i mat e me th o d .

o f fi gur i n g r ive t pitch whi ch i s g e ne rally us e d i n plat e gird e r

d es ign In o rd e r t o th o r o u ghly u n d e r s tand t h e qu e s ti on of rive t

.

pitch an d t o b e abl e t o pr o p e rly fi gu re t he pitch i n o th e r cas e s

which may ari s e s uch as c olumn s carryi n g b e ndi n g it i s n e c es
, ,

s ary t o d e v e l o p a m o r e e xact m e th o d S uch a m e th o d may al s o .

b e w e ll e mpl o y e d in inv e s tigati n g e xi s ti n g gird e r s t h e s tr e ngth

o f w hi ch may b e in d o ubt To o btain s uch a m e th o d t he f o r m ul a
e
.

f or h o riz o ntal s h e a r m ay b e u s d .

R e fe rri n g t o F i g 93 it i s e vid e n t that t he fu n cti o n of the

.
,

rive t s at a i s t o pr e ve nt t he flange a n gl es fr o m s liding al ong t he

w e b ; that i s t he riv e t s mu s t r e s i s t t he l o n gitudinal s h e ari n g
,

t e nd e ncy of t he a n gl e s H e nc e if thi s t e n d .
,

e n cy can b e c o mput e d t he r iv e t pitch n e c e s s ary

t o with s ta n d it can b e d e t e rmi n e d Thi s c om .

putati o n can b e e a s ily mad e by m ultiplyi n g t he

int e n s ity o f t he lon gi t u d i n als h e ar at th e b ott o m
of t h e angl e s by t h e t hi ckn es s of t h e we b u s i n g ,

f or Q in t h e d e t e rmi n ati o n of t h e i n t e n s ity t h e

P I G 93 . .
,

s tatical m o m e n t ab o ut t h e n e utral axi s of t h e

gird e r o f t he angl e s and c o v e r plat es c o mbine d but n ot of t he por ,

ti on of th e we b includ e d b e twe e n t he fl an ge angl es s inc e the s tr es s ,

in thi s i s carri e d by t h e w eb it se lf T hi s give s the sh e a r ing .

f o r c e pe r l on gitud i nal inch i n t he fl an ge whi ch e qual s t he i n cr e a se

in fl an ge s tr e s s and thi s can b e u s e d a s b e f o r e in fi gu ri n g the
,

pitch B y t he s am e m e th o d t he c o rr e ct pitch f or t he rive t s at b

.

can b e d et e rmin e d by c omputing Q f or the c ove r plat es only .

70 Fla ng e R iv et s
. Exam pl e i n Com pu tati o n o f P itc h
. To .

illu s trate th e applicati on of th es e m e th o d s the gird e r s h o wn i n

F ig . 8 3 wi ll b e c on s id e r e d .

P r o blem . D e t e r m i ne t h e rive t pi t ch re quire d at a se c t ion W he re

t he s he ar is lb s a ssumi n g t hat at thi s secti on all the c over
.
,

pl a t es a re n e e d e d .

S olu ti on The riv e t s t hr ough t he

. V rt ic al legs
e of angle s Wi ll
the
fi rs t b e c on s i d e r e d , as s umin g t h a t t he o u t e r fo rce i s appli e d d ir e c t ly

t o t he web an d n ot t hr ou gh t he fl a ne
g Le t the be ari ng va lue pe r
.

r r
A t t h e e n d s o f t h e c o v e pla t e s i t i s c u s t om a y t o plac e t h e v e t i c a l i v e t s
1
r r
a t a s m a ll pi t c h f o r a d i s t a n c e o f o n e o r t w o f e e t t o e n s u e th a t t h e s t e s s r r
m a y b e p o p e ly c a r r rr
i e d i n t o t h e pla t e .
A RT . 70 R I VE T P I TC H C OM P UT A TI O NS . E X AM P L E S 1 29

s quare i nch of the rivets b e taken as

,
lb s and the she aring .

val ue as lbs The s t rength of t he rive t will t hen b e li mi te d

.

e i t he r by be ari ng on t he 4 111 we b which e quals -

.
,

lb s or by double she ar which e quals

e
.
, , As
t he be ari ng value i s smalle r it s h ould b e us d .

I ncrease i n fl ange s tress pe r li ne ar unit :

Approxun ate method

Exact method
+ 0 2 4)

Sinc e rive t c an carry 1 0 500 1bs

one , . the re quire d pitch by the app rox
i m ate method i s
say, 3
73

and by the e xact method or, s ay, 3 1}

28 50
vident that the approximate me thod i s de cide dly on the s afe
It is e

s i de i n thi s ca se .

We re the re quire d pitch less than three dia m e te rs of the rive t it

would b e ne cessary to l ocate the rivet s i n t wo rows as shown i n Fi g .

94 whe re a pitch o f 2 i n s i s a ssume d

,
. .

To dete rmi ne the pitch of the ve rtical rive ts the e xact method sh ould
be us d e
The incre a se i n fl ange stress per i nch i s
.

value of e ach rivet i n this case i s

The
e vide ntly i ts s tre n gth i n s i ngle s he ar b ut ,

a s the r e ar e two ve rtical rive t s i n e ach

cross se ction the pitch may b e obtaine d

-

by dividing the value of one rivet i n

double she ar by the i ncre ase i n fl ange s tre ss
p e r i n ch Thi s g iv es . FIG 94
. .

or, s ay, H
” .

1 870

As
”
thi s e xcee ds 6 (see Art 68 ) the pitch of thes e ri ve ts shoul
d be
”
.

made 6 or less .

I t will b e n otic e d t hat the pit ch i s the di s t ance be twee n

r iv e t s m e as ure d al ong t he axi s o f the angl e The v e rtical d i s .
~

tanc e b e tw e e n t he ro ws of r iv e t s mu s t b e s uffi c i e n t t o mak e t he

1 30 PLATE G I RDER D ES I G N A RT . 70

dis tanc e d e qual t o or gr e at e r than thr ee tim es th e diam et er of t h e

riv e t or 2 2 i n s f or a i n riv e t
. The di s tanc e 3 s h o uld n ot b e
. .

l e s s than 1 1 i ns as alr e ady n ot e d an d s h ould pr e f e rably b e 1 ) i ns

.
, ,
.

or 1 2 i ns The di stan c e 0 i s d e t e rmi n e d by t he am o un t o f r oo m

.

n ee d e d f or driving t he riv e t Th e standard valu es f or di ff e r e nt

.

’
an gl es are giv e n in th e s t e e l m ak e r s handb o ok s -
.

Thi s e xampl e s h ows that th e pitch o f t he v e rtical r ive t s

may b e c on s id e rably gr e at e r than that of t he h o riz on tal riv e t s .

I t i s h owe v e r u s ually mad e the s am e f or practical c on s id e r a

, ,

ti on s .

Th e r e r e main s on e o th e r ca se t o b e e e —
tr at d that of a gird e r
'

s u pport i n g a l o ad on t h e upp e r fl an ge To illus trat e t he m e th o d

ig
.

r e quir e d f or thi s ca s e let t he gird e r s h o wn i n F 8 1 b e c on s id e r e d .

,

and le t it b e a s s um e d that thi s gird e r i s a r ailr o ad bridge s trin ge r

with ti es r es tin g dir e ctly up on t he t op fl an ge Let it al so b e a s s um e d
l
.

that t he maximum wh eel l o ad cr oss in g t he s trin ge r i s bs

l
.

that t h e maxim um e n d s h e ar includi n g impact i s bs ; .

and that t h e pitch of t he riv e t s at t he e n d of t he s tringe r i s t o b e

d e t ermi n e d W ith t he all owabl e u n it s tr es s es pr e vi o u s ly u s e d t he
l
.

limiting valu e o f th e riv e t i s bs Us ing .

t h e appr o x i mat e m e th o d t h e i ncr e a s e in flang e s tr e s s i s f o un d t o

be
l
gg
g g
’
g= 3 800 bs l .
pe r lin e ar inch . T hi s valu e mu s t be c om

b i ne d with the v e rtical l o ad carri e d by the riv ets S in c e the

,
.

ra i l h as c on s id e rabl e s tr e n gth as a
b e am it i s e vi de nt that a wh e e l l o ad
,

will n ot b e carri e d e nt ir e ly by one t i e ,

but will b e di s tribut e d o v e r s e v e ral .

The c o mm o n a s s um pti on i s that on e

wh e e l l o ad i s di s tribut e d o v e r thr ee ti e s .

If this a ss umpti on b e mad e on e wh e e l

l o ad will b e dis tribut e d o ve r t he rive t s
i n t h e s pac e m F 95 ,
ig
I f t he ti es . .

a re 8 i n s wi de an d s pac e d 6 i n s
. .

apart in th e cl e ar thr ee ti es will ,

o ccupy a t o tal di s tanc e of 4 2 in s

F1 G . 95 .
.
,

h e n c e th e v e rtical l o ad per i nch W hich

t he riv e t s mu s t b e ar is
42
or 5 70 l bs .
,
n e gl e ctin g th e d e ad
we i ght which ,
is so s mall c o mpar e d with the live l o ad as to b e
132 P LA TE G I RDER D ES I G N A RT . 71

Le t the thickn es s of the pri sm at r ight angl es t o the pap e r he

unity an d let 1) e qual th e int en s ity of the s h e ar Th e n t he t o tal
, .

s h e ari n g f o rc e o n e ach s i d e = vdx Re s o lvi n g th e s e f orc e s int o .

udr
c o mp on e nt s t he v alu e of e ach i s f oun d to be a cti n g as
v5
,

indicat e d in F i g . 97 . Th e e ff e ct of th e se c omp on e nt s i s t o pr o

duc e on t he diag onal pla n e bd a t o tal t en s i o n

2i 1
d S inc e
«2
the l e n gth of the int e n s ity of t he t e n s i on on it is
2 vdx

In t he
am e mann e r a c o mpr es s iv e f o rc e may b e s h o wn t o
s

act on a c t h e int e ns ity Of which i s al s o I t th e r e fo r e f oll ows

that at t h e n e utral axi s th er e e xi st b oth a t en s i on an d a c o mp r e s
s i o n acting up o n pl an e s at ri ght angl e s t o e ach o th e r and at 4 5 t o
°

that axi s and that t h e int e n s ity of th e se f o rc e s i s e qual t o th a t of

,

t h e s h e ar I f th e p r i s m in qu es ti o n h ad b e e n tak en ab o v e
.

or b e l o w t h e n e utral axi s th e s e c on diti on s w o uld hav e b ee n

m od i fi e d s o m e what thr ough t he i n tr o ducti on of dir e ct fi b re

s tr e s s e s Th e e ff e ct of t he s h e ar in pr o ducing dir e ct s tr e ss e s w o uld
.

n ot b e chang e d that i s t he s h e ari n g f o rc e s w o uld d e v e l o p dir e ct

, ,

s tr ess e s as b e f o r e but t h e fi n al valu e of t h e t e n s i on o r c ompr e s

,

s ign up o n any pla n e w o uld hav e t o b e obtain e d by c o mbini n g

t h e dir e ct s tr ess e s d ue t o s h e ar and t he dir e ct fib r e s tr e s s e s d ue

t o b e nding .

The e xpr es s i on f or t h e maximum dir e ct s tr e ss f or thi s m o r e

gener al ca s e i s d e v e l o p e d in b ook s on m e chanic s and i s as f oll ow s : ,

g
px py
-

i 2V
-

In this e quati on p = i nte ns i ty of the m aXi rnum dir e ct s tr e s s

’

o ccurring at a giv e n p o in t on any plan e px and py are the ,

int e n s iti es of t he dir e ct s tr es s e s actin g at t he s am e p o int

on t w o r e ctan gul ar plan e s pa ss ing thr o ugh t h e p o int and ,

v i s th e int en s ity of the s h e ar on e ach of th es e two latt e r

plan e s
ig
.

F 98 illu s trat e s thi s c o nditi on

. I t i s e vid e n t that if p o in t .

a i s at t h e n e utral axi s o f a b e am s ubj e ct e d t o b e nding b ut n ot

t o dir e ct s tr es s p an d p,, are b oth z e r o and p = v

’
, m .
ART 7 1. DI RE CT WEB S TRE SSE S 1 33

Th e exp re ss i on f or the angle Ob e tween th e x Blan e and t he pla e

n
maximum i n t en s ity o e cu 1 s i s al s o d e riv e d i n
-v i '

m e chanic s , and i s as f oll ow s f or a b e am s ubj e ct e d t o b e n ding

l

o nly : tan 0 = —
p
v
'
A t the n e ut r alaxi s of s uch a b e am o r gird e r v = p h e nc e
ig
,

That t e n s ion and c omp ress i on act as s h own in F 97 i s .

al s o e vid e nt fr o m t he di s t o rti on pr o duc e d by t h e s h e ari n g f o rc es .

I t i s plain that und e r t he acti o n o f h o riz ontal and v e rtical s h e ar

t he pri s m which i s r e ctang ular wh e n un s tr e s s e d w i ll tak e t h e
s hap e s h o wn gr e atly di s t o rt e d in F
, ,
ig
99 and h e nc e the l i n e a o w i ll
.
,

b e l e ngth e n e d and t h e lin e bd s h o rt e n e d

,
Th ese chang e s can b e
.

p roduc e d only by t e n s i on and c omp r ess i on at 4 5 to t he axi s °

.

I
FG . 98 . FIG . 99 .

I n plat e gird e r s th e e xi st e nc e of thi s c o mpr es s i on at 4 5 t o °

t he axis i s o f c on s id e rabl e imp o rtanc e s in c e if it b e n ot r e c o g ,

n i ze d and pr o p e r m e an s tak e n t o pr o vid e f or i t failur e will

e
,

o ccu r thr o ugh s id e wis e buckling of t he w b To pr e v e nt s uch .

failur e the w e b mu st b e mad e o f s uch thickn e ss that th e re will

b e n o dang e r of e xc e ss iv e c ompr e s s i o n or e l s e t he b uckl i ng,

t e nd e ncy mu st b e re s train e d by o th e r m e an s The latt e r i s t he .

c o mm o n m eth o d an d i s acc o mpli s h e d by t he use of s tif f e n e r s in

,

t he f o rm o f v e rtical angl es riv e t e d t o t he we b and e xt e ndi n g

fr o m t o p t o b ott o m of t he gird e r S o m e tim es h o we v e r it i s
.
, ,

m o r e e c o n o mical of mat e rial as w ell as o f lab o r t o incr e a se t he ,

we b thickn e s s rath e r than t o us e s t i fi e n e rs I n r ei nf o rc e d c oncr e t e

.

be am s t he diag onal t e n s i o n i s an imp o rtant fact o r s i nc e c o ncr e t e

'

i s v e rv w e ak in t e n s i o n an d m e a ns mu s t g e n e rally b e take n
t o pr o vid e again s t failur e by ruptu re at 4 5 t o th e axi s e ith e r
°
,

by s t e e l r o d s plac e d at appr oxi mat ely 4 5 to the axis or by °

,

ve r tical s tirrup s .
1 3 4; P LA TE G I RDER DESI G N A RT . 72

The c o mbinati on of the dir e ct s tr ess d ue t o s h e a r with

that due t o b e nding giv e s a r es ultan t c o mpr e s s i on in the ,

we b acting in t he dir e cti o n i n dicat e d by t he d o tt e d line

in F 1 00 ig
Th e s hap e of thi s lin e
. .

i s d e p e nd e nt up o n t he r e lativ e valu e
o f t he s h e a r and t he dir e ct s tr e s s .

It s or dinat e s are pl ott e d fr o m axi s m n .

At t h e e n d of a gird e r wh e r e th e s h e ar
i s a m aximum and t h e b e nding m o
m e nt a minimum it w o uld li e at ab o ut
n F1 G m o . .
,

4 5 t o t h e axi s thr o ugh o ut i t s e ntir e

°

l e ngth At th e se cti o n wh e r e t h e m o m e nt i s a maximum th e

.

s h e ar i s z e r o h e n c e at thi s s e cti o n th e r e i s n o dir e ct s tr ess in t h e

,

we b at th e n e utral axi s and t he di r e ct st r ess ab ov e or b el ow thi s

,

axi s i s parall e l t o i t .

7 2 W eb S tifi e ners
. Th e s ubj e ct of s tiff e n e r s pacing i s
.

c o mplicat e d an d n o accurat e th eo ry h as ye t b ee n d e v e l o p e d .

E xp e rim e n tal r e s ult s hav e b ee n inc o nclu s iv e but indicat e that ,

t he o rdi n ary m e th o d s o f practic e are s afe if n o t pr e ci s e The .

o nly th eo r e tical m e th o d that s e e m s rati on al i s t o tr e at a s trip o f

t he we b as a c o lumn and t o mak e an a ss umpti o n as t o t he i n fl u ~

e nc e of t he r e maind e r o f t h e w e b up o n thi s c o lumn .

B y thi s m e th o d an e quati o n can b e

—
d educ e d f or t he dis tanc e apart of t he
T ’

s t i fi e n e rs which s h o uld b e in rati o nal

’

f o rm and which if it d oe s n ot giv e

, ,

r es ult s e xc e e ding t he limit s of g o o d

practic e may b e u s e d with se curity
,

L e t F i g 1 0 1 r e pr e se n t a p o rti o n o f
.

the web n e ar t he e n d o f a gird e r wh e r e

t h e s h e ar i s a maximum S inc e t h e
.

b e nding m o m e n t at t he e n d s o f t he
gird e r i s s mall t he dir e ct we b s tr es s e s
act at appr o ximat e ly 4 5 thr o u gh o ut °

FIG 1 0 1 . .

t he e n tir e d ep th o f t h e gird e r h e nc e ,

th e s trip of we b t o b e c on s id e r e d i s tak e n at a 4 5
,
s l op e
°
.

Its l e n gth i s r e s trict e d by t h e fl an ge angl e s and it i s partially

r e s traine d a gai n s t s id e wi s e buc klin g by dir e ct we b t e n s i on
at right a n gl es t o i t s axi s as in dicat e d i n the fi gure by
arr o ws :
13 6 P LA TE G I R DE R D ES I G N ART . 72

2 . To
d e t e rmin e t he r e quir e d we b thick n es s f or a giv e n s h e ar
and di s tanc e apart of s ti ff e n e r s o r f or th e ca se wh e r e n o s ti ff e n e r s
a re u s e d .

I t s h o uld b e n ot e d that s ti ff e n e r s plac e d fur th e r apart than

t he cl e ar di s tanc e b e tw ee n t h e flang e angl es w o uld n ot r e duc e
the l e ngth of t he s trip s h o wn in F 1 0 1 an d h e nc e w o ul d th eo ig .
,

re t i c ally b e of n o se rvic e at t he e nd s o f t h e gird e r wh e r e t h e s h e ar

h as i ts maximum valu e I t i s h o w e v e r cu s t omary t o u s e s ti ff e n e r s

.
, ,

on all e xc e pt s hall o w gird e r s in o rd e r t o s ti f f e n t h e gi rd e r during

fabricati on an d tran s p o rtati on an d a c o mm on r e quir e m e n t i s ,

that t h e maximum cl e ar di s tanc e b e twe e n s t i fi e n e rs s hall b e t he

d e pth of web plat e b e twee n fl an ge angl es and s hall n ot b e gr e at e r ,

than 5 -f t .

The f oll o wing e xampl e illu s trat es t he m e th o d o f u s ing thi s

f o rmula .

'
P r o b le m . De t e rmi ne t he re quire d S paci ng of web s ti fi c ne rs i n t he
followi ng girde r :
Depth ba c k
, t o ba c k of a n g es l .

We b
Fla nge
,

angle s 6 with 4
"
le g ve r t ic al .

Maximum she a r (live ,

de a d , an d imp ac t ) lb s .

S olu ti on .

—1 2 0 d = 33 1ns .

A s the cl e a r di s t a nc e b e t we e n t he fl a nge a n gl e s i s —8
i t i s e vi de n t t hat n o s ti fi e ne rs are n ee de d , al t ho ugh t he girde r i s j us t
on t he li ne H ad the we b be e n t hi n ne r t han s t i f fe ne r s wo uld ha ve

q
.

"
bee n re uire d For e xample , wi t h a 2 web , s t i ffe ne rs would b e re qui re d
.

a t i nte rvals of i n t he cl e a r .

For that p o rti o n of a gird e r wh e r e t h e b e ndi n g m o m e n t i s

larg e and t he s h e ar re lat i ve lv s mall t h e c on diti on s in t he we b
diff e r mat e rially fr o m th ose a s s um e d in d e v e l o pin g f o rmula
F or e xampl e at th e p o i n t o f maximum b e ndi n g m o m e n t t he
,

s he a r i s z e r o and in c o n s e qu e nc e n o web c o mpr es s i o n e xi s t s in

,

t he half o f t he gir d e r b e tw e e n t h e n e utral axi s and t he t e n s i o n

fl an ge whil e t h e we b c o mpr es s i o n in t he o th e r p orti o n o f t he
,

gird e r i s parall e l t o the fl an ge and i n cr e as es in int e n s ity as t he

dis tanc e fr o m th e n eutral axi s in cr e a s es B e twee n the s e cti o n .

o f maximum s h e ar and that o f maximum m o m e n t t h e c o nditi on

vari es fr om that a ss um e d in d e v el opin g t he f o rmul a t o that j u s t

AM . 72 W EB S TI FF E N E RS 1 37

stat e d W hile it i s e vid e nt that the f o rmula d oes n ot apply

.

v e ry cl ose ly t o all th e s e c onditi on s the fact that it giv e s a grad

,

u ally incr e a s ing di s tanc e apart of t he s t i f f e n e r s as t he s h e ar

d imi n is h es i s pr obably c o n s i s t e nt with actual c o nditi o n s

,
.

The s iz e of int e rm e diat e s tif f e n e r s cann ot b e d e t e rmin e d

th eo re tically A g oo d r ul e i s t o mak e the o ut s tanding le g e qual
.

t o or gr e at e r than t wo inch e s plu s on e t hirti e th t h e d e pth of -

gird e r The oth e r le g s h o uld b e of suffi c i e n t width t o p e rmit

.

'

of pr o p e r riv e ting .

Th e r e i s p e rhap s n o p o int in plat e gird e r d e s ign up on

which e nginee r s diff e r s o gr e atly as that of s tif f e n e r s pacing ,

and c ar e fully c o nduct e d e xp e rim e nt s are gr e atly n e e d e d t o e s tab

lis h t he n e c e ss ary c on s tant s The writ e r claim s n o s p e cial m e rit
.

[ vet Pi tch

S ECTIO N
V I
I
ELE AT O N

FG . 1 02 .

f or hi s f o rm ula o th e r than that it i s d e riv e d fr o m the c olumn

f o rmula in c o mm o n u s e at the pr es e n t day and that it giv es ,

c o n se rvativ e valu es .

Th e rati o b e tw e e n t he u n s upp o rt e d l e ngth and r adiu s of gyr a

ti on of th e c olumn s trip s h o wn in F ig
1 0 1 s h o uld b e r e s trict e d
.
,

as o th e rwi s e t h e c o lumn f o rm ula u s e d w o uld b e i n applicabl e .

I f thi s r ati o b e r es trict e d t o 300 , t he c o rr es p o nding valu e of

f
is 60 , a c o m m o nly s pe c i fi ed limiting valu e f or gird e r s with o ut
s tif f e n e r s Whil e t he r ati o b e twee n the all owabl e un s upp o rt e d
.

l en gth and radiu s o f gyrati o n may s ee m unduly high it s h o uld

b e r e m e mb e r e d that thi s c o lumn i s quit e diff e r e nt fr om t he
o r dinary c olumn in b e ing h e ld thr o ugh o ut i ts e ntir e l e ngth by

the web t e n s i o n .

I n additi o n t o the angl es r e quir e d t o s tif f e n the web agai ns t

'

buckling s ti fi e n er angl es s h o uld b e u s e d at all p o int s wh e r e

,
138 P LATE G I RDER D ES I G N A RT . 73

c onc ent r at e d l o ad s of c on s id e rabl e m agnitud e are appli e d t o the

gird e r in o rd e r t o tran s mit th ese l o ad s int o t he w eb with o ut ov e r
,

s tr e ss ing t h e fl an ge r iv e t s The d e s ign of s uch s tif f en e r s c o n s i s t s in

.

s e l e cting angl e s o f s uffi ci e n t ar e a in t he out s t an d i n g le gs t o with

s tand t he l o ad with o ut cru s hing and wit h s u ffi c i e nt t o tal ar e a t o

c arry t he appli e d l o ad as a c o lum n u s ing the formul a of A rt 1 8 and ,

.
,

c on s id e ring t he un su pp o rt e d l e ngth t o b e appr o xim at e ly on e half -

t h e d e pth o f the gird e r The numb e r of riv e t s n e c es s ary t o tran s

.

mit t he l o ad i n t o the web mu s t al s o b e d e t e rmin e d t h e value of ,

t he r iv e t b e ing limit e d e ith e r by b e aring o n t h e w e b or by d o ubl e

s h e ar B oth typ e s of s ti f f e n e rs are indicat e d in F i g
. .

73 Fl a nge Pl ates
. Flang e plat es are u se d t o incr e a s e th e
.

flange are a and th e re b y giv e a variabl e and m o r e e c o n o mical

flange I t i s n ot c o n s id e r e d goo d d es ign t o u se many c ov e r
.

plat es I n ge n e ral t he t otal ar e a of c ov e r plat e s s h o uld n ot e xc e e d

.

o n e half t he t o tal fla n g e ar e a u n l e s s t h e lar es t s iz e d an gles a re

-
g ,

200 000 1bs .

De a d we i ght o f gi rde r
l

300 lb s pe r f t
. .

1 06 000 lb s

FIG . 1 03 . FIG . 1 04 .

u se d A s t he l e n gth of riv e t s s h ould b e limit e d in o rd e r t o e n s ur e

.

go o d res ult s t h e thickn e s s of the m e tal i n t he fl an ges s h o uld n ot

,

e xc ee d 4 } i n s I n ca s e a large r fl an ge ar e a i s re quir e d v e rtical

ig
.
,

flan ge plat e s may b e u se d as s h o wn i n F 1 03 or a b ox gird e r

,
.
, .

To de t e rmine t he pr o p e r l o cati on o f t he e nd s o f a c o v e r
plat e it i s n e c e ss ary t o e quat e the b e ndin g m o m e n t which t he
gird e r can car ry with o ut t he c o v e r plat e t o t he e xt e rnal b e ndin g .

m o m e nt at the e n d of th e plat e .

The fo ll owing e xampl e s e rv es t o illu s trat e thi s m e th o d

Problem H ow far fr om t he e nd s of the gi rd e r s hown i n Fi g 1 0 4 may

” 9 ”
. .

th e e n d s o f th e c ove r plates b e l oca t e d ? G i rd e r t o c o ns i s t of a 48 X 7 3

” ” ”
we b , 6 X 6 X % fl ange angl es , an d t w o 1 6 X % c ove r pla t es o n e ach
" "

fl ange Allowabl e fi b re s tress

. s per s q i n lb . . .

F o r t he re sults of e xpe ri m e n ts on k
t he b u c li n g of pla te gi d e r r we b s se e

a rt i c le by Turne a ure i n t he
“J ourna l of t he We ste rn S oc i e ty of En gi ne e rs
f o r 1 90 7 , Vo l XII . .
14 0 P L A TE G I R DE R D ES I G N A RT . 73

ing c onc entrat e d l o ad s giv e s e xc e s s m o m e n t s thr o ugh out e xc e pt

at pan e l p oi n t s (S ee A rt Co mput e t he all o wabl e m o m e nt
. .
,

M 1 by t h e applic ati o n of f o rmula (1 7 ) f or t h e c on t r o lling c o ndi

,

ti o n s vi z n o c o v e r pl at e ; on e c o v e r plat e on e ach fl ang e ; t w o

,
.
,

c o v e r plat es o n e ach fl ang e ; an d s o o n up t o th e maxi mu m num

b e r of c o v e r plat e s u se d l es s on e P l o t th e se m o m e nt s t o t h e .

s am e s cal e a s t h e e xt e rnal b e nding m o m e nt s S inc e th e s e m o .

m e nt s f or e ach c a s e are c o n s t an t thr o ugh o ut t h e l e ngt h of th e

gird e r e ach may b e r e p r e s e nt e d graphic ally by a s tr aight lin e
,

parall e l t o th e gird e r axi s t h e p o int s of i n t e r s e cti on of which with

,

t h e curv e of b e nding m o m en t s l o cat e t h e e nd s of t h e c o v e r plat e .

This m e th od i s s h o wn f or a gird e r with tw o c ov e r plat es by

F ig . 1 05 M Mb and M are t he e xt e rnal b en din g m om e nt s ;
.
0 ,
'

i
< —6 e q ua l pa ne ls
—i >

Fro 1 05
. .

M0 is the all o wabl e m om ent with out c ov e r plat es ; M 1 with one

c ov e r plat e (The m om e nt with tw o c ove r plat e s n ee d n ot
.

b e pl o tt e d ) The c ov e r plat e n e ar e s t t he fl an ge s h o uld e xt e nd

.

fr om m t o n t he out e r c ov e r plat e fr om o t o 19 Th es e are th e o

,
.

re t i c al l ength s and t he actual plat e s h ould b e m ad e s om e what

l on g e r a s pr e vi o u sly s tat e d
, ,

I t s h o ul d b e n ot e d that t h e curv e o f m o m e n t s f or e n d s up -

p o rt e d gir d e r s carryi n g u n if o rm l o ad s i s a parab ol a an d t he e n d s

o f t h e pl at e s m a y b e l o c at e d by m e an s o f t h e f o ll o wi n g para

b o li e f o r mula w hich m ay al s o b e u s e d with o ut s e ri o u s e rr o r f or

,

gird e r s c arryi n g m o vin g l o ad s

a
c =L
71 ,

wh e r e c = 1e n gth c o v e r plat e i n f e e t
of ,

L = s p an i n f e e t ,

A gr o ss ar e a oi c o mpr es s i o n fl ange or n et ar e a of t e n s i on
-

fl ange i n s qu ar e i n ch es at c e nt e r of gi r d e r , .

a gr os s ar e a of c o v e r plat e t o b e cut plu s that o f all plat e s

:

furth e r fr o m t h e fl an ge a n gl es Ne t ar e a i s u s e d f o r .

t en s i on fl an ge .

The a llo wa b le m om e n t whi ch the gi rd e r c an c a rry m ay be c a lle d t he

A RT . 74 C ON N EC TI O N A N G L E S A N D F ILL ERS 14 1

The flange width i s an imp ortant f e atur e an d s h ould b e ca re

fully c on s id e r e d in se l e cting angl es and plat es I t i s c omm on .

in r ailr oad bridge practic e to s p e cify that t he c ompre ss i o n flang e

s h ould b e s upp o rt e d lat e rally at int e rval s n ot gr e at e r than tw elv e

tim e s i ts width this b e ing acc omplis h e d in half —

,
thr ough bridges
by brack e t s attach e d t o the fl o or b e am s and in d e ck s pan s by
c ross fram es and h o riz ontal bracing I n c as e it i s n e c es s ary t o .

d e viat e mat e rially fr o m this rul e the fl an ge s h o uld b e fi gured as a

c olumn For the s ak e of app e aranc e it i s u s ual t o s el e ct c ov e r
.

pl ates of s u ffi c i ent width t o pr oj e ct s lightly b ey ond t he fl an ge

angl es on e ith e r s id e Th e y s h ould h ow ev er pr oj e ct n ot m o r e
.
, ,

than 2 i ns For e xampl e fl ange s with 6 X 6 angl es s h o uld

.
,
" "

have plat e s n ot l e s s than 1 3 i n s an d n o t m o r e than 1 6 i n s in

. .

W idth . P lat es with a width in e v e n inch es s h ould pr e fe rably b e

ch ose n .

7 4 Connec ti on Angles an d Fi ller s

. I t i s n e c es s ary e ith e r to
.

' '
use fille rs und e r plat e gir d e r s t i fi e n e rs o r e l se t o c rim p t he s t ifi e n e r
,

angl es o v e r t he fl ange angl es Th e r e i s but littl e d i fi eren ce in t he

.

c os t of t he t w o m e th o ds but t he f o rm e r i s ge n e rally pr e fe rr e d
,
.

One obj e cti o n t o t he us e of fi lle rs i s that unless

the filler i s riv e t e d t o the web plat e b y an ind e
p end e nt row of r iv e t s thu s b e c omin g practically a
,

p orti on of the web (this typ e of filler i s fr e qu e ntly

call e d a tight filler) the r iv e t s c onn e cting the
,
'
s t i fl e n er t o t h e we b are re duc e d in s tr e ngth s inc e

they h av e t o carry s tr es s thr o ugh the l oos e filler

plat e and thu s are s ubj e ct e d t o s om e b ending .

This i s of n o imp o rtanc e in int e rm e diat e s tif f e n e rs

which s e rve m e r e ly t o s tiff e n t he w eb but s h o uld b e ,
'
c on s id e r e d in th e e ase of s t i fi e n ers carryin g a c on
e
m m ,

c e n t rat e d l o ad int o t he w b I n s uch ca s es i f .

l oose fill e r s are e mpl oy e d an e xc es s of riv e t s s ay ,

50 pe r c e nt s h o uld b e u se d
,
.

The us e of tight f ill e r s i s al s o advi s abl e in s om e w eec r i o N S Ho me

g? 166
13 68
ca ses in o rd e r t o incr e a se th e b e aring value of r ivet s
whi ch o th e rwi s e w o uld b e limit e d by b e arin g on t he
we b in s t e ad of by s h e a r The f oll owing e xampl e illu s trat es thi s
.

P ro ble m . De termi ne whe the r s uffi c i e nt rivets are use d in th e

c onn e cti on of s tri nge r s t o fl oor be am s shown i n Fi g 1 07 . .
 42 PL A TE G I R D ER D ES I G N A RT . 74

Allowable u ni t stre ss pe r sq . ih . upon r i vets

B eari n g Sh ear

For rive ts above units give t he following working val ues

ki n .

Ma chi ne Be ari g
n o n
- i n pl a t e = 78 75 l bs S-
he ar =.7200 lb s . .

N ( u 6 u
H an d in 78 75 -
54 00
.

A s su me that th e rive t s s h own i n F i g 1 0 7 are all that c an b e u s e d i n .

the angles Fi eld rivets whi ch are hand ri ve ts are sh own thus
.
, ,

Ma xi m um e nd t
s h ea r : s ri nge r t
s ri n ge rb = 3 0 0 00 lh
.

Ma xi m um re ac ti on on fl oo r b eam f r
om bo t h s tn nge ra = 65 .000 lb s .

FIG . 1 07 .

S olu ti on . To carry t o th e hitch angl es t he s he ar of lbs . in

s tri nger a, th ere are r equ ire d

s t i ffe ne r angl e s
As i ndicate d in
to the web .

the fi gure , the lar ges t n umb e r of riv et s that c a n b e

use d i s 6 , but it i s i nadvi sabl e t o c ount upon
those i n the fl anges , whi ch are fre ue ntly fully
s tr ess ed by t h e fl a nge s tr ess , a n d additi onal
q
rive ts sh ould b e adde d if the filler i s t o be a
l oose o ne , henc e it i s ne c essary either to use
wider hitch angles with two r ows of rive ts , or
e l se a wid e filler t o i n cr e a se t he b e ari ng value
of t he c o nne cti o n riv e t s The latter would b e .

cheap er and c onse quently advi sabl e If the .

filler, th e r e fo r e , b e mad e W id er and c onne cte d

q
t o t he we b by two extra riv ets an addi ti onal
s tr ess e ual to that whi ch t w o riv e t s c a n c a rry
c an b e ta k en fr om t he web i nt o th e fi ller a nd
by that carri e d i nto the rivets c onne cti ng the
s ti fi e n ers A s th ese rivet s would , h owe v er ,
.

have to carry a c onsid erabl e b endi ng mom e nt

FI G 1 08
. . i n additi on t o the dir e ct s he ar it i s advi s abl e
t o ma k e a libe ral all owan c e he n c e it wo u ld be ,

well i n this case to use i n th e fillers f our rive ts plac e d dir e ctly O pp os it e
those i n the sti ffe ners . The s tri nge r would then b e as s hown in Fi g 1 0 8 . .
1 44 P L A TE G I R D ER D ES I G N A RT . 75

s atis fi e d by plat es of t he minimum all o wabl e thickn ess alth ough ,

f or thick we b plat es or s hall o w gird e r s t h e thickn ess of the plat e s

s h o uld b e car e fully c omput e d by t h e m e th o d u se d in t he f oll o w

i ng e xampl e The width o f th e plat es i s u s ually d e t e rmine d by

.

t he numb e r of r iv e t s n e e d e d and r e quir es n o c omputati o n

,
The .

r iv e t s mus t b e s uffi c i ent t o car ry the s h e a r and b e nding m om e nt

which the s plic e plat es are re quire d t o res is t Th e ir c omputa .

ti o n inv olves the applicati on of the m e th o d give n i n Art 67 f or .

the s tr e n gth o f riv e t s i n t o r s i on .

O ne of t h e we ll r e c ogniz e d and imp o rtant r ul es of g oo d d e s ign

i s t o s o pr o p o rti on t he m e mb e r that it will b e e qually s t r ong at
j o int s and oth e r critical s e cti on s as in i ts main p o rti on The .

applicati on of thi s r ul e t o t he d es i gn of web s plic e s i nvol ves

maki n g t he s plic e of s u ffi ci e nt s tr en gth to carry all the s h e a r
an d b e nding m om e nt which t he w eb plat e i s capabl e of car rying .

F or ma n y gird e r s thi s w o uld giv e e xc es s iv e s tr e ngth s inc e the

web i s n ot call e d up on t o r es i s t maximum m om e nt and s h e a r
s imulta n e o u s ly I t i s h owe ve r a s afe rule t o f oll o w in all ca ses
.
, ,

an d s h o uld n ot b e d e viat e d fr o m unl es s t h e l o cati o n of t he s plic e

can b e s o fi xe d that it will s ur e ly c om e at a p oin t wh e r e it Will

n ot b e s ubj e ct e d t o maximum c o nditi on s of b o th kind s s i m ul
1
t an eou sly .

The xampl e which f ol

e

lows illu s trat e s t he d es i gn

of a w eb s plic e f or a gird e r ,

t he we b plat e of which i s
s upp o s e d t o b e fully s tr e s s e d

in s h e ar and b e nding .

FIG . 1 10 . I
FG . 111 .

P rob le m a Des ign

web s plic e fo r a gi rd e r with a 6 x 1 , w eb
7

” ”
. ,
"
fl ange angl es wi th 35 l egs ve rt i cal and two 1 6 x% ,

c ove r pla t es on e ach fl ange us ing th e uni t val ues spec i fied i n A rt 1 8 an d
, .

rive t s .

S uc h a c on di ti o n c o uld t at se c ti on a i n t he gi rd e r shown
e xi s ,
by
Fi g 1 1 0 , provi d ed
. a c ove r pla te s t oppe d a li tt le be yo n d t hi s poi n t .
A RT . 75 WE B S PL I C ES 145

S oluti on Fir s t as sume the numbe r and location of rive ts which

.

c an b e use d i n o ne ve r t ic al row As s ho wn by Fi g 1 1 1 , e igh te e n rive t s

. .

m ay be u se d , s p a c e d 3 i ns apar t Had t he mi ni m um all o wable sp a ci ng

. .

o f t hr e e time s t he rive t diame te r b ee n ad opte d , a f e w m ore rive t s ‘

c ould have be en i nse r t e d i n a row, but it i s in advi s able to us e the

m i nimum pitch if it c an b e av o ide d .

N e xt ass ume that the mi nimum allowable thickness of mat e ri a l i s

1 5 i n an d de te rmi ne if t hi s t hi c kn e s s wi ll pr ove s uffi c i e nt f or the splic e
5
.

plate s I f t he se pl ate s are assume d t o be fi tte d t o the e dges of the V e r

.

t ic al l e gs of the fl ange an gle s the ir le n gt h will b e 54 % i n s an d t he ne t .

a re a o f the t w o s plice pl a t es t hr ou gh a row of rive t s will e qu al

— E
1 8) 1 g
sq . i ns . Th e ne t a er a of the gi rde r w eb e qual s (6 1
5
sq . he nc e
i ns .
,
i n plate s a re 1 6 . ample t o carry the she ar .

To de t e rmi ne W he t he r t he ir s tre ngth i n be n d i ng i s s uffi c i e nt the ,

all owabl e r e s i s t a n c e o f t he girde r w eb as u se d i n form ula 1 7 s hould fi rs t

be de te rmin e d This e qual s (T 6 1 .

1
5 If
t he re we re n o rive t hole s i n t he splic e plate s t he ir r esistan c e t o be n di ng
would be give n by the formula ,

=
M 1, s bh
’ 2
v
%s (3) (5 4 10
2
3098 .

As alre ady s tate d th e all o wan c e f or rive t h ol es i s approximately e qual t o

t hat obtai n e d by u s i ng a c oe ffi c i ent of i n the formula f or Ill i ns t ead o f
Ma k i ng this all owan c e gives th e foll owi ng val ue f or the r e s i s tan c e 1 t o
b e n d i ng
fiM i s bh
2= t
309 8 = 2 3 2s .

This Va l ue is much larger t han ne c es sary hen c e , the 5

1 6 in . plate s a re
of s uffi c i e nt s t rength
carry ben ding and shear to .

To d ete rmi ne th e n umb e r o f r ows of r i ve ts th e all owabl e sh e ari ng an d

ben d i ng r e is t an c e of th e gird e r w eb mus t b e c omp u te d Th es e value s
s .

are as f o ll o w s

S he ar 6 1 X 1 5 X X
2
, lb s
“
.

Ben di ng X , i n lb s .
-
.

If t wo r ows of rive t s are a ssume d o n e ach s ide of t he splic e the ve rt ical

l oa d pe r rive t will e qual 66 66 lb s .

X 18 2
Th e val ue of a rive t i n b e aring on the 1 5 w e b = 9 1 8 7
7 "
.

Th e me th od o f A rt 67 may n ow b e appli e d b u t i s s ome what lab o ri ous

.
,

a nd n o e ss e n t ial e rr o r wi ll b e mad e if t he r es i s ta n c e of e ach rive t t o to r

s i o n b e a ss u med t o vary wi t h i ts d i s ta n c e fr o m th e c e ntral axi s of th e
gi r
d e r i ns t e ad of i ts dis t an c e fr om th e c e n tr e o f gravi t y of the gr o u p o f

The a c t u al e ff e c t r ve t h ole s in the t en s i on half o f the s pli c e plat e s i n

of th e i
t h i s c ase i s t o red uce th e val ue of I f or the gr oss a rea b y th e f ollowi n g a m oun t :
2 2
165 + -
17 5 1 3 62 .

The value of I f o r the gro ss r

a ea g .

h e n c e t he red uc t i on m ad e b y us i n g th e co effi c i e n t 1 i n s te ad of }
J
is am ple .
14 6 P L A TE G I R DE R D ES I G N A RT . 76

rive ts and t o act i n a dire ctio n parall el to this axi s Ma k i ng thi s

,

s ump t i on t h e r es i s t a n c e of t he ou t e rm os t rive t t o b e n d i ng w ill e u a l

.

q as

The val ue of I i n formula 1 8 h as lre a dybe e n c om pu t e d f or a half row

a

o f rive ts (Se e foo t n o te )

.
-
. The resi s t anc e t o be nding o f the t wo rews of
rive t s may n ow b e wri tt e n

(2 X 2 1 8 0) i nch—
lb s .

This is pra c tic ally e qual to the Val ue pr evi ous ly fo u n d f or t he allowable
w e b r es i s tan c e vi z,
. i n 1b s
,
We r e t he r esi s tan c e of t he r i ve t s
.
-
.

t o b e n di n g mat erially l e ss t ha n t he all owabl e b e n di n g mom en t o f t he

we b a n o t h er r o w o f riv e t s mi ght b e u se d or t he S plic e l o cat e d at a p oi n t
wh er e t he web i s not fully s tr esse d i n b endi n g an d s h ear s imultaneously
A good l oc a t ion i n s uch a case would b e at a p oi nt a slight d i st a n ce
t oward t he c e n t re of the girde r from the e nd of a c ove r pl ate A t s uch .

a p o i n t pr a c t ic a lly all t he c ove r pl a t e are a would b e i n e xc e ss an d c ould b e

c ount e d up on t o ma ke up the de fi c i enc y i n the s t re ngth of splice .

The m e th o d o f calculati on illu strat e d by t he pr e vi ou s e xampl e

i s n o t s trictly accurat e an d pr obably l ess s o tha n f or t he c as e s
,

g iv e n i n A r t 6
. 7 wh e r e t
,
h e numb e r of riv e t s in a v e rtical ro w

was much l es s I t s h o uld b e n o t e d that f or s uch ca s es the d i s

.
~

t ri b u t i o n of t he s h e ar ov e r the r iv e t s i s pr o bably by n o m e an s
uniform the rive t s n e ar the n e utral axis wh e r e th e s h e ar i s a maxi
, ,

mum pr ob ably carryin g m or e than th os e n e ar e r the o ut e r fi b res

,
.

I n practic e it may b e f o un d d es irabl e t o u se s plic e plat es

thick e r than th ose r e quir e d by c o mputati on I f the s plic e .

plat e b e u s e d as a fille r it s h ould b e as thick as t he fl an ge a n gl es .

I t i s h ow e v e r p os s ibl e in s uch a cas e to mak e up t he t o tal thick

, ,

n es s r e quir e d by t he u s e of a f g i n s plic e plat e an d a fille r an -

.
,

arra n ge m e n t fr e qu e ntly u se d .

76 F l an ge A n gl e Spli c e
. I n v e ry l on g gird e r s it i s fr e qu e n tly
.

n e c e s s a r y t o s plic e t h e flange angl e s W h e n thi s i s to b e d one .

o n ly on e a n gl e i n e ach fl an ge s h o uld b e s plic e d at a s e cti o n

,
A .

c omm o n practic e i s t o s plic e t he t op an gl e on on e s id e of the gird e r

and the b ott o m angl e on t he o th e r s id e at a s e ction a littl e t o
o n e s id e of t h e c e ntr e of t he gird e r an d t o r e v e r s e thi s pr o c es s ,

f or a c o rr e s p o ndi n g se cti o n o n t h e o th e r s id e of t he c e ntr e Th e .

s plic e s h o uld alway s b e mad e by a n o th e r a n gl e the cr oss s e cti on -

ar e a of which s h ould b e e qual t o that of the an gl e t o b e s plic e d .

I n o rd e r to s implify t he c ons tructi on t he splic e an gl es f or the

148 P LA TE G I R D ER D ES I G N A RT . 77

in s tr e s s in a di s tanc e e qual t o t h e l e n gth of th e s p lic e angl e mu s t

b e tak e n car e of . Re f e rring t o F ig 1 1 3 it i s e vi d e n t that t h e
.
,

h o ri z o n tal riv e t s at a mu st c ar ry fr o m t h e fl an ge i n t o th e s plic e

angl e i n t h e di s tanc e m n on e half t h e incr e m e nt in fl an ge s tr e s s
-

in that di stanc e (t h e o th e r half g oi n g thr o ugh th e s am e riv e t t o

t h e fl n
a g e a n g l e o n t h e l e ft hand -
s id e ) plu s o n e —
h alf t h e s tr e s s in
t h e mai n a n gl e at m (s inc e t h e a n gl e i s e qual l e gg e d ) The -
.

r iv e t s at 0 s h o ul d b e c o mput e d t o carry t h e s am e am o u n t s inc e ,

it i s pr o p e r t o a s s um e that all t h e i n cr e m e nt in fl ange s tr es s i s

c ar ri e d by th e c o v e r plat es th e angl e b e i n g fully s tr e s s e d b e f o r e
,

c o v e r plat es are add e d Th e riv e t s at b oth a and c ar e limit e d

.

u s ually by s ingl e s h e ar an d s h o uld b e d e s ign e d ac c o r di n gly

, .

S i n c e t h e s plic e w o ul d o rdi na rily b e pl ac e d n e ar t h e c e ntr e of th e

gir d e r wh e r e th e incr e m en t in fl an ge s tr es s i s s ma ll it i s u s ually ,

s u ffi c i e n t t o d e t e rmi n e t h e numb e r of riv e t s r e quir e d t o s plic e th e

angl e a s s u m i n g it t o b e s tr es s e d t o i t s full v alu e and t o add o n e or

,

t w o r iv e t s t o c ar ry t h e fl an ge s tr e s s incr e m e n t I f n o c over .

pl at e s are n ee d e d it i s u n n e c ess ary t o c o n s id e r th e incr e m e nt in

s tr e s s s i n c e i f t h e s plic e riv e t s b e d e t e rmin e d f o r t h e full valu e of

t h e a n gl e th e y will s ur e ly b e s uff ici e nt t o c arry t h e s tr e s s in t h e

an gl e at m plu s the incr e m e nt in m n .

77 Cove r plate S pli c e

.
-
A c ove r plat e s plic e may alway s b e
.
-

mad e by t he addi ti on of a s plic e plat e of the s am e s iz e as the plat e

t o b e cut an d t he u se of s uffi c i e n t riv e t s t o trans mit t he full s tr e ss
,

fr o m one plat e t o an oth e r with the ,

ad ditio n of a lib e ral p e rc e ntage of

e xtra riv e t s say 33 pe r c e nt f or e ach
,

plat e int e rv eni ng b e tw ee n the plat e

I F G 1 14
. .
t o b e s plic e d an d t h e s plic e plat e

S uch a s plic e i s s h o wn in F ig 1 1 4 .
.

Th e d i s a d v ant age of l on g riv e t s s ubj e ct e d p e rhap s t o b e nding

,

m om e nt b e caus e of th e int erm e diat e plat e s t o ge th e r with t he ,

un s ightly app e aranc e of s uch a s plic e mak e s it d es irabl e if the ,

gir d e r h as m o r e than on e c ov e r plat e t o s pli c e one c o v e r plat e

by m e ans of a n oth e r Thi s may b e d on e by pr op e rly ch o os ing
.

the s e cti o n wh e r e t he_s pli c e i s t o b e mad e .

This i s illu s trat e d by F ig 1 1 5 in which the l owe r c ov e r plat e

.
,

i s t o b e s plic e d . I f thi s plat e b e cut at a wh e r e t he t op eover ,

plat e s h o uld b e gin an d if t he t op plat e b e e xt e nd e d t o b makin g

, ,

t he di s ta n c e a b s uch that e n o ugh riv e t s can b e put b e tw e e n a and

b t o car ry the st res s that t he plat e i s g ood f or t he s plic e will b e ,
A m . 77 C OVE R-P L A TE S P L I C E 1 49

p r op e rly m ad e I f t he t op plat e b e thinn e r than the b o tt om plat e

.

the s plic e w ould hav e t o b e l o cat e d n e ar e r the e n d of th e gi r d e r

I
FG . 115 .

at a p oi nt W h e re one c o ve r plat e of the thickne s s o f the t op plat e

w ould b e j u s t s uffi c i en t t o car ry the s tr ess .

I t will b e ob se rv e d that this m e th o d i s ba se d up o n the tran s fe r

o f all t he s t re ss fr o m t he e n d s e cti o n of t h e plat e t o b e s plic e d

int o the plat e imm e diat ely ab ov e i t The i n t e rm e diat e s e cti o n .

o f t he s plic e d plat e ins t e ad of t h e upp e r plat e will th e n tak e t he

additi o nal incr e m e nt of fl an ge s tr ess .

P R OBLE MS

I
40 . a. Comp u t e thi s girde r wi th resp e ct to the n eutral axi s an d
f or
c
t o the axi s _ Z Q an d c omput e maximum fi b re stre ss f o r a t otal uni formly
,

d i s tri but ed ve r t ical l oad of 3200 lb s per foot ove r .

the en ti re gi rd er Span =40 f t

. .

b Compute the maxi mum fib re s tresses i n

b ot h fl ange s f or the l oading given i n a us in g “W M
.

formula A rt 6 2 A llow f or hol e s f or

. . in -
.

rive t .

0 Compu te by b oth the appr oximate an d

.

e xa ct me t hod s t he r e qui r e d pi t ch of t he hori '

2 L l-G x
z ont al an d v e rtic al fl ange rive ts at e n d of t op

fl ange ass uming all the l oad to be applie d

d ire ctly through t he fl ange a n d one c ov e r pl a t e ,

o n e a ch fl an ge t o e xt e n d to e n d of gird e r Use PR O B 4 0 .

unit val ue s give n i n Art 1 8 and i n rivets .

,
-
. .

d De te rmi ne di s tanc e fr om e nd at which the c ove r pl a t es m a y b e

.

out if d es ir ed .

2 De t e rmine whe the r i nte rme diate s t i ffe n e r s are nee de d

. .

f De
. t e rmi ne t he s i z e o f s t i f fe ne r s n ee d e d o n t he girde r t o s up port

the t op fl ange un de r a c on c e n t ra t e d l oad of 2 00 00 0 1b s All ow

q
.
,

lb s pe r s uare i nch be ari ng on s tifi ene rs and ass ume that t he ir outstan d
.

i ng legs only are e ff e c t ive .

 C H A P T E R VI

S I M P L E TRUSS ES

78 . Tru ss es De fi n e d A t ru s s i s a s tructur e c on s i s ting of se pa

.

r at e b ar s d e s i gn e d t o carry dir e ct t e n s i o n or dir e ct c o mpr e s s i o n .

Th e s e b ar s are c o nn e ct e d at th e ir e nds and o cc a s i o nally at int e r

m e diat e p oint s t h e p o i n t s of c o n n e cti o n b e i n g c all e d j o int s
, .

Th e c o n n e cti o n s are s o m e tim e s mad e by riv e tin g t he m e mb e r s

dir e ctly t o g e th e r and s o m e tim e s by riv e ti n g th e m t o a c omm o n
s t e e l plat e t h e tru s s in e ith e r ca s e b e i n g c all e d a ri veted tru s s
, .

Th e c o n n e cti o n s may al s o b e m ad e by fa s t e n i n g t o g e th e r with a

l arg e s t e e l pin all th e m e mb e r s m e e ti n g at a j o i n t ; s uch a t ru s s i s
call e d a pi n tru s s Th e o ut e r f o rc e s s h o uld b e appli e d at t h e
.

j o i n t s o nly s i n c e th e m e mb e r s are n o t int e nd e d t o c arry b e n di n g

,
.

Thi s i s ac c o mpli s h e d b y th e u se of fl o o r b e am s i n a brid ge a n d

'

r
purlin s in a oo f A s t h e d e pth o f pl at e gird e r s i s limit e d by t h e
.

avail abl e width of plat e s and by t h e i n ability t o s hip by r ail s i n gl e

pi e c e s wid e r tha n 1 0 f t 6 i h o r th e r e ab o ut s it i s n e c e s s ary t o u s e
. .
, ,

tru s s e s wh e r e e c o n o my or rigidity r e quir e gr e at e r d e pth s Th e .

c o m m o n practic e in t h e U n it e d S tat es at t h e pr e s e n t tim e i s t o

u s e b e am s 0 1 gird e r s up t o l e n gth s o f 90 o r 1 0 0 f t ; riv e t e d .

tru s s es ab o v e th e s e l e n gth s up t o 1 5 0 o r 1 7 5 f t and pin tru s s es .

ab o v e thi s l e n gth Th e u s e of s h o rt e r pi n —
. tru s s s pa n s f o r railr o ad
b rid ge s h as b e e n giv e n up b e c au s e of l ack of rigidity and c on
s e qu e nt e arly w e aring o u t o f t he b ridg e

ig
.

A typical pin tru ss i s illus trat e d by F 4 . .

79 Class i fi ca ti on
. All truss e s m ay b e divid e d int o two
.

g e n e ral cla sses ba s e d up on the m e th o ds n e c ess ary f or the d e t e r

minati on of the s tr esses in t he m e mb e rs ; if th e s e s tr es se s can b e
d e t e rmine d by s tatic s the tru ss i s s tatically d e t e rmin e d ; othe r
wi se it i s s tatically und e t e rmin e d I t s h ould b e n ot e d that .

a trus s may b e s tatically und e t e rmi n e d with r e s p e ct t o the out er

f o rc es i e the r e acti on s cann o t b e d e te rm i n e d by s tatic s and
,
. .
, ,

t b tatically d e t e rmin e d with r es p e ct t o t he inne r for c e s

y e e s ,

an d vi c e vers a Th e f o rm e r i s u s ually th e case W ith draw bridg e s

.
,

t he latt e r with t he d o ubl e int e rse cti o n trusse s s om e time s us e d in

s impl e s pan bridges .

8 0 Th e o ry Th e th e o ry up o n which t h e c o mputati o n of t ru s s
. .

s tr e s s e s i s b a s e d a ss um es that t h e c e n tr e o f gravity li n e s o f t h e

m e mb e r s m e e ti n g at a p o i n t i n t e r s e ct at a p o i n t an d are h e l d
t o ge th e r at that p o i n t by a fricti o n l e s s pin It f o ll o w s that t h e .

s tr e s s e s in t h e vari o u s m e mb e r s will all b e dir e ct s tr e s se s That .

thi s d e viat e s c o n s id e rably fr o m t he t ruth f or r iv e t e d tru s s e s i s

1 50
 1 52 S I M PLE TRU SS ES A RT . 83

Re f e rring t o F ig . 117 it is
vid e nt that as th e r e are b ut t w o e

unkn ow n f o rc es S I and 8 2 t h e t w o e quati o n s of e quilibrium

, , ,

2 H = 0 and E V = O will b e j u s t s u ffi c i e n t t o ,

d e t e rmin e th ese and s inc e all th e f o rc es m e e t ,

at a p oint t he e quati o n E M = 0 will b e s ati s

s fi e d by any valu e of S 1 and S 2 and n e e d n o t b e
,

c on s id e r e d W ith t he s tr e s s es in bar s a b and

.

F1 G 1 1 7 .
a c thu s d e t e rmin e d a s e cti o n may n e xt b e ,
.

t ak e n at e ith e r j o int b o r j oint 0 and t h e s tr e ss ,

in bar be c o mput e d i n a s imilar mann e r thu s c o mpl e ting t h e ,

n e c e s s ary c o mput ati o n s f o r thi s tru s s .

I t s h o uld b e o b s e rv e d that if t h e m o m e nt at a j o i nt d o es n ot
e qual z e r o t h e numb e r of unkn o w n s will b e incr e a s e d and addi
, ,

t i o n al e quati o ns which c an n o t b e d e riv e d fr o m s t atic s w o uld b e

n e c e s s ary t o o btain a s o luti o n .

8 3 Ch ara ct e r o f St r e s s
. The d e t e rminati o n of t h e charact e r
.

of t h e s tr e s s i s o ft e n m o r e imp o rta n t than th at of i t s mag n itud e ,

as a bar d e s ign e d f o r t e n s i o n may f ail i f t h e s tr es s i s c o mpr e s s i o n

e v e n if i t s mag n itud e i s s m all To d e t e rmi n e t h e c har act e r of t he

.

s tr e s s in any bar it i s s u ffi c i e n t t o arbitrarily a ss um e t h e dir e cti o n

of t h e s tr es s es b e f o r e applyi n g t h e e quati o n s of e quilibrium If .

t h e s oluti o n giv e s a p o s itiv e r e s ult f or a s tr e s s it s h o w s that thi s

s tr e ss act s in t h e dir e cti o n o riginally a ss um e d .

I n thi s c o nn e cti o n it s h o uld b e c ar e f ully o b s e rv e d that t h e i n

terna l s tr e s s e s in a bar s ubj e ct e d t o t e n s i o n c o nti n ually t e n d t o pull
t h e e nd s t o g e th e r ; that i s t o s h o rt e n t h e bar h e n c e t e n s i o n i n a
, ,

bar always act s a wa y fr o m t h e j o int s at both e nd s and c om pr es ,

s i on towa r d t h e j o i n t s F ig 1 1 7 illu s tr at es thi s S 2 i s s h o w n

. . .

acting away fr o m th e j oi n t th at i s i n t e n s i o n ; 8 1 o n t h e o th e r
, ,

h and i s a ss um e d i n c o mpr e s s i o n an d i s s h o w n acting towa rd t he

j o int If th e j o i n t at t h e t o p of t h e tru s s s h o ul d n e xt b e i n ve s
.

t i gat e d it w o uld b e n e c e ss ary t o r e pr e s e nt S I as acti n g t o war d

th at j o i n t al s o s i n c e t h e c o mputati o n s giv e a p o s itive valu e f or
,

S 1 thu s indic ati n g that it i s c o mpr e s s i o n

,
.

It i s s af e r f o r t h e b e gi nn e r t o a s s um e t h e s tr e s s i n e ach b ar as
t e n s i o n or away fr o m t h e j o int P o s itiv e valu e s will th e n i n dic at e
,
.

t e n s i on an d n e gativ e valu es c o mpr e s s i o n Thi s i s i n ac c o r da n c e .

with t h e c o mm o n b ut n ot univ e r s al c o n v e n ti on o f r e pr es e n ti n g
t e n s i o n (which i n cr e a s e s t h e l e n gth of a bar ) by a plu s s ig n .

8 4 Det e rm in ate an d In d ete rm in at e T russ e s

. F o r t h e tru s s .

und e r c o n s id e rati o n th e r e ar e thr e e u n k n o wn b ar s Th e s tr e s s e s .

A RT . 84 D E TE R M I N A TE A N D I N D E TE R M I N A TE TRU S S ES 1 53

in t wo of th e m h av e b ee n d e t e rmi n e d by c o n s i d e ring o n e j o i n t
o n ly t h e s tr e ss in t h e o th e r may b e f o u nd by t aki n g e ith e r of t h e
o th e r j o i n t s S inc e by t aki n g b o th of t h e o th e r jo int s th e r e w o ul d
.

b e f o ur e quati on s an d o n ly o n e o th e r unk n o wn bar it w o uld s e e m

as if th e r e w e r e t oo many e quati o n s .Thi s i s a fallacy h o w e v e r , ,

a s th es e e quati o n s mu s t s u ffi c e t o d e t e rmi n e t h e unkn o wn r e a c

ti o n s as w e ll as t h e u n kn o w n b ar s s i n c e e quilibrium of e ach j o i n t
,

inv o lv e s e quilibrium of t h e e ntir e s tru ctur e ; that i s f or thi s ,

partic ular s tructur e and in g e n e ral f or all pl anar s tructur e s which

a r e s tatic ally d e t e rmin e d with r e s p e ct t o t h e r e acti o n s th e r e mu s t

b e thr e e m o r e e quati o n s than th e r e are b ar s I n oth e r w o rd s t h e

.
,

s i x e quati o n s of j o int s f or s uch a tru s s ar e n o t ind e p e nd e nt but a r e

r e lat e d in s uch a m a nn e r as t o s ati s fy t h e thr e e ge n e ral e quati o n s

o f e quilibrium f or t h e t ru s s as a wh o l e ,
viz
EX = 0 2 Y = O an d
.
, ,

E M = 0 which may f o r m os t c a s es b e r e pl ac e d by th e m o r e
,

c o mm o n e quati o n s
2 H = O, E V = O, 2 M = O .

Th e r e th e r e f o r e f or th e tru s s s h o wn in F ig 1 1 6 but thr e e

ar e .

i n d epend en t e quati o n s which c an b e u s e d i n d e t e rmi n i n g t h e bar

s tr e s s e s h e nc e th e s e s tr e ss e s a re d e t e r m i n at e
,
.

I n ge n e ral it may b e s aid f o r all pla nar tru ss e s which are s tat
i c ally d e t e rmin e d with r e s p e ct t o t h e o ut e r f o rc e s that if n e qual s
,

t h e numb e r of j o i n t s 2 71 —3 e qu al s th e numb e r of b ar s which t h e

,

s tructur e mu s t hav e t o b e d e t e rmi n at e . If it h as m o r e b ar s t h e

s tr es s e s c an n o t b e c o mput e d by s tatic s ; if l es s it will n o t b e

rigi d and will c o ll ap s e e xc e pt u n d e r s p e cial c o nditi o n s Th e s am e .

c rit e ri o n mu s t al s o b e applic abl e t o any p o rti o n of th e tru s s F or .

n o n— pl an ar tru s se s th e c o n diti o n s are s o m e what di f f e r e nt but

will n ot b e di s cu s s e d h e r e .

If it b e d e s ir e d t o b uil d a s tructur e which b e c au s e o f t h e num

b e r o f p o int s of s upp ort o r f or o th e r r e a s o n s w o uld o rdi n arily b e
s tatic ally und e t e rmi n e d with r e s p e ct t o t h e o ut e r f o rc e s it may ,

b e p o s s ibl e t o m ak e t h e s tructur e d e t e rmi n at e in all r e s p e ct s b y

pr o p e rly ch o os i n g t he numb e r o f m e mb e r s F o r e xampl e in t h e
.
,

c a s e of a c antil e v e r tru ss a diag o nal o v e r a pi e r i s s o m e tim e s

,

o mitt e d f o r thi s r e a so n . In s win g s p a n s dia go n al s a re o ft e n

o mitt e d o r mad e v e ry s mall i n o rd e r t o r e duc e t h e numb e r s o f

unkn o wn s I f t h e u n kn o wn c o mp o ne n t s of t h e r e a cti o n s b e f o ur
.

it i s e vid e nt that th e r e c an b e o nly 2 71 —4 bar s if t he s tructur e i s

t o b e mad e d e t e rmi n at e .
1 54 S I M P LE TRU SSES A RT . 85

85 . Mo de of Pr o c edu r e Meth od of J oi n ts I n
. Analyti cal .

t he s oluti o n of pr obl e m s by t he analytical m e th o d of j oint s t he

f oll o win g m o d e of pr o c e dur e s h o uld alway s b e ad opt e d
1 Co mput e r e acti o n s
. .

2 S e l e ct a j oi n t at which only t w o bar s m e e t

. .

3 A s s um e t he s tr e ss es i n th es e bar s t o b e t e n s i on that i s
.
, ,

t o act away fr o m t h e j oint ; and apply t he e quati o n s o f e q u i li b

ri u m . I f t he s tr es s in e ith e r bar i s f o u n d t o b e n e gativ e i t
indicat es that t he bar i s i n c ompr ess i on i ns t e ad of t en s i on .

4 Co n s id e r any o th e r j o i n t at which o nly two u n k n o wn bars

.

m ee t and d e t e rmin e t h e s tr ess e s i n th e s e bar s in t he s am e man n e r

an d pr o c ee d thu s until all t h e s tr e s ses hav e b e e n d e t e rmi n e d .

86 Appli c a ti o n o f A nalyti c al Meth o d o f Jo ints

. The f oll o w .

i n g num e ric al e xampl e h as b ee n w o rk e d out t o s h ow the applic a

t i on of t his m e th o d :

4—P-ane i s —2o’
lb s

I
.

FG . 1 18 .

V8
5 000

FIG . 1 1 8 11 . FIG . 1 1 80 . Fm .

J O INT B: Z v=oz V 1 + 2 7 , 5 00

VI — 2 2 500 1b s .
,

lb s .

lb s .
156 S I M P LE TRU SS ES A m . 86

Th e actual s tr ess in t he bar =

lb s .

I t will b e n otic e d that t he s tr ess i n thi s ca se h as b e e n d e t e r

min e d with o ut r e fe r e nc e t o s tr e s se s 8 1 an d S Q an d i s a dir e ct,

functi on of t he s tr ess i n bar 6 an d t he pa n e l l o ad at D

20 000

V3 33
'

FIG . 1 19 . FIG . 1 1 9A .

J O IN T F Z V =O: — V —S = 0
g .

Z H =0 z +E3 = O lb s .

lb s .

h e nc e S9 lb s .

X lb s .

S inc e t h e tru s s i s s ymm e trical and t he l o ad s are al so sym

m e t rical t he s tr ess e s in the bar s o f on e half th e tru s s are id en tical
,
-

with th ose i n t he bar s of t he o th e r half ,

h e n c e furth e r c omputati on s are unn e c es s ary .

1 0 000
A s a ch e ck c o n s id e r j oi n t G at which
_ ,

f o rc e s will act as s h o wn in F ig 1 20 I t i s . .

e vid e nt that th e s e f o rc es a r e i n e quilibrium ,

F I G 1 20 h e n c e t h e str e s se s are ch e ck e d t o a certai n

e xt e n t .In practic e furth e r ch e ck s s h oul d b e appli e d .
A RT . 87 GR AP AL
H IC M ETH O D O F JO I N TS D ES C R I B E D 157

87 . Gr aph i c al Me th od
J oints De sc r ib ed The a n alytic al
of .

m e th o d j u s t giv e n i s p e rf e ctly ge n e ral but t o o lab o ri o us t o u s e

in d e t e rmi n i n g t he s tr e ss e s in all the bar s of an o rdi n ary tru s s ,

th o ugh it m ay b e u s e d with gr e at advantage f or c e r t ain s pe ci fi c

m e mb e rs A graphical m e th o d b a s e d up o n t he s am e pri ncipl e s
.

i s we ll adapt e d f or ma n y typ e s of tru s ses partic ularly r o of ,

trusse s with n on — parall el ch ord s and s h oul d b e th o r o ughly

,

und e r s t oo d Thi s m e th o d c o n s i s t s of drawing p olyg o n s of f o rc e s

.

f o r e ach j oint in s uc c e ss i o n t he p olyg on s b e ing s o c o mbin e d as t o

,

c o n s id e rably r e duc e th e lab o r which w ould b e r e quir e d if e ach

j oi n t we r e t o b e c o n s id e r e d s e parat e ly The s tr e ss es in t he .

bars can b e obtain e d by s cali n g the s id es of t he p olyg on s L ik e .

o th e r gr a phical pr o c e ss es thi s m e th o d i s l es s pr e ci s e than analyt

,

ical m e th o d s and e rr o r s in s caling th e s tr esses are e a s i ly mad e

,

and di ffi c ult of d e t e cti o n A cl os ur e of t he fi gu re h owe v e r w ould

.
, ,

indicat e that n o e rr or of imp ortanc e had b e e n mad e in th e

graphical w o rk .

88 Mo d e of P r o ce du r e
. Gra phi c a l Me th o d of J o i n t s
. .

1 Draw a s k e tch of t he s tructur e t o an y s uitabl e s cal e an d

.

s h o w on it all t he o ut e r f o rc e s i n cluding r e acti o n s .

2 De s ignat e all t he f o rc e s and bar s by l e tt e r s s o l o cat e d

.

that e ach f o rc e and e ach b ar will li e

b e twe e n t wo l e tt e r s and only t wo ,

as illu s trat e d by F ig 1 2 1 . .

3 Draw a p o lyg on of o ut e r
. .

fo rc e s .Thi s s h o uld b e drawn t o

a s cal e of s uffi c i e nt s iz e t o giv e t h e
d e s ir e d ac curacy and t he f o rc es
s h o uld b e pl ott e d in t h e o rd e r in F G 121 I . .

which th e y are r e ach e d by g o ing

ar o und the fi gu re in a cl o ckwi s e dir e cti on and s h o uld b e l e tt e r e d ,
.

at the e nd s by t he l e tt e r s in t h e o rd e r o btain e d by thi s cl o ck

wi s e r otati o n Thi s p olygo n s h ould cl ose if the r e acti on s hav e
.

b e e n c o rr e ctly d e t e rmin e d .

4 Draw a triangle o f f or c es f or e ach j o int b e ginning at any

.
,

j oint wh e r e an o ut e r f o rc e and t w o bar s only m e e t an d pr oc e e d ,

i ng th e nc e j o int by ,
se l e cti n g t he j o int s in s uch an o rd e r that

at n o j o i n t will th e r e b e m o r e than t wo u n d e t e rmin e d f o rc es t o

c on s id e r The s id e s of th ese triangl e s r e pr e s e nt ing t he o ut e r
.

f o rc e s a re th e sid e s of t he f o rc e p o lygo n Th e s id e s r e pr e s e n ti n g
.
1 58 S I MPL E TRU SS E S A RT . 88

b ar s tr e s ses s h o uld b e l e tt e r e d at t h e e n d s by th e l e tt e r s o btain e d

by go ing ar o u n d t h e j o int s in a cl o ckwi s e dir e cti o n Th e dia gram .

thu s draw n s h o uld f o rm a cl o s e d fi gur e .

5 De t e rmin e t he magnitud e and charact e r of the bar s tr ess e s

.

fr o m the diagram Th e ma gni tud e of the s tr ess in any m e mb e r

.

e qual s t h e l e n gth o f t he lin e of t he diagram paralle l t o t h e b ar

i n qu es ti o n m e a s ur e d t o t he s cal e of t he f orc e p olyg o n ; i ts char

act e r i s d e t e rmi n e d by t he o rd e r in which t he l ett e rs are r e ach ed
in go in g ab o ut an y j o int in a cl o ck wi s e dir e cti on For e xampl e .
,

t o d e t e rmi n e t h e charact e r of th e s tr ess in

bar CI of F ig 1 2 1 n ot e that 0 73 in t he
.
,

s tr e s s diagram F ig 1 2 2 act s d own ward t o

,
.
,

t he l e ft as d e t e rmi n e d by the o rd e r in which

,

t h e l e tt e r s are r e ach e d in g o in g ar o und j o int

2 h e nc e t he s tr ess in CI al s o act s d own
,

ward t o the l e ft or t oward the j oi nt s i n c e

, ,

t he bar i s ab o v e t h e j o int and i s th e r e f o r e ,

c ompr ess i on A s imil a r r e sult i s obtaine d

.

by c on s id e ri ng j o int 4 Fo r thi s j o i n t .

cl o ckwi s e r e adi n g giv e s t he d e s ignati o n o f

FIG 1 22
. .

t he bar as I C and in t he s tr e ss diagram

,

act s upward t o t he right that i s t o war d j o int 4 s inc e t he bar i s

, ,

b e l ow thi s j oint .

Th e e xampl e which f oll o w s r e pr ese nt s cl e arly t he applica ,

ti on of this m e th o d and s h o w s by the cl os ur e of t he diagram

that n o e rr or of imp ortanc e has b ee n mad e in the graphical
w o rk .

8 9 A ppli cati on o f Graph i c al Meth od of Jo i nts

. F ig 1 2 1 . .

s h o w s t he s tructur e drawn t o s cal e and with all t he o ut e r f o rc es

r e pr e s e n t e d in dir e cti o n and p o int of applicati on The fo rc e .

p olyg o n i s a bc def ga in F i g 1 22 ; thi s i s a s traight lin e s inc e all t he

.
,

f o rc e s are v e rtical I n it a b = P 1 bc = P 2 e t c Th e r e acti o n s

.
, , .

RL and RR r e pr e s e nt e d by ya and f g m ay b e d e t e rmin e d an aly

, ,

tically or graphically by m e th o d s give n l at e r

, .

Th e trian gl e of f o rc e s i s fi rs t drawn f or j oint 1 Th e f o rc e s ,

which act at thi s j oint are RL P I th e s tr es s in bar E H and

H
, , ,

t h e s tr e s s i n b ar G and th e s e f o rc e s mu s t b e in e quilibrium
,
.

O i th es e P 1 an d RL ar e kn o wn in m a gn itud e an d dir e cti on

H
.

Th e ir r e s ult ant e qual s gb Th e s tr e s s es in E H and G are kn ow n

'

.
1 60 S I MP LE T RUSSES A RT . 90

I n t he graphical soluti o n of this s tructu re a s imila r d i ffi c ulty

al s o ari se s A ft e r the s tr esses in bar s BL CM L X L M M N
.
, , , ,

and N K and t he c o rr es p onding bar s in t he o th e r half of t he

,

tru s s have b e e n d e t e rmin e d n o j oint e xis t s at which o nly t wo

,

unkn own s t resses act To o ve r c om e this di ffi c ulty t he f oll owing

.

S tress Di a gr am

I
FG . 1 23 .

d evic e may b e e mpl oy e d : Con sid e r the t ru ss part i ally s h o wn b el o w

t h e o ri ginal tru ss in F 1g 1 2 3 in which bar s P Q Q R R0 and OP
.
, , ,

o f t he o riginal tru ss hav e b e e n r e plac e d by bar s X Y and YR Th e .

tru ss i s s till d e t e rmi n at e s inc e one j oint and t wo bars have b ee n

e limi n at e d .Mo r e ov e r t h e s tr ess in B Y e qual s that in E Q s i n c e
,

if t he s tr e ss in E Q b e c omput e d by t he analytical m e th o d of
j oint s in t he mann er j u s t d es crib e d but w orkin g fr o m the right
,

e n d o f t he tru ss ,
i t s valu e i s cl e arly see n t o b e ind e p e nd e nt of
any p oss ibl e arran ge m e nt of bars on the l e ft The s tres s diagram .

f or t h e n e w tru ss may n o w b e c ontinu e d and t h e p o int y l oc at e d .

Thi s c o rr e s p o nd s to q f or t h e original tru s s h e nc e p i s at th e ,

A RT . 91 A N A L Y T I C AL M E TH O D O F M O M E N TS D E S C R I BE D 1 6 1

int e r s e cti o n of (1p and dp an d t h e r e maind e r of t he c o n s tructi o n

,

may b e mad e with o ut d i ffi c ulty Th e s tr e ss diagram f or t h e l e ft .

half of t h e tru s s i s s h o w n Th at f or t h e right half w o uld b e .

s imilar and i s o mitt e d .

This pr obl e m may al so b e s olv e d by a c ombinati o n o f graph

ical and analytical m e th o d s t he s tr e ss es b e i n g d e t e rmi ne d ,

analytically i n s uch bar s as are n e c ess ary and th ose valu e s pl ott e d
in the diagram .

9 1 A n alyti c a l Meth od of Mom ents Desc r i bed

. Thi s m e th o d .

o f fi n d i n g tru s s s tr e s s es i s b a se d up o n t h e applicati on of t he e qua

ti on EM = 0 I t i s v e ry u s e ful f o r d ete rm i ni n g s tr e ss es in s p e ci al
,
.

bar s of many tru s se s but i s n ot s o ge n e ral as t he m eth o d of j o int s

,

and i s fre qu en tly i n applicabl e t o many bar s e ve n in the s impl es t

tru s s e s Lik e t he m e th o d o f j oint s it i s al s o a m e th o d o f s e c
.
,

ti o n s t h e tru s s b e i n g c on s id e r e d as divid e d int o t wo p o rti ons

,

by a se cti on an d the e qu i librium of one of th es e p o rti o n s b e ing

c on s id e r e d I t can b e u se d t o d e t e rmi n e the s tr ess in a give n
.

bar wh e n all the u n d e t e rmi n e d bar s cut by the se cti on e xc e pt t he

on e in qu es ti o n o r th e ir pr ol o ngati o n s m ee t at a p o int which
, , ,

p o i n t s h o ul d b e tak e n as th e o rigin o f m o m e nt s .

92 Mode of Pr oc e du r e
. Meth o d of Mom ents . .

1 A s s um e t he t ru s s t o b e divid e d int o t w o part s by an

.

a s s um e d s e cti on whi ch may b e st raight or curv e d Thi s s e ct i on

,
.

s h o uld c ut t he bar in whic h t he s tr e s s i s t o be d e t e rmin e d a n d ,

all t h e oth e r bar s c ut by it s h o uld m ee t at a p o int whic h s h ould

n ot b e o n t he bar in which it i s d e s ir e d t o d e t e rm in e t he str e s s ,

n or on i t s pr o l on gati o n .

2 A pply t h e e quati o n E M = 0 u s i n g th e p o int o f int e r s e cti o n

.
,

d e s crib e d und e r 1 a s t he o rigin and c o n s id e ring th at p o rti o n of

,

t h e tru s s givi n g t h e s impl e r e quati o n Th e e quati o n mu s t i n .

e lud e th e m o m e nt o f all t h e o ut e r f o rc e s acti n g o n t h e p o rti o n

'

o f t h e t ru s s u n d e r c o n s id e rati o n t o ge th e r with t h e m o m e nt o f t h e
,

unkn o w n bar s tr e s s which s h o uld b e a s s um e d a s t e n s i o n Cl o ck .

wi s e m o m e nt s s h o uld b e c o n s id e r e d as p os itiv e Th e s e cti o n i s .

c o mm o n ly tak en as cutting but thr ee bar s t w o o f which m e e t at ,

a p o i n t while th e third i s th e bar u n d e r c o n s id e rati o n I t i s

,

s o m e tim e s s impl e r t o d e al with t h e m o m e n t s of t h e c o mp o n e nt s

than wi t h that of t h e f o rc e s th e m s e lv e s pa rticularly wh e n t he ,

fo rc e may b e r e s o lv e d at a p o i n t s uch that t he l e v e r arm s of on e

of th e c o mp o n e nt s i s o zer .
1 62 S I M P LE TRU SS ES A RT . 93

3 . quati on f or the unkn o wn s tr e ss A p os itive

S olv e the e .

re s ult s h ows that the bar i s in t e ns i on .

93 Me th od of Mom en ts
. Appli c ati on
. The applicati on of .

thi s m e th o d i s cl e arly illus trat e d by the f oll o win g num e rical

e xampl e f or t h e tr us s s h o wn in F ig 1 24 . .

B ar 0 Fo r thi s bar t he X Y se cti o n f ulfils the r e quir e d c on

.

d i t i on s ; that i s it cut s thr e e bar s t wo of which m e e t at a p o int

, , ,

and t he o th e r i s the bar a I f that p o rti o n of t he tru s s t o t he

.

l e ft of the s e cti on b e n ow c on sid e r e d it i s evid e nt that it w i ll b e

,

h eld in e quilib rium by the o ut e r f o rc es and t h e s tr es ses in bar s

(7, b and c , and that t he m o m e nt of t he o ut e r f or c e s and t he ba r

FG I . 1 24 .

s tre ss e s ab o ut any p oint in the plan e of t he t r u ssmu s t e qual z o er .

I f m o m en t s b e tak e n ab o ut the int e r se cti o n of b and c t he m om e nt ,

o f t he s tr es s e s in th e s e ba r s will b e z e r o h e nc e t he e quati on of
,

m om e nt s will includ e only the kn o wn o ut e r fo rc e s an d the unkn own

s tr e s s in ba r a which can
, ,
in c on se qu e nc e b e r e adily c o mput e d
,
.

The e quati o n will b e as b e l ow a ss uming s tr ess in a as t e n s i o n

,
.

(60 —2 0 + 3 0)

s a = + 45 .

Ba r b . Thet ress in bar b may b e f o und by taking t he

s

o rigi n of m om e nt s at t h e i n t e r s e cti o n of bar a and bar 0 pro ,

d u ce d u s i n g th e s am e se cti o n as f or bar a
,
.

B a r d I n b oth of t he ca s es c on s id e r e d t h e s e cti on X Y was

.

a s sum e d t o b e ve rtical o r n e arly s o this h o we v e r i s n ot n e c ess ary

, , ,

an d a h o riz on tal o r inclin e d s e cti o n may b e u s e d pr o vid e d t h e

bars cut by it f ulfil the s tat e d c onditi on s For e xampl e t he .

,
1 64 S I M P L E TRU S S ES A RT . 96

1 . Divid e t he
tru ss i n t o two part s by a se cti on pa ss ing thr ough
t h e bar in qu e s ti on Thi s se cti on may out any numb e r of bar s
.

pr o vid e d all are parall el e xc e pt the one u n d e r c o n s id e rati on but ,

i n ge n e ral it s h o ul d b e s o ch os e n as t o cut n ot m o r e than thr ee

bar s .

2 Re fe r t he f o rc e s t o t w o ax e s parall e l and p e rp e ndicu lar

.
,

r e s p e c tiv e ly t o t he parall e l bar s cut by t he s e cti on Le t the .

axi s p e rp e ndicular t o th e s e bar s b e k n own as t he Y axi s .

De t e rmin e t he Y c omp on e nt s of all th e o ut e r f o rc es acting on that

p o rti on of the tru ss which h as t he f ew e r o ut e r f o rc e s acti n g on i t ,

and apply E Y = O The e quati on s h ould i n clud e the Y c ompo

.

n e n t s of a ll t h e o ut e r f o rc e s acti n g up on t h e p o rti o n o f t h e tru s s

se l e ct e d an d t h e Y c o mp on e n t o f t h e unkn o wn bar s tr es s which

,

s h o uld b e a s s um e d a s t e n s i o n .

3 S olv e t he e quati o n thu s o btai n e d f o r t h e u n k n o wn Y

.

c omp on e n t A p os itiv e r es ult s h o ws that the s tr e s s i n the bar

.

i s t e n s i on .

In m os t brid ge tru s s es th es e c onditi o n s i n v olve m e rely t h e

applicati on o f 2 V = 0 t o t he p o rti o n o f t he tru s s c o ns id e r e d ,

i e t he s h e ar o n t h e s e cti on e qual s t h e v e rtical c o mp o n e n t o f

. .
,

th e s tr e ss i n t h e giv e n dia go n al h e nc e thi s m e th o d i s o rdi n arily ,

c all e d t he m e th o d o f s h e ar .

96 Me th od of S h e a r
. Appli c ati o n Th e f oll o wi n g e xampl e
. .

cl e arly illu s trat es the applicati on o f thi s m e th o d t o t he d e t e r

mi n ati o n of th e s tr es s es i n the w e b m e mb e r s of t he s impl e
brid ge tru s s with h o ri z ontal ch o rd s an d carryi n g a u n if o rm d e ad
,

a n d liv e l o ad s h o wn i n F ig 127
,
. .

FG I . 1 27 .

d e ad load b e tak e n as 1 000 lb s pe r f oo t all o n the

Le t t h e v
.

b o tt o m ch o rd an d the live l o ad as 2 000 lb s pe r f oot als o o n the

,
.

b ott om ch o rd Th e pa n e l l o ad s will th e n b e
. lb s d e a d an d .

50 000 1b s liv e an d t h e p os it ive d e ad s h e ar o n t he s e cti o n X Y w i ll

,
.
,

be lb s To get the maximum liv e s h e ar on X Y a s s um e full

.
ART . 97 GE N E RA L RUL FOR ES S OLU TI ON OF TRU SS ES 1 65

pan el l o ad s at pan el p o int s L 2 and L3 and n o l o ad at pan e l p o int ,

LI . This gives a live s h e ar in t h e pan el of + 3 7 5 00 1b s The ve r ,

.

tical c o mp o n e nt in the bar Un will th e n

be lb s d e ad and . lb s .

live . W ith t he v e rtical c o mp on e nt

kn own the actual s tr es s can b e e as ily
c omput e d The f o rc es acting up on that
.

p o rti o n o f the tru ss t o t he l e ft of t he

s e cti on will b e as s h o wn in Fi g 1 2 8 .
,

fr o m which it i s r e adily s ee n that

by a ss umin g the s tr e s s in the diago nal FIG 1 28 . .

t o b e t e n s i o n and applyi n g th e e qua

ti on 2 V = 0 V 1 wil l b e f o und t o have a p os itive valu e
, .

H ad t he tru s s b e e n incli n e d i n s t e ad of h o riz on tal t he pr o p e r

c o ur s e t o pur s u e w ould hav e b ee n t o r es olv e the v e rtic al f o rc e s
int o n o rmal an d tange ntial c omp o n e nt s and apply E Y = O t o ,

the n o rmal f o rc es .

97 Gener al Ru l e s f or Deter m i na ti on of Tr u ss St r ess es

. The .

s tud e nt s h ould n ot e car e fully th at t h e thre e m e th o d s which have

b ee n e xpla i n e d vi z t h e m e th o d of j o int s t h e m e th o d o f m o m e nt s
,
.
, , ,

and t he m e th o d of s h e ar s are all m e th o d s of s e cti o n s an d that in

, ,

th e i r applicati on it i s alway s n e c ess ary t o a s s um e a s e cti on thr o ugh

the tru s s an d writ e an e quati o n o f e quilibr i um b e twe e n t h e o ut e r
f o rc es acti n g up on t he tru s s on on e s id e of t he se cti o n and the
f o rc e s in t he bar s cut by t he se cti o n In c omputing a bar by .

a n alytical m e th o d s th e fir s t s t e p i s t o d e t e rmin e t he m e th o d t o

u se . I t s h o uld n e xt b e d e cid e d wh e r e t o tak e the se cti o n and
what p o rti on of t he tru ss t o c on s id e r F i n ally th e pr o p e r e qua .

ti o n s s h o uld b e appli e d b e twe e n all the o ut e r f o rc e s actin g on

t h e p o rti o n sel e ct e d and t he s tr ess e s in t he bar s cut .

A c ombinati o n of the thr ee m e th o d s which hav e b e e n e x

plai ne d j o int s m om e nt s an d s h e ar s e n abl e s u s t o c omput e
, , , ,

r e adily t he s tr es s in any or all m e mb e r s o f a s tatically d e t e rmin e d

tru s s I n o rd e r h o we v e r t o fi gure t he s tr esses in the s impl es t
.
, ,

ma nn e r it may b e n e c es s ary t o s tudy with c o n s id e rabl e car e s o m e

,

o f t h e m e mb e r s in o rd e r t o d e t e rmi n e which m e th o d s h ould b e

,

ad opt e d I n bridge s h o w e v e r the fo rm s of tru s s es which are in

.
, ,

c omm on use f or s impl e s pa n s are n ot num e r o u s and the ,

be st m e th o d s t o ad o pt can b e r e adily l e arn e d by t he s tudy of

c onv e nti o nal typ e s For r oo f tru s se s the grap hical m e th o d of
.
1 66 S I M P LE TR US S E S A RT 98 . .

j o int s will u s ually b e f ound m ost c onv e ni e nt th ough s om e tim es

'

it may b e d e s irabl e t o s uppl e m e nt thi s m e th o d by c omputing th e

s tr es s in c e rtain b ar s b y on e of the o th e r m e th od s .

98 Coun t er s
. . I n pm truss es as c o mm only built in the Unit e d
S tat es t he main diag onal s are flat e ye bar s which can carry littl e -

o r n o c o mpr ess i on and which are s o plac e d in th e tru ss as t o b e

,

in t en s i o n und e r t he d e ad l o ad Ce rtain p os iti on s of t he liv e

.
.

l o ad will h ow ev e r alway s t e nd t o pr oduc e c ompr ess i on i n s o m e

, ,

o f t h e diag o nal s . Thi s fr e qu e ntly o v e rb alan c es t he d e ad t en

s i on ,
es p e ci ally wh e n impact i s add e d S uch i s u s ually t he
.

ca se in pan el s n e ar t he c entr e o f a rail r o ad bridge tru s s wh e r e

t he d e ad s tr esses in t h e diag onal s are s mall and t he liv e s tr ess es
pr op o rti onally gr e at To pr e v e n t dange r of c ollap s e wh e n thi s
.

o ccur s it i s n e c e s s ary e ith e r t o mak e t h e mai n diag on al s o f s uch

a s hap e that th e y will c arry c ompr es s i o n o r el se t o r eli e v e th e m

,

by auxiliary dia gonal s call e d c o unt e r s which are s o plac e d t h at

, ,

th e y will b e br ought int o t e n s i on by that l oading w hich w o uld

t end t o put th e main diag onal i n t o c o mpr es s i on Thi s latt e r .

m e th o d i s t h e c o mm on practic e alth ough i n r e c e n t ye ar s re c o g

,

n i t i on o f t he imp o rtanc e o f ri gidit y as w e ll a s s tr en gth i n railr o ad

bridg es h as i n duc e d many e ngin e e rs t o us e t he f o rm e r m e th o d ,

e v e n at t h e s a c ri fi c e o f s impl e r and l ess e xp e n s iv e d e tails F or .

tru ss e s s uch as t he H ow e tru s s d es crib e d in the f oll owi n g articl e

, ,

in which t he main diagonal s are c ompr e ssi o n m e mb e r s but ,

un s uit e d on acc o unt of e n d d e tail s t o tran s mit t en s i on c o unt e r s ,

a re n e e d e d t o re s is t t e n s i on rath e r tha n c o mpr ess i on .

W ith riv e t e d tru s s es it i s u s ually d es irabl e t o mak e all the web

m e mb e rs of s uch a s hap e that th e y can carry b oth t e n s i on and
’

c o mpr es s i on an d t h e qu es ti on o f c o unt e r s d oes n ot ari s e .

To d e t e rmin e wh e th e r c o un t e r s are n e e d e d if it i s c on s id e re d
,

d e s irabl e t o u se the m t he live l o ad s s h o uld b e plac e d in t he

,

p os iti on c on s i s t e nt with maximum c ompr es s i o n in e ach diagonal ,

or in t h e H o w e t ru ss with maximum t e n s i on b e gi n n m with that in

,
o

t he pan el n e a r e s t the c e ntr e and pr o c ee di n g t o ward the e n d and

, ,

t h e liv e s tr e ss c omput e d I f this s tr ess wh e n c ombin e d with a

.

r e as onabl e all owa n c e f or impact e qual s o r e xc ee d s the d e ad s tress

o f t he opp os it e charact e r in t h e bar a c ou n t e r i s n ee d e d I t i s
, .

wi s e t o u se a high all owanc e f or impact in s uch a cas e as t he ,

c on s e qu e nc e of an incr e a s e i n t he liv e l o ad s s u ffi c i e n t t o o v e r
balanc e t he d e ad s tr ess w ould b e m o r e se ri o u s h e r e than f o r a
,
1 68 S I MP LE TRUSS E S AR T . 99

i n v e rtical s The t r u ss with en d v e rtical s sh own in t he upp e r

s o .

p o rti on o f F ig 1 3 0 i s n ot c o mm only e mpl oy e d f or thr o ugh

.

brid ges s inc e it i s l e ss e c on omical of mat e rial tha n t he oth e r -

F I G 1 30
.
—Pratt Truss .

f or m in which t h e c ompr ess i on m e mb e r s LO U0 an d U0 U1 and

the t e n s i on m e mb e r UoL l a r e r e plac e d by t he o n e c o mpr e ss i o n
, ,

m e mb e r LO UI Co un t e r s are s h own d ott e d and may b e r e quir e d

.

in m o re tha n t w o pan e l s .

The W arr e n tru ss i s v e ry c omm only ad opt e d f o r riv e t e d

tru ss es of s mall s pan No c ou n t e rs .

are u s e d and t he diag onal s i n

p an el s wh e r e n e gativ e s h e ar o c
cur s are m ad e c ompr e ss i on m em
b e r s I t i s e vid ent h ow e v e r fr om
n
.
, ,

F IG 1 3 1 —W arre Truss
. .
t he arra n g e m e n t o f t he diag o nal s
.

that e v e ry o th e r o ne w o ul d in any ,

ca s e hav e t o b e a c ompr e ss i o n m e mb e r t o with s tand t he p os itiv e

,

s h e ar .

I n all brid ge s in o rd e r t o obtain e c on omy of m at e rial it

, ,

i s e ss e ntial that t h e r at i o o f d e pth of trus s t o l e n gth of s pan

t

s h o uld b e within c e rtain limit s appr o ximat e ly t o 4 and that

, ,

t h e diag onal s s h o uld mak e angl e s of a ppr o ximat ely 4 5 with t he

°

h o riz on tal To obtain b oth of th es e r e s ult s it i s cl e ar that the

.

pan e l l e ngth s h o uld vary with the s pan As it i s und e s irabl e to .

u s e v e ry l on g pan e l s on acc o u n t o f t h e b e nding s tre s se s pr o duc e d

i n t he ch o rd bar s by th e ir own w e i ght if gr e at e r than 2 5 or ,

l

3 0 f t in l e n gth and b e cau s e als o o f t he incr e a se in w e ight pe r f o ot

.
,

o f t he s tri n g e r s as th e ir s pa n i n cr e a ses t h e pa n e l l e ngth i s s e ld o m

,
AR T . 99 TY PES OF TRU SSES 1 69

m ad ein e xc ess o f 3 5 f t th o ugh in s o m e s pan s of r e c e nt con s t ru c

.
,

ti o n pan e l l e n gth s gre at e r than this hav e b ee n u s e d I n o rd e r .

t o obtain pan el s of re a s onabl e l e ngth in l on g s pan s it i s c omm o n ,

F 1G . 1 32 .
— S ub —
di v i d e d P ra tt Tru s s c o m m o n ly kn own as t he B alti m ore Truss .

to ubdi vid e the t rus s by a se c ondary s ys t e m as indicat e d in F igs

s ,
.

1 3 2 and 1 3 3 th o ugh s uch a s ub divi s i on c au se s in s o m e o f t h e

,
-
,

m e mb e r s s e c ondary s tr es ses o f c o ns id e rabl e ma gnitud e

,
.

F or v e r y l ong s pan s it i s u s ually m or e ec on o mical t o mak e

t he t r u ss d ee p e r at the c e nt re than at th e e nd s I f th e d e pth b e .

FIG . 1 33 .
—S b—
d i u i v d ed Warren Tru s se s .

i n c re a se d in pr o p o rti on t o the incr e a se in m o m e nt it i s vid e nt e

that the ch o rd s tr e ss e s wo ul d re main e s se ntially c on s tant thr o u gh

out t he e ntir e l e n gt h of the span , and that t he ch o rd s w o uld ,

FIG . 1 34 .
—
S ub di
-
v i d ed P ratt T russ wi t h I n c li ned Top Ch ord c om m only

kn own as t he P etti t Trus s .

in c on se qu enc e b e muc h light er at t he c e ntr e than if the e nd

,

d e pth w er e t o b e c o nt inu e d t hr ough o ut t he s pan The s tres s e s .

i n the dia go na ls w ould b e incr e a se d in s uc h a c a s e but t he n et ,

res ul t w ould b e a s aving o f mat e rial h e nc e if minimum w e ight ,

al on e w e re to b e the g ove rning e l e m ent it w o uld b e d e s irabl e ,

 S I M P LE TRU SS ES AR T
'

1 7O . 1 00

to mak e all trus ses of varyi n g h e ight I t i s n e c ess ary how .

,

e v e r t o c on s id e r al s o e c on o m y of lab o r
,
Sinc e tru sses of vary .

ing d e pth are m o re e xpe n s w e of lab o r it i s e vid e nt that th ey .

s h o ul d b e u s e d o nly f o r s tructur e s i n which t h e s avi n g of w e ight

bala n c es o r e xc e e d s t he incr e a se d c os t of c on s tructi o n Thi s .

p o int i s u s uall y r e ach e d only in s pa n s of c on s id e rabl e l e n gth ,

s ay 3 00 f t an d o v e r
. and t he typ e o f tru s s c o mm only use d in
,

s uch s pa n s i s s h o wn by F ig 1 3 4 . .

Roo f trus s e s ar e n e c e ss arily mad e o f ma n y f orm s t o s uit t he

varyi n g s hap es of buildi n gs F igs 1 3 5 1 3 6 an d 1 3 7 i llus trat e
. .
,

o n ly a f e w o f t he m o r e u s ual f o rm s .

F ig 1 3 5 s h o w s a c o mm o n typ e of ro o f tru s s which i s built

.

o f s t e e l or of woo d with st ee l v e rtic als I t has n o s p e cial nam e but .

FIG . 1 35 . FIG . 1 36 .

FIG . 137 .

Co m m on Type s of R oo f Tr us se s .

is of th e P r att tru ss typ e . Fi gs 1 3 6 . an d

F ink r oo f trus s e s 137 are .

1 00 System s of Loa di n g
. I n t he c o mputati on of bridge
.

tru s s s tr e s ses it i s d es irabl e t o c o mbin e t he vari ou s m e t h o d s

g iv e n i n t h e pr e c e ding articl e s M e th o d s o f d o i n g thi s f or t he
.

m o r e c o mm on typ e s o f t ru s s e s an d f or s impl e l o adi ngs are cl e arly

s h o wn i n t h e num e rical e xampl es which f o ll o w A s it i s t he writ e r s
’
.

purp os e in thi s chapt e r t o lay particular e mphas i s up on trus s

acti on rath e r than up o n t he c on s id e rati o n of m o vin g c on c e n t rat
e d l o ad s y s t e m s which hav e alr e ady b e e n tr e at e d t h e liv e l o ading ,

u se d i n m os t of th e e xampl e s i s tak e n as a un iform l o ad with a

l o c o m otiv e e xc e ss that i s with a s i n gl e c on c e n trat e d li ve l o ad
, ,

which m ay b e app lie d at any pan el p o int The magn itud e o f t he .

l o c o m ot iv e e xc ess l o ad e quals t he dif fe r e n c e b e tw ee n th e maximum

fl oor b e am l o ad d u e t o t he actual l o c o m otiv e and t he fi oo r b e am
- -

l o ad d ue t o th e u n ifo rm l o ad The pr o c ess of fi n d i ng t he maximum

.

live s tre ss in a m e mb e r with thi s l o adi n g c on s is t s o f c ompu tin g

1 72 S I M P L E TRU SSES AR T . 1 01

Th ese v e rtical c o mp on ent s of the w eb s tr es ses are t he web

in d e x s tr es s e s and may b e writt e n dir e ctly on t h e tru ss diagr am
a n d t h e d e ad s tr es s e s c o mput e d fr o m th e m by t he s lid e r ul e with

gr e at r apidity .

é — 4 - P ane ls
P
—7
r
-
1

L o ad s how n d e a d p a n e l loa d s

I
s a re .

FG . 1 38 .

I t sh o uld b e n otic e d that t he v e rtical c o mp on e nt i n LOUI

e qual s t he l e ft r e acti o n t h e n e t r e acti on n e gl e cting t he pan el ,

l o ad at L O) and that a v e ry g o o d ch e ck up on t he we b s tr es s es i s
th e r e by obtai n e d .

H ad t h e tru s s o r t h e l o ad s b ee n u n s ym m etr i ca l it w o uld hav e

b ee n de s irabl e t o hav e s tart e d by wr it i n g fi rs t t he v e rtical c o m
p on e nt in L OUI and pr o c e e din g th en c e t o t he right e n d of t he
tru ss ch e cki n g th e r e with t he right r e acti on F or s ymm e trical
,
.

s tructur es s ymm e trica lly l o ad e d it i s b e tt e r t o b e gin at t he c e nt r e

w o rking t oward t he end .

F I G 1 39. . FI G . 140 .

To obtain t he ch o rd s tr e s s e s b e gi n at Lo Th e c onditi on s .

n e c ess ary f or e q ui librium at that p o int are s h o wn by F i g 1 3 9 .

.

Th e actual s tr es s in Z OL 1 is f o und to be

The c onditi on at j oin t UI i s s h o wn by F ig . 1 40, and the

s tr e ss i n UI U2 i s f ou n d to e qual 302
h
A RT 1 0 2
.
C O M P U TA TI ON O F S TRE SS ES 1 73

Th ese num e r ic al c oe ffi c i ents of the ch o rd s tr ess e s are call e d

th e ch o rd i n d e x s tr es s e s F or t he truss i n qu es ti o n it i s e vid e nt
.

that th e ir d e t e rmi n ati o n r e quir es m e r el y t he pr o gr ess iv e additi on ,

j oint by j o in t of t h e i n d e x s tr e ss es in t he diag onal s of t h e

,

we b s y s t e m a n d that thi s w o ul d b e t he ca s e in all s i m

,

ple e qual pan e ll e d tru s s e s of t he H ow e W arr e n or P ratt typ e s

-
, .

F or t he s ubdivid e d tru ss es of t he B altim or e or P e tit typ e

t he e f f e ct of t he s e c on dary diag onal s mu s t b e c ar e fully c on
s i d e re d s inc e t h e ind e x s tr e sses
,
in th es e mus t s om e tim e s b e
add e d and s o m e tim es s ubtract e d t o obtain t he ch o rd i n d e x
s tr es se s .

I t s h o ul d b e ob s e rv e d that in th e e a se of a p aral le l ch o rd -

e qual p an e l e d tru s s o f h e i ght e qual t o pan e l l e n gth t h e ch o rd

-

ind e x s tr e s s e s e qual t h e actual ch o rd s tr e s s e s and th at f or o th e r ,

h e i ght s th e l att e r vary inv e r s e ly as t h e tru s s h e ight .

F or tru s s es i n which t he diag o nal s d o n ot all h av e t h e s am e

s l o p e t h e we b i n d e x s tr e ss e s mu s t all b e r e duc e d t o a s tandard

s l op e b e f o r e writing t h e ch o rd ind e x s tr ess es The m e th o d of .

d oin g thi s i s fully e xplain e d lat e r in the articl e on tru ss es with

no n— parall el ch o rd s and will n ot b e giv e n h e r e .

Th e ch o rd i n d e x s tr e s s in t h e b ar n e ar es t t h e c e ntr e o r in t h e ,

c e ntr e b ar if t he tru s s h as an u n e v e n numb e r of p a n e l s s h o ul d b e

,

v e ri fi e d by c o mpari n g t h e actual s tr e s s as o bt ain e d fr o m it w ith

that o btain e d in t h e s am e bar by t h e m e th o d of m o m e n t s ,

u s i n g t h e f o rmul a ts f or thi s purp o s e if t h e l o ad pe r f o o t

i s u n if o rm I f t h e tw o r es ult s agr e e it i s e vid e n t that n ot
.

o n ly t h e ind e x s tr e ss in thi s bar will b e ch e ck e d but al s o t h e ,

ind e x s tr e s s es i n all t h e o th e r m e mb e r s of t h e s am e ch o rd .

Mo r eo v e r t h e ind e x s tr e ss e s i n t h e m e mb e r s of t he o th e r ch o rd
,

may b e v e ri fi e d s o e a s ily by c o mpari s o n with th os e i n th e ch o rd

alr e ady ch e ck e d that n o e xcu s e n ee d e xi s t f o r e rr o r s .

Thi s m e th o d i s s o adva n ta ge o u s b o th fr o m the s tandp o int ,

o f accuracy an d rapidity that it s h o uld invariably b e u s e d f or

,

s impl e bridg e tru s s es The n um e r o u s e xampl es which f o ll o w illus

.

trat e it fully and s h o ul d b e car e fully s tudi e d .

1 02 C om pu tati on of Str es se s
. Pr at t Tr u ss Un i form L oa d
. .

wi th L ocom oti ve E xc es s .

P roble m De te rmi n e the maximum s tre sses i n all the

. membe rs of

t he truss s hown i n Fi g 1 4 1 wi th t he foll owi ng l o ad s

.

De ad we ight of bridge ,

4 00 lb s pe r f t pe r
. . t russ ,
t o p chord lb s pe r
. p a ne l .
1 74 S I M P LE TRU S SES ART 1 02
.

Un iform li ve load ,

lb s , pe r f t per . truss bottom chord = 75 000 lbs

, , .
pe r pan e l .

1
L o com otive exc e ss , 4 0 ,000

FG I . 14 1 .

Index S tres s es Th ese are s h own f or t he d e ad l o ad s in u n it s

.
-

of 1 00 0 lb s i n . F ig 1 42 and c an b e w r itt e n dir e ctly on the dia

,

l Do tt
ed li n es s ho w c o un ers t
f ou n d t o b e
n e c ess a ry in f o llo wi n g c o m p u a i o n stt .

FG I . 1 42 .
—De a d P an el L oa d s and I nde x S t re ss e s . S i ngle -Tra c k Thr o u gh
P ra tt Trus s R ai lr oa d Bri dge .

gram the n e c e ss ary c o mputati on s b e ing d on e m e ntally The

, .

ve rtical c o mp on e n t in LO U1 e qual s the ne t l e ft r e acti on as s h ould

b e t h e e a se .

Th e s t ress in U2 U3 as f o und fr om the ind e x s tr ess ,

x th o u s and s of lb s .

1
The loc om o t i ve e xc e s s is c om r
pu te d f or Co ope s E BO oad i n g (see F i g
’
l .

F o r t hi s load i n g t he gi m um m a fl oor b eam r

ea c t i on f or 2 5- f t pan e ls oc c u . rs
wi t h load (4 ) a t t he fl oo r b eam and e q u a ls The c o rre s pond i n g
lb s .

re ac ti on f or the uni f o rm li ve load 1 50 000 lb s

, The t ot a l e xc e s s
.

77’ 00
is t he re f ore 2 2 7 , 00 0 — 1 50 , ,
00 0 lb s . The exc e ss pe r t russ =
£
o r , sa y, lb s .
1 76 S I M P LE TRU S SES AR T . 1 02

vari ou s pan el s The o nly e xc e pti on to thi s f or th e tru ss in

.

qu es ti on i s that bar U1 L 1 h as i ts maximum s tr e ss with a full

pa n e l l o ad at L l I t s h ould b e n otic e d that the s tr e ss i n a v e rti
.

cal lik e U2 L 2 will b e a maximum wh e n the s tr e ss i n t he diagonal

U2 L3 i s a maximum s inc e by t h e applicati on of t he m e th o d of
,

j o in t s it i s e vid e n t that the s tr e s s in U2 L2 e qual s t he v e rtical

c omp on e nt i n U2 L3 W e r e thi s c o nditi on n ot t o e xi s t as w ould
.

b e t he ca s e if t h e live l o ad s h o ul d b e di s tribut e d b e tw e e n t he t op
and b o tt o m ch o rd s th e n t he p os iti o n of l o ad s f or maximum s tr e ss
,

i n U2 L 2 w o uld hav e t o b e that which w o ul d giv e maximum sh e ar

in a diag onal s e cti o n thr o ugh UI U2 an d L 2 L3 I t s h ould al s o .

b e n o tic e d that liv e s tr e s s in bar U3 L3 if t h e l o ad i s appl ie d t o th e

,

b ott o m c h ord o c cur s only wh en a c ount e r i s in acti on

,
.

Th e p os iti o n of l o ad s f or maximum s tr ess e s i n t h e vari ou s

bar s will n ow b e giv e n it b e in g u n d e r s t oo d that t he s h e ar du e
,

t o u n if o rm liv e l o ad will b e tr e at e d by t h e appr o ximat e m e th o d

hith e rt o u se d .

B ar LO U1 u n ifo rm liv e l o ad o v e r e ntir e s tructur e E at L l

, ,
.

B a r Ul L l full u n if o rm liv e pan e l l o ad at L I E at L I

, ,
.

B ar U1 L 2 un if o rm l o ad fr o m right up t o and includi n g L 2

, ,

E at L 2 .

B ar s U2 L3 an d U2 L 2 u n if o rm l o ad fr o m ri ght up t o and
,

i n cludin g L3 E at L3
,
.

B ar s U3 L3 an d U3 L 4 (c o u n t e r ) u n if o rm l o ad fr o m right up t o
,

an d in cludi n g L 4 E at L 4 ,
.

M axi m u m S tres s es Th e actual s tr es se s m ay n ow b e c om

.

p u t e.d Th es e are g iv e n with all t h e n e c e ss ary c om pu t at i on s

i n t he tabl e o n f oll o wing pag e .

I t s h ould b e n o t e d that it i s s impl e r t o d e t e rmin e t he v e rtic al

c o mp on e n t s i n all t he d i ag on al bar s b ef o r e d e t e rmi n i n g the actual
s tr es s e s particularly i f t h e s lid e rul e i s u s e d
,
I n additi o n t o the
.

bar stre s s es t he maximum tru s s i e a c ti on s mu s t b e d e te rmi ne d .

Th e se o c cur f o r full l o adi n g b ut th e i r valu e s d e p e nd up on wh e th e r

,

an e n d fl oor b e am i s u s e d I f an en d fl oo r b e am is no t u s e d
.

t h e r e acti o n e qual s t he maximum s h e ar in t he e n d pan e l t he ,

e xpr e s s i o n f o r t h e valu e o f which h as alr e ady b e e n f o und in

.

d e t e rmi n in g t he s tr e ss in L oUl I f an e nd fl oor b e am i s u s e d

.

t he l o c o m o tiv e e xc e s s s h o uld b e plac e d at LO h e n c e i ts valu e ,

plu s that of a half pa n e l l oad o f t he u n ifo rm l o ad s h o uld b e add e d

t o t he m aximum s h e ar in t he e n d p an e l .
A RT . 1 02 P RA TT TRU SS 1 77

m
m m
m m m m m m m o A
|c
fi 2 3m
m
2
. .

m m m m m e m m l m H m lm
x x x x X X
a
“
m
fi 2
O s o
m
h
.

m N o m
m
. u
.

H
m 8
h i

0 w 0 m
.

m m m u
m
. m m m

I
178 S I M P LE TRU SSES ART . 1 03

1 03 Com pu ta ti on of S tre s s e s W a rr en Trus s Uni for m L oad

’

. . .

wi th L ocom oti ve E xc es s .

P roblem Dete rmine t he maxi mum str ess e s of b ot h kinds f or all

.

the bars o f the t r u ss s hown i n Fi g 1 4 3 w i t h t h e foll owi ng l oads :

.

De ad we i ght of bridge ,
6 00 lb s pe r f t pe r t r us s , t op ch ord
. . lb s pe r pan e l . .

200 b ot t om chord pane l .

Uni form liv e l oad

‘

2 000
L oc omotive e xc es s ,

1< — 5 -P anei s — a i
9 9
V 73 5 4'

FIG . 1 43 — D ed
a Pa n e l L e ads a nd I nd e x S t re ss es . S i ngle Trac k D e c k -

W a rre n Tr us s R ai lroad Bri dge .

The b ott om panel l oads at L I an d L would r eally b e s omewhat l ess 9

than s h own b ut th ey are ta k en t h e s am e as t he o t h e r b o tt o m panel

,

l oa ds f or c onv eni en c e .

Ind ex S tr es s es Th es e and th e pan el l o ads are sh own i n Flg

.
.

1 4 3 i n uni t s of 1 0 00 lb s Th e n et r e acti o n at l e ft e n d e vid e ntly

I
.

e qual s which ch e ck s t h e ind e x s tr e ss i n U OL .

To ch e ck th e ind e x s tr ess i n t h e c e nt r e m e mb e r of th e t op l

ch o rd m om e n t s s h oul d b e tak e n ab o ut L 5 S inc e thi s i s n ot a .

pan e l p oi n t f or b o th ch ord s thi s m om e n t d oe s n ot e qual 4pm but ,

m ay b e f o und fr o m the m o m e nt of t he r e acti on minu s the

m om e n t of t he p an e l l o ad s B y thi s m e th o d t h e s t re ss i n t he
.

c e ntr e t op ch o rd bar e qual s

—
x 4 3 x3
(2 5 5 2 .

S inc e t he diagonal s m ak e an angl e of 4 5 with the h o riz ontal the °

ch o rd ind e x s tr es s e qual s t he actual s tr es s and i s th e r e f o r e c o rr e ct .

The ind e x s tr e s s i n th e c e n tr e m e mb e r o f t he b ott om ch o rd

plu s t he ind e x s tr es s in U1 L5 = 73 5 = the ind e x s tr ess in the c e ntr e .

m e mb er o f t he t op ch or d an d i s th e r e f o r e c o rr e c t
,
.
180 S I M P LE TRU S SES AR T . 1 04

MAX I MU M S TRE S S E S ~
W AR R E N T R USS .

De a d S t re s s in U it n s of 1 0 0 0 lb s . Max . Li v e S tres s i n U itn s of 1 0 00 lb s .

—25 X3
)
)
2
25 X 5
5

( )
4
+ 48 0 1 20 + — 2 5 X 2 + 1 60 0
5

( >
3
+ 72 0 1 80 + — 25 X4 + 240 0

( )
10 61
2:g
1 1 .

+ 25 5 X . 60 + 25
5

(
4
60 + "

25

3
>
3

2g
1 l
1 5x .

2
Sam e as U, L 5

U BL 7 Sa m e as U4 L 3

In th i t us r ss no c oun t e rs a re us e d , henc e i t i s n e c e s s a ry to c om t
p u e th e m a x i m um

t
s res s es of b th ki o nd s in a ll d i a go n a ls i n w h i c h t h e li v e s t re s s m ay t en d to r e v ers e the
d e ad t
s r ess . Th i s i s e a s ily d on e i n t h e m a n n e r s h o w n a b ov e .

1 04 . Co m putati o n of Str e ss e s , S u b d ivi de d W arr en Tru ss .

Uni for m L oa d wi th L oc om oti ve E xc es s .

P r o ble m . De t e rmi ne t he m a xim um s t res s of b o t h k i nds i n all t he

b ar s of th e t r uss s how n i n Fi g 1 4 5 wi t h the followi ng l oads : .

De ad weight of bridge ,

1 000 lb s pe r f t pe r t russ t op c h ord = 2 5 000 1b s p ane l

. .
, , pe r .

500 b ott om
U niform live l oad ,

2 , 000 1b s .
pe r f t pe r
. t r us s ,
t op ch o rd = 50 000 1b s ,
.
pe r p an el
L oc om ot ive e xce ss ,
A RT . 1 04 S UB D I V I DE D A
W RR E N TRUSS 1 81

In d ex S tres s es . Th es e are s h o wn i n Fi g . 14 5 . Th e ir c om

putati on i n v olv es n o d i ffi c ulty .

To ch e ck t he i n d e x s tr es s in U4 U5 us e the m e th o d of m o m e nt s
a s f oll o w s

— s
1 0 P a ne 1
- —25 £ of =2 5
u) n
o
N N
‘
¢ U3 ¢ U4 ) rUs

net

FIG . 1 4 5 — De a
. d Pa ne lL oad s a nd I nd e x S t re s s e s S i n gle Tra c k .
-
De c k
S u b d i vi d e d Wa rr e n Tr us s R ai lro ad Bri dge .

S tr e ss i n U4 U5 lb s .

F r o m t he in d e x str e s s t h e act ual s tr e s s i n thi s bar = X

h en c e ind e x s tr e ss e s are c o rr e ct .

P os i ti on of L oa ds f or M e xi m a m Li ve S tr es s es Fo r t h e ch o rd s .

t h e u n if o rm liv e l o ad s h o uld e xt e n d o v e r t h e e ntir e span an d t h e

s tr e sse s d u e t o it may b e c o mput e d dir e c t ly fr o m t h e d e ad s tr e s s e s .

The l o c o m otiv e e xc e s s s h o ul d b e plac e d as f oll o w s :

B ars U U an d Ul
O l . E at U, . B ars U z U a a n d U3 U, . E at U3 .

B a rs L L a n d L L
I 2 2 3, E at U, . B a rs L 3 L, and L 4 L5 . E at U4 .

Bar U4 U S , E at U5 .

Fo r t h ediag o nal s t he unif o rm l o ad and l o c o m otiv e e xc e s s

s h o uld b e plac e d t o giv e maximum s h e ar in t h e diff e r e nt pa n e l s ,

i e full unifo rm liv e pa n e l l o ad s t o t h e right o f t he pa n e l c o ntain

. .
,

ing t h e b ar i n qu e s ti o n and t he l o c om o tiv e e xc es s at t h e n e ar es t

,

pa n e l p oi n t t o t he ri ght F or t he v e rtical s it i s e vid e nt that t he

.

maximum s tr es s in all o dd numb e r e d b ar s lik e U3 L3 will o ccur

with full liv e pa n e l l o ad an d l o c om o tiv e e xc e s s at t op pa n e l
p o int whil e t he e v e n numb e r e d v e rtical s will hav e n o liv e str e s s
,
.

Ma xi m u m S tr ess es A ll n e c e s s ary c o mputati o n s f o r th e s e

.
,

t oge th e r with t he fi n al valu es are giv e n in t h e foll o wi n g tabl e in ,

u n it s o f 1 000 lb s :
1 82 S I M P LE TRU SS E S AR T . 1 05

MA XI MUM S TR E SSES — S UB D I V I D E D A
W R R E N TRUSS

B a rs .
I nd e x S t re s s . M ulti pli e r .

3 31 533
1 0
9
6
3 5
5
Li v e S t rfi
fogglggeig
e a
n
am Lo ad

—1 8 7 .

—4 3 7 .

-
52 0 8

+ 250 0

+ 4 50 + 375 0 + 50 0 .

+ 219 4 + 292 .

— 23 4 .

+ 121 9

* L , U,

U, L7

+ 121 9 19 5

Th e li v e t
s r es s es in th es e b a rs a r e m a xi m u m s t r e ss e s of the op p o s i t e c h ar a c t er to

t h o s e o c c ur ri n g i n t h e c orres p o n di n g b ars i n t h e o t h e r h alf o f t h e t r us s .

(Tab le c on ti nu ed on n ext p age ) .

1 05 . C o mputati o n of S tr e ss es . B ri d g e Tr u s ses with Non

pa r all el Ch or ds Un i form L e a d w i th L oc om oti ve E xc es s
. To .

c omput e t he s tr e s s e s i n s uch tru s s e s it i s n e c es s ary t o m od i fy

s o m e what t h e pr o ce dur e ad o pt e d in t h e s impl e parall e l ch o r d

trus s es hith e rt o tr e at e d Thi s i s d ue t o t he fact that t he w e b

.

s tr e s s es can n o l on ge r b e dir e ctly d e t e rmi n e d by t h e m e th o d o f

s h e ar o wi n g t o t h e i n fl u e n c e o f t h e i n cli n e d t o p ch o rd
,
Alth o u gh .

t h e m o d i fi c at i o n i s i n m o d e o f pr o c e dur e rath e r than i n pri n cipl e ,

18 4 S I M P L E TRU S SES A RT . 1 05

Th e d e t e rminati on of ind e x str esse s f or thi s t ru ss re quir e s

s o m e e xpla n ati o n The i n cli n ati on of t o p ch o rd m e mb e r s add s
.

v e rtical f o rc e s at j o int s U1 U2 and U3 h e nc e the v e rtical c om , ,

po n e n t s i n t h e i n clin e d ch o rd m e mb e r s mu s t b e d e t e rmi n e d b e f o r e
t he ind e x s tr e s se s f or bar s m e e ting at th e s e j o int s c an b e writt e n .

In t h e tru s se s pr e vi ou s ly c on s id e r e d all t he dia gon al s had t he

s am e s l o p e a n d multiplicati on o f t h e ch o rd i n d e x s tr e ss es by t he
,

rati o o f h o riz ontal t o v e rtical pr oj e cti on o f t he dia gon al gav e

actual s tr e sse s I t i s obvi ou s that i n o rd e r t o f oll o w thi s s am e
.

m e th o d i n t he tru s s u n d e r c o n s id e rati o n s om e m o dificati on mu s t ,

b e ad opt e d Th e s impl e s t m e th o d i n thi s ca se i s t o c o rr e ct t he

.

i n d e x s tr e s s e s i n bar s U2 L 3 an d U3 L 4 b e fo re writi n g ch o rd i n d e x ,

s tr e s s e s The b e s t m e th od o f acc o mpli s hin g thi s i s t o multiply

.

K —
P n a e ls —2o I=200 — 9

d
1

FIG 1 4 6 — D ea P a ne l Loads an d I nd e x S t res se s S in gle Trac k Thr ough

.
-

N on—
.

P arallel Chord P ra tt Tr uss .

t he i n d e x s t res s in e ach of th e se bars by the inve r se r ati o b e tw ee n

i ts v e rtical pr oj e ct i on and that of diag onal U1 L2 that i s multiply , ,

t he i n d e x s tr es s i n U2 L 3 by and that in U3 L4 b y
Th e c o rr e c t n es s o f th i s m e th o d i s i llu st rat e d b y th e f ollow i ng e xam ple
L et V V an d 17 b e t h e v e rt i c al c o m po ne n ts i n th e di ago nals of tru s s s h ow n
I, 2, 3

i n F i g 1 47 an d H H and H th e s tre s ses i n th e b ottom c h o rd

.
, I, 2 3 Evi d e ntly

'
li
and H3 :
(V , + -

hi
“

2 (V , + V,

J
71
Fm . 1 47 .
( V Hr V = 1
+ 97
97 1 )ii ”

F or t ru sses i n w h i c h th e h e i gh t i s c o nstan t b u t th e pane l le ngth vari ab le

, ,

t h e s am e m e th o d m ay b e a ppli e d w i th th e pan el le ngth s s u b s ti tu te d f o r th e

h e i gh t s .
A RT . 1 05 B R I D G E TRU SS ES W I TH N O N - PARALLE L C H OR D S 1 85

The ffe ct of thi s i s t o r e duc e

e t he ch ord i n d e x s tr es s es t o
t he valu e s th e y w o uld hav e i f all t he diag o n al s had t he s am e
l pe
s o as U1 L2 .

Th e c o mputati o n o f t he v e rt ical c omp on e nt s d u e t o d e ad

l o ad in t he inclin e d t o p ch o rd m e mb e r s f oll o ws

V C . . B ar U1 Uz — De ad L o ad

V C . . B ar U2 Ug —D e ad L o ad

W ith th e se kn own t he v e rtical c omp o n e nt s in t he we b m e mb e r s

,

may b e writt e n at on c e b e gin n i n g at the c e ntre in t he u s ual

,

mann e r an d o btai n i n g a ch e ck at t he e n d wh e r e the v e rtical

c omp on e n t i n t he i n cli n e d e n d p o s t L O U1 i s f o u n d t o e qual t he
-

n e t d e ad r e acti o n I t will b e n otic e d that t he e ffe ct of t he

.

v e rtical c omp on e n t i n U2 U3 i s t o cau se t e n s i o n i n bar U3 L3 I n .

a parall e l ch o rd tru ss thi s m e mb e r W ith t he o th e r v e rtical s w ould

, ,

alway s b e in c o mpre s s i o n und e r d e ad l o ad .

Th e c o rr e ct e d valu e s of t he diag onal i n d e x s tr e ss e s which a re

t o b e u se d t o d e t e rmi n e t he ch o rd ind e x s tr esse s are as f o ll o w s

B ar U2 L3 = 2 5 3 . 9
-

,
“

B ar U3 L4 = 2 2 5 .

Th es e valu es s h oul d b e s ub s titut e d f or t he actual diag onal i n d e x

s tr e s se s in d e t e rmi n i n g t h e ch o rd i n d e x s tr e ss es F o r e xampl e .
,

t h e i n d e x s tr e s s i n B ar a n d that in

U3 U4 =
To btain a fi n al ch e ck of th e s e ind e x s tr e ss e s t h e t op ch o rd
o ,

d e ad s tr e ss as c omput e d by t h e m e th o d o f m om en t s s h o uld b e
, ,
‘

c ompar e d with t he valu e as o btain e d fr o m t he ind e x str ess es .

De ad s tr e s s i n U3 U4 by m e th o d of m om e nt s

1 800 2 00 2 00 lb s .

De ad s tr es s i n U3 U4 fr om i n d e x s tr e s s

22 5 th o u s and s of lb s .
1 86 S I M P LE TRU SS E S A RT . 1 05

P os i ti on f
o L oads f or Ma mi m a m 11 80 6 Web S tres ses d e ad . The
s tr e ss e s a n d ch o rd and incli n e d e n d p os t s tr e sses d ue t o unif o rm
-

liv e l o ad may b e d e t e rmine d dir e ctly fr o m t he i n d e x s tr es s es ,

an d will b e giv e n lat e r . To d e t e rmi n e t h e pos i ti on of t he liv e

l o ad s f or m aximum w eb s tr e s se s t he m e th o d of s h e ar pr e vi o u s ly
,

u s e d s h o uld b e r e plac e d by t he m e th o d o f m om e n t s I n d e t e r .

mining t he a c tu a l s tr es s o n c e the p os iti o n of l o ad s i s kn o wn

, ,

t h e m e th o d of s h e ar may b e u s e d pr o vid e d t h e s h e ar b e c o rr e ct e d
,

by t he am o u n t o f t h e v e rtical c o mp o n e nt in t h e t o p ch o rd o r ,

t he m e th o d o f m o m e n t s may b e u s e d dir e ctly Th e i n dividual .

bar s will n o w b e c on s id e r e d .

B ar U1 L 1 : Maximum liv e s tr e s s with full l o ad at L l E at L l ,

.

B ar U1 L 2 : P lac e l o ad t o giv e maximum c o unt e r c lo ckwi se

‘

m o m e nt ab o ut t he int e r s e cti o n 0 o f t he i n clin e d

t o p ch o rd pr ol o ng e d and t he b o tt o m ch o rd
, ,
E vi .

d e n t ly a l o ad at L 1 will caus e a cl o ckwi s e m om e nt

ab o ut thi s o rigin s inc e the m o m en t o f t he r e acti on
,

d u e t o a l o ad at L l will b e l es s than t h e m o m e n t
o f t h e l o ad it s e lf as i t s l e v e r arm a n d magnitud e

are b o th l e ss h e nc e thi s p o i n t s h o uld n ot b e l o ad e d

, ,

but all o th e r pan e l p o i n t s fr o m t h e right up t o and

i n cluding L 2 s h o uld b e l o ad e d (n ot e that thi s c on
e lu s i o n w o uld n o t n e c e s s arily b e c o rr e ct f o r a c o n

c e n t ra t e d l o ad sy s t em ) The l o c om o tiv e e xc ess

.

s h o uld b e plac e d at L 2 .

B ar s U2 L 2 and U2 L3 : I n thi s ca s e l o ad fr o m ri ght up t o and

i n cludi n g L3 with E at L3 s inc e thi s c o nditi o n
, ,

pr o duc es t h e m aximum c o unt e r cl o ckwi se m om e nt -

ab out 0 .

B ar s U3 L3 an d U3 L4 : L o ad fr o m right up t o an d including L4
W ith E at L4 ,

B ar s U4 L4 an d U4 L 5 (c o u n t e r) : L o ad fr o m ri ght up t o and
,

includi n g L 5 with E at L 5 .

B a r U5 L 6 (c o u n t e r ) : L o ad fr o m right up t o an d i n cludi n g L 6
with E at L 6 .

Th e tabl e s which f oll o w s h o w t he m aximum s tr e s s e s in all

bar s with all n e c ess a ry c omputati on s .
1 88 S I M P LE TRU SSES AR T 1 0 5
.
 AR T 1 0 6 . B R I D G E TRU SSES W I TH N O N -
PARALLE L C H OR DS 18 9

DE A D W E B STR E SS E S I N UN I TS OF 1 000 LB S .

Thi s t a b le sh o w s a ll n e c e s sa ry c om pu t a t i o n s .

I nd e x Dead S t r es s es
t
.
.

S re s s e s .

+ 73 9 73 9 X
.

+ 25 3

22 5 X .

22 5 X .

V1 i t h li v e lo ad p lac e d t o p ro d u c e m a x i m u m s tre ss i n Uq t h e m a i n d i a go n a l, Un
w ill b e h r o w n o ut o f a c i o n a n d d e ad s h e a r i n p a n e l 4 —5 w ill b e c a rr i e d b y t h e c o u n e r
t t t
U 4L s t t
Th i s w o uld e nd t o p r o d u c e c o m p r e s s i o n i n h i s b a r t h e v e r i c a l c o m p o ne n o f t t
t
.

w hi c h i s b ut hi s i s b a la n c e d b y s o m e o f t h e li v e s t r e s s h e n c e t h e b a r d o e s n o t
t t t
,

a c u a lly c a r ry c o m p re s s i o n , a s i t s s i gn w o u ld s e e m t o i nd i c a e A s i m ila r c o n d i i on
t t
.

e x i s s w i h b a r UsL s -

t t t
.

TO w i n g t o t h e c o u n e r a c i o n t h e d e a d lo ad W h e n ru s s i s lo a d e d t o p r od u c e m a x i
'

t t
,

m um li v e c o m p re s s i o n i n b a r U 4 L 4 e n d s t o c a u s e i n t h e b a r a e nsi on of
t
Th i s v alue s h o uld b e c o m b i n e d w i h t h e h v e s r ess t o o b ai n m a xi m um s r ess t t t .

F o r c on v e n i e n c e i t i s c om m on r
t o w i te the m ax i m um s t resse s in
a d i a gr am

c alle d t he s t re s s di a gra m a n d F i g 1 4 8 i s g v e n t o i llus t

. i r at e suc h a d i a gram .

D: - 225 .

L -
425. U4

F I G 1 48 — S t re s s D i agram
. .
, Maxi m um L i ve an d D e ad S tress es . U ni f orm
L i ve L oad w i th L o c o m o ti v e E xc ess .

1 0 6 C om . putati o n of T russes with Non ParSt r e ss es . Br i d g e -

all el C h o r ds Conc en tra ted L oa d S ys tem s

. I n t he parall el ch o rd .

tru sses hith e rt o s tudi e d t he s tr ess e s d ue t o c on c e n trat e d l o ad

,

s y s t e m s w e r e n ot d e t e rmi n e d s i n c e thi s w o ul d hav e i n v o lv e d ,

m e r e ly t he s ub s tituti o n o f maximum s h e ar s and m o m e nt s cau s e d

by s uch l o ad s f or the m ax imum s h e ar s and m om e nt s d ue t o
1 90 S I M P LE TRU S SES AR T . 1 06

u n ifo rm l o ad s and t he m e th o d o f d et e rmining s uch s h e ar s and

,

m o m e nt s w as dis cu ss e d with s uffi c i ent th o r o ughn e ss in Chapt e r

III . For n on parall e l ch o rd tru s se s h ow e v e r t he c onditi o n s
-
, ,

d i fi e r s u ffi c i e n tly t o warrant s p e cial c o n s id e rati o n ; in c o n s e qu e nc e ,

t h e c o mputati on s f o r t h e m a xi m u m li v e s tr e ss e s d ue t o Co o p e r s
’

E 4 0 l o adin g will b e giv e n f or t h e tru ss s h o wn by F ig 1 4 6 The . .

c o mputati on s f or all t he bar s will b e giv e n t o mak e t he soluti o n ,

c ompl e t e alth o ugh in a numb e r o f ca s es it i n v olv e s n othing

,

m o r e than t h e d et e rmin ati o n of maximum m o m e nt or s h e ar .

Th e m o m e n t diagram of F ig 7 5 i s u se d in all c omputati o n s and

.
,

unit s are in th o u s and s of p o und s .

P osi ti on of L oa ds f or Maxi m u m S tr es s es : (P a n e l l e n gth p)

B ar s L (jU1 LOL I and L I L 2 : Maximum s tr e s s o ccur s wh e n s h e a r
'

in pan e l 0 1 i s a maximum .

Tryload (3 ) at L I and m ov e up l o ad (2 8 4 + 2 6 > 50

Tryload (4) —
at L I an d m o v e up l o ad (2 8 4 + X )
2 8 4 5 70 X
p
L o ad (4) at L l giv e s maximum .

B ar UI L I : Maximum s tr e s s o c cur s with t he l o ad s plac e d i n t he

p os iti o n givi n g maximum m o m ent at the c e ntre
o f a b e am 5 0 f t on . l g
S e e A rticl e 5 1 . .

Try l o ad (3) n ot a maximum .

Try l o ad (4) 59 < 7 0 a maximum .

Try l o ad (5) 59 < 7 0 n o t a maximum .

L o ad (4) at L l giv es maximum .

B a r U1 L 2 : Maximum s tr es s o ccur s with t he l o adi n g giving max ,

imum c o unt e r cl o ckwi s e m om e n t ab o ut 0 (i n te r

-

s e cti o n of U1 U2 pr ol o nge d and b o tt o m ch o rd ) .

Thi s p os iti o n may b e d e t e rmin e d by m e th o d o f

m o ving up t he l o ad s The di s tanc e fr o m LO t o .

0 may b e f o und as f oll o w s :

'

Ch o rd b ar UI U2 dr op s 5 f t in o n e pan e l o r 30 f t i n s i x pan e l s
.
,
.
,

h en c e i t s i nt e r s e cti o n with t h e b ott om ch o rd i s s i x pan el l ength s

fr o m L l o r fi ve pan e l l e n gth s fr o m L O
,
.

S tart with l o ad (2) at L 2 and m ov e up

I nc re a se in m o m e nt ab out 0 of l e ft r e action
5
(2 8 4 + 2 x4 9) 8 7 x516
1
 1 92 S I MP L E TRU SS E S A RT . 1 06

Maximum m om e nt may o ccur wi th e ith e r l o ad

(1 2 ) o r (1 3 ) at L 2 Co mputati o n s s h o w that l oad (7 ) at
.

give s maximum , as w ould be e xp e ct e d fr om i n sp e cti on of t he

l o ading .

B ar s U2 L 2 and U2 L3 : Maximum s tr es s o ccur s with maximum

c o unt e r cl o ckwi s e m o m e n t ab o ut o rigin 0 of all
-

f o rc es t o l e ft o f a v e rtical se cti on in pa n e l 2 3 -

(or a diag o nal s e cti on cutting b ar s U1 U2 U2 L 2 ,

a n d L 2 L3
) D e t e rmin e t h e p o s iti o n f or maximum
.

m o m e nt by m e th o d o f m ovi n g up the l o ad s .

S tart with l o ad (2 ) at L3 and m ov e up l o ad

(2 8 4 5 > 30 X
% X 7p .

2 x 5 x 25
8p

I n thi s ca s e t he s li ght i n cr e a s e in m o m e nt d ue t o the t e rm 0 i s ‘

s u ffi c i e n t t o cau s e a larg e r m o m e nt with l o ad (3 ) than wit h

l o ad
Maximum s tr e s s o ccurs with l o ad (3 ) at L3 .

B ar s L3 L4 an d Maximum s t re ss o ccur s with l o ading

U2 U3 :
cau s in g maximum m om e nt at L3 Thi s p os iti o n .

i s f o und in t he u s ual mann e r as f oll ow s ,

Tri a l L o a d . A v e ra ge L o a d on R i gh t .

284 + 8 0 X 2 1 52 2 92
L oad (1 1 ) to ri ght of L3 .

5 5

L oad (1 1 ) t o le f t of L3 .

272 + 1 0 28 2
L oa d (1 2 ) to ri gh t of L3 “
5 5

28 2 20 + 1 0 27 2
L o ad (1 3 ) to ri gh t of
5 5

Lo ad (1 1 ) at L3 giv es maximum .
A m
. 1 06 BRI D G E TRU SS E S W I TH NON -
PARALLE L C H OR D S 1 93

B ar U3 L3 : Maximum s tr ess o ccur s with l o ading giving m aximum

m o m e n t ab o ut 0 o f f o rc es t o l e ft of a diag onal
,

s e cti o n cutting bar s U2 U3 U3 L3 a n d L3 L4 ,

Thi s ,
.

p o s iti o n may b e d e t e rmin e d by m e th o d o f m ovi ng

“

up t h e l o ad s .

Start with l oad (1 ) at L 4 and m o v e up l o ad

Mov e up l oad

Sp

L o ad (2 ) at L4 giv e s maximum tr e s s Thi s l o ading i s ev i

s .

d e n tly c o n s i s t e nt with main diag o n al s Un and ,

U3 L4 b e i n g in acti on
,
.

B ar U3 L4 : Max1 m um s tr e s s o ccur s f or l o adin g givi n g m aximum

—
p os itiv e s h e ar in pan e l 3 4 and i s d e t e rmin e d as
,

f oll o ws :
S ta r t with l o ad (2) at L4 and m ov e up l o ad

5 5
284 X + 5 > 3O X
8 10 19

Mo v e up l oad

5
29 2 X + 0 < 50
8p

Lo ad (3 ) at L4 giv e s maximum .

B ar s U4 L 5 = U4 L3 , an d Maximum s tr ess o ccur s f or l o ading

U4 L4 :
ivi n g maximum p os itiv e s h e ar in pan e l 4 —5 and
g ,

i s d e t e rmin e d as f oll ow s :
S tart with l o ad (2) at L 5 and m o v e up l o ad

F'
5
23 2 X + 5 < 30 X
§IB

Lo ad (2 ) at L 5 giv e s maximum .
1 94 S I M P LE TRU S SES AR T 1 0 6
.

B ar U5 L 6 ( c o unt e r ) U 3 L 2 M aximum s t.r ess occu r s with l o ad

i ng giv i ng maximum cl o ckwi s e m o m e nt ab o ut

t he p oi n t o f int e r se ct i on of U5 U6 p r ol ong e d and
t h e b ott o m ch o rd p r o l onge d o f f o rc es t o l e ft o f ,

v e rtical se cti o n thr ough U5 L 6 .

De t e rm i n e p os iti o n by m e th o d of m o ving up the l o ad s .

S ta rt with l oad (1 ) at L 6 and m o v e up l o ad

1 4 2 xfi 1 3 p + 6 > 1 0 X§ X 8 p
( 8p 7)
.

Mov e up l o ad

5
—X 8
p
-
.

Mov e up l o ad

5 5
1 3p p
8 19 p

L oad (3 ) at L 5 giv e s maximum m om e nt .

No t e
that on e l o c o m otiv e f oll o w e d by unifo rm l o ad w ill cau s e
a larg e r s tr ess than t wo l o c o m o tiv es .

B ar U3 U4 : Maximum s tr e ss o c cur s f or l o ading giving maximum

m om e nt at L 4 Thi s p os iti o n i s f o und in the u s ual
.

ma nn e r as f o ll o ws

t
’
Av g G re a e r
Tri al L o a d . L oad o r Le s s
ggfieggg
Av a ad

L 23 3
Th a n .

L oad (1 1 ) t o le f t of L4

L oad (1 2 ) t o le f t of L4

202
L oad (1 3 ) t o le f t of L,
’

L oad (1 4 ) to ri gh t of L, .
1 96 S I M P LE TRU S S E S A RT . 1 07

MAX I MU M L I VE CH ORD S T RESSES ,

IN UN I TS OF 1 000 LB S .

Coope r
’
s E4 0 L oa di n g

t
A 11 N e c e s s a ry S re s s C o m p u a i o n s tt
t t
.

(S e e p re v i o us a b le f o r s o m e o f t h e v a lues u s e d i n a b le .
)

1 2

S t re s s 8 99 5 35

U.U2 7 at L, 2 57 x 25 5 . + 25

Mom at L 3 = 11 6 1 3 6 4 + x
L , L, 11 at L,
S t re ss

=
1=
U2 U3 1 1 at L3 S t re ss = 28D2 X .

Mom . at L4 = X
Us U, 13 at L4
S t re s s 1 1 8 56 + 4 0

Th i s s t r e s s w o u ld b e i n c o rr e c t i f t h e lo a d i n g u s e d w e re t o h ro w c o u n e r U aLz o r t t
t
L 3 U4 i n o a c i on To d e c i d e w h e h e r h i s i s t h e c as e t h e s h e a r i n p a n e l 2 —3 d u e t o h i s lo a d i n g
t t t t
t t t t t
.
,
“
m ay b e c o m p u ed a n d t h e v e r i c al c o m p o n e n i n t o p c h o rd U2 U3 s u b ra c ed f r o m i t
t t t t t
, .

I f t h e r es ul i s p os i i v e o r n e ga i v e b ut les s (w i th d u e a llo w a n c e f o r i m p a c ) h a n t h e
t t tt
, ,

d e ad s h e a r i n p a n e l t h e c o un e r w ill n o t b e i n a c i o n Th e c o m p u a i ons f ollow , m a ki ng

tt t
, .

us e o f p re v i o us c o m p u a i o n s a n d t h e m o m e n d i a gr a m .

S he a r 13
20 0 25

V C . . U 2 U3 = 2 8 0 2 X .

Co un t er is n ot in ac ti t
o n a n d s re s s es a re c o rre c tly d t
e e rm i ne d .

1 07 . Com putati o n of Str esses . Br i d g e Tru s ses with Par ab o li c

Ch ord . Un i form m e th o d s
L oa d wi th L oc om oti ve E xc es s . Th e
u s e d f or t he tru s s c on s id e r e d in t he t wo pr e vi o u s a rticl es
we r e p e rfe ctly ge n e ral an d may b e u se d f or any n on parall el -

ch o rd tru s s I f t h e pan e l p o int s o n e ith e r or b oth ch o rd s li e

.

up on a parab ola pa s s ing thr o u gh t h e en d pan e l p o in t s t he truss ,

h as h o w e v e r c e rt ain eh arac t e ri s t i es which may b e tak e n advantag e

, ,

o f in m aki n g t h e c o mputati o n s S uch tru sse s are n ot c o mm only .

u s e d in railr o ad bridges but t he s am e s p e cial f e ature s o ccur in ,

c e rtain tru s s e d arch es h en c e it see m s d es irabl e t o giv e an e xampl e

,

o f t h e c o mputati o n s f o r s uch a tru ss .

A RT . 1 07 B R I D G E TRUSS ES W I TH PARA O L B IC C H OR D 1 97

P roblem . D ete rmi n e the ma xim um s t re s se s i n all the members of

th e truss sho wn i n F i g 1 4 9 wi t h th e fo ll ow i n g l oad s :

.

Dead weight of bridge ,

1 000 lb s pe r f t pe r tr uss t op ch o rd = 2 5 000 lb s pa n el

. .
, ,
.
pe r .

4 00 bo t t o m 1 0 000

Un ifo rm live loa d ,

2 00 0 lb s pe r f t per
. . t r uss , t op cho rd = 5 0 0 00
,
lb s pe r pan el .

L o c om otive e xc e ss ,
25 , 0 0 0 lb s .

I n th e c o mputati on s f or this t r u ss th e f oll o wing p oint s sh ould

b e n ot e d
1 W h e n t he tru s s i s l o ad e d u n ifo rmly thr o ugh o ut i t s l e ngth
.

the o rdinat e s r e pr e s e nti n g t h e b e nding m o m e nt s at t he p an e l

1X
HL =S7 5 (Ne t )
.

(gr os s ) Q

FIG . 149 — Tru s s w i th P a ra b oli c B ott om Ch ord S ho win g Dead Pa nel L oad s .

p o int s are o rdinat e s of a parab ola h e nc e t h e b e n ding m o m e nt at ,

e ach pan e l p o i n t divid e d by t h e d e pth o f tru ss at t h e s am e pan e l

p o int i s c o n s t a n t .

2 S in c e t h e h o riz ontal c o mp on e nt o f t he s tr ess in any b o tt o m

.

ch o rd m e mb e r e qual s t he m o m e nt at a pan e l p o int divid e d

by t he d e pth o f t h e tru s s at t he s am e pan e l p o int t he h o rizontal ,

c o mp on e n t o f t he b o tt o m ch o rd s tr e ss u n d e r unifo rm l o ad i s
c on s tan t thr o u gh o ut .

3 Fo r t he s am e r e a so n t h e t o p ch o rd s tr e s s und e r unifo rm
.

l o ad i s c o n stant thr o ugh o ut .

4 I t f oll o w s fr o m 2 and 3 that und e r unif o rm l o ad t h e h o ri

.

z ont al c o mp o n e nt s in t he diag o nal s will b e z e r o and t h e v e rtical s ,

will all carry c o mpr e ss i o n e qual to t he t op pan e l l o ad .

5 S inc e und e r th e d e ad l o ad (i i a u n ifo rm l o ad ) t he s tr e s s in

.

t he main diag o nal s i s z e r o it f o ll o w s that t he liv e l o ad c an alway s

,
1 98 S I M P LE TRU S S E S A RT 1 0 7
.

be so plac e d as to pro duc e c o mpr ess i o n in any diagonal h e nc e ,

if the diag onal s are t o b e t e n s i o n m e mb e rs c ount e r s wi ll b e r e qui re d

in e v e ry pan e l .

D ea d S tress es F o r t he giv e n tru ss t h e d e ad s tr ess es i n units

.

o f 1 000 lb s will b e as f oll o ws

.

Top ch o rd s tress (1 5 0) (1 5 0)
,
27

B ott o m ch o rd h o riz o ntal c o mp on e nt

, + 1 45 8
Diag o nal s s tr e s s ,
0
V e rtical s s tr e s s
,

To c on fi rm t hec o rr e ct n ess o f t he c o nclus i on s r e ach e d f or web

str es ses t he diago nal s tr ess es w i ll b e c o mput e d in the u s ual
m ann e r .

S h e ar in pan e l —
1 2 —8 7 5 —3 5

7 5 X25 9
V C
. . in b o tt o m ch o rd L 1 L 2 =
15 25

V C
. . in diag on al U1 L 2 — 52 5 — 52 5

S h e ar in pan e l 2 3 - “
8 7 5 — 70

—
8 T X 50 3 5
5
V C i nb o tt o m
. . ch o rd L 2 L3 H

24

V C
. . in diag on al U2 L3 ~

17 5 —1 7 5

Cou n ters . P a r a boli c Tru s s es

I t has b ee n s tat e d that c o unt e r s
.

are n ee d e d in e v e ry pa n e l The truth of thi s may e a s ily b e

.

t e s t e d by actual c o mputati o n Fo r e xampl e t o d e t e rmin e .

,

wh e th e r c o unt e r s are r e quire d in pan e l 1 —2 a ss um e the se cti on

X Y and see if t h e liv e l o ad can b e s o plac e d as t o pr o duc e c om
,

pr es s i o n in b ar U1 L2 Th e s tr e ss in thi s bar may b e c o mpute d

.

by taking m o m e nt s ab o ut t he o rigin 0 I f a l o ad b e plac e d t o .

th e l e ft o f X Y it will pr o duc e a r e acti on l ess than it self and t he ,

m om e nt o f this r e ac t i o n ab o ut 0 will b e l es s than the m om e nt

'

of t he l o ad it se lf n ot o nly b e cau s e o f i t s s mall e r valu e but b e ca use

i ts l e v e r arm i s l es s h e nc e any l o ad t o t h e l e ft o f X Y will p ro duc e

,

cl o ckwi se m o m e n t ab o ut 0 o f the f o rc es t o t he l e ft of X Y and

2 00 S I M P L E TRU S SES A RT . 1 07

Li ve Web S tr es s es The m aximum liv e w eb st r ess es o cc ur

.

with partial l o adin g The p os it i on of t he l oads may b e de t e r

.

mi n e d by t he m e th od s pre vi ou sly u se d The n e c e s sa ry c o m .

pu t at i o n s f o r max imum s t re ss es ar e giv e n in th e f o ll owing tabl e

MAX I MUM L I VE W E B ST R ESSES ,

IN UN I TS OF 1 00 0 L B S

Co m p u t ati o ns ,
V e rt i c a l C o m p o n e n ts o f Ma x i m um Li v e Web
t
S r es s es .

U1 Of —7 5 0
U1 L 1 .
50 + 25
UI t o Us 111 0 1 .

S he a r i n pa ne l 1 —2

U2 o r
UZ LZ
UI t o U5 i n c l

6 3
S he a r in pane l 2 —3 = 50 + 25
6 6
50 3
X— X —
24 25

U3 o r
UsLs
UI t o U, i n c l .

S he a r in pane l 3—
4
3
-—5 O+ —o
2 2
6 6
U3 L, U4 a nd U5
—3 3 . 3X Xi _
27 25
33 3 +

1
S he a r in pa n e l 4—5= -

6
1 00 9
0
X
24 25
1 25 + +312 5

For actual l o c o m otiv e l o ad s the c omputati o n s f or this tru ss

s h o uld pr e s e nt n o m o r e d i ffi c ulty than f or t he tru s s of th e pre

vi ous e xampl e .
A RT . 1 07 TRUSS R
P O BLE M S 20 1

P R OB LE MS

41 . S t ate which t h e tr u ss es s h own i n th e fi gu re a re s ta t ically d e t e r

of

min e d wi th re s pe c t to the in ne r forc es , and gi ve r e as ons Poi n t s o f .

i n t e rs e c t i o ns of we t m e mb e rs s h ou ld no t b e c ons id e re d as j oi n t s .

4 2 S t a t e wh i ch of th e s t r u c t u r e s s h own i ri th e fi gure are s ta t ically

.

u n d e t e rmi n e d wi th r e s p e c t t o th e i nn e r fo rc es and
, give re as o ns .

01 t i e rcxi

PR O B . 41 . PR O B . 42 .

43 . (1 . Comp u te
by the analy t ical me t hod of j oi nt s the ve r t ical
c omp one n t s i n all diagonal me mbe rs and the act ual s t ress i n all o t he r
,

membe r s of t his str uct ure Tabula t e re s ul t s i n o rde r acc o rdi ng to bar
.

numb e r s De s i gn ate t e n s io n by
. ari d c ompre ssion by
b De te rmi ne s t re ss i n all membe r s by graphic al m e t hod of j oi n t s
.

(B ow s N ota ti o n) Tab ulate re s ults i n s ame orde r as i n a

’
. .

50 t ons

l OO t ons

1 m m . 44 .

P RO B 4 3 . . PR O B 4 5 . .

44 . Comp ute by me tho d of mome nt s t he s t re ss i n bars a ,

b, c an d

d, a nd s t ate whe t he r s tr e ss i s t e ns i o n o r c ompr e ss i o n .

2 02 S I M P LE TRU S S ES Am . 1 07

45 a Compute by me t ho d of m ome nt s the s tr ess i n bar s a , b, c

. .

a nd d, an d s t a t e whe t he r te n s i on o r c ompre ss i on .

b S ame a s a, b ut d ire c t i on o f r e a c t i on i s n ot fixe d by r oll e rs

. .

(Assume b ot h re ac t ions t o ac t paralle l t o di re c t i on of applie d lo ad s ) .

4 6 Compu t e maxim um s t r e ss i n e ach me mbe r d ue t o f ollowi ng

.

l oads appli e d a t t op chord :

1 De ad , 3 0 lb s pe r h ori z on t al s qu are foot
. . .

2 Sn ow, 2 0 1b s pe r hori z on t al s quare foo t

. . .

3 Wi n d, 3 0 lb s pe r s q f t n ormal t o s urface
. . . . .

Tabulate s t re sse s f or e ach k in d of l oadi ng, an d de te rmine maxi mu m

s tre ss e s , arrangi ng r es ul t s acc or di ng t o bar n umbe r s a s give n on diagra m .

I ndica te t e nsi on t hus and c ompre s s i on thus

PR OB . 46 . PR OB . 47 .

47 Comp u t e s t re s ses i n t ons and

. s tate W hether te nsi on or c om
pre s si on f or the followi ng bars :
B ar a , by me t h od of j oi n t s .

Bar b, by me t ho d of m ome nt s .

by me t hod of j oi n t s
B ar 0 , .

B ar d,by me t hod of mome n t s .

48 U niform live l oad 2 000 lb s pe r foot on top chord

.
,
.
,
.

L o c omotive exce ss lb s o n t op cho rd

,
. .

I mp a c t by f ormul a
De ad l o a d t op chord 600 lb s pe r fo ot
, ,
. .

De ad l oad b ott om ch o rd 20 0 lb s per fo ot

, ,
. .

De te rmi ne pane ls i n W hi ch c oun te rs are ne e de d an d c ompute maxi m um

s t r e ss i n e ach me mb e r of t hi s t r uss N umbe r bars as shown i n figure .

a nd arr a nge r e s ult s i n o rde r acc ordi ng t o bar n um be r s S t r e ss e s to b e .

g iv e n i n p o un ds T e ns i on t o b e de n o t e d by
. a nd c ompr essi o n by

8 P l
an e s

P R OB . 48 .
PR OB . 49 .

4 9 Uniform live load, 2 000 lb s pe r foot on t op chord

.
. .

L oc omo t ive e xc ess , lb s t op chord . .

De ad l oad , 1 000 lb s pe r fo o t t op chord . .

De ad l oa d , 500 lb s pe r foot b o tt om chord . .

c t r b d C mp t max i m m s tr e ss e s of bot h k i nds i n

No oun e s ar e t o e u s e o u e u .

membe rs of t his t ru ss (Rule s to arran ge me nt of re s ults et c as

all as .
. , ,

in pr evi o us pr oblems ) .
2 04 TRU S S E S W I TH S C O E NDA RY W E B S YS TE M S A RT 1 0 8
.

th e r e will b e n o s tr es s i n e ith e r t he s e c o ndary dia go nal M 3 L 2 or ,

t h e s e c o n dary v e rtical s U3 M 3 and M 3 L 3 s inc e th e s e m e mb e r s ,

t ak e n o part i n t h e tr an s mi ss i o n t o t h e abutm e n t of t h e l o ad s at
o th e r pa n e l p o int s I t i s th e r e f o r e n e c e ss ary t o c o n s id e r o nly t h e
.

l o ad s P I P 2 and P 3 in d e t e rmi n ing t h e s tr es s e s i n t h e s e c o n dary

, ,

m e mb e r s m ee tin g at t h e j oint M 3 and t h e e fi e ct of th e s e m e mb e r s

,

up o n t he main dia go n al s tr es s e s Th e s tr e s s es i n t h e s e c o ndary

.

v e rtic al s a re e vid e ntly e qual t o th e pan el l o ad s appli e d at th e ir

e n d s ; that i s t h e c o mpr e s s i o n in U3 M 3 = P 3 which o rdi n arily i s
, ,

m e re ly t h e d e ad w e ight of t h e t o p ch o rd acting at thi s p o int and

'

t h e t e n s i o n in M 3 L 3 = P 1 .Thi s i s e quival e nt s o far as t he ,

s e c o ndary diag o nal i s c o nc e rn e d t o t h e applicati o n at M 3 of a

,

r es ultant d o wnward v e rtical f o rc e e qual t o P 1 + P 2 + P 3 F or .

s implicity thi s r es ultant will h e r e aft e r b e calle d R and c o n s id e r e d

a s acting dir e ctly at M 3 The s tr e s s in M 3 L2 may th e n b e c o m

.

p u t e d by t h e m e th o d o f j o i n t s by r es o lving t h e f o rc e R al o n g t w o

ax e s c o i n cid e nt with U2 L 4 and L 2 M 3 W ith thi s s tr es s kn o wn

.
,

t h e e ff e ct of R up o n U2 M 3 may al s o b e r e adily d e t e rmin e d by t h e

s am e m e th o d . Th e s tr e s s i n M 3 L 4 i s e vid e ntly u n a f fe ct e d by t h e
s e c o n dary s y s t e m an d may b e d e t e rmin e d by t h e m e th o d o f s h e ar

in t h e u s ual ma nn e r s i n c e i t s v e rtical c o mp o n e n t e qual s t he s h e ar

,

in pan e l 3 4 — .

W hil e t h e m e th o d of j oi n t s f or thi s c a s e pr e s e nt s n o s p e cial

di ffi c ult y t h e m e th o d o f m o m e n t s
,

i s much s impl e r as i s s ee n fr o m t h e
,

f oll o wing di s cu s s i o n .

Co n s i d e r t h e tru ss s h o wn in F i g .

1 5 1 and apply t h e m e th o d of m o
f bI m e nt s t o th e f o rc e s acti n g o n t he
p o rti o n of t h e tru s s lyi n g within t h e
PIG 1 5 1. .

c urv e d s e cti o n M N All t he bar s .

cut by thi s s e cti o n e xc e pt f a m ee t at j o int 9 which s h o uld b e

tak e n as t h e o rigi n o f m o m e nt s I f w e n ow let V = ve rt i c al
.

c o mp o n e nt of t h e s tr e s s i n bar f a a s s umi n g it t o b e t e n s i o n an d
,

writ e th e e quati o n f or m o m ent s ab o ut p o int 9 t he f oll o wi n g e x

pr e s s i o n i s o bt ai n e d °

R (bg) + c g> = o
h e nc e
bg
1 2 3 )
fg
ART 1 0 8
. E ND A
S CO RY S Y S TE M S 2 05

I t i s e vid e nt that t he s am e m e th o d c o uld b e appli e d if t h e

s e c o n dary dia go nal w e r e t o e xt e nd fr o m M 3 t o U4 F i g 1 50 ,
.
,

i n s t e ad of fr o m M 3 t o L 2 but th e s e cti o n M N s h o ul d i n thi s c a s e

,

ou t t h e t op ch o rd i n s t e ad o f t h e b o tt o m ch o rd a n d b e inv e r te d .

Th e num e ric al valu e of th e s tr es s i n th e ba r w o uld b e t h e s am e

as f o r that j u s t f o und but it w o uld b e in t e n s i o n i n s t e ad o f

c o mpr es s i o n .

Th e f o ll o wi n g pr o p o s iti o n may n o w b e s tat e d .

Th e verti ca l c om po n en t of t h e c o m pr es si on in bar (1 ) i n t h e ca s e
s h o wn by F i g 1 5 2 o r th e ver ti ca l c om pon en t o f t h e t e n s i o n i n
.
,

P1+ +P 3
2
2
bar (2) in th e c as e sho wn by F ig . 1 53

It follows from the a bove r u le tha t the ver ti ca l c o m p on e n t o

f the
m a xi m u m s tr es s in a s ec on da ry di agona l f
o a B a lti m or e tru s s wi th
eq u a l pa n els a nd ho ri zon tal chor ds eq u a ls

o n e- ha l f the m a xi m u m pa n el loa d .

W ith t h e v e rtic al c o mp on e nt in t h e
s e c o n dary diag o nal k n o wn t h e v e rtical

c o mp o n e nt in t he main diag on al i n t he
s am e pa n e l m ay b e f o und by s ubtract

i n g thi s valu e fr o m t h e s h e ar in t h e
pa n e l if th e b ar s b e as s h o wn in F ig .

1 5 2 or by adding it t o t h e s h e ar f o r t he
,
F I G 1 52 F IG 1 53 . . .

ca s e s h o wn in F ig 1 5 3 pr o vid e d i n b o th
.
,

ca ses that th e sh e ar i s p os itiv e I n c a s e t h e s h e ar i s n e gativ e

.
,

t he qu e s ti o n of c o u n t e r s mu s t b e i nv e s ti gat e d in acc o rdanc e with

t h e m e th o d s of t h e f o ll o wi n g articl e .

Th e d e m o n s trati o n j u s t giv e n i s s impl e but t h e r e s ult s apply ,

t o tru s s es with parall e l ch o rd s o n ly .

Th e s am e m e th o d may h o w e v e r b e , ,

r e adily appli e d t o tru ss e s with n o n

paralle l ch o rd s Th e d e m o n s tra .

ti o n which f o ll o w s i s given h ow ,

Lx L L e v e r in o rd e r t o illu s trat e a m e th o d
l
e s 4 ,

P l l gth p
an e en : which i s o ft e n v e ry u s e ful in d e t e r
F m 1 54 . .
mining b a r s tr es s es in c e rt a i n f o rm s
of tru s s e s .

Thi s m e th o d c o ns i s t s in fi rs t d e riving an e xpr e s s i o n f or th e s u m

of t h e h o riz o ntal c o mp o n e n t s in L 2 M 3 and L 2 L 3 F i
g 1 5 4 c all e d , .
,

h e r e aft er f or c o nv e ni e n c e H C (L2 M 3 — —
1 L 2 L 3 ) an d th e n s u b
. .
,
2 06 TRU S S E S W I TH S C O E NDA RY W EB S YS TE M S A RT 1 0 8
.

'

tracting fr o m it the h o ri z o n tal c o mp o n e n t i n L2 L 3 c all e d H . C .

Le t M 2 = th e m o m e n t o f th e fo rc es t o th e l e ft o f X Y ab out U2 .

L e t M 2 = t he m om e nt of t h e f o rc e s t o the l e ft o f Z Q ab out U2
’
.

4
2
42
H C (L 2 M 3 + L 2 L3 )
. .

M ‘
2
H C (L3 L 4)
. . H C (L 2 L3 )
. . o

h2

H C . .
( L zM g + L 2 L3 ) —H C . .
(L 2 L3 ) H C (L 2 M3 )
. .

Th e nly diff e r e n c e b e tw e en M2 and M 2 i s t he m o m e nt o f

o
5

t he f o rc e s P I P 2 and P 3 acti n g b e tw ee n X Y an d Z Q s i n c e
, , ,

o th e rwi s e t h e f o rc e s t o t h e l e ft o f th e t w o s e cti o n s a re id e n tical

,
.

h e nc e
—
M g Jll z
’

hz (L zMg) ;

For t h e cas e s h own by F ig 1 54 M 2 will b e larg e r than M2 h e n c e

.
,
’
,

t he ab o v e re s ult will b e n e gativ e s h o wing c o mpr e ss i on in t he ,

s e c o ndary diag on al L 2 M 3 .

I f t he s e c o ndary diag o nal b e a t e ns io n m e mb e r as s h o wn in ,

F ig 1 5 5 ins t e ad of the c ompr ess i on .

,

bar of F ig 1 54 t he s am e ge n e ral .
,

m eth o d appli es ; but M2 and M 2 ’

s h o uld f or thi s ca s e b e r e plac e d by

M 4 and M4 t he m o m e nt s ab out L 4 o f ’
,

t he f or c es t o t h e l e ft o f Z Q and X Y
P l l gt h = P
a ne en
r e sp e ctiv e ly a n d t he e xpr es s i on s h ould ,

F I G 1 55 .
hav e .
M in t h e d e n o mi n at o r i n s t e ad o f

kg The f o ll o wi n g e xpr e ss i o n r es ult s :

.

H C (U3 U4 + Ma U4 ) — H C (U3 U4 )
. . . .

p
H C (M3 U4 )
. .
(P I + P 2 + P 3 )

This r e s ult will b e p os itiv e th e r e by i n dicati n g t e n s i o n i n the b ar

,
.

I t s h o uld b e n o tic e d that in all th es e c a se s t he in t e rm e diat e

pan e l p o int h as b ee n s o l o cat e d as t o divid e th e main diag on al at
th e c en tr e and t h e t w o halv es of th e latt e r m e mb e r hav e b e e n in
,
208 TRU S SES W I TH S C O E NDA RY WE B S Y S TE M S A RT 1 09 .

str es s in the se c o nda ry diagon al i s kn own I t s h o uld b e ob se rv e d .

,

h o we v e r that t he s tr es s i n the main diag onal d e p e n d s n ot only

,

up o n t he s h e ar and th e s tr es s in t he s e c on dary m e mb e r but alSo ,

up on the v e rtical c omp on e n t in th e t op ch o rd This ca se i s .

m o r e c omplicat e d than f o r th e parall el c ho rd tru s s but i s fully

‘

illu s trat e d by t he e xampl e giv e n in the f oll owin g articl e .

1 09 C om p u tati o n of Maxim u m Stre ss e s i n Pettit T ru ss

. D ea d .

L oad s a nd Con c en tra ted L oa d S ys tem .

P r o ble m L e t t he pr oble m b e th e c omp u t a t i o n o f t he ma x im um

.

s t r e sse s i n a ll b ar s of t he t r uss s h ow n i n Fi
g 1 58 f or the f ollowi ng .

loads .

Dea d l oa d on chord pe r hori z on t al f oo t = 2 2 5 O lb s pe r tr uss = 68 000

t op .
, ,

lb s pe r p a ne l (appr o x )
. .

De ad l o a d on b ott om chord = 35 0 0 lb s pe r foo t pe r tr uss = 1 05 0 00 lb s .

,
.

pe r p ane l .

Live l oad Coop e r s E s t an d a rd l oa di ng

.
’

50 .

M aels= 1 80 f — > ie r
—4 2—
PM BIS 360
’

FIG . 1 5 8 — D o u 1e T
. b ra c k R ai lr oa d Bri d ge . A ll D i a gon als Te nsi on Mem b e rs .

In this tru ss th e d ott e d h o riz on tal m e mb e r s are u s e d t o

s upp o rt t he mai n v e rtical s again s t buckli n g an d are s ub ,

je c t e d t o s e c o n dary s tr es ses o nly ; a c o mm o n d e vic e in l ong

s pan tru ss e s The d ott e d dia gon al s r e pr ese n t c o u n t e r s and

.
,

are n o t in acti on u n d e r d e ad l o ad s I n t he c o mputati on s .

which f o ll o w t h e m om e n t dia gram f o r Co op e r s E40 l o ading

,
’

giv e n i n A rt 5 2 h as b e e n u s e d. an d t h e s tr e s s es f or E 50 ,
"
0
o bta i n e d by mult i ply i n g by the rat i o
20 . All um t s are i n th o u
s an d s of p o un d s .

In d ex S tr es s esI n d e t e rmini n g th e i n d e x s tr es s e s it i s
.
,

n e c e s s ary as i n t he pr e vi o u s e xampl e t o fi rs t d e t e rmin e t h e v e r

, ,

tical c o mp on e n t i n t he i n cli n e d t op ch o rd bar an d t o c o rr e ct ,

th e diag o nal s tr e s s es t o c on f o rm t o t h e s l o p e o f t h e e n d dia go nal s .

AR T 1 09
. MAXI M U M S TRESSES IN P ETTI T TRUSS 209

A s t he tr es ses in the se c onda ry m e mb e r s are ind ep e nd e nt of the

s

s t res s es in t he main m e mb e r s it i s advi s abl e t o writ e th e s e fi rs t

,
.

For t he o th e r m e mb e r s t he u s ual pr o c e s s w ill b e pur s u e d o f

b e gi nning at the c e ntr e and w o rking t o w ard s t he e n d ch e c king ,

with the r e acti o n at t he e n d and with the ch o rd s tr ess as c om

u t e d by m o m e nt s at t he c e ntr e
p .

The ind e x s tr e s ses are g i v e n i n F ig 1 5 9 and the n e c e s s ary .

,

6 pane ls

i t
nd x
re

FIG . 1 59 .
—I e S tre sse s a nd De ad Pa ne l Load s f or Tr u s s S h own
i n Fi g 1 58 . .

c o mputati o n s f or bar s in which th e ind e x s tr esses are at all c o m

plic at e d f oll o w I n d e t e rmi n i n g t h e ind e x s tr e s s es t h e diag o n al s
.

s l o ping at 4 5 a re tak e n as s tandar d

°
.

30 45

V C
. . in (f 4
1 73 ” 50 15

V C
. in U4 L 4
.
(m e th o d o f
j o int s)
V C in Un
. .
+3 1 1 4 + 68 0 (m e th o d of
joint s)
Co rr e ct e d i n d e x s tr e s s in M3 U4 ,
f or us e in d e t e rmining
in d e x str e ss i n bar U4 U5 ,

Co rr e ct e d ind e x s tr e s s in U4 M 5 ,
f or us e in d e t e rmi n i n g
ind e x s tr es s in bar U4 U5 , X 60 /7 5 = 2 0 7 6 .

To ch e ck t op ch o rd s t re ss e s d e t e rmi n e c o mbin e d h o riz o ntal

c o mp on e nt in U5 U5 and M 5 U6 by dividing c en tr e m om e nt by
2 10 TRUSSES W I TH S C O E ND A RY WE B S Y STE M S A RT . 1 09

c entr e h e ight and add , t o t he valu e thu s o bt ain e d t he h o riz ont al

c omp o n e nt in M5 U6 .

Thi s e qual s t he in d e x s tr e s s in U4 U5 as s ho uld be the c ase s i nc e , ,

t he latt e r w as d e t e rmi ne d f or dia go nal s s l o ping at

D ead S tr es s es The actual d e ad s tr e ss e s are g i v e n i n t he
.

foll owing tabl e in which t he c olum n s h e ad e d rati o giv e the

l e ngth of e ach we b m e mb e r divid e d by i ts v e rtical pr oj e cti o n and
of e ach ch o rd m e mb e r divid e d by i t s h o riz on tal pr o j e cti o n .

D EAD S TR ESS E S I N UN I TS OF 1 00 0 P OUN D S

B a rs . t
Ra i o . S t re s s . B a rs . t
Ra i o . S t r es s .

Cou n ters . B e fo r e
c o mputing t he liv e s tr es s es and e v en ,

b e f o r e d e t e r minin g t h e p os iti on of liv e l o ad s f or maximum s tr ess es ,

it i s n e c es s ary t o d e cid e in what pan e l s c o unt e r s

a r e r e qui r e d .

P a n e l s 4—5 an d 7—8 E vid e n tly c o unt e r s .

will b e n e ed e d in th es e pan e l s if th e r es ultan t

s h e ar d u e t o liv e d e ad an d impact in pa n e l 7 —8
,

i s e v e r p os itiv e Th e applicati o n of t he m e th o d
.

o f m ov ing up t h e l o ad s s h o w s that l o ad (2 ) at
FIG 1 60
. .

L8 giv es maximum p os itiv e s h e ar i n thi s pan el

“

Its magni tud e per tru ss f or E 50 e qual s

5 1 63
4
2 12 TRUS S ES W I TH S C O E NDA RY WE B S Y S TE M S AR T . 1 09

Mo v e up l o ad

(2 8 4 + 1 74 x2 ) 1 2 ) X 6p + d p
1

L o ad (3 ) at L3 giv es maximum .

BA R M3 L4 Le t M 4/h4 = m om ent ab o ut U4
. f o rc es t o l e ft of

o f a v e rtical s e cti o n thr o ugh pa n e l 3 —

4 divid e d by h e ight of tru ss
/
at L 4 Let M2 h2 = m om ent ab o ut U2 of f o rc es t o l e ft of a v e rti
.

c al s e cti o n thr ough pan e l 2 —3 divid e d by h e i ght of tru ss at L 2 .

S inc e th e h ori z o ntal c o mp o n e nt of t he s tr e s s in M3 L4 = M 4 /h4

—M 2 h2 t he p os iti on of l o ad s f or maximum s tr ess in the ba r
/ ,

i s that giving t he maximum valu e s of thi s quant i ty F ig 1 6 1 . .

FIG . 1 61 .
— In fl u e n c e Li n e f or H ori z o n t a l Co m po n e n t in M 3L 4 .

s h o w s t h e influ e nc e lin e f or t he h oriz o ntal c o mp o n e nt in this bar ,

a n d s h o w s that o n e of t he l o ad s s h o ul d li e at L 4 To d e t e rmin e .

t h e p o s iti o n f or maximum s tr e s s u s e t h e m e th o d of m o ving up

th e l o ad s multiplying t h e l o ad s t o right of L 4 by t h e p ro duct
,

of t h e di s tanc e m o v e d and t h e tang e nt an d th ose in pan e l s

2 3 and 3 —
— 4 by t h e pr o duct of t h e di s tanc e m ov e d an d t he tange nt

S tart with l o ad (3 ) at L4 and m o v e up l o ad

5 7
(2 3 4 + 14 4 X 2 ) _ 5 > 50 X 5 X
60 0 600

Mov e up l o ad

Mov e up l o ad

L o ad (5) at L; giv e s a maximum .

A R T 1 09
. MAX I M U M S TRESSES IN PETTI T TRU S S 2 13

I t i s p oss ibl e that this bar may b e br o ught int o c omp re s s io n

by l o ad s c oming on fr o m l e ft h e nc e the p os iti o n givi n g max
,

imum c o mpr e s s i o n s h o uld b e d e t e rmin e d .

S ta rt with l o ad (2 ) at L 2 and m o v e up l o ad b r inging l o ad s

on fr o m l e ft ,

3
1 4 2 X 5 X—
600
Mov e up l oad
3
1 42 X5 X + 5 > 50 X 5 X
666
Mov e up l o ad
3

L o ad(4) at L 2 give s a maximum .

B A R U4 M 5 L o ad f o r maximum s h e ar in pa n e l
.

S tart with l o ad (2) at L 5 an d m o v e up l o ad (3 )

5 5
—
(2 8 4 + 1 09 X 2 ) 12 5 > 30 X
p p
Mo v e up l o ad
5
(s e4 + l i 4 x )
e — a< 5o ><

L oad (3 ) at L 5 giv e s maximum .

BA R M5 L6 . Lo ad t o give t h e maximum valu e of t he r e s ulta n t

of the p os itiv e s h e ar in pan l
e 5 —6 an d t he v e rtical c omp on e nt i n
ba r M 5 U6 .

S tart with l o ad (3 ) at L6 an d m ov e up l o ad
5 1
(2 8 4 + 8 4 X 2 ) 1
Mo v e up l o ad
5
— 70 x
(2 8 4 + 8 9 X ) 1 2 ) + 3
2
1
Mo v e up l o ad
9 1 9
— a<
(2 8 4 --
90
12
i
) §
Lo ad (5) at LG giv e s maximum .

1
The ri gh t - ha nd s id e of q q
t hi s i ne uali t y e ua ls t he i nc re m e n t i n t he s um of
t he pa ne l lo ad at L, and t he ve r t i c al c o m pone n t o f t he s t re s s i n t he sec ond a ry
 2 14 TRUSS ES W I TH S E C ON D A R Y W E B S Y S TE M S A R T 1 09
.

BA R
M7 L8 I f this bar b e i n acti o n t he c onditi o n s h o wn in
.

F ig 1 63 will e xi st P lac e l o ad s so that t he sum of the p ositiv e

. .

FIG . 1 62 . FIG . 1 63 .

sh e ar i n pan e l 7—8 and the v e rtical c o mp on en t in bar

b e a maximum .

S tart with l o ad (2 ) at L3 and m o v e l o ad

(2 8 4 + 1 9 x2) +3 3 0 >< é
1 2p 2 p
Mov e up l o ad
1

Mo v e up l o ad

(2 8 4 + 2 9 X 2) 7
1
-
+3<
2
70 x
p
Lo ad (4 ) at L8 giv e s a maximum .

d i a gon a l M o t
q
d ue t o t h e m ovem en of t he loa d s . If no loa d pa s s e s L 5 i t i s
o b vi o u s t ha t t h i s c ha n ge e u a ls o n e - ha lf t he s um o f t h e pr od u c t o f t he

load s m o vi n g i n pane l 5—6 an d t he d i s t an c e W hi c h th e y m ov e Th a t . t hi s is

a ls o t ru e , pr ov i d e d n o loa d pa ss e s L 4 , m a y b e re ad i ly pro ve n a s f o llo ws
Le t t he o ri gi n al posi ti on of a lo ad P b e a s s h o wn b y t he f u ll ci rc le in
Fi g 1 6 2 ,
. an d a ss u m e t ha t i n m o vi ng t he load s , P pas se s L 5 t o t he po s i t i on
b y t he d o tt e d r
q
s h own c i c le .

The f ollowi n g e ua t i on s m ay t he n b e w ri tt e n :
P( bl
Ori gi nal posi t i on of load s
g;
R5 _ 6 P
S e c ond po s1 t1 0 n of load s . R4 + c ) .

I3 0 9
—0
) P (P — bl P (b + 0 )
The i nc re ase i n R‘+ _ 3
1
2 2 19 2p 2 7)

q
P
Thi s d e m on s t ra t i on a ppli e s e ua lly we ll t o t wo co rre spond i n g pa n e ls i n
an y o t he r pos i ti on of t he truss .
216 TRU SSES W I TH S C O E ND AR Y WEB S Y S TE MS A RT . 1 09

as f or the rdinary c a s e of maximum m o m ent at a pan e l p o int

o
,

and one of t he s e c ond e ngin e l o ad s will pr obably giv e t he ma x

-

imum .

FIG . 1 65 .
— Infl uence L in e f or H ori zo nta l Com pone nt i n U2 U3 and U3 U 4 .

The f oll owi n g e xpr ess i on f or t he change in t he str e ss may be

writt e n u s i ng t he m e th o d of m oving up t he l o ad s
, .

S tart with l o ad (1 1 ) at L 3 an d m o v e up l o ad (1 2)

5
(1 1 2 + 225 x2 ) — 5 > 56 x 5 x
§2 5
5
+ 13 X ——+ 2 X + 1 03 X 5 ><
§2 5
Mov e up l o ad
5
(92 + 2 3 0 — 0 63
2

L o ad (1 2 ) at L3 giv es maximum .

B A R U4 L 4 . A s s u m i ng tha t cou n ter M5 L4 is n ot in a c ti on , t he

i n fl ue n c e li n e f or s tr es s in thi s bar will be as give n in F ig . 1 66 ,

7 8 9 10 11 12

FIG . 1 66 — Infl ue nc e Li ne f o r S t re ss i n U4 L4 .

an d s h ows that f or maximum c o mpr ess i o n the l o ad s h o uld c o m e

o n fr o m t he ri ght and f or maximum t e n s i o n fr o m t he le ft
, .

P os iti o n f or maximum c ompr e ss i o n l o ad c oming on fr o m ,

right
ART . 1 09 M AXI M U M S TR ES SES I N PETTI T TRU SS 2 17

S tart with l o ad (1 ) at L 5 and m o v e up l o ad making us e

of t he tang e nt s t o t h e i n fl ue n c e li n e , a s w as d o n e with b a r M3 L4 .

(2 74 + 1 0 1 x2) £6 +a 10 XS

Mo v e up l o ad

L o ad (2) at L 5 giv es maximum c ompr es s i o n .

P os iti o n f or maximum t e n s i on l o ad s c o ming on fr o m l e ft

,

F or thi s ca se h e avy l o ad s s h o uld b e plac e d at b oth L 4 and L 2 .

Th ese p an e l p o int s are 60 f t ap art h e n c e if t he h e avy l o ad s of

.
,

t he fi rs t l o c o m otiv e are plac e d n e ar L 4 t he h e avy l o ad s of t he

,

s e c on d l o c o m otiv e will b e l o cat e d n e ar L 2 thi s giving a fav or abl e

,

p os it i o n f or maximum str e s s .

S ta r t with l o ad (2 ) at L 4 and m o v e up l o ad 3 )

13 3 3
8 6 X 5 >< 9
00 00
19 7
-
+ 20 X4 X

Mo v e up l o ad
13 3

19 7—
—
+ 5 < 50 X 5 X + 63 X 5 X + 2 OX 4 X
600 §0 0

at L 4 giv es m aximum
L o ad (3 ) .

The ab ov e c o nditi o n f or m aximum s tr ess will n ot b e c o rr e ct

if in e ith e r ca se c o u n t e r M 5 L4 b e in acti o n That this bar i s .

n ot in acti o n f or t h e p os iti o n of l o ad s givi n g m aximum c o mpr e s

s i on i s h o we v e r e vid e nt fr o m in sp e cti on
, , .

F o r t he p os iti o n f or m aximum t e n s i o n the n e gativ e s h e a r in

pan e l 4 —5 i s giv e n by t he foll o wing e xpr e ss i on :
S h e ar in pan el 4 —5 l o ad (3) at L4 l oa d s c o ming on fr o m l e ft
, ,

5 24 ) 2 4 23 0
4 30

Thi s i s c on s id e rably s mall e r e v e n aft e r imp act i s add e d than t he

, ,

p os itiv e d e ad s h e ar in t he pan e l and t he c o u nt e r will n ot b e in

2 18 TRU S S ES W I TH S C O E ND AR Y W EB S Y S TE M S AR T . 1 09

act i on ; h e n c e t he a s s um e d c on diti on i s c o n s is t e nt with t he

p os iti on of t he l o ad s as d e t e rmin e d .

B A R S U4 U5 an d U5 U6 L o ad f or maximum m om ent ab out

.

L 6 of l o ad s t o l e ft of v rtical e s e cti n thr ugh pan e l

o o 4 —5 The .

i n fl u e n c e l i n e f or t h e s tr e s s in thi s ca se c o n s i st s of thr e e s t r aigh t

F 1 61 — In fl u e n c e L in e f or S t re s s i n U4 U5 and
IG .
U5 U6 .

lin e s as s h o wn i n F i g 1 67 an d s h o ws that t he maximum s tr e ss

, .
,

o c cur s with on e o f t he l o ad s at L 5 .

S tart with l o ad (1 4 ) at L 5 and m o v e up l o ad ma kin g us e

o f t h e tan ge nt s t o t h e i n fl u e n c e li n e .

9 9
42 X + 10
150

Mo v e up l o ad
5 5
(3 9 + 1 8 9 X 2) + 5 < 1 52 X J Q?’ X 5 X
H) TE
E
F

Lo ad (1 5) at L 5 giv e s maximum .

BA R S L4 L 5 an d L5L6 . L o ad f o r maximum m o m e nt at U4
a ss umi n g c o un t e r L4 M 5 t o b e out o f acti on .

23 2 47 2
Try l o ad (1 4) to l e ft of L4 , < No t a x i m um
T 8
m a .

4 77
Try l o ad (1 5) to l e ft of L4 , A m axi mum
4 8
.

24 5 48 Z
Try l o ad 1 6) t o rlgh t o f L4 , — . No t a m ax 1 m u m
4 8
.

L o ad (1 5) at
give s a maxi mum
L4 .

Th e s h e ar in pan e l L 4L 5 f o r thi s c onditi o n

(2 8 4 + 58 18
— 24 5 —— 4%
30
H e nc e c o unt e r L4 M S i s
in acti on f o r thi s l o adi n g
n ot .

B A R UGL 6 Two ca s es mu s t b e c on s id e r e d f o r thi s bar

.
.

Th es e a re s h o wn i n F ig 1 68 . .
2 20 TRU SS ES W I TH S C O E NDA RY WE B S YS TE M S A RT . 1 09

MA X I MU M L I VE S TR E SSES I N MAI N D IA G ONA L S I N UNI TS OF

1 000 P OUN DS
Thi s t able s hows all n ec e ssa ry c om pu a t t i on s .
(N o te t ha t 3 60 =

P i ti
os on of
C o m p ut at i o n s
L o ad s
.

UzM s 3 at L, S he a r i n pa ne l 2 —3
Ma x .
(2 8 4 +
Te n si on .
36 0
+ 2 5 91
Ve r t C om p
. . i n Uz U3
15
—7 7 X 2 )
60
Ve rt C om p i n U2 M3 i n t on s f or E

X
. .

Te n s i o n f o r E 5 0 =
i
X -—X 2

S he a r i n pa ne l 3—4
I 6 , 3 6 4 + (2 8 4 +
3 60
+ 2 05 1
Ve rt C om p
. . i n UaU4
15
x4 )
Ve rt C om p
. . in M 3 U4
45 8 30 30

Ve rt C om p
. . i nM 3 L, i n t on s f or E4 0

Te n s i o n f o r Eso

S he a r i n pa n e l 3—
4
8 7 28 212
3 60
Ve rt C om p. . i n U3 U4
15 480 30
= —
6 5
Ve rt C om p. . in M 3 U4
4 80 30 45
x x
fi fi i o
Ve r t C o m p
. . i n III, L4 i n t on s f or E

—x 2
Com pre s si on f or -

Z
Thi s i s s o m u c h s m alle r t han
the d e a d te n si o n t ha t c om

p re ss i on W i ll n e ve r ac t u a lly oc c u i n t h i s b arr .

(I‘M , 3 at L5 She ar i n pan e l 4 5

’

Max .
(2 8 4 230
Te n s i o n .
3 60 30
= l7 1 5 .

Te n s i o n f o r E 1 6 3 8 X 1 2 80 X ——
.
X2 .

2
AR T 1 0 9
. MAX I M U M S TRES SES IN P ETTI T TRUS S 22 1

MA X I MUM L I VE S TR E SSES I N MA I N D I A GON A L S —C onti n u ed

P i ti
os on of
Co m p u tt
a i o ns .

L o ad s .

M 5L , 5 at L6 S he a r i n pa ne l 5—
6
Ma x .
(2 8 4 +
Te n s i on .
3 60
= l4 4 1 .
+ 1 164
Ve rt C om p
. . in M 5 U6
27 ]
2
Ve rt C om p
. . i n M sL . i n t on s f o r E 4 0
1 164 +

Te n s i o n f o r E 50 = x X ——X 2
Z
M ,L 8 4 at La S he a r ln pane l 7—8
Max .
(2 8 4 +
Te n s i on .
3 60

Ve r t C o m p
. . in M 7 U3
Ve rt C om p
. . in M 7L a i n t on s f or E4 0

5
Te n s i on f or E SO X XZ
Z
222 TRUS S E S W I TH S C O E NDA RY W EB S Y S TEM S A R T 1 09
.

MAX I MU M L I VE S TR ESS ES I N I NC L I NE D E ND—

P OS TS CH OR D S , ,

A ND MAI N V E RTI CAL S I N UN I TS OF 1 000 P OUN D S

Thi s tab le s h ow s a ll n e c e ssa ry c om pu t a ti on s .

Co m p u t a t i o n s .

L OM , 4 at Ll She a r i n pa ne l 0 —1
(2 8 4 + 480
3 60 30

Co m pre s s i o n i n L oM l f o r E5 0
1 414 x
.

g x2

4 at Ll Te ns i o n f o r E 50

M 1 U2 8 at L2 Mom en t at L2
0
28 5 1

H or . C om p . in Ml in t on s f o r E “ ,

60

Co m pre s s i o n f o r
Z
—

i
'
8 at L2 Te n s i on f o r E SO 334 6 X .

7
-
X 2

L zUz t L2 7
i f; C18
P a n e l load at L, 80 X
W + 52 ><
0 0 111 11 1 81
17 11 5
f r om
.

on P an el lo ad at LI 52
le f t.
30 30

(
84 9 + $ 1
)%
32
Te n s i on f or E 5 0 0
X2

Mom en t ab o u t L4 of le f t re a c t i on
(2
2
4+

Mom en t a b ou t L, of loa d s t o le f t of se c t i on
5§
2
2 1 55 + 1 1 6 X 6 2 + —
~
X 60

+ 26 X "

7 )
H or . C om p . i n b ar i n t o ns f or E “ ,

s
Co m pre s si on f o r E 5 0 X—
—X 2
4
224 TRU S S ES W I TH S C O E ND Y W Y M AR EB S S TE S A R T 1 09
.

S E OND A Y MEMB E R S I N UN I
P O U ND S
MAX I MUM L I VE STR ES S ES I N C R , TS
OF 1 00 0
Thi s t a b le s h ow s a ll n ec e s sa ry c om pu t a t i on s .

P i ti
os on of
Com p u
7 tt a i o ns .

L oad s .

M lL 1 13 atL ,, L It ha s b ee n pre vi o u sly d e t e rm i n e d t ha t a m axi m um

M 31 31 or L 5 o c c u r s w i t h e i t he r lo a d or (1 4 ) a t a se c on d a ry

M 5L 5 pan e ] po i n t , he n c e pa n e l lo ad in g f or e ac h c a se i s c om
pute d b e low .

+ 20

L oa d (1 3)
30

20

1 6 + 1 0 + 5)

Te n s i o n i n b a r f o r

ML 13 at L, Com pre s s i on i n b ar f o r E50 = 8 6 3 x .

é x

5 45
M aU4 13 at L3 Te n s1 on in b ar f or E5 0 = 8 6 .
X 6
4 7

Ill s Ue 13 at 71 5 Te n s i on i n b ar f or E 50 = 8 6 3 X ——X .

i
P R OB LE MS
50 . U niform live l oad 2 000 1b s pe r foot on b ottom chord
, . .

L oc omot ive e xc e ss 2 0 000 lb s , ,

.

De a d l oad 8 00 lb s pe r f o ot on b ott om chord

,
. .

De ad l oad on t op chord and i nte rme diate pane l p oint s as s hown

i n fi gure .

2 2 4 tons

PR OB 50 . .

Comp ute maximum s tress i n e a ch me mbe r foll owi ng r ul e s give n i n ,

p re vi o us pr obl e ms as t o arr a ngeme n t of c omp uta t i o ns us i ng sp e ci al ,

c are to numbe r and le t te r the b ars e xactly as i n figure .

ART 1 0 9
. PRO B L E M S 22 5

51 . Uni form li veload ,

2 000 lb s per . foot on b ottom ch ord .

L oc omotive e xce ss ,
2 0, 000 1b s .

De ad l oad ,
1 2 00 lb s pe r . foo t on b ot t om chord .

De ad l oad ,
6 00 lb s pe r . foot on t op ch ord .

PR OB . 51 .

a Draw i nfl ue n ce li ne f or
. s tress in bar a and c omput e i ts maximum
value f or ab ove loadi n g .

5 Draw i nfl ue nce lin e f or

. s tre ss in bar b and c omp ute i ts maximum
value .

0 . Draw i nfl ue nc e li ne f or s tre ss in bar 6 a nd c omp ute i ts maximum

v a l ue .

52 Draw i nfl ue n c e li ne f or
. s tre ss i n bar a of t russe s shown i n Pro b . 41 .

a Truss I Truss has 1 2

. . pane l s at 25 f t a n d he ight of 60 f t . .

b Truss J
. Truss has 8 . pane ls at 2 0 f t and height of 30 f t . .

—
i
’
1 2 pane ls 30 >

P R OB . 53 .

5 3 . Dead l oad , t op ch ord ,

2 250 lb s per f t per . . truss = l3 5 000 lbs
, .
per
panel p oi nt (appr ox ) .

Dead l oad b ott om ch ord 3500 lb s pe r f t per truss

, lb s , . .
.

pe r p ane l p oi nt .

Uni f orm li ve l oad b ott om chord 3000 lbs pe r f t pe r tru s s

, ,
. . .

D raw i nfl uenc e li nes f o r str esses i n a b c and d and c ompute , ,

maxi mum values of li ve stresses .

P ROB 5 3 .

5 3 %a C omput e s t r ess e s i n bar s (1 0 ) a n d (1 2 ) by m eth od o f m o me nt s

. .

5 C omput e s t r es s i n bar (1 1 ) b y m e th o d o f j oi nt s
. .
 CHA P T E R V III

TRU S S E S W I TH M ULTI P LE WEB S Y S T E M S LATE R A L A N D ,

P ORTA L B R AC I N G TRA N S VE RS E B EN T S V I A D U C T TOWE RS

, ,

1 10 T ru sse s with Multipl e W eb Sy stem s Tru sse s o f thi s

. .

typ e are s tatically und et e rmin e d but are fr e qu e ntly bui lt f or

,

s pan s o f m o d e rat e l e ngth as m any e ngin e e r s b e li e v e that m o r e

,

ri gidity i s th e r e by o bt ain e d The tru s se s s h o wn in F ig s 1 6 9

.
.

and 1 70 r epr es e nt t he m or e c omm on typ es of s uch s tructur es .

Dou ble Syste m W a rre n Truss

Th i s t r u s s s h o ul d a lw a ys h a v e a n e v e n nu m b e r of p a n e ls .

F I G 1 69
. .

Th e fact that s uch tru sses are ind e t e rminat e mak es it

imp ossibl e t o c orr e ctly d e t e rmin e t he s tr ess es by m e th o d s
pr e vi o u sly giv e n .Me th o d s of ac curat ely c o mputing s uch
s tr e s s es will b e giv e n lat e r in f u ll ; b u t it may b e s ai d h e r e
that th es e m e th o d s can o nly b e appli e d t o tru s s es in which t h e

FIG . 1 70 .

a re a s of the va ri o us m e mb e r s are kn o wn or a ss um e d in advanc e ,

h e nc e if u se d in d es ign th ey mus t b e appli e d thr ough a s e ri e s

,

o f app r o ximati on s t h e ar e a s b eing fi rs t d et e rmin e d appr o ximat e ly

, ,

th e s t r e s se s th e n c omput e d and t h e ar e a s r e vi se d if n e c e ss ary

, ,

thi s p r o c e ss b e ing c on tinu e d until a s uffi c i e ntly a ccurat e d e sign

i s fi n ally o bta i n e d Th e accu r acy o f t he appr o ximat e m e th o d
‘

or dinarily e mpl oy e d f or s uch tru s s e s i s h owe v e r s u ffi c i ently

, ,

2 26
 TRUSS E S W I TH MU LTIPLE WEB S Y S TEM S AR T
'

22 8 . 1 11

tem car ry o nly s uch l o ad s as act at e v e n numb ere d t op

to
ch ord pan e l p oint s and t he d ott e d s ys t e m t o carry all o th e r
,

pa n e l l o ad s W it h t he w eb i nd e x s tr e ss e s kn own t he ch o rd
.
,

s tr e s ses may b e writt e n i n t he o rdina ry mann e r by adding ,

t h e diag o nal s tr ess e s at e ach j oint s ucc e s s iv e ly b oth s y s t e m s

ig
,

b e ing c on s id er e d F 1 7 2 s h ow s t h e ind e x s tr e sse s f or on e

. .

half t he tru s s .

W e r e thi s tru ss t o hav e an o d d numb e r of pan e l s it w ould b e

n e c es s ary t o writ e t he ind e x s tr e ss es f or t he w e b m e mb e r s i n b oth
halv e s of t h e tru s s s inc e n e ith e r sy st e m w o uld b e s ymm etrical
, .

Th e i nd e x s tr es s es w e r e writt e n as u s ual by b e ginn ing at t he

c ent r e of t he tru ss The l eft .

aneI loads

panel loads

I
FG . 1 72 .

which ch e ck s t he w e b ind e x s t r esses The ch ord i nd e x st re sses .

may b e ch e ck e d by t he m eth o d of m o m en t s as in t he ordinary

tru s s pr ovid e d d u e all owa n c e i s mad e f or t he s tr e s s in t he
,

diag on al cut by t he se cti on s e l e ct e d I n this ca se t h e s tr ess .

in the c e ntr e pan e l o f th e b ott o m ch ord may b e ch e ck e d by

c o mputing t he m o m e nt s ab out U4 of t he e xt e rnal f orc es t o l e ft
o f s e cti o n X Y and s ubtracting fr o m it t he m o m e nt of t he s tr esses
,

in diag on al U3 L4 makin g u s e o f th e fact that t he m o m ent

,

ab out U4 of t he s tr ess in thi s diagonal e qual s t h e pr o duct of

i t s v e rtical c o mp on e nt i e i t s in d e x s tr e s s and t he p an e l l e ngth
,
. .
, , .

The s tr e ss i n L 3 L 4 as d e t e rmin e d fr om t he ind e x s t r e s ses

X
£ = lb s . B y t he m e th o d of m om e nt s the

1 1 28 1 28 3 2 00 X 1 6
s tr e ss i n L3 L4 = —— 1 20 0 o .
lb s
20
.

8 20
Thi s valu e a gr ee s with that obta i n e d fr o m t he ind e x str esses ,

an d c on se qu e ntly s h ow s t h e c orr e ctn e s s of th es e s tr ess es The .

AR T . 1 1 1 S TR ES SES IN A D OU B LE SYS TEM WARRE N TRUS S 2 2 9

actual d e ad st res s es may b e c o mpu te d fr o m t he ind e x s tr es s e s

in t he u s ual mann e r and will n ot b e giv e n .

M axi m u m Li ve Web S tres s es To d e t er min e the maximum .

liv e we b s tr esse s c o n s id e r e ach sy s t e m as an ind e p e nd e nt tru s s ,

and d e t e rmin e the s tr es se s in t he u s ual mann e r by t he m e th o d

o f s h e ar Th e pan e l l o ad s will b e th os e c o rr e s p o n di n g t o t h e
. .

pan e l l e n gth s of t h e actual tru s s .

MA X I MUM L I VE W E B S TR ES S ES I N UN I TS OF 1 0 0 0 P OUN D S

Lo c o
U ni f m L
.

or o ad E xc ess
Tr us s
B ar t a t P l an e at t
Ve r Com p i n B ars S t re s s .
S ys em
P i nt P l
. . . .

o s ane
P i t
.

o n s .

UOL O F u ll Uo—Uz—UF U, U0

U, L l F u ll U, U,—U,
-

L , U2 F u ll U,—U, U, -

U, L, F u ll

L 3 U, F u ll

U, L 5 F u ll 48 +
§
4O

Lo F 6 11

L OU,
D o tt e d Ul—Us—Us—U , U, = 131 o
.

Ul D o tte d U3 U5 U1
” *

L 2 U3 D O t te d Us Us—U 7
-
79 0 1 28 1 01 1

U, L, D o tt e d

L, US D o tt e d

U5 L0 D o tt e d
2 30 TRU S S E S W I TH M ULTI P LE W E B S Y S TE M S AR T . 111

A s t he tru ss i s a W arr e n tru s s n o c ount e r s are n ee d e d but ,

t h e maxi mum s tr e s s o f b o th ki n d s s h o uld b e c o mput e d in all

bar s in W hich r e v e r s al of s tr e ss may o ccur s inc e th e ar e a o f
p
,

s uch bar s i s d e p e nd e nt u on t h e magnitud e of b oth kind s o f

s tr es s e s
.

M axi m u m I/ i ve Chord S tr ess es For t h e maximu m s tr ess e s

.

d u e t o t h e unif orm liv e l o ad t h e in d e x s tr esses s h ould b e writt e n

,

and t he maxim um str es s es c o mput e d i n t he o rdin a ry mann e r I t .

s h ould b e o b se rv e d that f or thi s tru ss t h e liv e s tr e s se s cann ot b e

o btain e d fr o m t h e d e ad s tr es s es by multiplying by t he r ati o

b etw e e n t h e t w o l o ad s s inc e t he li v e str es s i s n ot di s tribut e d in

t h e s am e mann e r b etw e e n t he t op and b ott o m h o d c r .

To d e t e rmin e t he maxi mum s tr e s s e s d ue t o t he l o c o m otiv e

e xc e s s it i s n e c e ss a ry t o d e cid e in which s y s t e m t h e b ar s h ould

b e c on s id e r e d in o rd e r that t h e s tr e s s may hav e i t s maximum

valu e T hi s can u s ually b e s ettl e d by i n s p e cti on but if d o ubt
.
,

e xi s t s t he maximum s tr e ss e s f or b o th s y s t e m s s h o uld b e w r itt e n

and t he large r valu e u s e d .

The f oll owi n g t abl e giv e s t h e maximum s tr e ss e s du e t o

l o c o m otiv e e xc e ss in all bar s :

S ys te m . L o ad at S t re s s .

D otte d

D o tt e d

D o tte d

D o tt e d
2 32 TRU S S ES W I TH M ULTI P LE WEB S Y S TE MS AR T 1 1 1
.

Ve rtical c omp o n e nt of s tr ess in bar U OL I . L o ad (2) at U2

8
L o ad at pan e l p oi n t 2 . 1 0 X— + 2 0
lG

8 13 13 + 8
L o ad at p an e l p o i n t 4 . 13 X
2
1

8 + 13 + 14 + 9
L o ad at p an e l p o in t 6 . 20 X
16

V C . . in bar fr o m i nfl u e n ce lin e o rdinat e

X ——
é
+ 55 X

L oa d (3) at U2
3 11 16 +6
L o ad at pan e l p o i nt 2 . 20 X
1

L o ad at pan e l p oi n t 4 . 10 X
16

L o ad at p a n e l p o int 6 . 13 x
16

3 1
V C i n bar X +34 0 X -

X
. .

Thi s latt e r valu e i s the maximum an d s h o uld b e u s e d in t he

d e sign The p ositi o n of l o ad f o r th e oth e r web m e mb e r s may b e
.

d e t e rmin e d in a s imilar mann e r .

B a r U3 U4 P osi ti on of L oads f or Maxi m um S tress f or

.

0 0 0 29 6 72? E 4 0 Th e i n fl u e n c e li n e f o r thi s b ar i s s h o wn by full lin es

.

I n flu e n c e L i nes S tre ss i n B ar U U4
3

I
FG . 1 74 .

in F ig 1 74
. Th e valu e s of t h e o rdinat es are giv e n by t h e f o ll o w
.

i n g c o mputati o n s t h e b ar i n qu e s ti o n b e i n g c o n s id e r e d as a part o f
,

t h e d o tt e d s y s t e m f or l o ad s at o dd n umb e r e d pa n e l p o int s an d as
-
,

a p art of t h e full lin e s y s t e m f o r l o ad s at o th e r pa n e l p o int s

-
.
A RT . R
1 1 1 S T E S S ES IN A D OU B LE S Y STE M W A RRE N TRU S S 23 3

L o ad at 7— B ar in d ott e d sy s t e m — O rdi n at e

L o ad at 6 -
B ar in full s ys t e m r
—O rdinat e

L o ad at 5 —B a r i n d ott e d s y s t e m — Ordinat e l
l

L o ad at 4 — B ar in full y t
s s e m — Ordinat e =

Lo ad a
t 3 — B a r i n d o tt e d s y s t e m — O rdinat e =

L o ad at 2 — B ar in full s y s t e m — O rdinat e =
|
I

L o ad at l— B ar in d ott e d sy s t e m — O rdinat e =

I n sp e cti on s h o ws that f or thi s ca se the m o m ent will c e r

t ai nly incr e a s e as t he l o ad s c o m e o n fr o m t he right until l o ad
(6) re ach e s pan e l p oint 3 A s the l o ad s m ov e s till fu r th e r it i s
.

m o r e di ffi c ult t o d e t e rmin e e xactly t he p ositi o n f or maximum

m o m e nt A n appr o xi mat e d et e rminati on b a se d up on the
pi
.

a ssumpti on that the 8 10 ng i n fl ue n c e lin e s c oincid e with the

d o tt e d lin es m ay b e u s e d t he e rr o r thu s intr o duc e d b ei n g c om
,

p a r a t i ve ly s mall A ss uming . thi s c o nditi o n t h e p os iti o n f or ,

m aximum m o m e nt will o c cur with t he l oad on pan el s 5 to 8

inclu siv e e qual t o that on pan el s 1 t o 3 inclu s iv e
,
.

Try l o ad (6) t o l e ft o f 3
Lo ad on l l o ad o n 5 m ov e up
Try l o ad (7) to l e ft of 3
Lo ad on 1 l o ad on 5 l o ad (7 ) at pan e l
p oint 3 will pr o bably giv e the maximum a u vl e .

I t s h o uld b e n o tic e d t hat f or thi s p ositi o n l o ad (1 2 ) i s at pan e l

p oint 5 .

To d e t e rmin e t he s tr ess f or thi s p o siti o n c o mput e t he pan el

l o ad s at pan e l p oint s 1 2 6 and 7 Comput e al s o t he pan e l
, ,
.

d o o e —
l o ad s at 3 and 5 ue t l ad s in pan l s 2 3 and 5 6 Multiply — .

e ach o f th e s e pan e l p oint l o ad s by t he c o rr e s p onding o rdinat e

to t he i n fl ue n ce lin e and multiply t he l o ad s in pan e l s 3 —

,
4 and
2 34 TRU S S E S W I TH M ULTI P LE W E B S Y S TE M S A RT . 111

4 —5 by the i n fl ue n c e li n e o rdi n at e in th es e pan e l s . The s um

mati on of th ese quan titi e s give s t he s tr e s s in th e b ar .

S tr e s s in U3 U4 L o ad (7) at pan e l p oi nt 3 :
.

+8 4 3
1 0 xi
l
Lo ad at pan e l p int o 1 .

P P

3
L o ad at pan e l p oi n t 2 . 20 X X
P
L o ad at pan el p oint 3 , (l o ad s in pan e l 23 o nly) .

—
L o ad at pan e l p oint 5, (l o ad s i n pan e l 5 6 onl y) .

11 +6
20 x

o + 10
L o ad at pan e l p oint 6 . 20 X
P
3 +8 + 14 13 X 1
L o ad at pan e l p oint 7 13 X +
p
.

p 9

+ 55 1) 8 2 5 5 1) 59 9
S tr e s s i n bar 1 1 11
p 2h p 4h 7
1 83 4 97 5 _
p h 20

A s the m e th o d u s e d f or d e t e rmi ni ng t he p o siti on in thi s ca se was

n ot a rigi d o n e t h e s tr e s s in t h e bar with l o ad (1 3 ) at pan e l p o int
,

5 will b e c o mput e d f or c o mpari s on

L o ad at pa n e l p oi n t 1 . 10 x p + 20 x 14 + 13 + 8 +3 820
P P P
3 + 8 + 13 10 + 5 675
L o ad at pan e l poi n t 2 . 20 x + 1 X3
P P P

L o ad at pa n e l p oi n t 3 , (l o ad s in pan e l 2—3 o nly) .

P
23 6 TRU SSES W I TH M ULTI P LE WEB S Y S TE MS ART 1 12
"

P ro ble m . problem b e the de termination of

L e t the the maxi mum
s tr e ss es i n all the bar s o f t he truss s ho wn i n F i g 1 76 . .

D ead we i ght of brid ge ,

1 2 00 lb s pe r f t per t r uss b o tt om cho rd = 2 4 00 0

. .
, , lb s per
. pan el .

60 0 t op
U n iform liv e l oad ,

3 000 1b s pe r f t pe r
. . truss bo ttom chord
,
lb s pe r
. p an e l .

L oc omot i v e e xc e s s , lb s
.

162 . (Ne t )
F IG 1 76 . .

Ind ex S tr ess es The

ind e x s tr esses may b e w ritt e n f or t he
.

d ott e d sy st e m by b e ginning at t he c e ntr e t he ba r U3 L 5 car ry ,

ing on e half of t he c e n tr e p an e l l o ad s t he d ott e d s y s t e m b eing

-
,

s ymm e tri cal and p an e l p o int 5 at i t s c e ntr e

,
For t he full s y s t e m .

t he s h e ar in t h e c e n tr e pan e l i s z e r o an d t h e s tr e ss es in bar s U4 L 6
zer
,

and L 4 U6 will e ach b e c o n s id e r e d as o I t s h o uld b e n otic e d that

.

ab o v e c onditi on s are ba se d on t he a s s umpti on that t he d e ad pan el

l oad at b o th L I an d L 9 i s e qually divid e d b e tween t he t wo tru s s
syste m s . Th e ind e x s tr es s es pr es e nt n o s p e cial d i ffi c ulty The .

o nly p o i n t t o which att e nti o n s h o ul d b e call e d i s t h e n e c e s s ity

f or c orr e cti n g t h e ind e x s tr e ss es in t he diag onal s in t he s am e

mann e r as in th e incl in e d chord tru s se s pr e vio u s ly c ons id e re d .

I n t hi s pr obl e m t he diago nal ind e x s tr e ss es are c o rr e ct e d t o

c o nfo rm t o t he s l op e of t he diagon al U1 L 2 ; i e t he s tr e sses i n . .
,

t he o th e r diag on al s are e ach d o ubl e d b e f o r e t he ch o rd ind e x

s tr es s e s ar e writt e n

Ch e ck cal culati on s ,

1 1 8 0 0 X 2 00 >< 2 00
S tr e s s ln U4 U5 by m e th o d of m om e n t s =
8 30

S tr e ss in U4 U5 in 1 00 0 lb . u n its fr om
i n d e x s tr e s se s —4 50 x
ART 1 1 2
. MAX IM UM S TRE SS ES IN A W H I PPLE TRU S S 23 7

The actual d e ad s tre s s es are giv e n in th e f oll o wing tabl e in

which the c olum n h e ad e d r ati o giv e s f or e ach web m e mb e r i ts
l e ngth divi d e d by i t s v e rtical pr oj e cti o n ; and f or e ach ch o rd
,

m e mb e r t he fract i o n 4 which e qual s th e h o riz o ntal pr oj e cti on

,

of t he diag onal U1 L 2 divi d e d by i t s v e rtical pr oj e cti on .

D EA D S TR ES S E S I N UN I TS OF 1 000 P OUN D S

t
Ra i o . t
Ra io .

— 1 62 + 1 08

72 41 8 0 . L lL , + 1 08

24 24 . L 2L 3

48 48 .
+ 34 2 + 228

30 30 .

12 12 . U, UZ — 342 — 22 8

12 12 . U2 U3 —4 1 4 — 276

90 . UaU, — 4 50 — 300

+ 3 6 60 . U4 US -
4 50 —300

18

c omputi n g t he liv e s tr e s se s t h e n e c es s ity f or c o unt e r s

B e fo r e
will b e inv es tigat e d To d o thi s c on sid e r e ach s ys t e m s e parat e ly
. .

Maximum liv e c ompr essi on in U3 L 5 —l o ad L I and L 3 —E

4
at L3 V C =
. . 40 . Thi s i s c on s id e rably large r than
10 10
the c o rr e s p onding fi gure f or d e ad t e n s i o n ,
h e nc e a c o u n t e r
L 3 U5 i s r e quir e d .
238 TRU S S ES W I TH M ULTI PLE W E B S Y S TE MS A RT . 1 12

— — ' '

Maximum liv e c o mpr e s s i on i n U2 L 4 l o ad L I and Lz E

3
at L2 V C —
. . 60 + 2 Thi s with imp a ct a dd e d w ould
10 10
b elarge r than the c o rr e s p onding fi gu re f or d e ad t en s i on
e e
,

h enc e a c ount e r L2 U4 s h o uld b u s d .

L I VE W E B S TR E SS E S I N UN ITS OF 1 000 P OUN DS

Thi s tab le s h ow s a ll n e cess a ry c om pu ta t i ons .

“3361553 82282 ? °f
t
Ra i o . S t re ss

L 1 to L , i nc l . 6 0 x4 i +

8
U ,L 2 L 2 , L 4, L 6, L 8 , L , 60 + — 40 = 1 58
10

= 1 00

L 4 , L 6, L , , L , 60 +

6
L 4, L 0, L 8 , L , 6 0 + — 4 0 = 1 02
10

4
6 O+ 4 O= 58
E

—4 0 = 58
O

2
6 O+ 4 O= 26
E

1
7
L 3 , L 5, L 7, L , 60 + 40 :
1 24
0

5
60 4 40 :
74 + 1 23 3
7 6

5
L 5 1 L 71 L 0 60 + 40 = 74
T
0

3
60 + 4 0 _ 36
10

6 0 + § 4O= 36
16
240 TRU SS ES W I TH MULTI P LE W EB S Y S TE MS A RT 1 1 4.

hav e t he am e inclinati on t o the h ori z ontal in o r d er that th e

s

e n d p ortal may li e in a plan e F or s i m plicity in c on s tructi o n

.

the fl oo r b e am s s h o uld b e l o cat e d at right angl es t o t h e tru sse s .

I n o rd er t o s ati s fy b oth of th ese c o ndit i o n s it i s fr e qu e ntly d es i r

abl e t o plac e the e n d hang e r s at an inclinati on t o the Vertical
ig
,

as s h o wn in F 1 79. .

Th e c omputati on of s tr esses in s uch tru sses may b e m ad e

in the s am e mann e r as in t he tru s se s alr e ady c on s id e re d and ,

re q uir es n o s p e cial tr e atm e nt I f di ffi c ulti es o c cur in d eterm i n

.

ing t he p ositi on of t he l oad s th e y may u s ually b e s olv e d by using

,

the i n fl ue n c e lin e .

FGI . 1 77 .

Tr uss B .

e
f Truss B. Ele vati on

FGI . 1 78 . FIG . 1 79 .

1 14 . L ate r al and I t i s e vid e nt that a b ridge

Po r ta l B r ac i n g
.

in which t he fl o o r b e am s f o rm the o nly c onn e cti o n b e twe e n t he

tru ss e s w o uld b e un s tabl e lat e rally es p e cially if of l on g s pan
,
.

Thi s in s tability w o uld b e d ue partially t o i ts i n ability t o w ith

s ta n d t h e f o rc e o f th e wi n d actin g up o n t h e tru ss it se lf and up o n

th e train or o th e r liv e l o ad which may b e up on t he bridg e and ,

partially t o t he lat e ral vibrati on t o which it may b e s ubj e ct e d

by th e liv e l o ad thi s b e i n g e s p e cially s e v e r e f or railr o ad bridges
,

e xp o se d t o s wift and h e avy train s e rvi c e I n additi on t o the.

in se curity of s uch a s tructur e as a wh ol e an oth e r di s advantage

wo uld b e the fact that t h e t op ch o rd s w o uld have t o b e m ad e
much h e avi e r than w ould b e t he ca s e we r e th e y t o b e ri gi d ly
brac e d s i n c e th e y w o uld b e in t he c onditi on of v e ry l ong c olum n s
,

un s upp o rt e d lat e rally and t he e xtr a mat e rial u se d t o give th e m

,
A RT . 1 14 LATE R A L A N D P ORTA L BRA C I N G 24 1

tr e ngth w o uld in m os t ca se s b e m o r e than s uffi c i ent

s uffi c i e n t s , ,

t o pr o vi d e f o r lat e ral bracing .

F o r th ese r e a son s it i s c on s id e r e d n e c e ss ary t o u se lat e ral

bracing in all brid ge s I n thr o u gh brid ge s thi s bracin g s h o uld
.

c on s i s t of a h o riz ontal tru s s i n t he plan e o f th e b o tt o m ch o rd ,

an oth e r in t h e pla n e o f t he t op ch o rd wh e n th e d e pth p e rmit s

(tru sses o f i n s uffi c i en t d e pth t o p e rmit t h e use o f o v e rh e ad brac
ing are call e d p on y tru s s es and s h o uld b e av oid e d ) and v e rtical ,

bracing b e twee n t he v e rti cal s o f as gr e at a d e pth as th e all o wabl e

cl e aranc e p e rmit s 1 I n d e ck bridges a h o riz o ntal tru ss may b e
.

u se d in th e plan e of t he upp e r ch o rd an d v e rti cal s way bracing

Plam of Top L ate r al Syste m

Inte r m e di a te

S e c t i on

A Th rough B ri dg e S ho wi ng P ort al

Plan of B otto m LateralS yste m

FI G 1 8 0 . .

b e twee n t h e v e rti cal m e mb e r s n o h o ri z on tal braci n g b e i n g use d

,

in t he plan e of t he b ott o m ch o rd or all thr e e sy st e m s of bracin g

e
,

may b e u s d .

I n thr o ugh brid ge s t he e n d re acti on s of the t op lat e ral

tru s s cann o t b e dir e ctly tran s mitt e d t o the abutm e nt s owing t o
t he n e c e s s ity o f pr ese rving a s uitabl e op e n i n g f or t he t raffi c ,

h e nc e p o rtal bracing i s r e quir e d in th e plan e of the en d p ost s ,

the purp ose o f thi s bracing b e ing t o t i e t he e n d p os t s t o ge th e r

and mak e th e r eby a rigid fram e by which t he en d r e acti on s
can b e tran s f e rr e d t o th e abutm e nt s .

F igs 1 8 0 an d 1 8 1 s h o w the lat e ral b racing in thr ough and

.

d e ck bridg es r e s p e ctiv ely .

re a s on s r ti c a l b r a c i n g w h e n b o t h b o tt o m
q
1
On e of t he f or u s i n g ve to p and

la te ral t
s ys e m s a re u se d i s to a s si s t i n d i s t ri b u t i n g u ne ua l t rai n load s
be t wee n the t russes .
242 TRU SS ES W I TH M ULTI P LE WE B S Y S TE M S A RT . 1 15

1 1 5 L at e r a l—
. br ac in g Tru ss es t r u s s e s may b e eith e r
. L at e r al
s tati cally d e t e rminat e o r s tatically i n d e t e rmi n at e
,
acc o rdi n g t o ,

wh e th e r t h e dia gonal s are t e n si on r o d s or riv e t e d m e mb e r s capabl e

,

o f carryi n g b oth t e n s i o n and c o mpr e ss i o n I n t he f o rm e r ca s e t he

.

maximum s tr e s s e s may b e e a sily d e t e rm in e d o nc e t he wind pan el ,

l o ad s are k n own by divi di n g t he tru s s i n t o tw o s y s t e m s as was

, ,

d on e in t he m ultipl e s y s t e m tru ss e s pr e vi ou sly c o n s id e r e d .

In t he latt e r c a se t he cr o ss s trut s of t h e t op s y s t e m an d t h e
,

fl o o r b e am s i n th e b o tt o m sy st e m (i n a thr o u gh brid ge) c on

n e c t t h e t w o s e t s o f diag o nal s s o ri gidly that it i s imp os s ibl e

t o divid e int o se parat e tr us s es ; a r e a so n abl e a ss umpti o n f or s uch

P la n o f B otto m La te r al S yste m

FI G 1 8 1
. .

a tru ss i s t o c on sid e r t he s h e ar in a pan el t o b e divid e d e qually

b e tw ee n t he t w o diag on al s on e b e ing br o ught i n t o t en si on an d
,

t h e o th e r i n t o c o mpr e s s i on .

I t s h ould b e s aid that t he pr es e n t day practic e i s t o u s e -

riv et e d lat e ral s in b oth t op and b ott o m s y st e m s o f railr o ad

b ridge s i n o rd e r t o s e cur e ri gidity but that ti e r od s are fr e qu e n tly
,

u s e d f or hi ghway bridg es W h e r e t h e w oo d e n fl oo r bridge i s c o n

.

t i n u ou s as in ma n y hi ghway bridge s or wh e r e a c on tinu ou s s t e e l

, ,

fl oo r i s u s e d t he p rincipal u se of th e lat e ral r o d s o f the l o ad e d

,

ch o rd s y s t e m i s t o a s s i s t i n e r e cti on by h oldi n g t he tru ss e s i n li n e .

1 1 6 Appr o x i m at e Determ inati on of Ma xi m u m S tre sse s in

.

L ater al B ra c i n g .

P r o b le m
. Le t t he probl em b e t he de t e rmi n a t i on o f t he m axim um
s t r e s s e s i n t h e b o tt om l a t e r al sys t e m o f a t hr o u gh bri dge wi t h e i gh t

p ane ls a t 2 5 f t an d wi t h t russe s sp ac e d 1 8 f t be twee n c e n t re s , ass um

. .

i n g t h a t the l ate r al s are s t i fi membe rs a n d abl e t o c arry b o t h t e n s i on

a n d c ompr es si on . The hori z ont a l l at e r al t r uss i s s hown i n i g 1 8 2 F . .
2 44 R
T U SSES W I TH M ULTI P LE WE B S Y S TE MS A RT . 1 17

1 17 . Po r t a l s t Sol uti on Th e p o rtal bracing and

. Appr oxi m a e .

e n d p os t s of a thr o ugh bridg e mu s t b e d es ign e d t o car ry t o t h e

abutm e nt t h e r e acti on fr o m t h e t op lat e ral s y s t e m and al s o t o ,

with s tand t he wi nd pr e ss ur e on t he en d p os t s th e m se lv e s t he ,

f orm e r b e i n g th e m o r e imp o rtant fact o r Thi s c ombi n ati o n of brac

.

ing and e n d p os t s i s call e d t h e p o rtal an d i s a s tatically ind e,

t e rminat e s tructur e A ccurat e s olution s of s uch s tructur e s may

.

b e mad e by t h e m e th o d of l e a s t w o rk but t h e appr o xi mat e s olu

,

ti on which f oll o ws i s s uffi c i e n tly accurat e f or all o rdinary c as e s

. .

Fi g 1 8 4 s h ow s a c o mm o n typ e of e n d p o rtal f or a thr ough

.

brid ge The s tatical i n d e t e rminati o n i s due t o t h e c onditi o n at the

.

b ott om of t he en d p os t s and t o the rigidity o f t h e p o rtal braci n g .

Ne ith e r of t he p os t s i s pi n e nd e d ; t hat i s n e ith e r h as a pin at

-
,

FIG 1 84
. . FIG . 185 .

ri ght angl e s plan e of the p o rtal the main tru s s pin s b e i n g

t o t he ,

in t he plan e of t h e p o rtal Th e e nd s o f t he p o st s are how

.
,

e v e r r e ally fi xe d t o a c o n s id e rabl e d e gr e e s i n c e th e y b e ar up on
, ,

t he f o u n dati o n s alth o ugh th e y are n ot u s ually ri gi dl yfi xe d th e r e t o

, ,

and the d e ad w e ight of t he s tructur e i s s u ffi c i en t t o off e r a v e ry

c o n s id e rabl e r esi stan c e t o o v e rturning und e r t h e acti on of th e
wind f orc es .

I f t he w ei ght of t he b ri d ge i s su ffi c i e n t it i s e vi d ent that the

,

p os t s may b e tr e at e d as if th e y w e r e fi xe d at t h e b o tt o m s Mo r e .

o v e r i f t h e kn ee brac es M ol
,
an d M b e rigi dly fi xe d t o t he
m

p os t s th e latt e r may b e c on s id e r e d as fi xe d at p oint s M O and

,

M o al s o A s sum ing that s uch i s t he c o n diti on t h e p o s t s w i ll

’
.
,

b e nd und e r t h e action of the wi n d f o rc es as s h o wn in F ig 1 85 .

,

and p o int s of i n fl e c t i on will o ccur at a p oint in e ach p os t b et we e n

the b ott o m of t h e kn ee brac e an d t h e b ott om of t he p os t a .

and 6 ind i cat e th es e p o int s of i nfl e c ti on I f t he p os iti on of th es e

.
AR T . 117 P ORTA L S —A P P ROX I M ATE S OLUTI ON 245

p oint s of i nfle c ti on b e kn o wn and if th e h o riz o ntal r e acti on at ,

t he b o tt o m o f t he p o s t s b e al s o kn o wn t he s tr e ss e s in the ,

s tructur e b e c o m e d e t e rminat e s inc e t h e m o m e nt at t h e p oint,

l
o f i n fl e c ti o n mu t qual
s e z e ro .

I t i s c o mm only a s s um e d that e ach p oint of i n fl e c ti on o c cur s

midway b e tw e e n t he b ott o m of t he kn e e brac e and the b ott o m
of t he p os t I t i s al s o c o mm o nly a s s um e d that t he p o rtal brac
.

ing i s so r igid that the di stanc e apart o f t he p os t s r e main s

unchang e d und e r the acti o n o f the wind f o rc e s and that in ,

c on se qu e nc e t he h o ri z ontal r e acti o n at t he b ott o m of e ach p os t

e qual s on e half t h e s u m
-
of t he appli e d l o ad s Ne it he r of th es e .

a ss umpti o n s i s m o r e than appr o ximat e ly c o rr e ct but in t he ,

o rdinary s tructur e t h e e rr o r intr o duc e d th e r e by int o t he d e s ign

o f t h e e n d p os t s i s s mall s inc e t he wind s tr e s se s in th e s e m e m

,

b e r s are in th e m s e lv e s s mall c o mpar e d with t he liv e and d e ad

s tr e s s e s and t he p e rc e nta ge e rr o r in c on s e qu e nc e i s s till s mall e r
,
.

The p o rtal braci n g it se lf i s fr e qu e ntly mad e c o n s id e rably larg e r

than i s n e c es s ary o wi n g t o t he c o mparativ e ly s m all magnitud e
,

o f t he wind f o rc es and the di ffi c ulty in ch o osing m e mb e r s wi th

,

s mall e n o ugh ar e a s W hich are al s o s uitabl e i n o th e r way s .

With t he p oint s of infl e cti on and th e di stributi on of t he

h ori z ontal r e acti o n s b e tw ee n t he t wo p os t s kn o wn o r a s s um e d ,

t he c o mputati o n o f t he s tr esses in t h e vari o u s m e mb e r s may b e

e a s ily mad e The s tructur e h o w e v e r di f f e r s s o m e what fr o m th os e
.
, ,

which hav e b ee n pr e vi o u s ly tr e at e d s inc e it c on s i s t s of a c om b i n ,

ati on of c olum n s c ar rying dir e ct s tr e ss es and b e nding and a tru s s

, , .

Th e e xampl e W hi ch f oll o ws illu s trat e s t he m e th o d of c om

putati o n ba se d up o n th ese a ss umpti on s .

P r o ble m . Le t t he proble m b e t he de te rmina t i on of t he s t re sse s

i n t he p or t al of t he bridge s h own i n Fi g 1 86 . .

This m a y be prove n
follows as

Le t R radius o f c urva t ure a t an y se c t i on o f a m e m be r e xpo se d t o b end i n g;

M = b e nd i n g m om e n t at t hi s sec t i on d ue t o e x t e rn al f o rc e s ;
I = t he m om e n t of i n e rt i a a t t hi s s e c t i on ;
E = t he m od u lus of e la s t i c i ty .

Fr om m e c ha n i c s ,
1
R
M
E1
°

A t t he poi n t of i n fl ec t i o n the b eam m us t b e s t rai gh t ,

s i nc e a t t hi s po i n t
1
t he cu rvat ure c ha n ge s , he nc e R = i n fin i ty, an d 0, M 0
R
.
 24 6 TRU SS ES W I TH M ULTI P LE WE B S Y S TEMS A RT 1 1 7 .

The W in d f orc e on t op chor d at , s ay, 2 00 1b s per li ne al fo o t

q
S olu ti on
‘

. .

o f bridge e u als 2 5 00 1b s pe r pan e l p oi n t pe r t r u s s The forc e applie d by

q
. .

t h e l a t e r a l t r us s t o t he p ortal a t m e ual s t he v e rt i c al c omp one n t i n diag f

o n a l m o pl us t he pane l l oad a t m The sum of t hese t w o force s e qu al s

.

5 000 lb s . The re i al s o
W ll be a f orc e of 1 25 0 lb s . at
2
n . In a ddit i on to t he wi n d forc e ac t ing al ong the t op chord t he re will be
,

,
6 pane ls @ 25

FIG . 1 86 .

a un iformly dis t ribute d W i nd force appli e d dire c t ly t o the e nd p os ts This .

Will b e ass um e d as 1 00 lb s pe r li n e al foo t of t he membe r The o u te r

. .

forc es a c t ing up on the p or t al wi ll t he n be as shown i n Fi g 1 8 7 ass um .

,

i ng p oin t s of i n fle c ti on an d di s
1 3 75 0 1b t ri b ut i on of h ori z on t al f orce s as
pre vi ously s t at e d The ve rt ical .

force s an d be n di n g m ome n t s a t
t he b o tt om s of t he se p os t s may
b e c ompu te d a s f oll ows : Le t t he
mome n t at the b o tt om of e a ch
p os t = M an d the Ve r t ical force ,

V The n sin c e t he m omen t at .

,

t he p oi n t o f i nfi e c t i on = ze ro the ,

mome n t ab ou t an axis t hr ough

1 0 500 11“
t he p oi n t of i nfl e c t i on i n e ach
p os t of the forc e s be l ow t hat p oin t
11
1 0, 5 00 X 1 1 —M ;
FIG . 1 87 . 2
M f t lb s
.
-
.

The dir e c t i on m ome n t i n e a ch c ase mus t b e c o un t e r cl ockwi se

of t he -
,

a s show n t o b al a n c e t h e cl o c k w i s e m omen t d ue t o t he hori z on t a l fo rc es

q
.
,

In o rde r t h at e ui libri um may e xi s t t he m ome n t of t he c ouple d ue ,

t o t he ve r t ic a l f orce s mus t e qu al t he m ome n t o f the h ori z ontal force s

ab ou t a ny axi s mi n u s 2111 Taki n g t he ori gi n of m ome n t s at t he b o tt om
.

of e ithe r p o s t t h e f ollowi n g e qu a t i o n m ay t he re fo r e be wri tt e n :

,

—1 6 V = O .

V = 2 0 , 0 7 0 lb s .

x t s t ep i s
The ne th e d e t e rmi n a t i on of the s t r ess e s i n th e por tal
memb ers t hemselv es ,
and th e d ire c t s t re s ses b end in g mome n t s
, ,
and
 248 TRU S S ES W I TH M ULTI P LE WEB S Y S TE M S AR T 1 1 7 .

Applic ati on of th e e quation EH = 0 , g ives the follo wing equati on

~
H 1 —2 O 0 70 —3 0 00 + l O, 5 00
H1 lb s .

Applica t i on of EV = O g ives the followi n g e qua t ion

17 1 V1 = 0 .

H e n c e t he i n b ar U(J m = 0, from whi ch i t fo ll ows t h a t t he s tres s

s tress
’1 =
i n Im Im 0 , an d t ha t i n U 0 T0 = lb s .

The a c t ual s tre ss i n M 0Im = s t ress i n Im T0 = 2 0 , 4 1 4 = + 2 8 , 3 8 0 1b s .

P r o c eedi ng i n a s i m i l a r mann e r wi t h t he o t h er p o s t , t h e foll owi n

g
r esults are obtai ned
S tr e s s in TOIm a n d Im M O
’ ’ —28 ,
38 0 lb s ; .

S t r ess m [ m U0
’ ’
0;
'
S t r ess In TO UO + 1 3 , 8 2 0 lb s .

Th e c omp utations may che c k ed by c o ns iderin g the j oin t T and

be O
applyi ng th e e q ua t i o n s of e q uil i bri um
26 320 3 8 20 1
.

The fo rc es a c t i ng at t he j o i n t are a s
s hown i n F i g 1 8 9 a nd evi d e n tly s a t i s fy .
,

t he e q ua t i o ns o f e q ui libri um .

S i nc e t he s t ress e s i n U l l l o m , m m
’
,

and I U a re z e r o i t mi ht p e rh ap s
’ ’

g m o ,

b e t ho ught that thes e b a rs s hould b e

FIG 1 8 9 .
omi tt e d b u t i t s ho u ld b e r ememb e r e d
.
,

tha t the c omp u t ation s a re approxima te ,

a n d that th e s tr ess e s as d e t e rmi ne d by m o r e e xact me tho d s m a

y n ot b e
z ero Mo reov e r t he app earanc e of the p o r t al
.

i s i mpr ove d somewh a t by t he i ncl us ion o f

t hes e b ars .

In a ddi t io n t o the d e t ermi na tion of t he

s tr e s s es i n t h e p o r t a l bars t h e maxi m um ,

momen t s an d shea rs i n t he p os t s s ho ul d also

b e ob t ai n ed Thes e are ali ke f or bo t h p os t s
. n m n ex

a nd a re s h own by t he c u rv es of Fi g 1 90 . .

The maximum dire c t s t ress i n e ach p os t

lb s I t i s t e n s i o n i n L O M O c om
.

1 3m n ,

s
i
a n d z e ro i n M U
.

pression i n L ’
a nd

M U ' '
O
FIG 1 9 0 — C
O
u r ve of
O,
.

o o .

M o m en t a n d S h e a r m
B efor e l eavi n g t hi s s ub j e ct atte n ti on
s hould b e c a ll ed t o th e f act that t he c o lu m n
,

s h o ws M o m e n t
u ll Lm e . F o

wi nd forc e s c ause s t resses i n the mai n .

t russ memb e rs These s t resses are r el a

.

ti ve ly s mall c omp a r e d w i t h th e s t r ess es d ue t o th e ve r t ic al l oad s b u t ,

m a y a t ta i n hi gh ab so lu t e v a l u e s i n l a rge tr uss es In th e wi ndward .

tr uss es these s t r es ses t en d to c aus e c ompress ion i n t he b ottom chord

whi ch i n c on j unc t ion wi t h the s t resses d ue to l ongi t udi nal t hrus t cau se d
1
Thi s v a lu e m ay be c he c ke d by ta ki n g m om e n s t a bou t T0
“

of t he
f o rc e s t o t h e le f t o f a ve rt i c a l se c t i o n t h r o u gh t hi s
q po i n t . It wi ll be f oun d
that thi s m om e n t 0 , henc e t he s tre ss i n Im Im e ua ls
= ’
z e ro .
A RT 1 1 8
. P OR TA L S — M I SCE LL A N E OU S 2 49

by t he tractive f orc e may e ven reverse the normal te nsi on i n the end
b ott om ch ord members whi ch are fre uent ly made as c olumns t o re si st
,
q
thi s c ompressi on .

1 1 8 P or t a l
. s — Mi sc ell ane ou s The po rt al tr e at e d in A rt 1 1 7
. .

r e pr e s e nt s a c omm on typ e o f p o rtal which i s s tatically d e t e r

min e d with r e s p e ct t o t he i nn e r f o rc e s P o rtal s are fr e qu e ntly .

built h o wev e r which are s tati cally und e t e rmi n e d with r esp e ct
, ,

t o t he inn e r as w e ll as t h e o ut e r f o rc e s F or s uch ca se s t h e
.

m e th o d s u se d in t h e tr e atm e nt of d oub le s ys t e m tru sse s may

s o m e tim es b e appli e d Fo r m o r e c ompli cat e d p o rtal s s p e cial
.

m e t h o d s may hav e t o b e d e vi s e d but t he c on s tructi on of s uch ,

p o rtal s s h o uld b e av oid e d .

P o rtal s which li e in a plan e i n clin e d t o t he v e rtical as w oul d ,

b e the ca s e f or a b rid ge with i n clin e d e n d p os t s may b e tr e at e d ,

in t h e s am e m ann e r as v e rtic al p o rtal s c ar e b e i n g tak e n t o us e,

the c o rr e ct l e n gth s al on g t he p os t s and n o t t he v e rtical pr oj ec

ti on s o f th e se l e n gth s .

1 19 .T r a n s v e r se B e n t s i n M ill B uil d i n g s — Appr o xi m at e

Meth od A typical s tructur e o f thi s typ e i s illu strat e d by F ig
. .

1 91. Th e s tr e ss es d ue t o t he
ve rtical f o rc es may b e fi gu re d
i n t h e o rdi n ary mann e r as ,

s u m i n g v e rtical r e acti o n s at

p o int s b and i and z e r o s tr e ss

,

i n k n ee brac e s a c an d hk To .

d e t e rmi n e t h e h o riz on tal wind

f o rc e s an appr o xim at e m e th o d
s imilar t o that u s e d in c o m

putin g p o rt al s i s c o mm o nly
'
e m pl o y e d it b e in g a s s um e d
,
4 p l @ 15 m e s

that t h e h o ri z on tal r e acti o n s

at th e b o tt o m s of th e c ol
u m ns a re e qual and th at
p o int s of i n fl e xi o n o c cur mid F G 1 91 I . .

way b e tw e e n b ott o m s of c ol
u m n s a n d p o i n t s of c o n n e cti o n

b e tw e e n c o lumn s an d k n e e brac e s 1 A s in t h e p o rtal s all j oint s

.

ar e a ss um e d t o b e pin —j o i n t s e xc e pt th o s e at a an d 16 whil e th e s e ,

This as sum t
p i on sh ou ld n o t be rran t e d b y the c ond i t ion s
m a d e u n le ss wa

e xis t in g at t h e b as e s of th e c olum ns
In m any s tru c t ures o f t hi s c har a c t er
.

r t t e re d b y t he c o lum n f oo ti ng i s ve r
‘

th e e s i s an c e t o b e nd i n g m o m
- e n s o fl y
s li gh t ; i n s u c h c as es t he po i n t o f i n
fi e xi o n m ay b e as s um ed as o c c urri n g at
25 0 TRU S S ES W I TH M ULT I PL E W E B S Y S TE M S A RT . 1 19

l att e r are al s o s o c o n s id e r e d with r es p e ct t o t h e s tr es s e s in t h e

kn e e brac es th e m s e lv e s which are a s s um e d t o act al o n g t h e ax e s
,

o f th e s e b ar s .

Th e s tr e sse s i n bar s a o and kh may b e d e t e rmi n e d a s in t h e

p o rtal by applyi n g t he e quati on EM = O t o t he t wo c olumn s , ,

bm and tu u s i n g f or t he o ri gi n of m o m e nt s p oi n t s b and 15 The

,
.

h o ri z on tal and v e rtical f o rc e s r e q ui r e d at p oint s b an d i may .

th e n b e obtain e d by t he appli cati on of t he e quati ons 2 V = 0 ,

an d EH = O t o t he t w o c olumn s
,
W ith th e s e value s d e t e rmin e d
.
,

th e r oo f tru ss may b e tr e at e d as an y s impl e tru ss t he o ut e r f o rc es ,

b e i n g t he appli e d wind l oad s t he s tr es s e s i n t he kn ee brac es

, ,

and t he r e a cti o n s at t he c olumn t 0 ps .

Th e c o mpl e t e d e t e rmi n ati o n o f t he s tr e s ses in s uch a s tru e

tur e by t he appr o xim at e m e th o d will n ot b e giv e n the pr obl e m ,

which foll o ws i n cluding all t he es s e n tial point s A n accurat e .

d e t e rmin ati on of th e s e s tr e ss es may b e m ad e by t h e th e or e m of

l e a s t w o rk but will n ot b e giv e n h e r e
,
.

P r o ble m Comp u t e t he h o ri z on t al an d ve r t ical c omp one n t s o f t he

.

t russ re a c t ion s a t p oi n t s b an d i , a n d of the k nee brace s t re sse s i n t he -

~

transve rs e b en t , s hown i n Fi g 1 9 1 , .

f or a hori z on ta l wi n d fo rc e of 6 00
lb s pe r li n eal foo t on bm , a nd a
.

n o rmal wi n d fo rc e of 4 00 lb s pe r .

li n eal foo t o n bf .

S olu ti on The applie d l oa d s wi ll b e

.

a s s hown i n Fi g 1 92 A s i n the . .

p or t a l t he ho ri z on t a l c omp on e n t s
4 pm els @ 1 5 at m an d n a re e a ch ass ume d t o

e qu al o n e— half t he total ho ri z on t al
fo rc e o n the s t ructure , thu s havi ng
a va l u e of 1 6 , 50 0 1b s each For thi s . .

c a s e the momen t a t poi n t m will not

e qu a l that a t p oi nt 71 , si nc e n o wi n d

FIG 1 92 . . fo rc e i s assumed to act on th e le e

ward c olum n Each momen t m ay .

b e foun d , h oweve r, by appl yi n g th e e qua t i on , EM = 0, ab o u t t h e p oi n t

o f i n fl ec t i on o f t h e fo rc es b e l o w tha t p o i n t The e qua t i on s f o r t hes e
.

m om e n t s a re as follows :
15
1 6 , 5 00 x 1 5 —600 X 1 5 X — —M = 0

F r m which
, m
2
o Ill m = f t -lb s
. .

In i ila r ma nn e r
a s m a X1 5 ft .
-
lb s .
252 TRU S S ES W I TH M ULTI P LE W E B S Y STE M S A RT . 1 20

m ome n t s she ars an d dire ct s t re sse s i n th e c olum

, ,
ns m ay b e deter
mi ne d as i n the p or t al c ol umns pre vi ous ly t re a t e d .

21 750 1116.

1 500 + 3
1

1 33 000 154.
33 000 1119.

FIG . 1 94 .

1 20 . V ia du ct T ow e r s I n t he d e t e rm inati on of t he s tr es s es
.

i n s uch t o w e r s it i s n e c e s s ary t o c ons id e r t he v e rt ical f orc es d ue

t o t he w e ight o f t he s tructur e it s e lf and t h e s up e rimp os e d l o ad ,

and t he h o riz ontal f o rc es d ue t o wind c e ntr i fu gal f o rc e i f the ,

s tructur e b e curv e d and tractive f o rc e ,

S uch t o we r s are u s ua lly .

c omp os e d o f f o ur c o lumn s brac e d trans ve r s e ly and l ongitudinally

,
.

t w o o f t h e c o lumn s b e ing s upp o rt e d on plan e d b a se pl at es an d

b e i n g fr e e t o m ov e h o ri z ont ally in th e dir e cti o n of t h e l ongitudi n al
axi s o f t h e s tructur e To o btain s u ffi c i en t width at t h e b a s e t o
.

pr e v e n t e x c e ss iv e uplift at windward c olumn s wh e n t h e s tructur e

i s e ith e r unl o ad e d o r c arryi n g an e mpty train t h e latt e r are u s u
, ,

ally built t o a b att e r tran s v e r se ly of on e h o ri z ontal t o si x v e r

, ,

tic al F or s ymm etry a d o ubl e s ys t e m of bracing s h ould b e u s e d

.
,

a n d t h e s tructur e will th e r e f o r e b e s tati cally und e t e rmin e d u n

, ,

l e s s th e bracin g c o n s i st s of r o d s whi ch i s n ot c o mm o n in rail ,

r o ad vi aduct s Th e s tr e s s es d u e t o t h e h o riz o ntal f orc e s may b e

,

c o mput e d in a m an n e r s i milar t o th at u s e d f or th e wi n d braci n g

s y s t e m s alr e ady c o mput e d i e by a ss uming e ach diag o nal t o
,
. .

c arry on e h alf th e s tr e s s it w o u ld b e c all e d up on t o c arry if but

-

o n e s y s t e m of di ag o nal s w e r e u s e d I f th e v e rti cal l o ad s are sym .

m e t ri c al with r e s p e ct t o t h e c e ntral axi s of th e t o w e r th e y will

c au se n o primary s tr es s in t h e bracing and th e v e rtic al c o mp o ,

n en t s in t h e c o lum n s will th e r e f o r e e qual t h e v e rt ic al l o ad s If .

t h e v e rti c al l o ad s ar e n o t s ymm e tric al with r es p e ct t o t h e t o w e r ,

as may b e t h e c a s e with a s tru ctur e built o n a curv e s tr e s s e s d u e ,

t o th e s e l o ad s wi ll b e c au s e d in t h e dia gon al s as w e ll as t h e c o lumn s .

The n e c ess ary c omputati on s f or t he l o ad e d s tructur e are

cl e arly i llus trat e d by t he pr obl e m which f o ll o ws .

P r o ble m Comp u t e s t r es se s f or the

. t ower shown i n F i g 1 95 d ue
.

to t h e followi ng a ss umed l o a ds :
De ad l oad , 600 lb s pe r . f oot per rai l f or gi rd er a n d t rack .

2 00 lb s pe r . foo t i n height of tow er f o r each c ol u

AR T . 1 20 V IA D UC T TOWE RS 253

Wi nd load 6 00 lb s pe r li n eal foo t of s tr uct u r e appli ed at bas e of rail

, .

a n d 50 lb s pe r foo t of h e i gh t o f t ow e r f or e ach c o l u mn
. .

Tracti ve fo rc e , 2 0% of live load appli ed at bas e of rail .

V
Lo ng i tud i na l i e w Trans ve rse V i ew

V i ad uc t Tow e r
FIG . 1 95 .

The s pa n s ch sid e of tower are e ach 5 6 f t i n l ength c en tr e

on ea .

to c entre of end b earings .

Dime n s i on s an d l oad c on c en trations a re s hown i n F i g 1 96 . .

—
T
1

75
i'
°

200 f or c e on tr ai n and gi rd ers

”
+
3074 =
"

1 x 84 { 2
tr ac t i o n f orce
2 54 TRU SS ES W I TH M ULTI P LE WEB S Y S TE M S A RT . 1 20

A n d t he c
ry c omputations follow
n e ess a

C OMP U TA TI ON OF S TR ES S E S IN V I A D U CT TOW E R
'

TR A N S V E R S E B RA C I N G

B a rs . H o ri zo n tl
a Co m p on e n t . S t re s s .

72 5 “ =
i 11 ’
00 0

1 1 50 X 3 1
i 7 90 0
2

2 X 53 1 2 .

2 X 76 8 1 .

Th e c olum n s t re s s es a re s h o w n o n n e x t p a ge .

The maximum uplift on the windward c olumn should al so b e deter

mi ned For the wind l oad previ ously c onside re d t he uplift at base of
c n
.

ol um = 7 1 8 00 lb s
, To thi s sh ould be added t he uplift d ue t o the
.

t rac t ive fo rc e Th e u plift o f a lo ad e d t r ai n d ue t o t r ac t i ve fo rc e

.

3 000
__
é
X X 84 X 22 — lb s . The t o t a l r e a c t i o n o n o n e c o l um n d u e
t o li ve a nd d e ad l oa d s
x 42 = lb s .
,

h e n c e the ne t uplift lb s I t i s also .

c ommon t o d e t e rmi n e the uplift on t h e un load e d s t ru c t ur e d ue t o an

ass ume d win d forc e of 5 0 lb s pe r s q f t o n on e and one half times th e
. . .
-

ver t ical pr oj e cti on o f the s t r u c t ure .

I n the d e s ign of viaduct t ow e r s it i s c o mm on t o a s s u m e tha t

t h e c o mbinati on o f d e ad liv e wind and tractiv e f o rc e s will, , ,

s e ld o m if e v e r
,
o ccur s imulta n e o u s ly and that i n c o n se qu e nc e a
, ,

hi gh e r unit s tr e s s may b e u se d f or th es e c o mbin ed f o rc e s than

w o uld b e e mpl oy e d f or liv e an d d e ad s tr e ss es only a c o mm on ,

pr actic e b e in g t o incr e a s e t h e unit s tr e s s 2 5 For e xampl e ,

if t he all owabl e uni t s tr e s s f or d e ad l o ad and liv e l o ad c orr e ct e d ,

f or imp act i s ,
lb s a valu e of . lb s w ould b e u s e d
,
.

f or t h e maximum s tr e sse s d u e t o liv e d e ad wi n d and t racti o n , , ,

.

I f c e ntrifu gal f o rc e e xi s t s th e s tr e s se s d u e t o it s h o uld b e c on

s i d e r e d as liv e s tr es s e s but n ee d n ot b e c o rr e ct e d f or impact
,
.
2 56 TRU SS ES W I TH M ULTI P LE W EB S Y STE M S A RT . 1 20

I f the v ertical l o ad s are n ot appli e d t o the t ow e r s ymm e trically

th e y will al s o c au s e s tr ess es in the diag onal bracing s inc e th e ir ,

m o m e nt ab o ut th e p oint 0 will n o l ong e r e qual z e r o S uch a .

c on diti on w ill u s ually o ccu r if the viaduct b e l o cat e d on a curv e ,

i n which c a se t h e e cc e ntricity will b e d ue n ot only t o th e e cc e ntric

ity of th e c e n tr e lin e of t he track but al s o t o th e s hiftin g lat e r ally
,

of t he c e ntr e of gravity of t h e train by t he s up e r e l e vati o n of t he

o ut e r r ail Th e c o mputati on s f or s uch a ca s e pr ese nt n o dif

.

fi c ulty and will n ot b e giv e n .

I f r o d s ar e u s e d f or t he diag onal br acin g it will b e n e c ess a ry

t o u s e h o riz o ntal s trut s b e tw e e n p a n e l p o i n t s an d o nly o n e sys
t e m of r o d s will b e in a cti on at on e tim e Th e c o mputati on s .

w i ll b e s i m pli fi e d s o m ewhat f or thi s c a se but the s am e g e n e ral ,

m od e of pr o c e dure may b e ad opt e d I t i s fr e qu e ntly a s s um e d .

in d es i gn in g s uch t ow e r s that e v e n wh e n rigid bracing i s u se d

, ,

but o n e diag o nal will b e in acti o n at any on e time in a p an e l .

The m e th od s giv e n i n thi s articl e are appr o ximat e but are ,

s u ffi c i e n tly ac curat e f or o rdinary ca s e s .

P R OBLE MS

54 . a . Wri t e th e in d ex s t re ss es f or t hi s truss f or t he followi n g d ea d

l oa d s :
Top chord 1 2 0 0 lb s pe r . fo o t
B o tt om chor d 6 00

b Comp ute maxi mum

. live s t r e ss i n b ar Ul f or a un iform live
l oad of 3000 lb s per f oot . an d a l o c omo t i v e e xc e ss o f lb s , all
.

on chord
t op .

0 Draw i nfl ue n c e li ne f or s tr e s s i n b ar U U a n d c omp u te fr om it
. z a

the maxim um live s t r e ss f or the l o ad s give n i n b .

d Comp u te ma ximum live s t re s s i n b a r U Ua f or l oa d s give n i n b

. z

by the use of in de x s t r e sse s .

pan els

PR OB . 5 4?

55 . a . Ma k e a s k e t ch
truss showi ng by di fferen t c olors the
of th e ,

sys t ems i n t o whi ch yo u w o u ld di v id e i t .

b Wri t e t he i n d e x s tr e ss es u s i ng the d ea d l oads o f pr e v i o u s probl em

.
,
.

c .Dr aw an i nfl ue n c e li ne f or t he s t re ss i n b ar L 7 L9 .
ART . 1 20 V IA D UC T TO WE RS 2 57

56 Compute the s tr e s s i n all p or t al b ar s , a nd t he maxi m u m

. a .

mome n t s , s he ars , an d di re ct stre sse s i n t he c ol um ns of t hi s p or t al

f o r t he appli e d forc e s s h own , as sumin g that t he m ome n t at p oin ts h
a n d i = z er o , an d tha t di a gon als c an carry b o t h t en si on an d c ompr e ssi on .

b Compute the s tr ess e s i n the s am e bars , ass umi n g th at the p oi n t o f

.

i n fl e c ti on i n e ach p os t i s on e q u a rte r o f th e di s tan c e up fro m t he b o tt o m

-

o f the c olum n to t h e b o ttom of t he kn e e br a c e .

1 0 000 lb s.
La
, b
\

—
s pac e s a t 6
~ -

P ROB . P ROB . 57 .

57 . De t e rmi n e s t re sse s in all b a rs

m a ximum of t hi s p or t al ,
an d

m ome n t s s he a rs an d dire c t s t res se s i n t he c ol umn s as s umi n g p oin t s o f

, , ,

i nf l e c t i on i n e ach c ol umn a t a p oi nt midw ay be t we e n t he b o tt om of

t h e c ol um n a n d t he b o tt om of t h e p o r t al .

58 A ss umi n g t he c ol umn s i n thi s tran sver se b e nt t o have p oi n ts of

.

i nfl ec ti on at b ott om c omput e maximum b en di ng m omen t i n ri gh t hand

,
-

60

di s t ri b ute d

PR OB . 58 .

c olumn an d maximum shear i n se cti ons 1 and 2 C omput e al s o maximum .

s t res se s i n bar s 3 a nd 4 and stat e their charact e r .

 CH A P T E R IX .

CA N TI LE V E R BR I D GE S .

1 21 . Types of Str uc tur e s Lon g-span Br i dges

f or Wh e r e .

t he xp en s e of c on s tructing
e f o undati ons or t he r e stricti on s of
n avigati on pr o hibit t h e u s e of s p an s s h ort e r tha n 600 t o 7 0 0
-

ft.
,
oth e r typ e s of s tructur e s than t h e s impl e en d—s upp o rt e d

s pa n s which hav e b e e n pr e vi o u s ly c o n s id e r e d are m o r e e c o n o mic al

and are c o mm only u s e d Thr e e typ e s of s uch structur e s are tre

.
-

qu e n tly e mpl oy e d viz t he s t e e l ar ch t he s u sp e n s i on bridg e

,
.
, , ,

and t he cantil e v e r brid ge Oi th e s e the s u s p e n s i o n bridg e i s

.

highly ind et e rminat e an d will n ot b e c on s id e r e d at thi s p o int .

Th e ar ch an d c a n t i l e v e r may b e e ith e r d e t e rminat e or i n d e t e r

min at e but only t he f orm e r typ e s will b e tr e at e d in thi s
,

chapt e r .

1 22 Cantil eve r B r i dg e s D es c r i b e d
. In t h e c o n s tructi on of c an .

t i le ve r brid ges adva n tag e i s tak e n of t h e fact that a s p an with

,

on e or t w o pr oj e cti n g arm s m ay b e e r e ct e d by c on s tructi n g fal s e

Wo rk u n d e r t h e main s p an o nly t h e pr oj e ctin g e nd s b e ing grad ,

u ally built o u t fr o m t h e s upp o rti n g pi e r s th e ir w e ight b e ing ,

balan c e d b y t h e w e i ght of t h e main s pan A l on g bridg e of thi s .

charact e r may th e r e f or e b e e r e ct e d by t h e u s e of fal s e w o rk und e r

e v e ry o th e r op e ni ng o n ly F or e xampl e t he bridg e s h o wn in .
,

F i g 1 95 may b e built by u s i n g fal s e w o rk fr o m m t o n and fr o m

.

0 to q t h e cha nn e l s p an n o b e i n g s u s tai n e d duri n g e r e cti on by

,

t h e w e i ght of t h e an ch o r arm s 77m an d 0 g and by a n ch o rag e at

m and q A numb e r of larg e bridg e s o f thi s typ e hav e b e e n c on
.

s truct e d i n t h e U nit e d S tat es am on g which may b e m en ti on e d ,

t he R e d R o c k B ridg e t h e P o u ghk e e p s i e B rid ge and t h e B e av e r

, ‘
,
w

B ridg e t h e o utlin e of which i s s h ow n in F i g 1 95

,
The H ar . .

vard B rid ge at B o s t on i s a plat e gird e r ca n til e v e r Th e F orth -

.

B rid ge in S c otla n d with a cl e ar s pa n of 1 7 1 0 f ee t t h e l on ge s t

, ,

cl e ar spa n in t he w orld i s al s o a ca ntile v e r brid ge I f t he , .

2 58
2 60 C A N TI LE VE R B R I D G ES AR T 1 2 3
.

e quati on s s h ould n ot b e c onf ound e d with t he g e n e ral e quati on

2 M = O which i s al s o applicabl e at t he hing e s but which m e an s
, ,

that t h e m o m e n t of all t he f or c es on both s id e s of any s e c ti on

ab out a n y axis p e rp e n dicular t o t he plan e of t he f or c es e qual s z e r o .

W ith r e gard t o t h e m o m e nt ab o ut t h e hin g e s it s h ould b e

n ot e d that alth ough t he m o m ent ab out a of all t he f orc es t o t he
l e ft or r ight th er e of = 0 i t s h ould n ot b e s upp os e d that thi s
,

giv es t w o in d e p e nd e n t e quati on s s inc e if t h e m o m e n t ab o ut a

,

o f all t h e f orc e s t o t h e l e ft o f 0 e qual s z e r o t h e m o m e n t of

,

all t he f o r c e s t o t h e right o f a ab out t h e s am e p oi nt mu s t al s o

e qual z e r o s uch a r e s ult f ollo win g at o n c e by t h e s ubtracti o n of

,

t he f orm e r e quati on fr o m t h e ge n e ral e quati on Z M = O Th e r e .

are th e n but fi v e e nt ir e ly in d e p e nd e nt e quati o n s h en c e fi v e ,

an d only fi v e unkn o wn quantiti es c an b e d e t e rmin e d and t he ,

s tructur e i s th e r e f or e
,
d et e r m i n at e W e r e th e r e m or e tha n fi v e
,
.

in d ep end e nt e quati on s t he structur e w ould b e u n stabl e ; w e r e

th e r e l es s it w o uld b e s t atically u n d et e r mi n e d .

The s impl e s t m e th o d o f pr o vidin g a hin g e i n a tru s s i s t o o mit

a ch ord bar in on e p an e l as i s d on e i n F ig 1 98 E vid e n tly t he
. .

FIG . 1 98 . FIG . 1 99 .

m o m e n t ab out an axi s thr ou gh a of all t h e f orc e s on e ith e r s id e

o f a mu s t e qual z e r o s in c e t h e s tructur e can by i t s c on s t ructi on
,

o ff e r n o r e s i s ta n c e t o m o m e nt at thi s p o i n t .

F or a plat e gird e r ca n tile v e r a hin g e may b e c on s truct e d as

s h ow n in F ig 1 99 . .

A s it i s u n e c on o m i cal i n practic e t o hav e a l on g c a n tile v e r

brid ge r es train e d h ori z ont ally at on e p oi nt only s uch a c onditi on ,
.

inv olv i ng t he tran s m is s i on of a h oriz ontal f orc e if appli e d at on e ,

e n d o f t h e s tructur e thr o ugh o ut t he e n tir e l e n gth o f t h e bridg e

,

it i s c omm on t o fi x t he structur e h oriz on tally at m o r e than one

A RT . 1 24 C R
A N HO AG E 261

pi e r and t o o mit a b ott o m ch ord bar at o ne or m or e of t he hi n ge s ,

th e r e by pr e v en t i ng t he tran s mi ss i on o f h o riz on tal f o rc e s acr os s

t he bridg e For t h e ca se illu s trat e d by F i g 1 98 t h e o mi s s i o n of
. .

bar a b w ould ac c o mplis h thi s r es ult .

Th e applicati o n of th e s e m e th o d s t o t h e s tructur e s h own in

F ig 1 95 w o uld in v o lv e t he o mis s i on of bar s c c d d an d a b and
.
’
,
’
, ,

of t h e r o ll e r s at 0 I n practic e t he bar s m e nti on e d w o uld n ot

.

actually b e o mitt e d as th ey are n e c e s s ary in e r e cti o n and impr o v e

,

t he app e aranc e of t h e s tructur e Th ey s ho uld h ow e v e r b e

.
, ,

mad e adj u s tabl e an d inc apabl e of r es is tin g a h oriz on tal thru st .

1 24 A n c h or a ge
. S inc e t he l o ad on t h e s u s p e n d e d s pan o r
.

o n t he ca n t i l e v e r arm s c au s e s n e gativ e r e acti on s at p o int s su c h

as m and q F ig 1 95 which may e xc e e d t he d e ad re acti on s at

, .
,

th es e p oint s it i s n e c es s ary t o anch o r t he s tructur e t o t he ma s o nry

,

and t o pr ovid e s uffi ci en t w e i ght in t he pi e r s t o e qual this uplift .

Th e anch o rag e u s ually c on s i st s of gird e r s e mb e dd e d in t he pi e r

an d fa s t e n e d t o t h e s tructur e by e ye bar s The fr e e d o m t o -
.

m ov e h oriz on tally may b e obtain e d by r o ll e r s or o th e r d e vic es .

1 2 5 Reac ti on s — Canti l ever T ru sses

. The r e act i on s up o n.

s tructur e s of thi s typ e may b e d e t e rmin e d by t he applic ati on of

t he thr ee e quati on s of s tatic s c o mbin e d with t h e e quati on s of

c o nditi o n in t he s am e ge n e ral mann e r as f or s impl e tru s s es and
gird e r s The pr obl e m i s h ow e v e r m o r e c o mplic at e d than f o r
.
, ,

s tructur e s s upp ort e d at t w o p o i n t s and in c o n se qu e nc e influ e nc e

,

lin es f or c e rtain of t he re acti on s in typical cantil e v e r s will b e

giv e n and m e th od s of det e rmi n i n g t h e r e acti o n valu e s s tat e d .

Con s id e r fi rst t he s tructur e i llu s trat e d by F i g 1 95 F or thi s . .

c a n til e v e r t he tru s s e s m bc an d db q e vid en tly act lik e b e am s

’

s upp o rt e d at t w o p o int s on ly an d s upp orti n g t h e s u s p e n d e d s pa n ,

'
bb at th e ir e n d s That thi s f o ll ow s fr o m t he applicati o n of t he
.

e quati o n s o f e quilibrium an d c o n diti o n may b e pr o v e n i n t h e

f o llow i n g mann e r :
A s s um e fi rst a c onc e ntrat e d l o ad P up on t he tru s s db q , ,
’
.

F or thi s c o nditi o n t he f o rc e s acting t o t h e l e ft o f b ar e t h e s am e as

t h e f o rc e s acting t o t h e l e ft of V I an d V2 F i g 2 00 an d ,
.
,

t he m o m e nt of th e se f o rc e s ab o ut e ach o f t he hing e s b an d b = 0
’
‘

the f ollo w i n g e quati on s may be writt e n :

I . V 1 (L 1 + L 2 ) V2 L 2 = 0 .

II V2 (L 2 + L 3 ) = 0 .
2 62 C A N TI LE VE R B R I D G ES A RT 1 2 5
.

S ubtractin g I fr o m II giv es V 1 L3 17 n 0 .

V1 V2 0, h e nc e (V 1 V2 ) L 2 0 .

S ubtract ing latt e r e quati on fr o m I giv es V1 L 1 = O

thi s ,

th e r e f or e VI = O V2 = 0 and
, , , h e nc e t he s pan db q ’

wh e n l o ad e d act s lik e a s impl e b e am s inc e t he m o m e nt at e ach

, ,

e n d i s z e r o and t h e s u m o f t h e r e acti on s e qual s t h e l o ad

, .

a
5
.

mb

Infl ue nc e Li ne f o r VI

Infl ue nce Li n e f or V 0

FIG . 2 00 .

N ow c on s id e r a l o ad P on s pan bb at a dis tan c e x fr o m b

, ,
’ ’
.

Th e f o ll owin g e quati on s may b e writt e n f or t h e m o m e n t s ab o ut

b and b r es p e ctiv e ly
’

III . V 1 (L 1 + L 2 ) i V2 L 2 = O
‘ "
.

IV . V2 (L 2 + L 3 )

S ubtr acting III fr o m I V giv e s V1 V2 Bf = pos i t i ve s he ar at b .

L3
Th e m o m en t at n e qual s the m o m e n t at b plu s the pr o duct of t he

s h e ar at b and t he l e v e r arm L2 ; it th e r e f or e eq u

the m om e n t at b b e i n g z e r o by c on s tructi o n Thi s m o m e nt al s o .

e qual s V 1 L 1 h e nc e t he f oll owi n g e quati on may b e writt e n

,

L2 i V l L l" '
0:

wh e nc e
2 64 C A N TI L EVE R B R I D G E S AR T . 1 25

l on gitudinal thru st of train) and in c o mbinati on W ith th e e qua

,

ti o n EH = 0 i s s u f fici e n t f or thi s p urp o s e Th e r e maini n g f our .

e quati o n s o f c on diti o n and t w o o f s t atic s may b e u s e d in t h e

f oll owi n g man n e r t o d e t e rmin e t h e s i x v e rtic al r e acti on s .

= '=
L et S s h e ar in pa n e l n n 0 by c on structi on .

M = m o m en t at n
n .

M{ = m o m e nt at n ’

M = m o m e n t at a = 0 by c o n struc ti on
a .

M b = m o m ent at b = 0 by c o n s tructi o n .

S a
= t e n s i on in ha n g e r aa ’
.

Cas e 1 . Lo ad
u s p e nd e d s p an a b Con s id e r t h e l o ad P at
on s .

di s tanc e x fr o m b and t h e p o rti on of t he s tructur e b e tw e e n

,

s e cti o n s X Y and Z Q The f o ll o wi n g e quati o n may b e writt e n :

.

=0
7

P 2:
L3

B ut S , i s the upp or ting f or c e at t he l e ft en d of th e s u sp e n d e d

s

s p a n and e qual s th e r e ac ti on at th e c o rr e s p on di n g e n d of a s impl e

end— s upp ort e d s pan I t i s e vid e nt th e r e f or e that t he s u sp en d e d

.
, ,

s pan a b act s lik e a s impl e e n d s upp o rt e d tru s s s inc e t h e m o m e nt

-
,

at e ach e n d e qual s z e r o and t he r e acti on s are inv e r s e ly pr op or

t i on al t o t h e d i s tanc e of t h e l o ad fr o m e ith e r e nd I t s h ould b e .

ob s e rv e d that n o s tr e s s i s c au se d in t h e ha n g e r s at a and b by

a l o ad u nle s s it i s appli e d t o t he s u s p en d e d s pan .

Cas e 2 L o ad P on c antil e v e r arm n a at di s tanc e x fr o m n

’ ’
.

F or thi s ca s e
— P L —x
( 2 ),
M n
’
= M n
- —
l S p,

V 1 + V2 = S ;

M n
= V1 L 1
,

Sa=0 .

By c on s tructi on M and S= O .

M u
I
= Mn an d V1 :

M n + V3 L 2 — P (L 2
’
A RT . 125 REA C TI ON S— CA N TI LEVE R TRU SS ES 2 65

V1 L 1 + (V3

V3 —P = S , s inc e h e nc e V3 —P = 0 and

He nc e

’
I t f oll ow s that f or a l o ad on t he cantil e v e r arm a n V 1 e qual s , ,

t he r e acti o n that w ould o ccur o n t he tru s s m a if p o i n t s 71 and n

’

c o i n cid e d ; V2 :
V 1 an d V3 = P
-
, .

Ca s e 3 .L o ad P on anch o r arm m n at di s tanc e x fr o m 71 .

F or thi s c a s e
S a = 0,

VlL l

He nc e f or thi s ca s e t he anch o r arm m n act s lik e a s impl e s pan

s upp o rt e d at m an d n .

F ig 2 02 s h ow s i n fl ue n c e li n es f or r e acti on s V I V2 and V3
.
,

and s h ould off e r n o d i ffi c ulty t o t he s tud e nt .

F r o m t he i nfl u e n c e lin es o f F ig 2 0 2 it i s e vid e nt that f or a

.

unif o rm liv e l o ad in a cantil e v e r lik e that s h own in F ig 2 0 1 t he .

maximum upward r e acti on at m o ccur s with m n fully l o ad e d ,

and maximum n e gat iv e r e acti o n with n b fully l o ad e d A l s o

’
.

that V2 i s alway s upward and has i t s maximum valu e wh e n t he

l o ad e xt e nd s fr o m m t o b whil e V3 i s al s o upward f or any l o ading
,

and has a maximum valu e with l o ad fr o m n t o b .

1 26 S e r
.h a s a n d M o m e n s —
t Cantil ever T russ es W ith t he .

r e acti on s kn own t he s h e ar s an d m o m e nt s at any s e cti on of a

c antil e v e r tru s s may b e r e adily d e t e rmin e d The influ e n c e lin es
.

in F i gs 20 3 and 2 04 s h ow c l e arly t he variati o n s i n th es e functi on s

.
26 6 C A N TI LE VER B R I D G E S A RT . 1 26

f or c e rtai n typical p o rti on s of th e anch o r an d can til e v e r arm s

of t h e tru s s e s s h o w n i n F ig s 1 95 and 2 0 1
. N o i nfl ue n c e li n e s ar e .

drawn f or t h e s u sp e nd e d s pa n s s m ee th e s e as h as b e e n s h own , ,

may b e tr e at e d lik e any s impl e s pan .

ar =0

Infl ue nc e Li ne f or VI | I
l
II

In fl ue n c e Li ne f or V3

FI G . 2 02 .

1 27 . B ar Stre s se s— Cantil ev e r Tru s ses The d e t e rminati o n

.

o f t h e bar str e s se s in ca n til e v e r tru ss es i n v o lv e s n o s p e cial dif

fi c u lt i e s and may b e acc o mpli s h e d by t h e u s e of t h e m e th o d s

e mpl oy e d f or s impl e tru ss es In fl u e n c e l i n e s may b e e mpl oy e d
.

f or d e t e rmin ing t he p os iti on oi t h e l o ad s i f c on c e n trat e d l o ad

-
,

s y s t e m s ar e t o b e u s e d F or s tructur es of t h e mag n itud e and

.

w e ight of s uch bridge s h ow e v e r t he actual u s e of c on c e n trat e d

, ,

l o ad s y s t e m s f or t he s tr e s s e s in t he main tru ss m e mb e r s i s ge n
e r ally un n e c e s s ary ,
an e quival e n t u n if o rm l o ad givin g n e arly if

n ot quit e as ac curat e r e s ult s .

Th e d e t e rmi n ati on of t h e p os iti o n o f a uni f o rm liv e l o ad f or

maximum str e s s in e ac h b ar and t he c o mput ati on of that s tr es s
may b e acc o mpli s h e d by t h e u se of i n fl u e n c e lin e s if d es ir ed .

A n i n fl u e n c e t abl e s imi lar t o that pr e par e d f or t h e thr e e hi n ge d -

ar ch giv e n lat e r s h owing t h e s tr e s s in e ach bar f or a l o ad at ev e ry

pan e l p o in t s h o uld h ow e v e r ge n e rally b e pr e par e d t o facilitat e
, ,
2 68 C A N TI LE VE R B R I D G ES A RT . 1 27

t he c o mputati on of th e s t r ess d ue to t he d e ad l o ad which i n a ,

larg e s tructur e s h o uld n ot b e t ak e n as unifo rmly dis tribut e d ,

a n d with thi s tabl e o n c e pr e p ar e d n o advantag e w ould b e gaine d

by u s ing i n fl uen c e lin e s The i nfl uen c e line in F ig 2 05 i s giv e n

. .

t o illu s trat e t h e variati o n in s tr e ss in a particular bar rath e r t han

f or i t s aid in c o mputi n g t he s tr e ss Thi s stat e m e nt a l s o appli es .

t o t he i n fl ue n ce lin e s of t h e pr e vi ou s articl es .

I f it b e d es ir e d t o u s e i n fl u en c e lin e s t o ch e ck t h e tabular
r es ult s t he actual s tr es s may b e d et e rmine d m os t r e adily f or
unif o rm l o ad s by multipl ying t he ar e a s b etw e e n t he i n fluen ce line
and t he h o ri z ont al axis by t he pr op e r l o ad .

FIG 20 5 —In fl ue n ce Li ne
. f o r S t re ss i n Ba r 71
” Tru ss s h o wn i n F i g 20 1
. .

Re f e rring t oF ig 2 0 5 it i s evid e nt that t he maximum str e s s

”
,
”
.

in bar 71 n will o ccu r with t he tru ss l o ad e d with t he unif orm

’

liv e l o ad fr o m n t o b and that i t s valu e e qual s t he pr o duct of

’
,

t h e a r e a n a b and t h e c o mbi n e d liv e an d d e ad l o ad s pe r f oot

’ ’
,

pr ovid e d th es e are u n if ormly dis tribut e d .

P R OB L E M

59 . Show that this

a . s tructure is t tic ally
s a d e te rmi ned wi t h
r esp ect t o th e outer fo rc es .

b Draw i n fl u e n c e li n e f or
. r eacti on at R 2 .

A211 pane l poi nts o f top chord

li e o n a pa ra bo la

——11 p l
710 4 8 6 ane s 90

P R OB . 59 .

0 . D raw i nfl ue n c e line f or stress i n bar a and c omp ute i ts maximum

val ue f or a u nifo rm live l oad of 300 0 lb s pe r f t . .
 CH A PT E R X .

TH REE -
H I N G E D A R C H ES .

1 28 . Ch ar ac te r i s ti c s of th e Ar c h . The
tial di ff e r e nc e e s se n

b e tw ee n t he ordinary arch and t he gird e r s an d tru s se s that hav e

hith e rt o b ee n inv estigat e d i s that t he s tr es s e s i n an arch may b e
c on fi n e d t o c o mpr e s s i on and s h e ar W hil e in tru ss e s an d gird e r s
,

larg e t e n s il e s tr e s s es are al s o d e v e l op e d Thi s p os s ibl e e liminati on

.

o f t e n s il e s tr e s s in t h e o rdinary arch rib i s d u e t o t h e fact that

b oth e nd s of t he arch ar e fi xe d i n p o s iti o n by c o n structi o n h e nc e ,

e ach r e acti o n h a s a h o ri z on tal c o mp o n e n t e v e n u n d e r v e rtic al

l o ad s ; in c on s e qu e n c e t h e r e acti on s c o nv e rg e and if t he s hap e ,

and thick n e ss of t he arch rib b e pr op e rly ch ose n t h e r e s ulta n t ,

f o rc e at e ach se cti o n f or any giv e n p os iti o n of t he l o ad s may b e

mad e t o pa ss t hr ough t he c e ntr e of gravity of t he s e cti on an d
th e r e f or e c au s e n o b e n di n g m o m e n t or so n e ar t he c entr e of
,

gravity that the t e ns il e fib re s tr e s s d ue t o t he b e ndin g m o m e nt

cau s e d by th e e cc e ntric ity i s i ns uffi c i e nt t o o ve rc om e t he c o m
pr e s s i o n d ue t o th e thru s t .

The adva n tag e of t h e arch f o rm w as w e ll kn own t o t h e anci ent s ,

as i s s h o wn by t h e ma n y s t o n e arch e s c o n s truct e d by t h e R o man s

and e v e n by old e r r ac e s and t he arch r e mai n s t o t he pr e s e nt day

,

on e o f t h e m os t u s e ful and grac e ful o f s tructur e s i t s e mpl oym e nt ,

b e ing fr e qu e ntly dictat e d b oth b y aes th e tic and utilit arian c on

s id e rati o n s .

1 29 Types of A r c h es
. Up t o a c o mp arativ e ly r e c e nt p e ri od
.

t he arch w as alway s c ons truct e d as a s tatic ally und e t e rmin e d

s tructur e ,
s imilar t o that s h own in F ig 2 0 6 which r e pr ese nt s
.
,

t he c o nv e nti onal ma so nry arch with n e ith e r re acti o n fi xe d i n

dir e cti on magnitud e or p o i n t o f applicati on t he arch b e i n g in
, , ,

c o n s e qu e nc e s tatic ally und e t e rmine d in a thr e e — f o ld d e gr ee ,

havi n g s i x unk n own s .

W ith t he applicati o n o f ir on an d s t e e l t o bridg e c on s tructi on

c am e a r e c ogniti o n of t he advant ag e of s t atic al d e t e rmi n ati o n ,

2 69
2 70 TH RE E-H I N G E D A RC HE S A RT . 1 29

an d m t al ar ch b e an t o b e c o n s truct e d in which s o m e of th e
e e s g '

unk n ow n s w e r e e limin at e d by t he i n s e rti on of hi n g e s . S uch

FIG . 2 06 — , Ma s o n ry A rc h .

arch e s are s h ow n in F ig s 2 0 7 an d 2 0 8 I f i n t h e arch s h ow n i n

. .

F ig 2 0 8 a hin ge b e i n s e rt e d at t h e c en tr e s imilar t o that of t he

.

o e s e e —
ar ch s h own i n F i g 2 0 7 t h e ar ch b e c m a thr h i n ged ar c h an d
'

.
,

FIG . 2 07 — Me t al A rc h wi th On e H i nge .

is st atically d e t e rmi n e d Th e rib s of m e tal arch e s may b e f orm e d

.

e ith e r o f plat es a n d a n gl e s a s i n plat e gird e r s ; o f ca s t ir o n or

c a s t s t e e l s e gm e nt s rive t e d t o g eth e r ; or of riv e t e d tru s s e s .

FIG . 2 08 .
— Tw o hi n ge d Me t al A r c h
-
.

r e c e n t y e ar s a c on s id e r abl e numb r
In e of ~
thr e e — n ge
hi d ma s on ry
arch e s hav e b e e n c on s truct e d an d s i n c e ,
the ad opti on of plain
272 TH REE IIIN GE D A
-
RC HE S A RT . 1 30

1 30 . Reac ti ons— Th r ee - h i n ged

Metal Ar c hes Th ese may b e .

c o mput e d f or any p o s iti o n of t h e l o ad by t he applic ati on of t he

thr e e g e n e ral e quati on s of st atic s c o mbi n e d with t he e quati ons of
c on diti o n e s tablis h e d by t he hi n g e s .

I f t he e n d s upp o rt s are at t h e s am e e l e vati on as i s ge n e rally ,

t h e ca se t he h o riz o ntal c o mp on e nt s of t he r e acti on s balanc e

,

,
8 pane ls 1 60

FIG . 21 1 .

an d h e n c e hav e n o e ff e ct up on t he v e rtic al r e acti on s which w o uld ,

—

b e t he s am e as f o r a s impl e tru s s or gird e r o f t he s a me s pan To .

o btain t he h o ri z o n tal r e acti on s it i s n e c e s s ary t o mak e u se o f

t h e e quati on o f c on diti on viz that t he m o m e nt ab o ut t he c e ntr e

,
.
,

hinge of all t he f orc e s on ei ther s id e of that h i n ge e qual s z e r o .

The applicati on of thi s e quati o n i s s o s impl e as t o n ee d n o e xpla

n ati o n The i n flu e nc e li n es f or t he v e rtical an d h ori z o nt al c o m
.

p o n e n t s o f t h e r e acti o n s a re giv e n in F ig s 2 1 2 and 2 1 3 f or t h e .

I n fl ue n c e L i ne f or V L I n fl u e n c e L i ne f o r H R a nd HL

FIG . 212 . FG I . 213 .

arch s h ow n i n F ig 2 1 1 in o rd e r t o s h ow cl e arly t he variati o n s i n

.

t h e r e acti on s as t h e l oad cr os se s t he s tructur e Th e s e li ne s are .

al s o c orr e ct f or t he sp a n dr e l —
brac e d arch s h ow n i n F i g 2 1 0 pro .
,

v i d e d t h e arch rib h as t h e s am e dim e n s i on s s in c e t h e c o n s tru e ,

ti on ab ov e t he arch rib h as n o i n fl ue n c e up on t he valu e of the

r e acti on s .

Fo r a unif o rm l o ad t he maximum valu e o f b oth t he h oriz on

tal and v e rtical c o mp on en t s and h e nc e of t he actual r e acti on
, ,
AR T . 1 31 MAX IMU M S TR ES SE S I N E LA S TI C A RC H R I B S 27 3

e vid e ntly o ccu r s wh e n t he e nti re structur e i s l o ad e d wh il e ,

the m axim um r e acti o n f or a c onc e ntrat e d l o a d oc cur s wh e n t he

l oad i s plac e d at t he c entr e of th e s pan I n d e s ign i n g t he
.

pi e r s it i s as imp ortant t o k n o w t he dir e cti o n of t he r e acti on

a s i t s mag n itud e B oth may b e d e t e rmin e d graphically f or any
.

p os iti on of t h e l o ad s by t he m eth o d s s h own in F ig 2 1 2 in which .

,

t h e s l o pi n g d ott e d lin e s s h owi n g t h e dir e cti on are d e t e rmin e d

b y laying o ff at t h e f o ot of e ach v e rtical t h e c o rr e s p ondi n g h oriz on
tal o rdinat e as o btain e d by s c al e fr o m F ig 2 1 3 I t will b e . .

ob s e rv e d that t he dir e cti o n o f t h e l e ft r e acti o n i s c on s tant f or

l o ad s on th e right half o f th e s tructur e This i s not accid e ntal

.
,

but i s du e t o t he e ff e ct of t he ce n tr e hing e S inc e with a l o ad

.

o n t he r i ght half of t he s tructur e t he o nly f o rc e t o t h e l e ft of t h e

c e ntr e hinge i s t he l e ft r e acti o n an d s i n c e th e m o m e nt ab out t he

,

c e n tr e hing e e qual s z e r o t he l e ft r e acti on mu s t p a s s thr ough i t

, .

T hi s prin cipl e may b e s tat e d as f oll ow s: F or a l o ad t o t he ri ght

o f t h e c e ntr e hing e t he dir e cti o n of t he left r e acti o n c o i n cid e s

W ith a lin e dr awn thr o ugh t he l e ft and c e ntr e hing e s and vi ce ,

vers a . I t i s evid e nt that whil e t he re acti o n at o n e en d d ue t o

t h e liv e l o ad on t h e oth e r half of t h e ar ch may pa ss thr o ugh t he
e n d a n d c e ntr e hing e s t h e actual r e acti on will n ot hav e thi s
,

dir e cti on s inc e s uch a c on d iti o n w o uld i n v olv e t he e ntir e ab s e nc e

,

of d e ad l o ad in t he half o f t he s tructur e adj o ini n g t h e r e acti o n

in qu e s ti o n .

W ith a c on c e ntrat e d l o ad s y s t e m t he maximum v e rtical

-

r e acti on s may e vid e n tly b e d et e rmin e d as f or any s impl e b e am ,

whil e t he s hap e of the influ e n c e lin e s h ow s that t he maximum

h o riz ontal c o mp on en t will o ccur f or that p os iti o n of t he liv e l oad s
which w o uld giv e a maximum m o m e nt at t he c e n tr e of a s p an
o f t h e l e n gth of t he arch and h e nc e may b e e a s ily d e t e rmin e d
, .

The e xact p o s iti on f or th e maximum valu e of t h e r e acti on it se lf i s

l ess e a sily d e t e r min e d but an equival ent unif o rm l o ad m ay b e
,

u se d with s af e ty to d et e rmin e the actual maximum r e acti on .

1 3 1 Ma xi m u m S tr e ss es i n E l asti c A r ch R i b s
. The maximum .

fib re s tr ess at any se cti on of the arch rib of a s t r uctur e lik e that

s h o wn in Fi g 2 1 1 may b e d e t e rmi n e d if t he dir e cti on po int of
.
,

applic ati on and ma gnitud e of t he r es ultant f o rc e at the se cti on

,

are kn o wn I t i s a w e ll kn own principl e of m e chanic s that a

.
-

f o r c e P appli e d at one of the p rincipal axes O Y of a cr oss se cti on -

of a s traight e la s ti c ba r in t he mann e r s h own in Fi g 2 1 4 c au s e s a .

27 4 TH R EE- H I N GED A RC HE S A RT . 1 31

dir e ct fib re s tr ess at a di st anc e c fr o m t h e oth e r principal axi s 0 X ,

which may b e e xpr e ss e d by t he e q uati on

N “
0

Z P

which N = n ormal c o mp on ent of t he f orc e P .

S tran s v e r se c o mp on e n t .

A ar e a of cr os s se cti on -
.

c = d i st an c e of p o in t of applicati o n o f f o rc e fr o m t h e

axi s 0 X .

I = m o m ent of in e rt ia of cr os s s e et 1 on ab out axi s 0 X -

.

The h e arin g s tr e s s d ue t o t he tran s v e r s e c o mp on e n t S may f or

s , ,

s uch a ca s e b e c omput e d in t h e s am e mann e r a s in an o rdinary

b e am .

Lo ng ltudi nal
Sec t i o n of Bar .

FIG . 2 14 ,

F or a curv e d bar s uch as an arch rib t he f ormula j u s t giv e n

, ,

f or t h e valu e of s i s n ot s trictly c orr e ct but s h ould b e r e plac e d ,

by t he f oll owi n g e quati on :

N Nv
i i Nv
X AR

in which R z
ra d i u s of curvatur e of axi s
t he of t he arch .

y
= d i st an c e of a n y fi b re fr o m axis 0X .

ar ch e s t he r adiu s of curvatur e R i s alway s v e ry large

F or , , ,

c o mpar e d with t he dim en s i on s of t he cr os s s e cti on h en c e -

,

R+y 1 RC
e q ual S v e ry n e ar 1y
Egaa4
. 1 13 + c

v is al s o s mall c o mpar e d with R in any w e ll pr op o rti o n e d arch ; -

h e n c e t h e se c on d t e rm of ab ov e e xpr e s s i on f or 8 may b e n egl e ct e d

with but littl e e rr o r givi n g f or a fi n al valu e
,

§
c
s = i N v—
,
2 76 TH R EE -
H I N GE D A RCHE S AR T . 1 32

t he principl es al r e ady th or oughly illu strat e d f or oth er st r uctures ,

and t he s tud en t w h o i s familiar with th e s e pr i ncipl es s h ould hav e

n o d i ffi c ult y in applying th e m t o s uch a s tructur e .

1 32 Par ab oli c Th r ee hin ged A r c h es

. I n practic e thr e e
-
.

hing e d arch e s are fr e qu e ntly c on struct e d e ith e r with a parab olic

axi s or with pa n e l p o int s lyin g on a p arab ola I f t he e n d p i n s of .

s uch an arch ar e at t h e s am e e l e vati on and i f t h e l o ad i s v e rtical , ,

u n if ormly di stribut e d and applie d t o t he arch by v e rtical p os t s

, ,

t he m o m e nt at any pa n e l p oi nt e qual s z er o .

lb m —U i f n orm Lo a d : 10 pe r f t .

TB T
H i ng e
v1 VR
. ott om ch o r d pan e l po in ts li e on a para bola

FG I . 215 .

Thi s pr op os iti on may be pr o v e n as f oll ow s :

Let H z .
an d VL , F ig . 2 1 5, b e th e
h o r i z ontal and v e rtical c om
o n e n t s r es p e ct iv e ly of t h e l e ft r e acti on
p .

2: a n d y e qual t h e ab s ci s s a a n d o rdi n at e r e s p e ctiv e ly o f a n y

pa n e l p oi nt on t h e arch axi s r ef err e d t o t he l e ft hin ge .

M = m o m e nt at thi s p o i n t du e t o a u n i f o r m v e rtical l o ad
o v e r t h e e n tir e s pan .

M = m o m e nt at s am e p oi n t d u e t o t he v e rtical l o ad s an d
,

v e rtical r e acti on s only .

M h = m om ent at t he s am e p o i n t due t o t he h o riz ontal re a c

ti on L ,
H .

Th e v e rtical r e acti on s i n s uch a s tructur e are t he s am e as

f or an e n d s upp o rt e d b e am th e r e f or e M e qual s t h e m o m en t
-
, ,

o n s uch a b e am h e n c e it vari e s a s t h e o rdi n at e s t o a p arab o la

, .

( S e e A r t 4 3
. C a se
,
S i n c e H L i s c o n s ta n t f or t he l o adi n g und e r

c on s id e r ati on an d y i s t h e ordi n at e o f a p arab ola M h (H L ) (y) ;

, ,
z

th e r e f o r e it al s o vari es as t he o rdinat e s t o a p arab o la B ut .

M i ll — M h th er e f o r e it al s o vari e s as t he o rdinat e s t o a p ara

z
v

b ola th r f r
,
K
e e o e is c o n s tant f or e v e ry pan e l p o int . A t t he c en t e r
3!
A RT 1 3 2
. PA RA BOL I C TH R E E -
H I N GE D A RCHE S 2 77

M
hinge M at thi s p o i n t an d c on s e qu e ntly at e v e ry
pan e l p oint of t he arch For s e cti on s b e tw e e n p an e l p o i nt s M
.
,

varies as a s traight li n e (Se e A rt I f t he arch it s e lf b e

. .

s traight b e tw ee n pan e l p oint s (HL ) (y) al s o vari es as a s traight

,

lin e h e n c e
,
vari es as a s traight li n e b e tw e e n p an el p o i n t s an d
y
in c on s e qu e nc e e qual s z e r o h e nc e the arch rib c arri es dir e ct c o m
,

pr e ss i on only . This i s t he o rdinary c on diti on f or sp a n dr e l

brac e d arch e s h e nc e un d e r a full unif o rm l o ad t he str e ss e s
,

e qual z e r o i n t op ch o rd an d diag o nal s of s uch an arch i e an ,

. .
,

arch c onf orming t o t he c onditi on s stat e d at t he b e gin n i n g of thi s

articl e ; t he str e ss in t he v e rtical s e qual s t he p an e l l o ad an d t he ,

s t r e s s i n t h e b ott o m ch ord i s dir e ct c o mpr e ss i o n thr o ugh o ut and

h as a h o riz ontal c o mp on e nt e qual t o t he h oriz o ntal c o mp on e n t of

t he r e acti on . If t h e arch rib b e curv e d b e tw ee n pa n e l p o int s
t he b e nding m o m e n t in it will b e z e r o at t he pan e l p o i n t s on ly .

F or p artial l o ad s t he m o m e n t s at t he p an e l p o i n t s will n ot
e qual z e r o and t he arch rib will b e s ubj e ct e d t o b e n ding m o m e nt s

thr o ugh out i t s l e ngt h I t s h ould b e ob s e rv e d h ow e v e r that

.
, ,

t he maximum p o s itiv e m om e nt at an y p an e l p o int d u e t o a u n i

f o rm liv e l oad will e qual t he m axi m um n e gat i v e mom e nt at
l

t he s am e Eoi nt _ due t o t h e s am e l o ad Thi s i s d ue t o t he fact t hat

.

t he p o rti on of t he s tructur e which s h o uld b e l o ad e d with a unif orm

l o ad f or maximum p os itiv e liv e m o m en t at any s e cti on s h ould
b e u n l o ad e d f or a maximum n e gativ e liv e m o m e nt at t h e s am e
s e cti on a n d vi ce vers a h e nc e t h e c o mbi n e d l o adi n g f or maximum
,

p os it iv e an d maximum n e gativ e m o m e nt i s e quival e nt t o a full

unifo rm l oad th e r e f or e t he maximum p os itiv e liv e m o m e n t plu s
,

t he maximum n e gativ e liv e m o m e nt e qual s z e r o .

Fo r s pandr e l — brac e d arch es a partial l o ad c au se s s tr e ss in t he

diag onal s and in all the t op ch o rd bars e xc e p t t he adj u s t abl e on e ,

and the maximum t e n si on in th e se m e mb e r s und e r unif o rm liv e

l oad e qual s t h e maximum c o mpr ess i on f or t he r e a s on s alre ady
give n Fo r thi s t yp e of ar ch th e b o tt o m ch o rd o r a r ch rib ca rri es
.
, ,

o nly di r e ct s t r ess if s traight b e tw e e n pan e l p o int s t he s truc tur e ,

actin g lik e any oth e r fram e d s tructu re W ith a c onc e nt rat e d l o ad .

sy s t e m t h e maximum p os itiv e b e ndi n g m o m e nt will n o t e qual t h e

maxi m um n egativ e m o me nt n or will th e y b e e qual f o r a u n if o r m

,

l o ad wi th l o c o m otiv e e xc es s .
278 TH REE-H I N G E D A RC HE S A RT . 1 32

Th ese c onclus i o n s f or a s pandr e l brac e d arch -

are c onfi r m e d by
t he pr o bl e m which f o ll ow s

P ro ble m . Comp u te t he maximum s tre sse s i n all membe rs of t he

span drel brace d t hree
- -
hin ge d parabolic arch shown i n F i g 2 1 6 . .

l
‘ —
3P-
anels@

B o tto m c hord pane l poi nts li e on a parabola

FIG . 216 .

De ad we igh t bridge of ,

1 000 lb s pe r f oo t pe r t r us s t op cho rd lb s pe r pan e l

h d
: .
.
,
.

4 00 lb s pe r foo t pe r t r u s s b o tt om c o r = 8 000 lb s pe r pane l

.
,
. .

Un iform live l oad

2 000 lb s pe r f oo t pe r tr u ss t op ch ord =
.
lb s pe r pane l
,
. .

L oc omo t ive e xc e ss lb s
,
.

Thi s problem m ay b e solve d e i t he r by u se of i nfl uen c e line s or an

i nfl ue n ce t able The l a tte r wi ll b e empl oye d he re i n orde r to ill us t ra te
.

i ts u se .

The foll owing laws c on ce rni ng the magni t ude and dire c t i on of t he
lef t r e ac t i on whe n t h e l oad i s t o t he fl ghi o f t h e c e n t re hi n ge are of m ate
ri al a ssi s t an c e i n preparing s uch a table .

a The li ne o f ac t i on o f t he l e ft r e ac t i o n pa ss e s t hr ough L O an d L 4
.
.

b It s ve r t ical an d hori z on t al c omp one nts an d he n ce i ts m agni

.

t ude va rie s dire c tly wi t h the dis tan ce of t he l oad from U8 .

6 Th e m ome n t abo u t e ach of the b o tt om pan e l p oi n t s t o t he lef t

.

o f th e c e ntr e i s c o u n t e r cl o c kwi s e h e n c e t h e s tr ess i n t h e

-
,

t o p cho rd i s te ns i on an d that i n the l owe r ch o rd c ompr ess i on .

I t foll ows from the ab ove rules that the magnitude of the stress i n all
the l owe r chord bar s in the left half of the arch vari es unif ormly as t he l oad
move s from Us t o U4 he n ce t he ma gni t ude of the stre ss i n the web m e m
,

be rs of t he le f t half of t he arch al so varie s u niform ly s in c e t he stre ss i n ,

e a ch o f t he s e me mbe r s i s a fu n c t i o n o f t he c omb i n e d ve r t ical c omp one n t s

o f t he l e f t r e acti on a n d t he s t re ss i n o ne o f t he b o ttom chord me mbe rs

w .

Wi t h t he l oad on t he lef t half of the a rch t he s t re sse s i n t he bars on t he

le f t half of the s t r uc t ure will n o t va ry u nifo rmly an d m ay be e i t he r ,

te n si on or c ompre ss i o n s i n ce the le f t re a c t i on va rie s i n ma gni t ude a n d

,

d i re é ti on The i nfl ue n c e t able will n ow be given and a t able giv i ng

.
,

maximum s t re sse s i n all bars follows .

28 0 TH R E E -
H I N G ED A RCHE S A RT 1 32
.
A RT . 1 32 F
I N LU E NCE TA B LE S 28 1

F
I N LUENCE TA B LE F OR VE R TI CA L COMP ON E NTS IN D IA GON A L S
Vl = s he ar i n pan e l c on t a i n i n g d i a gon a l .

V2 = ve r ti c a l c om pon e n t i n b o tt om c h ord b a r i n pan e l as d e t e rm i ne d from

pre vi o u s ta b le .

V3 = V l j; V 2 = v e r ti c al c om po n e n t i n d i a gon a l .

L oa d at B ar U oL i . B a r U 1 L2 . B a r U sL s . Ba r U3L 4 .

— O 2SI
.
+ 0 22 5

—o l 8 7
.

U nd e r f ull loa d t he ve rt i c a l c om po ne n t i n e a c h d ia gon al e

a lge b ra i c s u m o f t he t a b u la r va lu e s Thi s s um s h o u ld a n d d oe s
.
qq
e
u a ls

ual
t he
0,
t hus c he c ki n g all the tab ula r value s .
2 82 TH R E E - H I N GE D A RCHES A RT . 1 32

F
I N LUE NCE TA BLE F OR S TR ESS ES IN VERTI CA LS
V3 = V e rti c a l c om pone n t i n d i a gon al run n i n g t o jo i n t at t op of ve r ti c al . See
pre vi ous t a ble .

V4 = pa ne l lo a d a t t op o f ve r t i c a l .

V5 = s t re ss i n b a r .

L o ad at B ar U i Li . B a r U 2L 2 . B a r U sL a . B a r U 4L 4 ,

Ul +0 02 9
V4 = -
1 000
.
v
'

V5 = —O . 97 I

U2 + 0 558
V4 = 0 000 .
v v

V — O 3 I3 .

U3 17 3 =

U5 V5 = + 0 2 8 1 .
+ 0 2 02 + 0 04 7

U, + 0 1 34 + 0 03 1

U7 + 0 067 + 0 016

No t th
e at s t i n d i a go na l gi ve s
r es s s t res s in ver ti c a l a nd tha t f o r f ull lo a d
th e t
s res s in q
e a c h v e r t i c a l e u a ls u n i ty .
284 TH R EE- H I N G E D A RC HE S A RT . 1 32

TA BLE F OR MA X IMU M L I VE S TR ES SES IN A LL B A RS

Te n s i o n . Co m pres s i o n .

Uni f o rm Live at E at S t res s L b s

, U n i f o rm L i v e L o ad at E at S t r es s L b s
, .

U4 U1 an d U2
U4 UI t o U, i n c .

U4 U I t o U3 i n c .

UI to U7 i nc .

U2 t o U 7 in c .

U3 t o U 7 i n c .

U4 t o U 7 i n c .

Us t o U 7 i n c .

U1 an d U4 t o U
i n c lu s i ve
UI a n d U2 an d U4
t o U 7 i nc lu si v e
UI t o U3 i n c .

U 0 t o U2 i n c .

UI t o U3 i n c .

U2 an d U3

U, t o U 7 i n c .

U4

Th e d e ad s t re sse s a re a s f ollow s :
To p c ho rd b a rs an d d i a gon a ls
E n d v e rt i c als .

I n te rm e d i a te v e rt i c a ls
B o tt om c h ord b ars (hori z on t al c om pone n t )

P R OB E M 1 ,

60 . 0 . Draw i n fl ue n c e li ne f o r hori z on t al c ompon en ts of reac t i ons ,

0. D raw i n fl uen c e line f o r ve r t ic al c omp o n en t o f s t re ss i n b ar a .

-
fi

PR O B 6 0. .
 CH A P T E R X1
DE S I G N OF C O LUMNS A ND TE N S I ON ME MB E R S

1 33 . Co l u m n s— Gen e r a l Con s i der ati o n s c olumn i s a m e m

. A
b e r d e s ign e d primarily t o r e s i s t c o mpr e s s i on alth ough it may
,

al s o b e s u bj e ct e d t o tran s v e r s e l o ad s cau s i n g fl e xure For t he .

pr e se nt c o lumn s of the fi rs t typ e o n ly will b e c o n s id e r e d Co m .

pr e ss iv e t e s t s of bl o ck s of pla stic mat e rial of s uch pr op o rti o n s that

the l e ngth d oes n ot gr e atly e xc ee d th e minimum lat e ral d i m e n
s i o n s h o w that failur e o ccur s by l at e ral fl o w i n g o f t he mat e ri al

with n o we ll — d e fi n e d ultimat e s tr e ngth ; a d e fi n i te e la s tic limit ,

h ow e v e r e xis t s b e y ond which the mat e rial s imply e xp an d s

,

lat e rally and c o ntract s l o n gitudinally u n d e r i n cr e a s i n g l o ad s .

On t he o th e r hand c o mpr e s s iv e pi e c e s in which t he rati o o f

,

l en gth t o l e a st lat e ral d im e n s i o n i s high fail by lat e ral b e ndi ng

, ,

wh e n s ubj e ct e d t o c o mpr e ss i on e v e n wh e n the l o ad i s applie d

,

al ong t he l ongitudi n al axi s pa ss i n g thr ough the c e ntr e of gravity

of t he bar an d t h e bar i s o riginally s traight
,

and of h o m o ge n e o u s mat e rial with o ut i n itial

s tr e s s
.

The ultimat e l o ad pe r s quar e i n ch f or th e

latt e r cla s s of c olum n s may b e much l e s s than
the pr o duct of t he e la s tic limit an d t he cr os s
s e cti o n a r e a . A g o od illu s trati on of s uch a
c onditi on i s pr e se nt e d by a s traight bar of
t e mp e r e d s t ee l of v e ry s mall cr oss s e cti on -
.

A s h ort p i e c e of s uch a b ar w o uld s u s tain a

high l o ad pe r s quar e i n ch with out s h owi n g
s ign s of failur e whil e a l ong pi e c e w o uld
,

c ollap se by b e ndi n g lat e rally u n d e r a c o m

FIG 2 1 7 . .

p ara t i v e ly light l o ad t he c olumn b e nding in

,

o ne o f t he way s indicat e d by F ig 2 17
. The c olum n s u se d in
.

e ngin ee ring s tructur e s g e n e rally hav e a s l e n d e rn e ss rati o midway

b e tw ee n th e s e tw o e xtr e m e s h e n c e failur e may b e e xp e ct e d

,

e i th e r by cru s hing o r b e nding o r by b o th t o g e th e r e v e n if t h e

, ,

28 5
2 86 D E S I G N OF C O LU MNS A ND TE NS I ON ME MB ERS A RT . 1 34

c olumn b e o riginally in an id e al c o nditi on so far as mate r ial ,

s hap e a n d l o adi n g are c on c e r n e d

, .

The id e al c o lumn h ow e v e r d oes n ot e xi s t in practic e

,
The , .

l o ad i s s e ld o m if e v e r applie d e xactly at the c e n tr e of gravity

o r al o ng t h e c o lumn axi s ; t he pr o c e ss o f fabricati o n in a m e tal

c olumn i s s ur e t o l e av e t he c olum n with s o m e di s t o rti on and ,

with the mat e rial in a c o nditi o n of initial s tr e ss and c olumn s of ,

timb e r or c o ncr e t e are e qually s ur e t o b e imp e rf e ct Mor eov e r .

,

t he mat e rial i s n e v e r h o m o g e n e o u s an d in a built up s t ee l ,

-

c olumn s uch as i s ge n e rally u se d in imp o rtant s tructur e s the

, ,

b e havi or of t he c olumn as a wh ol e i s d e p e n d e nt up on t he int e g

rity of i t s cr o s s s e cti on which may or may n ot b e pr e s e rve d
-
,

by t he ri ve t s t i e plat e s lattic e bar s and o th e r d e vic e s r e quir e d

,
-
, ,

t o h old t o ge th e r t he main pi e c e s .

I n vi e w of th e s e man y u n c e rtainti e s t he e c o n o mic al and ,

e ffi c i e n t d e s i gn of c o lum n s i s o n e of t h e m o s t se r i o u s pr o bl e m s
‘

which the e ngin e e r h as t o c on fr on t e s p e cially wh en d e al i n g with ,

u n u s ual c a se s The d i ffi c ulti e s are h e i ght e n e d b y t he lack of

.

s u ffi c i e n t e xp e rim e ntal data In r e c e nt ye ar s t he s tudy of t h e

.

s ubj e ct h as h owe v e r r e c e iv e d a d e cid e d imp e tu s d u e in gr e at

, , ,
]

part t o the failur e of the c o mpr es s i o n ch or ds of the Q u e b e c

‘

bridg e and many valuabl e d ata are b e in g c oll e ct e d

, .

1 34 Co n d iti on of En d s
. I f the e nd s of a c olumn are u m r e
.

s trai n e d a gai n s t turni n g it i s s aid t o hav e hi n ge d e nd s ; thi s

,

c onditi o n h o w e v e r s e ld o m e xi s t s Co lum n s in which t he l o ad s

"

, , .

a re appli e d by pi n s at t h e e n d s as in ma n y A m e rican bridg e s are , ,

s aid t o hav e pin e nd s Colum n s in which t h e e nd s are s ubj e ct

.

t o s uch r es trai n t that t he tange nt s t o t he e la s tic curv e at t he

e nd s r e main parall e l t o t he c olumn axi s wh e n t h e c o lumn d e fl e ct s

lat e rally are s ai d t o hav e fi xed e nd s I f t he e n d s of t he c olu m n .

are s quar e an d b e ar up o n fl at s urfac e s th e y a r e s aid t o b e s quar e ,

o r fi at e n d e d ; thi s c o n diti o n cl os e ly appr o ximat e s t he c o n diti o n

-

o f fi xe d — e nd e d c olum n s wh e n t h e c o lumn s ar e s h o rt an d pin e nd e d ,

-

c olum n s wh e n l on g .

That th e c onditi o n of the e n d may a ffe ct t he s tr e n gth of t he

c olumn i s appar e nt fr o m a s tudy of F ig 2 1 8 which s h ows t he
’

.
,

curv e s which b oth r o u n d e n d e d an d fi x e d e n d e d c o lum n s w o uld

- -

tak e u n d e r v e rtical l o ad s b e f o r e failur e by b e ndi ng .

Th e s e t wo ca se s are s om e what anal ogo u s t o fr ee e n d e d and -

fi xe d e nd e d b e am s
-
A fi xe d — e nd e d b e am i s mat e rially s tr on ger
.
288 D ES I G N O F C O LU MNS A ND TENS I ON ME MB E RS ART . 1 36

Gord on f o rmula

S trai ght -
li n e f o rmul a

The latt e r f o rmula i s of t he fi r s t d e gr e e and c o n se qu ently

,

P
giv es a s trai ght li n e f or valu es of ' It is s impl e r to u se than the
A

Go rd o n f ormula alth o u gh tabl e s

, gi v m g t he valu e of
g as de

g
l
t e rm i n e d by t he Go r d o n f o rmula f or di ffe r e nt rati os ofar e

publi s h e d in t he vari ou s s tructural handb oo k s .

Oi th e s e t w o f o rmula s t he f o rm e r i s t h e o ld e r and h as b e e n
m o r e ge n e rally u s e d by A m e rican e ngin e e r s and i s s till fav o r e d
by many The gr owin g r e c o gniti o n o f t he fact that the m
.

o f a c o lum n accid ental c o nd i ti on s which ,

ca nn o t b e e xpr e s s e d th e o r e tically s uch as i n itial s t re ss lack o f

, ,

s traightn e s s ,
and unh o m oge n e ity of mat e rial c o upl e d with t h e ,

fact that e xp e rim e nt s fail t o d e m o n s trate that a f o rmula o f t he

Gord on typ e c o rr e s p ond s m o r e cl os e ly t o e xp e rim e ntal r e s ult s
than t he s trai ght lin e f o rmula h as le d t o the ad opti on o f the
-
,

latt e r by many en gin e e r s s o that an e xami n ati on o f t he bridge

,

s pe c i fi c a t i o n s of tw e n ty s e v e n typical A m e rican railway s s h o w s

-

that at the pr e s e nt tim e thirt e e n of th ese s p e c ify t he s traight

li n e f o rmula .

1 36 Typic al F orm ula s f or Co l u m n s of Or d in ary L e n gth s

. .

Th e t wo f ormula s which f oll o w are typical o f th e G o r d o n and

t h e s traight lin e f o rmula s and r e pr e se nt pr es e n t day A m e rican
-

practic e f or o rdinary s tructur e s I n b o th the c o nditi on o f th e

.

e nd s i s ign o r e d .

F o rmula fr om Ma s s achu s e tt s R ailr o ad Co mmi s s i o n s S pe c i fi ’

c ati on s f or B ridge s Carryin g El e ctric R a i lway s ” F o r s tructural .

s t e e l havi n g a r e quir e d ultimat e s tr e n gth of fr o m to

lb s . L iv e s tr e ss t o b e c o rr e ct e d f o r i mpact
AR T 1 3 6. FO RMUL FOR AS O R D I N A RY LE N G TH S . 28 9

Form ula A m e rican R ailway Engine e rin g and Mai n te n

fr om
an c e of W ay A ss o ciati o n s Ge n e ral S pe c i fi c at i o n s f or S t e e l R ail
’

way B ri d ge s .
” F or s tructural t l havi n g an ultimat e t e n s il e
s ee

str e ngth of ab o ut lb s .
per s quar e i n ch L iv e s tr e ss e s t o .

b e c o rr e ct e d f or impact :
P -
70 (2 2 )
A
1 and sh o uld be
B o th of th e s e f o rmula s are f or mai n m e mb e r s
I
of —— does
1
u se d f or c olumn s f or which the valu e n ot exc eed 1 00 .

9 000 3

40 50 60 70 80 90 1 00 1 10 130 1 30 1 40 150
V alu e s 0 13 1;
F1 G 2 19
. .

L
The t e rm in th e se f o r mula s s h ould e qual t he maximu m
7
rati o o f u n r e s trai n e d l e ngth t o r adiu s of gyrati o n I f t he c olumn .

i s r e s train e d a gai n s t l at e ral d e fl e c t i on in all dir e cti on s at t he

t w o e n d s and at n o i n t e rm e diat e p o int th e n L w ould b e t h e ,

1
S ec on d ary m em b e rs , s u c h as la t e ra l s t ru t s ,
a re c o m m on ly d e s i gn e d f o r
L
a s o m e wh a t h i ghe r un i t s t re ss ,
an d a la r ge r va lue o f i s pe rm i s s i ble . The
f o llo w i n g v alue s m a y be u se d f or s uc h m e m b e rs
L _ P
—70
Z
2 90 DES I G N O F C O LU M NS A N D TE N S I ON M E M B E R S AR T 1 3 7
.

t o tal l e n gth of the c olumn b e tw ee n lat e ral s upp o rt s and r ,

t he l e a s t radiu s of gyrati o n o f i ts tran s v e r s e s e cti o n pr o vid e d the ,

c olumn i s of c on s tan t cr os s se cti on b e twee n s upp ort s as i s u s ually

-
,

t he ca se I f the c olumn i s h e ld again s t late ral d e fl e c ti on in all

.

L
dir e cti on s at on e or se v e ral int e rm e diat e p o int s ,
t he value of
T
to be u s e d s h o uld b e th e l arg e s t p o s s ibl e valu e f or any p o rti o n
of t h e c olumn b e tw ee n an y t w o p o int s of s upp o rt I f t h e c olumn .

i s h e ld at an int e rm e diat e p o int in o n e d i re c

ti o n o nly th e n
,
t he valu e of
£: to b e use d
1

in the f o rmul a s h ould b e th e maximum ob

t a i ne d by u s i n g f o r L e ith e r t h e l e n gth of an y
s e cti o n or th e t o t al l e ngth of t h e c olumn ,

and f or r in e ach c a s e th e r adiu s of gyrati o n

r e f e rr e d t o th e axi s ab o ut whi ch th e c olumn
i s fr e e t o b e nd F or e xampl e t h e maximum
.

L
valu e of f or th e c o lumn s h o wn in Fi g 2 2 0
.

L L
may b e e i th e r
7
.

2 T1

I f t h e c olum n i s of variabl e s e cti o n t h e

d e s ign e r mu s t u s e h i s j ud gm e nt i n s e l e cti n g
t h e pr o p e r valu e of r t o u s e .

1 3 7 Fo rm u l as f or L on g Col um n s Th e .

”
.

“
t e rm l on g c o lum n as u s e d in thi s art icl e , ,

r cdi i af y tius o r e f e r s t o c o lum n s of l e n gth s u ch that failur e

g ra on
b t a i XYou ax s -

= d
r
l
ra f y ii us o
t e n d s t o o ccu r by lat e ral b e nding b e f o r e t h e
g r a t on

mat e rial h a s r e ach e d i t s e la s tic limit Th e .

colla ps i n g loa d which s u ch c olum n s will

carry with o ut yi eldi ng w he n c e ntrally ,

l o ad e d c an b e cl os e ly d e t e rmi n e d by
F G 220I . .
,

math e matical inv e s tigati o n s pr o vid e d th e

1
,

c o lum n s are initially s trai ght and h o m o

ge n e o u s an d t h e l o ad axially appli e d a n d i s d e p e nd e n t up o n t h e
, ,

e la s ticity rath e r tha nt h e cru s hing s tr e n gth of t h e mat e rial Th e .

f o rmula c o mm o n ly u s e d f o r s uch c o lum n s i s kn own as t h e E ul e r

f o rmula a n d i s giv e n i n tr e ati s e s o n m e cha n ic s as f o ll o w s:
, ,

1“
S e e A ppli e d Me c h a n i c s L a n z a E di t i o n 9 pp 3 3 0— 33 3 .
, , , .
2 92 DE S I G N O F C O LU MNS A ND TE N S I ON ME MB E RS A RT . 1 39

t e s t s we r e publi s h e d in the P r o c e e d ing s of the A m e rican S o cie ty

o f Civil E ngi n ee r s f or F e b ru ary 1 9 1 1 an d s h ow an ultimat e, ,

s tr e ngth o f lb s pe r s quar e i n ch f or c olum n s having a

.

rati o of £
1
of an d c o mp ose d of plat e s an d angl e s t he e la s tic
7

limit ofwhich vari e d in the di ffe r e n t pi e c e s fr o m to

lb s pe r s quar e i n ch t h e f o rme r valu e o ccurring in one o f the
.
,

plat e s and b e i n g t he minimum valu e f o u n d The c onclu s i o n .

r e ach e d by Mr H o ward fr o m t he se t e s ts i s that t he mi n imum

.
t

valu e of t he e la s tic limit as found in t he c o mp on e nt part s c h i c fly

, ,

m od i fi e s t he ultimat e r e s i s ta n c e o f t he c o lumn s and that varia ,

ti on s of i ts valu e w o uld o v e r s ha d ow t he c on s i d e rati on s which

fi n d e xpr e s s i o n in e m p1r1 c al f o rmula s f or s tr e ngth and tak e n o
ac c o u n t of s uch f e atur e s ” .

The e ntir e s ubj e ct of c olumn s tr e ngth i s n ow b e ing inv e s tigat e d

by a c o mmitt e e of t he A m e rica n S o ci e ty o f Civil E nginee r s ,

and it m ay b e h op e d that b e f o r e l ong s uffi cie nt r e liabl e data

will b e availabl e to p e rmit the e s tabli s hm e nt o f b e tt e r f o rmula s
with m or e r eliabl e c on s tant s .

1 39 Cas t i r o n Co l u m n s
.
-
Ca s t ir o n i s u n s uitabl e f or s tru c
.

tural m e mb e r s e xp ose d t o t e n s i o n or b e n ding b e cau s e o f i ts

low t e n s il e s tr e ngth and brittl e n e s s I t may h owe v e r b e u s e d
.
, ,

f or c o mpr e ss i on pi e c e s if th e s e are pr o p e rly d e s i gn e d ca s t ir on ,

-

c olumn s b e ing fr e qu e ntly u se d f or i n t e ri o r c olumn s in building s .

S uch c olum n s ca nn o t b e m ad e in l ong l e ngth s an d t h e d i fi e re nt

’

s e cti o n s cann ot b e fa s t e n e d as rigidly t o g e th e r a s s t ee l c olumn s ,

h en c e th e y are d e ci de dly inf e ri o r i n ri gidity t o the latt e r ; m or e

ove r ,
t he fact that it i s d i ffi c ult t o s e cur e u n if o rm thickn es s o f
s h e ll and that t h e mat e rial i s o ft e n v e ry variabl e in c o mp o s iti on ,

may c ontai n fl aw s and i s fr e qu e n tl y i n a s tat e of initial s tr ess

, ,

i s agains t th e i r u s e I t i s al s o d i ffi c ult t o o btain g oo d c on n e cti on s

.

of tran s v e r se b e am s an d gird e r s .

A se t of v e ry valuabl e t e s t s w as mad e up on c a s t ir o n c olumn s -

at the w o rk s o t e h ix I r n
f h P oe n o Co 1 —
mpany in 8 96 97 and a ,

f ormula b a s e d up on th e s e t e s t s i s pr obably as r e liabl e as anythin g

that c an b e o btai ne d alth o ugh t he r e s ult s of t he t e s t s we r e s o
,

variab le th at a large fact o r of s af e ty s h ould b e u se d in applyi ng

t h e f orm u la A s tudy o f t h e t es t s s h o w s that a s traight li ne
.
-

f ormula c onf o rm s t o the r e s ult s as w e ll as any o th e r typ e of ,

f ormula S uch a f o rmula i s d e rive d by P r of e s so r Wm H B ur r

. . .
A RT . 1 39 CA S T- I RON C O LU MNS 2 93

in Th e Ela s ticity an d Re s i s tanc e of t he Mat e rial s of En gi n e e ri n g ,

and i s as f oll o w s
U ltimat e s tr e ngth pe r s quar e inch f or circular flat e nd e d
-

c olumn s :

1 60

In thi s f o rmula L = un s u ppo rte d l e n gth and d = d i a m e te r .

A f ormula ba s e d up o n thi s s am e s e t of t e s t s as giv e n by

“
,

J o h n s on in The Mat e rial s o f Co n struc ti on di ff e r s so m e what ,

fr o m the ab ov e an d i s as f oll o w s

—8 8

I n thi s f o rmula r= le as t radiu s of gyrati on .

A fact o r of s af e ty of fi ve which i s n on e t o o much f or a mat e rial

,

as unc e rtain as ca s t ir o n r e d u c e s B urr s f o rmula t o t h e f oll o wi n g

’
,

f o rm :

6 1 00 — 3 2

Thi s valu e i s v e ry much l e s s than t he c orr es p o nding valu e f or

s t e e l c o lumn s in s pit e o f t h e hi gh c o mpr e s s i o n s tr e n gth o f ca s t

ir o n an d i n c o n s e qu e nc e whil e c a s t ir o n i s ch e ap e r pe r p o und
, ,

than s t ee l th e r e i s littl e if any e c o n o my in the u s e o f pr o p e rly

,

d e s ig n e d c a s t —ir o n c o lum n s e xc e pt f or light l o ad s f or which it m ay

b e d i ffi c ult t o o btain s t e e l c olum n s of su ffi c i e nt ly s mal l c r os s s e c -

ti on I t s h o uld b e n o t e d h o w e v e r that t he b uil d i ng law s of t he

.
, ,

lar ge citi e s p e rmit in ge ne ral t he u s e o f much hi gh e r u n it s tr e s se s

, ,

t h an th ose giv e n by e ith e r of t he ab o v e f o rmula s wh e n pr op e rly

r e duc e d by a fact o r of s afe ty and that t he u s e of ca s t —
,
ir on c olumn s
i n buildi n g s will pr o bably c on ti n u e u n til t he l e gal u n it str e ss e s
are r e duc e d Th e e mpl oym e n t of c a s t ir on in bridg e s w as
.

aband on e d many y e ar s ago b o th b e cau s e o f i ts tr e ach e r o u s

charact e r an d the di ffi c ulty of maki n g s ati s f a ct o ry c o n n e cti on s
b e tw ee n m e mb e r s .

The limiting l e n gth s t o which th e se f ormula s are applic abl e

are s tat e d t o b e as f oll o w s
2 94 D E S I G N OF C O LU MNS A ND TE NS I ON ME MB E R S A RT . 1 40

J o h n s on : 1 20 r = ra d i u s o f gyrati on .

d = d i am e t er of circ ular c olumn or s h ort e r

s id e of r e ctan gular c ol u mn .

1 40 .Tim ber and Con c r ete Co l um n s Timb e r c olumn s .

r e se mbl e ca st — ir on c olumn s in b e in g v e ry variabl e in s tr e ngth .

Thi s i s large l y d ue t o t he pr e se nc e of kn o t s and o th e r

d e f e ct s . Wid e variati on s in t he re s ult s of t es t s are n otic e
abl e h e nc e a s traight lin e f ormula i s pr obably as w ell ad apt e d
,
-

t o such c olum n s as any o th e r and that giv e n in Art 1 8 may b e

,
.

u se d .

I t i s imp o rtant t o n o t e that timb e r c olu nm s mad e by b oltin g

a n umb e r of s tick s t o ge th e r are n o s tr o n ge r than if e ach s tick
w e r e t o b e s e p arat e and l o ad e d by i ts s har e of the t otal l o ad .

Thi s h as b ee n s h own by t e s t s an d m ay b e re a d ily unde r s t o od ,

s inc e t he b olt s c an n ot b e c o u n t e d up o n as h olding the i n di

vidual stick s in plac e o wing t o the s mall b e aring valu e of w ood
,

acr os s the grain and the d i ffi c ulty of k ee ping nut s tight .

Con c r e t e c olumn s w i ll n ot b e c on s id e r e d h e r e Th e st ud e nt .

i s r e fe rre d t o b o o k s up o n c on cr et e st ructure s such a s Co ncr e t e

Plain and R e info rc e d
” by Tayl o r an d Th omp son and P rin
”
, ,

c i ple s of R e i n f o rc e d Co nc r e t e by Turn e au re and Maur e r f or

, ,

full t r e atm e nt of s uch c olumn s .

1 41 Typic al Col u m n S e cti on s

. F ig 22 1 r e pr e se nt s the
. .

cr oss — s e cti on s o f a numb e r of t yp e s of c o lumn s A and B are .

c olumn s fr e q u e ntly u se d in bridge c on s tructi on t he latt e r se t ,

r e pr ese nti n g t he c o mm on t yp e f or upp e r ch o rd s of pin bri d ge s ,

t h e h o riz o ntal plat e on t he t op flang e b e i n g u s e d t o giv e

lat e ral r igidity C s h ow s s o m e v e ry h e avy c olumn s e cti on s
.
,

u s e d in t he Q u e e n s b or o B ridge t he Me tr o p olitan T o w e r and t h e

Y
, ,

B a n k e r s Tru s t B uildi n g all in N e w o rk city D s h o w s c olumn s

’
,
.

s o m e tim e s u s e d i n e l e vat e d r ailr o ad c on s tructi o n in which t he

c e nt r al d iaphragm i s u s e ful b o th in a d d ing t o t he cr os s se cti on -

and in pr ese rving the int e grity of t he c olumn E i s a typ e of .

c olu m n fr e qu ently u se d f or v e rtical s of riv e t e d tru s se s F i s a .

Z ba r c o lum n much u s e d in building c ons tructi o n

-
G i s t he .

w e ll kn own P h oen ix c olumn mad e by the P h oen ix I r on Co m

-
,

pany and on c e wid e ly u s e d f or brid ge s an d e l e vat e d r ailr o ad s .

L i s t he L arim e r c olumn ma d e by J on e s L au ghlin s L imit e d , .

2 96 DE S I GN OF C O LU MNS A N D TE NS I ON M MB RS E E A RT . 143

pr e ss i on ch ord s in bridge s mu st b e of s uffi c i e nt width and d epth

t o p e rmit of pr o p e r c onn e cti on s t o t h e w e b m e mb e r s and t he ,

v e rtical s mu s t b e of s uch a s iz e as t o giv e s uitabl e fl oo r b e am -

c o nn e cti on s ; i n buildin gs th e c olumn s are fr e qu e ntly limit ed in

s i z e b e cau s e o f t h e s pac e avail abl e or t he charact e r o f t h e n e ce s

s ary c onn e cti on s E a se o f c on s tructi on mu s t al s o b e c on s id e r e d

.
,

and thi s i s fr e qu en tly a ruli n g fact or as i n the c a se of cha nn e l ,

c olumn s with fl an ges tur n e d t o ward e ach o th e r wh e r e t he s pac e '

b etw ee n t he fl an ges s h ould n ot b e l es s tha n 4 i ns an d lattic e .

bar s 1 mu s t b e far e n ough apart t o p e rmit i n se rti on of hand .

Thi s i s illu s trat e d i n F ig 2 2 2 . .

FI G . 222 .

I n d e t e rmini n g t he dim ens i on s of the individual pi e c es th e r e

ar e al so r e s tricti on s du e t o practical c o n s id e rati on s It th e .

w e b or c o v e r plat e s are t o o thi n th e y may wr i n kl e un d e r c o m

pr e ss i on h e nc e it i s c omm on practic e t o limit the thick n e s s of
,

w e b s an d c ov e r plat e s t o n ot l e s s than fr o m 31 0 t o 71— 1

0
o f t h e “

di s tan c e b e tw ee n c onn e cti n g riv e t s I t i s al s o d e s irabl e t o s o .

pr o p orti on t he c olumn that t he c en tr e o f gravity will b e n e ar

t he c e n tr e of s e cti o n I f a c ov e r plat e i s u se d on t he t op fl ange
.

as in t h e ch ord s of F ig 22 1 B un e q u al l e gg e d a n gl e s with wid e

.
,
-

le g h o riz o ntal or n arr ow fl an ge plat e s v e rtic al or h o riz ontal

, , ,

ar e o ft e n u s e d o n t h e b o tt o m fla n ge t o l o w e r t h e c e n tr e o f
‘

gravity .

1 43 Meth od of Des ign

. W ith th e se r es tricti on s i n min d
.
,

an appr oximat e d e s i gn of t h e c o lum n may b e mad e e ith e r b y ,

a s s uming th e valu e of t he m i ni mum radiu s of gyrati on or of

t he all o wabl e uni t s tr e ss Th e actual all o wabl e u ni t s tr e ss f or
.

t he s e cti on thu s o bt a in e d may th e n b e c o mput e d and t he c olumn ,

r e d e s ign e d if thi s s tr e ss vari es t oo wi d e ly fr o m t he s tr e ss which

t h e c olumn actually c arri es I t i s u s ually e c o n o mic al t o plac e t he
.

1
L a tti c e b a rs a re d i a gon al m em b e rs s u c h a s s h o wn in Fi g . 2 22 i n t e n d e d
t o h old t he t w o c olu m n h alv e s i n li ne an d m a ke t he c olum n ac t as a s o li d

pi e c e . The s e b ars a re o f g re a t i m po rt anc e an d W i ll be f ully tre ate d lat e r .

A RT 1 4 3
. METH O D O F D ES I G N 2 97

w eb s s uch a di stanc e apart that the radiu s of gyrat i on ab out

t he pr i nc i p al axi s parall e l t o t h e w e b s will e qu al that ab o ut t he
pri n cip al axi s p e rp e ndicular t o t he .

w e b s that i s if t he u ns upp o rt ed l e ngth

, ,

o f t h e c o lum n i s t h e s am e with r e s p e ct

t o b o th ax es Thi s inv olv es the c o n

.

d iti o n that t h e m o m e n t s o f i n e rtia

ab o ut e ach o f th e s e ax e s s h ould b e
e q u al s inc e t h e radii of gyrati o n w i ll
,

L
th en be e qual an d th e valu e of
;
,
2 g
Axi s a h t of

fl i ff hiflfi fi gf h h
g a
an d c o n s e qu en tly o i the all owabl e
“ gra v yo c m s

1 “n m m "
u n it s tr e s s will b e th e s am e in b oth $ 3 331 ,

dir e cti on s The f oll owi n g m e th o d o f

.
FIG 22 3 . .

acc o mpli s hi n g thi s f or a c olum n c om

>

p o s e d of tw o chann e l s as s h own in F ig 2 2 3 i s s impl e and .

ill us tr at e s t he pr obl e m s uffi c i e n tly .

Le t r h = r adi u s o f gyrati on ab out axi s hh (Thi s i s unalt e rabl e .

f or any giv e n chann e l ) .

r radiu s of gyrati on ab o ut axi s 0 0

, .

I = m o m e nt oi i n e rtia of cr o ss se cti on ab out axi s 0 0 -

.

I h = m o m e nt of in e rtia of cr oss se cti o n ab out axi s hh -

.

I g = m o m e n t of in e rtia of e ach cha nn e l ab o ut i t s axi s cg

c .

A ar e a of o n e cha n n e l .

To d e t e rmin e t he m o m e nt of i n e rtia ab out axi s 0 1) th e f oll o w

i ng principl e of m e cha n ic s may b e u s e d :
Th e m o m e n t of i n e rtia of a s e cti o n ab o ut any axi s e qual s t he
m o m e nt of in e rti a of that s e cti on ab out a parall e l axi s pa ss i n g
thr ough i ts c e ntr e of gravity plu s i ts ar e a multipli e d by t h e,

s quar e o f t he di s ta n c e b e tw e e n t h e t w o ax e s .

F r o m the applic ati o n o f thi s pri n cipl e t he f oll o wi n g e quati on

r e s ult s :

Henc e I }, s h o uld e qual 2 (I + A w2

) .

I h = 2 (A rh2 ) he n c e 2 A r h2 = 2 lc g + 2 A x2 .

2 4m 2
. 2I
Hen c e
2 98 D ES I G N OF C O LU MNS A N D TE NS I ON M MB E E RS A R T . 1 44

I n t he c ase of chann el c olumn s the valu e o f 1 0 i s u s ually 0

s mall c o mpar e d with A h e nc e the e rr o r inv olv e d i n omitting the

,

las t t e rm of t he e quati o n i s s mall an d i s on the s afe s id e the r e ,

f o r e it may b e n e gl e ct e d and t he valu e of a: m ad e e qual t o r h .

The pr op e r di s tanc e b e tw e e n cha nn e l s t o s e cur e e qual rigidity

ab o ut e ith e r axi s i s giv e n i n so m e of the s t e e l manufactur e r s ’

han db oo k s and n ee d n ot b e c o mput e d ; but f or m or e c omplicat e d

s e cti on s s uch a s plat e and a n gl e c o lum n s it mu s t u s ually b e
, ,

d e t e rmi n e d in th e man n e r indic at e d alth ough t he appr o ximati on ,

m e nti on e d i s n ot alway s all ow abl e an d in t he c a s e of t op , ,

ch o r d s with c ov e r plat es w ould b e c on s id e rably in e r r or and

s h o uld n ot b e mad e .

1 44 Deter m i n ati on of Cr oss s e c ti on of Typi c al Stee l Col u m n s

.
-
.

Pr
o b le m . Des i gn a chann e l c ol umn f o r th e foll o wi ng ass ume d c on

d i ti o n s :
Total appli ed l oad (live d ead , ,
and impac t ) = 2 5 0 000 lb s , .

U n s upp or t ed l e ngt h 25 f t .

P
A ll owable s tress
A

S olu ti on . De t e rmi n e tri al se ction by ass uming lb s .

A
3
This give s a t ri al are a 0 1 s q 1n s. .
, whi ch c o uld be o b t ai n e d
1 4 000
by t h e us e of tw o 1 5 —
in ch chann el s at 33 1b s .
, having a to t a l a re a of
sq . i ns .

The r a di u s of gyr a t i on f o r t hi s s e c t i on ab o u t an axis p e rpendi c ul ar

to th e web = i n s , h en c e th e all owabl e v al ue of
.

P
1 4 , 0 0 0 1b s .

A 25 X 1 2
2 2

The a c t ual un it s tre s s i f t he prop ose d se c t i on s ho u l d be us e d e q l

ua s

= 1 2 , 600 1b s . I t foll ows t hat th e c ol umn t

c an s an d c ons i de rably
more t han th e appli ed l oad h en c e i t i s safe an d m ay p oss ibly b e,

d e cr eas e d i n s i z e .

The ne x t small e r ch an n e l i s 1 2 i n 30 lb he n c e t ry t his The .

,
.
, .

P
allowabl e val ue of — f o r a c olumn c omp ose d of t he s e channe ls e q uals
A

00 lb s .
3 00 D E S I G N OF C O LU MNS A N D TE NS I ON ME MB E RS A RT . 144

fo rm whi ch foll ows a nd which requi re s n o explan ation I t should

, .

b e ob serve d t hat t he p os i t i on of t he c e n t r e o f gravi t y i s d e t e rmi ne d as

a s t e p i n t h e pr o c ess o f fi n d i ng t he mom e n t o f i ne r t i a It i s n e c essary .

t o l o c a t e i ts p o s i t i o n i n o rd e r t o d e t a il t he s t r u c t ure prop e rly s i nc e ,

t he c e ntr e o f gra vi ty l i n es of t he v ari o us memb e rs m e e t i ng at a ny

j oi nt sho uld i n t e rse ct at a p oi nt .

C O MP U TA TI ON or

Pi e ce . A re a .

figfif fi I a bo u t cl .

Co v e r + 8 80 + 59 4
We b s 0
To p a n gle s
Bo tt om an gle s

To t al . .

i ns . Ih h = 1 5 8 8

i ns .

C OMP UTA TI ON OF Ivv

Pi ece . A re a . I ab ou t
—
Co v e r
“1 3=
1 2 X% X 8
1 182
We b s 1 4 8 8 X 5 22 =
. .
2
4 05
2
To p an gle s 4 98 X 6 4 5
. . 20 7
B o tt om a n gle s 6 86 X 7 47
. . 3 83

TO t al . 33 4 7.
up
:
1 1 77

Th e mi nimum val ue of r f o r th e as s umed se ctio n is e vi de n t ly t ha t

P
ab o ut ax s i 00 The a ll ow abl e value of f or thi s c ase equal s
A
.

lb s . The a c t u al s t re s s on the se c t ion would e qu al lb s .

pe r quar e i nch hen c e the a rea i s s ligh t ly t oo small a nd should b e

s ,

i ncrease d o r e l s e the web s should b e plac e d s uffi c i ently f ar ap art to

,

i n cr ease th e val ue of r e nou gh to give a prop er allowabl e u ni t stress .

The val ue o f r ab o u t axi s hh n ee d n o t b e i ncr e as e d s i nc e i t i s almos t ,

ART . 145 LATTI CE B R
A S A N D B A TTE N P L ATE S 301

e q l to the ass ume d va l ue and the area i s large r tha n n eed e d f or

ua ,

that val ue .

The se exampl e s se rve to illus t rat e the c omp uta t i on s n e c essary _f or

a ny fo rm of
“ ”
b uil t up steel c ol umn In ma ny c a ses how e v e r the
-

“
.
, ,

val ue of r c an b e ta ke n dir e ctly from a h andboo k e g i n Cambri a

”
, . .
,

S t eel a re t abl es givi n g thi s v a l ue f or Z b a r c olun m s f or channe l -

,

c ol umn s with c ove r plate s an d f or other se ctions , .

1 45 . L atti c e Ba r s an d Ba tten P l ate s . If t he t w o rib s of a

c olumn s uch as that s h o w n i n cr oss — s e cti o n b y F i g 223 b e not .

c onn e ct e d e ach rib w ould hav e t o b e pr op o rti on e d as a s e parat e

,

c o lumn s ubj e ct e d t o one half the t otal l o ad The l e a s t radiu s

-
.

o f gyrati o n f or s uch a ca s e w o uld b e th a t f or o n e rib ab o ut th e

axi s cg which w o uld o rdi n arily b e much l e ss than t he valu e

,

ab out a xi s hh an d c on s e qu e n tly much s mall e r than t h e m ax

,

imum valu e att ainabl e f or t he s e cti on s u se d S uch a d e s ign .

w ould r e q uir e a much larg e r am ou n t of mat e rial f or t he mai n

s e cti on th an w o uld b e n e c es s ary if t h e t w o rib s s h o uld b e rigidly

c on n e ct e d s o that th ey w ould act t o ge th e r and t he e xtra am ou n t ,

o f mat e rial r e quir e d w o uld b e much in e xc e ss o f that n ee d e d

f o r t he d e tail s n e c e ss ar y t o s o c on n e ct t he t wo rib s S e v e ral .

c onv e n ti on al m e th o d s e xi s t of c on n e cti n g the rib s t he u se o f ,

s id e plat es o r diaphr agm s as illu s trat e d by se v e ral of t he ca se s

,

o f F ig 2 2 1 b e ing t he m os t o bvi o u s
.
,
E ith e r of th e s e m e th o d s
.

h as t h e advantag e o f u s i n g f or thi s purp o s e mat e rial which

c an al s o carry a p o rti on of t he s tr e s s F or bridge tru s s e s in .

which c onn e cti o n by pin s o r fi eld ri ve t s mu s t o rdi n arily b e mad e

t o t h e S i d e _ri b s th e u s e o f plat e s on all f o ur s id es thr o ugh
,

o u t t he l e n gth o f t h e c o lumn i s h o w e v e r impracticabl e and

, , ,

i s al s o s ubj e ct t o t he furth e r di s advantag e of givi n g a cl os e d

s e cti o n which ca nn o t b e i n s p e ct e d f o r c o rr os i on aft e r e r e cti o n ,

and the int e ri o r of which ca nn o t b e paint e d The u s e o f a .

diaphragm i s al s o fr e qu e n tly impractic abl e f or brid ge m e m

b e r s owi n g t o d i ffi c ult i e s of d e s ignin g pr op e r d e tail s ; and t he
,

s am e d i ffi c ulty appli es t o t he o n e we b c olum n s s h o wn i n F i g

-
, .

22 1 . Mo r e o v e r it i s d es irabl e t o hav e as much of t he mat e rial

,

as p os s ibl e c on c e ntrat e d in the rib s s i n c e t he di s tributi o n ,

of the s tr es s ov e r t h e cr oss s e cti o n i s th e r e by s i m pli fi e d

-
.

F or s uch c olum n s it i s th e r e f o r e c omm on t o c o n n e ct t he t w o

“ ”
,

rib s by s h o rt plat es u s ually c all e d batt e n plat e s or ti e

”
,

plat es at e ach e n d and at p oint s wh e r e t he c ontinuity o f the

,
3 02 D E S I G N OF C O LU MNS A N D TE NS I ON M MB R S E E A RT . 1 45

lattici n g i s int e r r upt ed and t o u se diag o nal bar s thr ough out the
,

r e mai nd e r of th e c olum n thu s c o nn e c tin g t he t w o rib s by a fo rm

,

o f tru s s in g S uch a c olu m n i s s h ow n i n F i g 2 2 5 in which latti e

. .
,

i n g i s u s e d on b o th s id e s I t i s fr e qu e ntly p os s ibl e t o u s e plat e s

.

o n o n e s id e o f th e c o lum n as i n th e t op ch o rd s s h own in F ig 22 1
, .
,

B i n which ca s e lattici n g sh o uld b e e mpl oye d on the oth e r s i d e

, .

The lattici n g may b e c o mp os e d of flat bar s a n gl e s or e v e n s mall

, ,

cha nn e l s f or unu s ually h e avy c olum n s an d ,

may b e s i n gl e on e ach s id e as s h own i n ,

F i g 2 2 5 or d o ubl e with rive t s at the

.
, ,

p o i n t s of i n t e r s e cti on as s h ow n by F ig
,
.

22 6 Th e fact that t h e s tr e n gth of lattic e d

.

c olumn s i s large ly d e p e n d e nt up o n the

pr op e r d e s i gn of the lattici n g r e quir es that
t h e pr o p o rti oning o f t h e lattici n g s h ould
b e as car e fully s t u di e d as t h e d es ign of t h e
main cr os s s e cti on U n f ortu n at e ly the th eo
-
.

re t i c al tr e atm en t of s uch d e tail s i s m o r e

o b s cur e than that of t he c ol u mn s th e m

s e lv e s I t i s e vi d e n t h ow e v e r that if
.
, ,

the c olumn w e r e t o r e mai n ab s o lut e ly

F I G 22 5
. .

FIG . 22 6 .

s traight und e r l o adi n g n o latticing w oul d b e n e e d e d an d the

, ,

s tr es s i n s uch lattic e bar s as might b e u s e d w o uld b e m e r e l y t h e

l

s e c on dary s tr e ss d u e t o t h e s h o rt e n i n g of t h e c o lum n as a wh o l e

an d t h e c o n s e qu e n t di s t o rti on o f t h e lattic e bar s On t h e o th e r .

han d if the c olumn b e n d s s o m e what und e r l o adi n g as w ould

‘

, ,

pr obabl y b e the c a s e u nle s s the c olum n w e r e of v e ry s h ort l e ngth ,

b ending m o m e nt and c on s e qu ently tran s v e r s e s h e ar w ould

,
3 04 D E S I G N OF C O LU MNS A N D TE NS I ON ME MB E RS AR T 1 4 5
.

c 1 wL 2 c
wL
I 8 A r2
1 wL 0
2 -
70L
8 A r2 7

5 i
50 f
H e nc e 3 r
and S — 280
7
Th e
t otal s tr e s s i n a lattic e bar if s ingl e lattici n g i s u s e d may , ,

n ow b e tak e n as e qual t o on e half t h e pr o duct o f S and t h e c os e c a n t

-

of t h e a n gl e which it mak e s w ith t h e l ongitudi n al axi s of th e

c olum n Thi s m e th o d giv e s t h e s tr es s i n t he e nd lattic e bar s

.
,

but it i s c o mm on t o u s e the s am e s iz e bar s thr o ugh out the c olumn .

The f oll owi n g pr obl e m illu s trat e s thi s m e th o d :

is - v
> i

FIG . 22 7 . FIG . 2 28 .

P r o b le m . Det ermi ne s tress in lat tic e bars f or t he 1 5 i n 33 lb -

. .

channe l c olum n d esigne d i n Art 1 4 4 . .

S olu ti on . F or thi s c ol um n A = sq . i ns .

r= i ns .

gO
—
é
2 8 0 X 1 9 8 X5 6 2. .

hen c e
If c ol um n i s s i ngl e l a tt ic ed a s shown i n Fi g 2 2 8 , t hi s s hea r wi ll
q
the ,
.

be e ua lly d ivid e d b e twe e n t w o b ar s an d ,

t he ac t ua l s tres s i n e ach
3 830 1 1
bar Wi ll be X = 2 1 8 0 lb s A t hi c k ness of t he d ls t a n c e b e
T E
.

1 32 5
twe en rive t s wo ul d r e qui re these b ars t o b e
,
i n thi c k he n c e gi n .
,
-
.

b ars woul d b e s uffi c i en t t o c omply w i t h t hi s c on d i t i on A wi d t h of .

i ns w oul d c ommo nly b e a d o pt e d f o r s u ch a c ol um n h en c e the st r e ss i n

.
,

t h e b ar wo uld e q l i i?
ua
z
l
2 330 lb s pe r . s q uare i nch .
A RT 1 4 5 . L ATTI CE BA RS A ND BA TTE N P LA TE S 30 5

The v al u e of the radi us oi gyra ti on f or a r e c t angular bar of wi d t h b

735 _
\ /2 b
3
1 L
and thi c kn es s t t _ 0 288 t, he n c e f or su ch a b ar
T
.

1 t 2

M 1 40 a ppro xi m a t ely ’ If t he s trai ght li ne fo rmula

‘

-
be app e d li
0 2 8 8 X3
.

P
t he a ll owabl e u n it s tr ess wo uld be = IG ODO— 98 00 = 62 00 1b s The
X , .

s e c on dary s tr e ss i n b a r s of s u ch fi at s l op e wo uld n ot b e l a rge b u t wi ll ,

b e c omp u t ed i n o rd e r that i ts e ffec t m ay b e s ee n .

The d i r e ct str ess i n the c h ann e ls = 1 2 600 1b s pe r s quar e in ch he n c e the ,

.
,

2 ’ 6OO
r ed uction i n the di stan c e d u nder l oad would b e
therefore the l ength of th e l attic e bar would be decr eas ed by th e follow
i n g amount :

(1 3 i ) + (7 a)
2 2
in .
,

which c o rr esp on ds to a stress of 3 1 00 lb s per s q uar e i nch The maxi

q
. .

m um s t r e ss i n cl uding s e c ond ary s t re ss the refo re e ual s 5 4 30 lb s per

, ,
.

s qu a r e i nch which i s w e ll w i t hi n t he all ow abl e l i mit

,
I f an allowabl e .

un i t s tr es s i n t h e l attic e b a r s so m ewh a t hi ghe r t h a n t h a t f o r th e m a i n

s e cti o n b e c o n s id e r e d p e rmi ssi bl e the s tr e s s i n the b ar s will b e s till ,

more o n t he s afe s i d e .
*

I f the l o ad b e i n t en ti on ally e cc e ntric as in the c olumn s tr e at e d ,

lat e r th e s am e ge n e ral m e th o d may b e ad opt e d t he e xc e ss fi b re

, ,

str e s s an d s h e ar c o rr e s p onding t o it b e i n g obtai n e d fr o m t he

f o rmula giv e n lat e r f or s uch c olumn s In additi on t o d e s igni n g .

the lattic e bar s t o c arry t h e s tr e s s d e t e rmin e d by thi s m e th o d it

i s c o mm o n t o imp ose c e rtain arbitrary c o n diti o n s as t o s iz e of
“
bar s and riv e t s The f oll owin g clau se s fr o m t he _Ge neral S p e ci
”
.

fi c at i on s f or S t ee l R ailway B ridg e s publi s h e d by the A m e rican ,

R ailway En gi n e e ri n g and Maint e nanc e of W ay A s so ciati on are ,

typical o f s uch r estricti on s .

The mi n imum width of lattic e bar s s hall b e 2 % i ns f or in .

-
.

r iv e t s i n s f or
,
i n riv e t s an d 2 i n s if g i n riv e t s are u s e d
.
-
.
, .
-
. .

The thickn ess s hall n o t b e l es s tha n on e — f orti e th of the di s tanc e

b e tw ee n e n d riv e t s f or s i n gl e lattic e and on e s ixtie th f or d oubl e ,
-

lattic e S hap e s of e quival e n t s tr e n gth may b e u s e d

. .

F iv e —e i ghth s i n ch riv e t s s hall b e u se d f o r lattici n g flang es

l e ss than 2 i n s wid e an d i n f or flange s fr o m 2 % t o 3 & i ns

.
,
-
. .

wid e ; § i h rive t s s hall b e u s e d in fl a n ges 3 —

~
.
5 i n s an d ov e r an d .
,

lattic e bar s with at l e a s t tw o riv e t s s hall b e u se d f or fl anges ov e r

5 i n s wid e
q
. .

N Y Ce n t ra l R R s pe c i fi c a ti o ns re u i re tha t c olum n s m u s t c a rry a

. . .
306 D E S I G N OF C OLU MN S A ND TE N S I ON M E MB E R S A RT 1 46
.

The in clinati on of lattic e bar s with th e axi s of the m e mb e r

s hall n ot b e l es s than 4 5 d e gr ee s and wh e n t he di s ta n c e b e tw ee n
,

riv e t lin es in the fl an ge s i s m o r e than 1 5 i n s i f s in gl e riv e t e d .

,

bar s are u se d the lattic e s hall b e d oubl e and riv e t e d at t he i n t e r :

”
,

s e cti on
.

Th e t i e plat e s at t he e nd s or o th e r p oi n t s are u s ually pro

p orti on e d by e mpirical m e th od s The c omm on rul e f or t i e .

plat e s on main m e mb e r s i s t o mak e th e l en gth of e n d plat es n ot

l es s than t h e di stanc e b e tw ee n the lin e s of riv e t s c onn e ctin g
th e m t o the fl ange s an d int e rm e diat e plat e s n ot l e s s than on e
,

half thi s l e n gth Th e ir thickn ess s h ould n ot b e l es s than one

.

fi f t i e th thi s di s ta n c e .

I t i s t o b e h op e d t hat t he th or ough inv es ti gati on of s t e e l

c olumn s n ow b e ing c onduct e d may thr o w furth e r li ght on t he
s ubj e ct of pr op o rti o ni n g lattic e bar s and o th e r c olum n d e tails ,

t he imp o rta n c e of which in d e v e l oping t he full s tr e ngth of t he

c olumn s ca nn o t b e ov e r es timat e d .

I n a lattic e d c olum n it i s e vid ently e sse ntial that e ach rib

b e tw ee n p o int s of c o nn e cti o n of th e lattic e bar s s hall b e s tr on g
e n o u gh as a c o lumn t o c arry i t s s har e of t he t o tal l o ad h en c e ,

t he di stanc e apart of t h e lattic e bar s wh e n m e a s ur e d al on g t he

L
rib s h ould be s uch that —
—f or the rib L b ei n g tak e n as the di s ta n c e
,
r

b e tw ee n latticing rive t s s h ould b e n o lar ge r than the c o rr e

,

s pon d i n g t e rm f o r t he wh ol e c o lumn ; thi s h ow e v e r i s se ld o m , ,

a limiti n g fact o r i n t he d e s ign of th e lattici n g t he e mpirical rul e ,

as t o maxi mum s l ope of t he lattic e bar s b e i n g u s ually s u ffi c i e n t t o

c ov e r thi s p oin t .

In c on n e cti on with thi s s ubj e ct it s h o uld b e s aid that the

c olumn s of th e fam ou s F o rth B ridge t he l on g es t s pan bridge in ,

t h e w o rld are o f cir cular se cti on thu s r e quir i n g n o lattic e bar s or

, ,

diaphragm s an d f ormi n g an i d e al s e cti o n s o far as s tr en gth i s

c o nc e rn e d . Th e s e c olum n s h ow e v e r w e r e built in p os iti on
, , ,

a m e th o d en tir e ly opp ose d t o A m e rican practic e in which the ,

c olumn s are built in t he s h op s of the fabric atin g c o mpan y an d

s hipp e d i n tact t o t h e bridg e s it e a m e th o d which limit s the s iz e
,

of t h e c o lum n .

1 4 6 R ive t P itc h
. Th e riv e t pi tch i n
. built u p c olum n s -

s h o uld b e s mall e n o u gh t o in s ur e that wri n kli n g of t h e di f f e r e n t

part s b e twee n t he riv e t s s h ould n ot o ccur an d t o pr op e rly ,

308 DE I NSG OF C OLUMNS A ND TE NS I ON ME MBER S AR T 1 4 7.

L e t V = the v e rtical c omp o n e nt in lb s of a r e s ultant thru s t .

acting at p o in t a .

A = ar e a of cr oss s e cti on in s q i n s
-
. .

I h = m o m e nt o f i n e rtia of cr os s se cti on ab out axi s hh -

.

I” = m o m e nt of i n e rtia of cr oss — se cti on ab o ut axi s vv .

f c o mpr ess iv e fib re s tr ess at any c orn e r (e xtr e m e fi b re

with r e sp e ct t o b o th ax e s) .

b Vyd
f i 1
2 1 1,

Th e las t two t e rm s of thi s e quati o n giv e t he fib re s tr ess due to

th e b e n d i n g m o m e nt r esulting fr o m t he e cc e ntric applic ati o n of
t h e l o ad. I f the pi e c e b e s ubj e ct e d t o a dir e ct axial thru s t and
tran s v e r s e l oad s the s a m e e quati on w o uld apply but Vx and
’

, ,

Vy w o uld hav e t o b e r e plac e d by M h and M r e s p e ctiv e ly t he 1, ,

b e nding m om e nt s du e to tran sv e r s e l o ad s acting i n plan es hh and

vv r e s p e ctiv e ly
,
.

Th e pr o p e r s ign t o u s e f o r th e la s t t w o t e r ms m ay b e d e t e r
min e d fr o m t he charact e r of th e b e n d i n g m o m e nt f or t he c or
n e r u n d e r c o n s id e rati on with r e s p e ct t o t he hh and vv ax es ; e g
,
. .
,

f or t he c o mpr e s s i on at c orn e r e t he e quati on w o uld b e

_ V m V yd
_
f A z1 0
+
21 h
'

O r d inar i lyif an e cc e n tric l o ad i s u se d it i s appli e d in on e ,

of t h e pri n cipal ax e s in which ca s e t he e xpr e ss i o n f or f w o uld

,

in clud e but t w o t erm s I f t he applie d f o rc e b e a pull in s t e ad

.

o f a thru s t t h e s am e e quati on h o ld s but a p o s itiv e r e s ult w ou ld

, ,

giv e the t e n s il e fib re s tr ess .

The s e ri ou s e f fe ct of an e cc e ntric l o a d may b e r e adily d e t e r

min e d by c on s id e rin g t he cr os s s e cti o n of on e of the c olumn s
-

d e s i gn e d in A r t 1 4 4 S upp os e f or e xampl e that t he r es ultant

. .

f o rc e on th e cr os s s e cti o n of t he c olumn s h ow n i n Fi g 224 in s t e ad

-
.
,

of b e i n g appli e d at t h e c e n tr e o f gravity b e appli e d at a p o int

t w o inch e s t o t h e ri ght of axi s vv an d t w o inch es ab o v e axi s c l .

Th e c ompr es s iv e s tr e ss in t he c olum n will th e n e vid e ntly b e a

maximum at the c orn e r mark e d as and will b e giv e n by the f ol,

l owin g e quati o n :

lb s .
A RT 1 4 8
. E FF ECT OF C O MB I NE D F L E XU R E A ND TH RUS T 3 09

I f the l o ad we r e t o b e appli e d at the c e ntr e of gr avi ty t he ,

c orr e s p o ndi n g fi b re s tr e s s w o uld b e lb s h enc e t he e c c e n .

,

t ri c i ty pr o duc e s an e xc ess fi b re s tr e ss of appr o ximat e ly

1 48 Eff ec t of Com b in ed F l exur e a nd Th ru st
. Whil e .

e cc e n tricity of l o ad i n cr e a s e s mat e rially t h e m aximum s tr e s s o n a

c o lumn it i s fr e qu e ntly n e c e s s ary or c on v e ni e nt t o r es o rt t o thi s

,

m e th o d of l o ading s uch f or e xampl e b e ing th e ca s e with a buildi n g

,

c olu m n s upp orti n g a cran e r unway gird e r on a s id e brack e t

-
.

Tran s v e r se fl e xure al s o o c cur s fr e q u e ntly it i s alway s pr e s e nt in

a h oriz ontal s trut s uch as a bridge ch ord wh e r e i ts ow n w e ight
, ,

may c au se a c on s id e rabl e b e nding m o m e nt ; it i s al s o an imp o r

tant fact o r in th e d es ign of a t op ch o rd of a d e ck bridg e wh e n
u se d t o s upp o rt t he track t i e s d ir e ctly I t i s imp o rtan t th e r e f o r e
.
, ,

t o b e abl e t o d e t e rmin e t he maximum s tr e ss und e r s uch c o n

d i t i on s .

The luti o n of the pr obl e m which f oll o w s whil e n ot e xact

so , ,

i s c o mm on ly u s e d a n d giv e s a r e a s o nabl e w o rkin g m e th o d Th e .

n o m e nclatur e r e f e r s t o t h e cr os s se cti o n o f t h e c o lumn at t h e

-

c e n tr e of th e u n s upp o rt e d l e ngth at which p oi n t maximum

,

tra n s v e r se d e fl e c ti o n w o uld o c cur .

Le t M = initial b e ndi n g m o m e nt at ctio n d ue e ith e r t o tran s

se

v e r se l o a d s or initial e cc e n tricity .

M 1 = b e nding m o m e n t at s e cti o n aft e r c olumn h as d e fl e ct e d .

P = r es ultant f orc e on se cti o n acting parall e l t o th e

c olumn axi s .

L = u ns upp ort e d l e ngth of c o lumn .

8 = tran s v e r s e d e fl ec t i o n o f c olumn u nd e r l o ad .

= fi b re s t r e s s in c o lumn d ue t o b e ndin m om e nt
f g .

8 = maximum fi b r e s tr e ss in c o lum n .

0 a c o n s tant .

= di s tanc e fr o m c e ntr e of
y gravity o f se c ti on t o e xtr e m e
fib re .

Now M 1 = M + P 8 ; h e nc e t he luti on of the pr obl e m r e quir e s

so

th e d e t e rminati o n of 5 F r o m the di s cu s s i on o f c olumn f o r m ula s

.

it i s e vid e n t tha t 5 c a n n o t b e accurat e ly d e t e rmi n e d f or c olumn s

o f th e l e n gth s o rdinarily u s e d in pra cti c e S i n c e i t i s partially d ue
,

t o variati o n in t he initial c onditi o n of t he c olumn and t o unin

t e n t i o n al e c c e ntricity of applic ati o n o f t h e l o ad F o r t he ca s e .

un d e r c on s id e rati on h owe v e r a s sumi n g that t he c olumn i s

, ,
310 D E S I GN OF COLUMN S AN D TE N S I ON ME MB E R S A RT . 149

s tr e s s e d on ly
a r e a s onabl e w o rking u n it str e s s the lar ge r part
to ,

o f t h e d e fl e c t i on i s d u e t o t h e b e ndi n g m o m e nt M I f it b e
a s s um e d that t he d e fl e c ti on of a c olumn s uch as thi s may b e
e xpr e ss e d in t e rm s of t h e fi b r e s tr e ss by f o rmula s of t h e s am e

ge n e ral f orm as t h o s e f or t h e d e fl ec ti on of a b e am t he f oll owing ,

e quati on may b e writt e n :

wh e n c e

P My

'
cE

1 4
F or a b e am s upp o rt e d at e nd s an d l o ad e d at c e ntr e :

3
°

43

F or a b e am s upp o rt e d at en ds an d l o ad e d u n if o rmly

F or a c olumn it i s c o mm o n t o as s um e givin g t he f o l

l o wi n g e quati o n in which t h e la s t t e rm i n t he d e n o mi n at o r is
s m all and may o ft e n b e i gn o r e d :

°
2
P L
l OE

Th e actu al fi b re s tr e s s s h ould n o t e xc e e d that o btai n e d by

applyi n g f o rmula (2 2 ) o r s uch o th e r c olum n f or mul a as may b e
s pe c i fi e d b e in g c o mput e d ab o ut t h e oth e r axi s
,
.

A s imilar e xpr es s i o n may b e d e riv e d f or a t e n s i on pi e c e if

t he s ign of th e la s t t e rm in t h e d e n o mi n at o r b e chan g e d .

1 49 Bu i l di n g Col um n s u n der E cc e ntr ic L oa ds

. Th e f oll ow .

i n g d is cu s s i o n s h o w s a m e th od of c o mputi n g t he b e ndi n g
m o m e n t d u e t o an e cc e n tric l o ad appli e d t o a c olu m n of a o ne
s t o ry buildi n g by a trav e li n g cran e runni n g o n a track s upp o rt e d

by brack e t s .

I f the c o lumn b e a s s um e d as pi n e n d e d the curv e of b e nding

3 12 DES I G N OF COL UMNS A ND TE NS I ON ME M B E R S A RT . 1 50

d e s ign e d in ac c ordanc e with the fo r e go i n g r e quir e m e nt s In .

thi s c omputati on any r e a s on abl e e cc e n tricity o f t he l o ad m u s t

b e c on s i d e r e d .

4 th I f t he fi b re s tr e s s thu s obtai n e d di ff e r s t oo much fr o m

.

the all owabl e s tr e ss r e vi se t h e c o mputati on

,
.

The f oll o win g m e th o d illu s trat e s th e d e s ign o f s u c n a c olumn ,

and s h ow s a m e th od of d e t e rmining the e c c e ntricity .

A s s um e b e am s A and B , F ig 2 3 1 t o e ach hav e a liv e r e acti on .

,

of lb s a d e ad r e acti o n of 5 00 0 lb s an d t o b e 1 2 i n s wid e
cl
. .
,
.
,
.

Th e n the maximum l o ad on t he o u m n = 8 0 000 lb s A s s uming ,

.

a unit s tr e ss of 4 000 lb s f or a trial se cti on giv e s . sq i ns A . .

c olumn 8 i ns i n e xt e rnal diam et e r and o f o ne inch mat e rial h as an

.

50 000 lb s .

e nra n c e
P i n t le

scoot 50 ooo# 1 5, ooo*

Re s ult an t o f
loa d on be am

s
-
w—a is
F IG . 2 31 . FIG . 232 .

r a
a e of sq . i ns
will d o f or a trial se cti on S inc e it i s
. an d .

p o s s ibl e that on e of t he b e am s may b e fully l o ad e d an d t he o th e r

o n l y partially l o ad e d it i s e vid e nt that t h e r es ulta n t of t h e l o ad s
,

o n t h e c olumn may n o t act thr o ugh i t s c e ntr e of gravity and t h at ,

in c o n se qu e nc e th e c olum n will b e e cc e ntric ally l o ad e d The .

maxi m um e c c e ntricity will o ccu r wh e n on e of t he b e am s say ,

b e am A h as i t s full liv e l o ad an d t h e ot he r i s un l o ad e d The

, ,
.

l o ading will th e n b e as sh own in F ig 2 3 2 an d t h e r e s ultant will .

,

act at a di s ta n c e fr o m t he lin e of acti on of t he c e n tr e l o ad e qual

to x = 0 1 4 x an d W I11 hav e a valu e of lb s Th e
,
. .

t o tal l o ad in thi s ca s e i s l e s s than t he maximum but t he e ffe ct of ,

th e e c c e n tricit y may b e su ffi c i e nt t o mak e thi s t h e critical ca s e

‘
“

I n o rd e r t o o btain t he actual e c c e n tricity it i s n e c ess ary t o

a s c e rtain t he valu e of x Thi s i n v olv e s th e d e s ign of the c olumn
.

cap and t he l o cati o n o f t he li n e of acti on of t he r e s ultant r e acti on

,

o n e ach b e am Thi s latt e r ca nn o t b e a s c e rtai n e d with e xactn e ss

.
,
AR T 1 50
. D E S I G N OF CA S T -
I RON C OLU MN S 3 13

s inc e i t s di s tributi on w ould d e p e nd up on the r e lativ e e la sticity

of t h e b e am c olumn and c olumn cap an d up on t he cr u s hi n g
, , ,

s tr e n gt h o f t h e w o o d I f t he b e am cap and c olumn w e re t o be

.
,
‘

p e rf e ctly rigid th e n t he r e acti on on e ach b e am w ould b e d i s tr i b

,

u t e d u n if o r m ly o v e r i t s b e ari n g s urfac e ; on t h e o th e r hand if t h e

c olumn and cap w e r e t o b e r i gid an d the b e am e la s tic t h e t e n ,

d en c y w ould b e t o thr ow all t h e pr e ss ur e t o th e e dg e o f th e cap ,

and t o mak e that th e p oi n t of applicati o n of the r esultant Thi s .

latt e r c o nditi o n c ould h ow e v e r n ot r e ally b e r e ach e d s inc e the

, , ,

w oo d w o uld b e cru s h e d at th e p o in t of b e aring which w o uld ,

r e li e v e t h e pr e ss ur e th e r e and di stribut e it o v e r a gr e at e r l e ngth

of b e am The tru e p os iti o n of th e r e s ultant i s e vid e ntly s o m e
.

wh e r e b e tw e e n the c e ntr e o f b e ari n g an d t he e d ge o f t he cap .

To d e s ign the cap and d e t e rmi n e t he p o s iti on o f t h e r e s ulta n t

r e acti on le t th e f oll owing a s s umpti o n s b e mad e
1 s t P r e s s ur e vari e s u n if o r m ly fr o m a maximu m at e dg e o f
.

c ap t o z e r o at e n d of b e am .

2 d P r e s s ure at e dg e o f c ap u n d e r maximu m
. l o ad e qual s
all owabl e cru shi n g s tr e n gth of the w o o d acr oss t he grain which ,

may b e a s s um e d as 3 5 0 lb s pe r s q i n f or . . .

y e ll ow pin e b e a m s o r 4 200 lb s per lin e al

,
.

i nch f or a 1 2 i n b e am -
F i g 2 33 s h o w s t he
. . .

dis tributi o n o f pr essur e at the en d of on e of

th e b e am s ba s e d up o n t he a s s umpti on j u s t F IG 23 3 . .

mad e The di s tanc e d m ay b e d e t erm in e d

.

by d ividin g the m aximum b e am r e act i on by on e half the -

all o wabl e cru s hing s tr e n gth pe r li ne al inch F or t he ca s e u n d e r

”
.

c on s id e r ati o n thi s giv e s 7 4 appr o ximat ely

, .

The valu e of x is

The e cc e ntricity und e r t he partial l o ading i s th e n

i ns The e c c e n tricity d u e t o b e n din g o f t he c olumn will b e
.

n e gl e ct e d h e r e as b e ing an u nn e c e s s ary re fin e m e nt f o r a
,

m at e rial as variabl e as ca s t ir o n h e nc e t he fib re s tr es s d ue t o t he ,

e c c e ntricity will b e

4 X 7 0 000 X ,
9
~ 1 4 0 lb s
— 64
,

)
314 D ES I G N OF C OLUMN S A ND TE NS ION MEMBE R S A R T 1 51
.

To d e t e rmin e wh e th e r t he c olumn i s s afe thi s e cc e ntri c s tr e s s

s h o uld b e add e d t o t h e maximum s tr e s s d u e t o t he dir e ct l o ad as

d e t e rmin e d by th e c olumn f ormula and th e s u m s h ould n ot e xc ee d

,

t he all owabl e unit s tr e ss in a s h ort c o lumn I f f orm ula (2 7) b e

.

appli e d t he maximum fi b re s tr ess du e t o dir e ct l o ad i s giv e n by

,

t h e e xpr ess io n

3 1”
§ 3 3
32 X 1 X 12 =
=
f + + 3 1 80

Th e ecc e ntric s tr e ss add e d t o thi s giv es a t otal of 5990 lb s .

,

which i s l es s than 6 1 0 0 lb s th e all o wabl e u n it s tr e s s by the

.
,

f o rmula f or s h o rt c olum ns h e nc e t he c olum n h as an ar e a that i s

,

o nly s lightly i n e xc e s s o f t h e r e quir e d am o unt an d may b e u s e d .

1 5 1 Des i gn of Ir on and S teel T e n s i on Memb er s

. The d e s ign.

o f t e n s i o n m e mb e r s inv o lv e s littl e m o r e than t h e se l e cti on o f

bar s with s u ffi c i e nt n e t ar e a to c arry the t otal s tr es s with o ut

e x c ee di n g t h e all o wabl e unit s tr ess S t ee l or ir on t e n s i on m e m
.

b e r s m ay b e d ivid e d i n t o t w o g e n e ral typ e s : viz s o lid b ar s .

,

r e ctan gular or circular i n cr os s — s e cti o n and built up m e mb e r s

,
-

c omp o se d of s tructural s hap e s r iv e t e d t oge th e r S olid bar s are .

u s e d g e n e rally i n pi n tru ss e s f o r diag o nal s and b ott o m ch o rd

m e mb e r s an d in H ow e tru s ses f or v e rtical s Built up m e mb e r s
,
.
-

ar e g e n e rally e mpl o y e d f o r t en s i on m e mb e r s in riv e t e d tru ss es

an d f or t h e e n d hang e r s in pin tru s s e s .

Oi t h e fi rs t type o f m e mb e r t h e e ye bar s h o wn i n F i g 2 34 i s .

u s e d m o s t c o mm on ly S uch bar s are mad e by m os t of the large

.

FIG . 2 34 .

t l manufactur e r s and ar e fully d es crib e d in th e ir handb oo k s

s ee .

The h e ad s of th e s e bar s are d e s i gn e d s o that t he bar if t es t e d

t o d e s tructi on will T
,
ail i n t he b ody rath e r than in the h e ad ,

an d t he e n gi n e e r s h o uld s p e cify that full s i z e d t e s t s s h ould giv e

-

"

thi s r e s ult an d n o t att e mpt t o pr op o rti on t he h e ad s I n d e t e r .

mi n ing cl e aranc e t he dim e n s i on s o f t he h e ad s give n by t he

,

mak e r s may b e u s e d n o ti n g that t he diam e t e r o f the h e ad de

,
3 16 D ES I G N OF C OL UMNS A ND TE NS I ON ME MB E R S AR T 1 5 1
.

t
S i d e E le va i on End Vi e w
Di s tance d m ay b e m ad e se ve ral f ee t
FIG . 239 .

t
S i d e E le va i on E nd Vi ew
Di s tan ce d m ay b e m ad e se ve al r f ee t
FIG . 24 0 .

t
S i d e Ele va i on E nd Vi e w
F I G 24 1
. .
ART 1 5 1
. DES I GN OF I RON AND S TEE L TE N S I ON ME MB E R S 3 17

the r oot of thr e ad t o mak e the ba r as s tr ong th e r e as e l se

th e
whe r e F or s h ort r od s h ow e v e r the lab or c os t i n v o lv e d in th i s
.
, ,

pr o c e ss may b e gr e at e r than the s avi n g of mat e rial w ould warrant .

R ive t e d t e n s i on pi e c es may b e ma de of vari o u s se cti on s .

F ig s 2 3 7 t o 2 4 1 i n clu s iv e s h ow typical m e mb e r s and n ee d

.
,

n o e xplanati o n W hil e th ese m e mb e r s d o n ot n ee d latticing

.

or t i e plat e s t o k ee p t he s e parat e part s fr o m buckling s om e ,

c onn e cti on b etw e en th e m sh oul d b e us ed t o mak e the di ffe r e nt

part s act t oge th e r The d es ign of th e se d e tail s mu s t be l eft
.

t o the j udg m e nt of t he e ngin e e r .

 CHA P T E R X II

PIN A ND R I VETE D TRU S S JO I N TS

1 52 . Br i dg e Pin s Desc r ib e d brid ge pi n may b e c on s id e r e d

. A
a s a lar ge riv e t which h as t o c arry b e n di n g m o m e nt a s w e ll a s

s h e ar and b e ari n g The diffe r e nc e b e tw e e n a bridg e pi n an d a

.

riv e t is d u e t o c on s tructi on A riv e t i s driv e n whil e re d h ot

.
,

an d i s th en h e ad e d u s ually und e r a high pr e s s ur e

,
s o that it ,

c o mpl e t e ly fills i t s h ol e an d bind s t oge th e r s o tightly t h e diff e r e nt

"

pi e c e s thr ough which it pa s s es that th e r e i s littl e if any o ppor , ,

t u n i ty f or it t o b e c om e di s t ort e d thr ou gh b en ding A bridg e .

pi n on t he o th e r ha n d i s alway s mad e s o m e what s mall e r than

, ,

t h e pi n h ol e an d t he att e mpt i s n ot mad e t o h o ld t og e th e r

,

ti ghtly by t he pi n t he m e mb e r s c o mi n g on i t h e n c e it c an b en d ,

an d mu s t b e d es ig n e d t o r e s i s t b e n di n g m o m e n t a s w e ll as

s h e ar . I t mu s t al s o hav e s u ffi c i e n t b e ari n g ar e a o n e ach c o n

n e c t e d pi e c e t o mak e it s af e a gain s t failur e by cru s hi n g of e ith e r

pi n or m e mb e r thi s latt e r fr e qu en tly b e i n g s e cur e d by i n cr e a s ing

,

t he thick n ess of t h e m e mb e r b y t h e additi o n o f a plat e o r plat e s

rath e r than by an i n cr e a se i n t he diam e t e r of t he pi n .

1 5 3 Ar ra ng em e nt of Mem b er s o n Pi n
. The actual d e s i gn
.

o f a pi n as carri e d o u t i n pr a c t i c e i s a v e ry s impl e pr o c es s aft e r

‘

t he ar ran ge m e n t of t h e di f f e r e n t m e mb e r s up on t h e pi n i s o nc e
s ati s fact o rily acc o mpli s h e d To pr o p e rly arran ge t he m e mb e r s
.

i s h ow e v e r a s o m e what c o mplic at e d pr obl e m s inc e t he arrang e

, , ,

m e nt on on e pi n ca nn o t b e w ork e d o ut in d ep e nd e ntly but mu s t ,

b e s tudi e d with d u e r e gard t o i t s e ff e ct up o n t h e o th e r part s of

th e tru ss .

Th e f o ll owi n g r u l e s s h o uld b e o b se rv e d in arra n gi n g t he dif

f e re n t m e mb e r s :
l s t A ll o w s u ffi c i e n t cl e ara n c e
. Thi s i s e xtr e m e ly imp o rtant
.
,

s i n c e i n s u ffi c i e n t cl e ara n c e giv e s tr o ubl e i n e r e cti on F or tru s se s .

o f o rdi n ary s pa n s t he h e ad s o f all eye bar s c o mi n g on t h e pin

,
-

s h o uld b e a ss um e d as 115 i n thick e r than th e ir n o rmal thickn es s

.

318
3 20 P I N A ND R I VE TED TRUS S JO INTS A RT . 1 53

2d . A r r ang e
bar s so that th e ir c e ntr e lin e s will b e paral
e ye

lel or n e arly s o with t he c e n tr e li n e of th e tru ss I t i s s e ld o m .

p os s ibl e if c ompact j oi n t s and s mall pin s are t o b e obtai n e d t o

f oll ow this rul e v e ry cl os ely but it i s c o mm on t o s p e cify that
,

n o bar s hall d e viat e fr o m t he c e n tr e li n e of t h e tru ss by m o r e

than 1 3 i n pe r f oot in l en gth of the bar I n ca ses wh e r e a gr e at e r

1
. .

all owanc e than thi s i s n e c es s ary t he bar s h ould b e b ent t o the

pr op e r s l op e b e f or e b e i n g a nn e al e d .

A s it i s s o m e tim e s d i ffi c ult t o arra n g e t he di ffe r e nt m e mb e r s

s o that all t he ab o v e c onditi on s will b e o b se rv e d t h e s tud e nt ,

i s advi s e d t o lay out t o a large s cal e s ay 1 % i n = 1 f t t h e di f fe r e n t

, . .
,

j o int s of e ach ch o rd The di s tanc e apart of the vari ou s j o int s

.

s h o uld al so b e pl o tt e d t o s c al e but thi s s cal e may b e much s mall e r

,

than t he s c al e of d e tail s The di f f e r e nt m e mb e r s can th e n b e

.

dr awn fr o m j o int t o j oi n t and t he d eviati on fr o m th e c e n tr e lin e

can b e d e t e rmin e d by s cal e Thi s m e th o d i s i n dicat e d in F ig
. .

2 4 3 f or tw o j o int s of a b o tt o m ch o rd To carry o u t t he m e th o d .

C ho rd B ar Chor d Bar

or d Ba r Ch ord
Ce n te r Li n e of C hor d

FI G . 243 .

c o mpl e t e ly the ch ord s h o uld b e drawn on a s h ee t of su ffi

ci e n t l e n gth t o s h ow all the joint s or if th e tru ss i s symm e tric al
, ,

all t he j o int s up t o and i n cludi n g t h e c e ntr e j o i n t and th e t op ,

ch o rd s h ould b e pl o tt e d ab ov e th e b ott o m ch ord in a s imilar

mann e r .

I t will b e n otic e d that in o rd e r t o se cur e the ab ov e arrang e

,

m e nt the cha nn el fl anges m ay hav e t o b e cut away Thi s i s

,
.

und e s irabl e but i s fr e qu e ntly n e c e ss ary i n ord e r t o av oid t he

,

n e c es s ity of u s ing a pin of larg e diam e t e r I f thi s i s d on e t he .

,

chann e l s s h o uld b e r e i n f o rc e d by w eb plat es e xt e n ding thr ough out

t he di s tanc e o v e r which th e flan ge s are cut u n l es s t h e chann e l ,
“
w e b s al on e w i th o ut the fl ange s are of suffi c i ent s tr e ngth t o car ry
t he c o mpr e ss i on I n inv e s tigatin g thi s ca s e i n a c o mpr e ss i o n
.

m e mb e r t he c olumn f o rmula s h o uld b e applie d u s ing f or t he

, ,
-

un s upp ort e d l ength the di s tanc e fr o m t he c e ntr e of pin h ol e t o

t he fi rs t row of r iv e t s b e y ond t he p o int wh e r e t he fl an ge s are cut .
 A RT . 1 54 MI N I MU M S IZ E O F P I NS 321

1 54 . Mi ni m um Si ze of
it i s p os s ibl e t o c o m
P i ns . Be f or e
ple te t h e arran ge m e nt of t he vari o u s m e mb e r s it i s n e c e ss ary ,

t o mak e s om e a ss umpti o n as t o t he s iz e of t he pin s s inc e i t i s ,

u s ually n e c e s s ary t o add pin plat e s t o the ri ve t e d m e mb e r s e ith e r

f or t he purp ose of s tr e ngth e ning t h e m e mb e r aga i n s t cru s hing
o n t h e pi n or t o mak e up f or t h e ar e a tak e n ou t by t he pin h o l e
, ,

s i n c e t he pi n unlik e a riv e t d oe s n ot c o m pl e t e ly fill t he h o l e and

, ,

h e nc e cann ot b e c ount e d up on t o carry c o mpr es s i on To d e te r .

min e the s iz e appr o ximately r e quir e s s o m e e xp e ri e nc e ; t he

l ow e s t limit i s h ow e v e r u sually fi xe d by the width of the wid es t
, ,

eye bar c on n e ct e d t o t he pin as s h own b e l ow

-
.

Le t =
f b all o wabl e b e ari n g s tr e ss pe r s quar e inch on pin .

= ll b 1e t e n s i o n s tr e s s pe r s quar e i n ch in bar
f ¢ a o w a .

w = width of wid e s t bar c o ming on th e pin .

t = thi c kn e s s of s am e bar .

d = d i am e t e r o f t he pin .

Th e n
d = b e ar i n valu e of t he bar t he pi n ,
fb t g on

f t wt = t e n s i le s tr e n gth of t he ba r .

P utting th es e e qual giv e s

d =
fb t f t wt .

Th e r e f o r e ,

= 2 4 000 and the W idth o f the

F or xampl e if f ,
e fb , ,

wid e s t bar c o mi n g o n t he pi n i s 6 i n .
,
t he diam e t e r o f t he pin

s h ould not be l ess than

5 X6 in .
, h e nc e t he pin in this ca s e
s h ould b e a s s um e d as n ot l e s s than i n in diam e t e r W h e th e r . .

it s h ould b e a s s um e d as large r i s a matt e r which can o nly b e

e s timat e d by e xp e ri e nc e but it s h ould b e n o t e d that it i s wi s e r
,

t o a ss um e t he pin too s m a ll r ath e r than t oo large s inc e in the , ,

f orm e r c a se pi n plat e s which are so m e what thick e r than are

, ,

n ee d e d will b e s e l e ct e d at fi rst an d th e se may b e e a s ily r e duc e d

,

in thickn es s if it b e f o u n d that t he diam e t e r o f the pin s h ould b e

larg er than that a s sume d The only e xc e pti o n t o the s tat e m en t
.

that it i s u s ually on t he s afe s id e t o a s s ume the pin too s m a

3 22 PIN A ND R I VETE D TRU S S JO I NTS A R T 1 55
.

is wh e n a re inf orcing plat e i s not n ee d e d t o incr ea s e the b e aring

r es i s tanc e on t he pin but i s r e quir e d t o mak e up f or re ducti o n
,

in se cti on by the pin h ol e Thi s so m e tim e s happ e n s n e a r t h e

.

c e ntr e of the t op ch ord of a s impl e tru s s but in arranging the ,

m e mb e r s on a pin it i s wis e t o alway s all ow f or at l e as t o ne p in

plat e up on the c h ord at e v ery j oint ; a — i n plat e if r iv e t s d o n o t .

r e qui re c ount e r s inking and a 176 i n plate if t he cl e aranc e i s s o

,
-
.

s mall as t o mak e c o unt e r s inki n g n e c e ss ary .

1 55 Str esse s Cau s i ng Max i m u m Mom e nt and Sh ear

. A ft e r .

the arran ge m e nt o f t h e m e mb e r s i s s ati s fact o rily acc o m pli s h e d

it i s n e c e ss ary t o c o mpute the m axi m u m s tr e s ses which a c t
s imulta n e o u s ly o n e ach pin and which s e e m
,
lik e ly to pr o d uc e
critical b e n di n g m o m e n t s and s h e ar s .

I n o rd e r t o obtain th ese s i m ultan e ou s s tr esses it i s s o m e

ti m es n e c es s ary t o cal culat e an e w the s tr e ss es in a numb e r of
bars u n d e r the l o ading which pr o duc es th e m axi m um i n on e o f
the m For e xampl e f or the tru s s s h own in F ig 2 4 4 th e maxi m um
.
, .
,

FIG . 24 4 .

m om e nt on pin L 2 may o ccur u n d e r the l o adi n g whic h pr o duc e s

maxi m u m s tr e s s in ch o rd L 1 L2 diag o nal U1 L 2 or ch o rd L 2 L3
, , ,

h e nc e it b e c o m es n e c e ss ary t o c o m pute the s tr ess in the b ar s

c onn e ct e d by pi n L 2 u n d e r all of th e se c on d i ti o n s of l o adi n g .

I n all cas es it i s t he h o riz on tal and v e rtical c om p o n e nt s o f

t he s tr e ss es which are d es ir e d an d t he r e s ult s s h o uld b e ch e ck e d
,

by n oti n g wh e th e r the pin i s in e quilibriu m unde r the acti o n of

th e se c o mp on e n t s that i s wh e th e r EH = 0 and E V = O The r e
, , .

i s on e p o int h ere which m ay cau s e tr o ubl e The fl oor b e am .

in an o rdinary bridge i s fr e qu e ntly c onn e ct e d t o the p os t ab ov e

t he pin h e nc e t he p o s t str e ss which r e ach e s t he pin i s n o t th e
,

s tr es s i n t he p o s t as a wh o l e but i s t h e s tr e s s in t h e p os t b e l o w
,

t h e fl oor b e am . To av o id c onfus i o n n o att e nti o n s h o uld b e ,

paid t o the actual s tr e s s in t he p os t wh e th e r the floo r b e a m i s ,

3 2 4: P IN A N D R I VETED TRU S S JO I N TS A RT . 1 57

g r ea t ly t h e c on s tructi on . Und er thi s c onditi on the duty of this pi n

i s t o c onn e ct t h e di agon al t o t he t op cho rd an d v e rtical , t he h o ri z o n t a l

Top Chor d Top C ho rd

Ce ntre Se c ti o n B

FI G . 24 5
;
(Fo r c om p os i ti o n o f m em b e rs ,
s e e o pp os i e t p age ) .

c omp on e n t o f the di agon al s tres s b ei ng transmi tt ed by the pi n t o the

chord an d t he ve r t ic al c omp on e nt t o the p os t The act ual s tress i n t he
,
.

cho rd t he r efor e i s n ot an el emen t i n the pi n d es ign an d n e e d s t o b e

, , ,

c on s id ere d o nly i n i nves t iga t ing the

s t r e n gt h o f t he cho rd at t he cr os s— s ec t i on

through t he pi n hol e F i g 2 46 s hows . .

t h e m a ximum s t r ess i n t he d i ago n a l wi t h

i ts ve r t ic a l a n d ho ri z on t a l c omp o n e n ts .

Th e all ow abl e u n it s tr es s es o f
lb s per s qu a re i n ch t e n s i o n a n d
.
,

lb s pe r s qu a r e i nch b e a ri ng gi v e f or t he
.

m i n im um s i z e pi n r e quir e d f o r b ea ri ng
16 _
d i agon a l b a r,
H N
on th e 6 -
1n X6 Q
FIG E
.

. 24 6 .

S in c e th e s t res s i n t he d i ago nal i s l a rge

t h e s i z e o f pi n which w ill b e a ss umed i n d e t e rmi ni ng b e a ri ng a r eas
w ill b e t a k en as somew ha t l a rge r t han t h e mi n imum s i z e o r say S i i n
q
.
,

The b e a rin g a r e a r e u ir e d by t hi s a ss ump t i on m ay t h e n b e c omp u t e d

b y ass umi ng t he s t r ess t o b e di s t rib u t e d u ni fo rmly ov e r a s u rf a c e e u al q ,

to th e pl a n e di ame tric a l s e c t i on of t h e pi n .

To t al t hic k ne s s of b e ari ng r e q r
ui e d o n cho rd

2 2 , 00 0 X 5 i
”

To t al t hi c k nes s of b eari ng r e qui re d on v e r t i c al

22 , 000 X 5 }
O
A RT 1 5 7
. S I Z E OF TRU S S ME MBE RS 3 25

3 m 3
3 5 5
m o o
m w w
l l l
m
: 2 2

m m w o v. w
m
2 2
m m
fi
o w h o w h

q m
w
a m w w o o o a 0 o a
o w p fi n a n a 3 5 a n
w B5 w
fi
c q
o
p
w o fi > o c
w w w w w w w w w w
a
o a
a
o
x

m
0 8
a? w
h h
w o
h
w
h
o
h
o
h
o
h
o
h
o
h
o
h
o
o
c 0 0 0 o o 0 5 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
a 3 3 3 c 3 8 0
,
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 s
3 EB
a
L 5 9 9 o h h h
. .
3
L 9 m
. 8 9 h 9 m . . .
:
L a
L HB

X
01
XXXX
00 v fi h h h h h H o w ie

w
p
m
w
n
o
3 $
_ 8 m
w
n
o

w
0 w w w
fi w fi
5 fi

w
m w h m
u h
3
fi

m 8 a 8 w h
o o o o
h

—
q c a o
w w 0 ~ 0 u w 0 a a fi m a w

m
m m
w z w
o
>
3 w Q
o
Q 3 o
Q 3 n
o w o o w w >
> w w > w n
0 0 0 a h h h h h
w3 9 ?
0 0
0 8 3 ? ? c
o S 9 B o w w o o
0
o B o

5
.

o 0 0 w 0 0 0 0
2 3 3 3
0 0 o 0 0 3 0 o 0 0 5
c
5
3 3 3 a 3 3 3 3 3 3 o 3 0 0 c 3 3 0
h
. 9 9 O 8 9 A
. 8 5 9 9 m .
m
. 8 h h m9 O 9 h
.

i
M n O

im {
a

a q an
N i

fi
dfl fl fl fl b
32 6 P IN A ND R I VETED TRUS S JO I NTS A RT . 1 57

In rd ro btain these thic k

e to o c ary to add a r } i n pi nn ess es i t is n e ess
I
, .

plat e t o e ach half of t h e v ertical Th e chord thic kness n e ed n ot b e i n .

cre as e d f or b earing but a plat e s h ould b e add e d t o ma k e u p f or the

,

r educ t i on i n ar e a d ue t o t h e pi n h ol e This r e d uc t i on .

5i sq . i ns .

7 ”
—
A g pla t e on each rib of the chord gives a net ar ea of
pi n
s q i ns which i s ampl e A t hinn er plat e sho uld n ot b e
. .
,
.

assumed s in c e t he rive t s may have t o b e c o unt ersun k an d i t i s

, ,

i n advi s abl e t o c o un t e r s i n k i h rive t s i n a pl a t e t hinn e r than 3 3 i n

-
.
7
.

The wid th ad op t e d f o r t h e t op cho rd i s 1 8 % i n b e tween th e 22 i n webs .

-
.
,

an d f o r t he v e rtical 1 2 i n o ut t o o u t o f w eb s . These wid ths are d et e r .

min ed pri ncipally by the c ondi t i on s at t h e end j oi n t which wi ll n ot b e

, , ,

c on si d ered here It s hould b e n o t ed howeve r that the width of the

.
, ,

Ver t ical i s gi ven f o r the di stan c e out to o ut of webs i ns t ead of be twe en ,

webs the fl anges b ei ng t urned away fr om each o t he r This di s t an c e

,
.

i s mad e c on s t an t f or all v e r t i c a l s so t ha t t he l en gt hs o f t he fl oo r b eams

,

may b e the s ame regardl ess of the t hic kn es s of t h e p os t chann el webs .

Th e arrangement of m emb e rs ad opt e d at the j oi nt i s shown by Fi g 24 7 . .

"
x 34; W eb

—
iépi
fl
- n plat e

FI G . 24 7 .

The fo rc es acti ng on the pi n we re a ssumed i n d etermi ning th e required

b earing area as di s t ribute d uni formly ove r a plane surfac e e ual t o t h e
,
,

q
diame t rical s e c t ion of the pi n In c omp utin g moments howeve r i t i s
.
, ,

t he u s ua l c us t om t o c o n s i d e r these forc es as c on c en t ra t e d at t he c en tr e
o f t he b e a ri n g a r e as The d i s t an c e b e twe e n t he p oi n t s o f applic ation o f
.

t hese stresses should b e c omp u t ed up on this basi s an d t h e b en di ng ,

momen t and shear on th e pi n d ete rmi n ed The r es ul t s of t hese c omp u t a .

t i on s are s hown i n Fi g 24 8 . .

It i s evide n t that the maxi mum momen t i n t his c ase i s the r esul t ant
o f t h e maxi mum ho ri z on t a l an d t he ma xi mum ve r t ic a l mome n t s s i n c e ,

these b o t h occ ur a t the s ame se c t ion Thi s i s fo und graphic ally as

q
.
,

s h o wn by Fi g 24 9 and e u al s
.
,
i n lb s . .
3 28 P IN A N D R I VETE D TRU S S JO I N TS A RT . 1 58

per foot, and he nc e th es e s tr ess es may b e writt en d own at on c e The .

di ff eren c e b etwe en the chord s tr esses equals the ho ri z on tal c omp onen t
o f t he di agonal s tr ess , fro m whi ch t he v ertical c omp on en t i s r e a d i ly

o btai n e d The s t ress t ra ns fe rre d t o the ve rtic al from t he pi n e qual s t he

.

ve rti cal c omp on ent of the diagonal s tress Th e s tresse s f or thi s ca se are .

s hown by F i g 2 5 0 . .

For the sec ond ca se i t i s n e c ess ary t o c omp u t e the s tr esses i n the
chords prod uc ed by the l oadi n g which cau ses maxi mum s t r ess i n th e
diagon al Thi s c omputa t ion r e qui res b ut li tt l e addi t ion al wo r k even
.
,

if a c on c entra t ed load sys tem i s us ed s inc e t he p osi t ion of the l oad s i s ,

kn own and the l eft reaction would h ave b een d e t e rmi n e d i n ma ki ng the
s hear c omputati o ns The s tre ss es f or thi s ca se are s hown by F i g 2 5 1
. . .

H ad th e maxi mum cho rd s t r ess es b een c omp uted f o r a c on c en t r ate d

l oad sys tem i t might have b e en n ec ess ary t o c omp ute th e pi n f or thr e e
i ns t ead o f t wo c a ses s i nc e t he p os iti o n of th e l o a d s f o r maxi mum s tress
,

i n cho rd L l might hav e b ee n di ffe r en t from the p os i t io n f or maxi mum

s tr ess i n t he cho rd L L 3 I t should b e n oted howeve r that i n pi n c om
2 .
, ,

De ad =1 78 M IN De ad
m132
1 48
Li vo =1 40
.
.

D ad =225 De ad =36 9 000 1bs Dea d =225 000 1bs De ad =369 000 1bs
000 1bs
e
L i ve =1 76 000 1b8
. .

Li ve =289 000 1bs

. .

. .
Li ve = 1 37 000 1b8 . L i ve = 264 000 1bs .

F I G 2 50. . FIG 2 51 . 0

putati on s a un i form l oad givi ng the sam e maxim um s tr e s s as t h at o cc ur

ri n g i n any o ne of t he b a rs c onn ecte d by the pi n may b e us ed if desi re d
i n d e t e rmi ni n g t he s imul t an eo us s tr ess i n t h e o t h e r bar s , t he e rr o r b e in g
s light I t will b e n otic ed that im p a ct i s n ot i n cl ud e d wi t h ab ove
.

s tr esse s The r ea son f or thi s i s that th e all owan c e f o r imp a ct i f figured

.

by the f o whi ch wi ll b e us e d f or t hi s case wo uld gi ve ,

d i ffe r en t
p erc en t ages f or the d i fi erent bars wi th the r es ul t t hat th e ,

forc es on the pi n would n ot balanc e I t i s n ec ess ary t herefo re i n .

, ,

s uch a ca s e t o c omput e t h e d e ad and live mom en t s s ep a r a t e ly a n d d e t e r ,

mine t h e impac t as a fac t or of the momen ts and n ot of t he b a r s t resses .

I f t he i mp a c t i s c omput ed on t he ba si s of the p erc e n t a ges of l o ade d

l engt h i t m i ght i f d es ire d b e i n cluded i n t he s tresses s i nc e t he l oad ed
, ,

l engt h i s th e s ame f or e ach case f or all t he bars c on c e rn ed .

a re
The m i nimum si ze of pi n f or thi

l a rge hen c e i t wo uld s eem r eason abl e t o ss e a pi n s omewha t

s j oi n t i s — X7
é
S
a um
The s t res ses

la rge r t han t his an d a 6—i n pi n wi ll b e t a k en For t h e l oadin g of th e s e c o n d

,
,

c as e t he p ost stre ss wi t h i mpact add ed e ual s ,

.

lb s ; hen c e t he ,
.

q .
AR T . 1 58 COMPU TA TI ON OF A B OTTOM CH OR D P I N 3 29

t otal thi c kn es s requi red f or b eari ng on the 6—i n pi n i s m

22 , 000 s
. ‘

The thi c kn ess of t he chann el web i s in .

,
h en c e to e ach we b mus t be

FIG . 2 52 .

a d ded -
i n pi n pla t
.
9 -
es o r s ay o n e 1 5 1D pla t e an d o n e i n pl a t e
.
-
. . The
prop osed a rran gemen t of t he di ffe rent m embe rs c om i n g o n t he pi n i s

te r li n e of Pi n

D lb s . D lbs
.

L= 31 , 000 lbs .

D= 32, 000 i n lbs .

ia lbs
. .

in lbs.
.

in
.

l 000 in lbs
. .

Ce nte r

o = 39, ooo lbs .

= 7oooo
g L ,

FIG . 2 53 .
—Cur ve s of Mo m t
en s f or Cas e 1 . F ull Li ne s a re D e a d Mo m t
en s .

shown i n Fi g 252 This arrangeme nt i s o n e whi ch gives a

. . sa tis factory
loc a t i on of the bars as regard s t he o the r j oi n t s o f the tr us s .
3 30 PI N A ND R I VE TED TR USS JO I NTS A RT . 1 58

F i gs . 2 53 how curves of momen ts f or b oth loadi ngs and

and 254
s h oul d b e u nd e rs t oo d wi t ho ut d i ffi c ult
s ,

y It wi ll b e n o t ed that i n d e t e r .

mini ng d i s t an c es b e twe en l oads e ach eye bar i s ass um ed to b e 115 i n thic k er - -

.

t han i ts n omi nal s i z e .

lbs . i a -lbs
.

Ce nte r li ne of Pi n

28 , 600 1be .

lbs .

lbs

l 700 i a lbs . .

Ce n te r li ne

I
F G . 2 54 .
—C r u ve of Live Mom ents f or Case 2 .

It is vid e n t t ha t the ma xi mum moment

e on th e pi n o cc urs f o r Ca se 1
an d e qu a l s :

D i n lb s ,
. .

L i n lbs ,
. .

I i n-lbs (by f o rmula (8 )

.

i n lbs
. .

The s ize of pi n r eq ui r e d t o
carry thi s moment wi t h un it stres s of
2 2 5 00 1b s i s
,
. H an dboo k) This i s somewhat s ma lle r
5 %- i h (s ee Cambri a .

t han th e s i z e ass umed i n c omp u t i ng the thi c kn ess of the b e ari n g pla t es
o n t h e p os t As th e t hi c kn es s of t h es e b e ari n g plat es has no i nfl uen c e
.

up on t h e m a xi mum mom en t on t hi s pi n which o cc u r s a t t he n ext t o

t he ou t e rmos t cho rd ba r i t i s e vid e n t t h a t t he 5 % i n pi n m ay b e us e d

,
-
.

wi tho ut r e c omp u t atio n by ma kin g o n e of the pi n pla t es on the ve rti c al

s omewh a t t hic k e r t ha n t he s i z e r e q uir e d f o r a 6 i n pi n an d t hat no o t he r -
.
,

c h an ge i s n e c ess a ry .

S hea r The a ll owabl e s hea r o n t he 5 34 m pi n a t

. lb s pe r . .

s qu ar e i n ch e qu al s lb s .
33 2 P IN A ND R I VE TE D TRUS S J O I NTS A RT 1 6 0
.

in F ig 2 5 6 the m o m e nt will b e r educ e d s in c e in the fi rst ca se

.
, ,

t h e m o m e n t c o ntinually incr e a se s whi l e in th e s e c o nd c a s e t h e

m o m e n t vari es fr o m p o s itiv e t o ne gativ e and th e n back t o p os i

tiv e i t s maximum valu e b e ing far b e l ow that r e ach e d in th e fi rs t

,

arrang e m ent .

The thickn ess of the bar s al so h as an imp ortant e f fe c t up o n

the s iz e of t he pin and a r e ducti o n c an o ft e n b e mad e by r e ducing
,

i n thickn e s s o ne b ar of a m e mb e r and incr e a s in g an o th e r by

t h e s am e am ount Thi s of c o ur se c an n o t b e d on e if the m e mb e r

.
, ,

i s c o mp ose d of only tw o b ar s s inc e in s uch a c a se b o th bar s mu s t ,

b e e qual in s iz e t o pr es e rv e t h e s y mm e t ry of t he tru s s .

1 60 Pi n Plate Riv ets

. The d e t e rmi n ati o n of t he numb e r
.

of r iv e t s r e quir e d in t h e pi n plat e s s o m e tim e s r e quir e s c ar e ful

s tudy The s tud e nt s h ould h ow e v e r hav e n o d i ffi c ulty in solv

.
, ,

ing thi s pr o bl e m if he i s c ar e ful t o u s e e n o ugh riv e t s t o carry

fr o m e ach plat e th e s tr e s s which it r e c e iv e s fr o m t h e pin a s sum ,

ing that it r e c e iv e s that pr o p o rti o n o f the t o tal s tr ess which i t s

thicknes s b e ar s t o the t o tal thick n e ss of b e aring Due all o wanc e .

s h o uld b e mad e in ca se s e v e ral pi n plat e s are n e e d e d f o r t h e e f f e ct

o f int e rm e diat e plat e s u p o n t h e s tr e n gth o f t he riv e t s and it ,

i s oft e n f o und d es irabl e t o mak e plat es o f di ff e e n t l e n gth s s o r

'
that s o m e th i n g of the e fi e c t of a ti ght fille r may b e o btain e d .

1 61 Pi n Nuts . Th e nut c o mm o nly u s e d on brid ge pin s i s

.

a sp e cial n ut which i s much thi nn e r than the o rdi na ry h e xa gon al

or s quar e nut s inc e i t s functi on i s n o t t o c arry t e n s i o n int o t h e
,

pin but m e r e ly t o h old the b ar s i n plac e I t s h o uld b e h el d

,
.

i n p o s iti o n by a c ott e r pin s inc e nut s n ot h e ld hav e b e e n k n o wn

,

t o b e l oo s e n e d by t he imp act o f trai n s and t o fall o ff O u v e ry ,

.

large tru s se s nut s are s o m e tim es r e plac e d by wa s h e r s which

,

are h e ld in plac e by a r od pa s s ing thr o ugh a h o l e b o r e d al ong

t h e l on git u di n al axi s o f t h e pin .

1 62 Pac k i ng Ri n gs
. In o rd e r that t h e b e n d i ng m o m e nt on
.

t h e pin m ay n o t di ff e r fr o m t h e c o mput e d valu e it i s n e c e s s ary ,

that the e ye b ar s b e h e ld in t h e p o s iti on a ss um e d in t h e c o mputa

-

ti on s To d o thi s it i s n e c e ss ary t o use wa s h e r s or c ollar s

.
,

b e tw ee n s o m e of t he bar s Th ese are s o m e tim es mad e of thin .

plat es b ent ar ound the pi n and so m e tim e s of s h ort pi e c es of ir on,

pip e Wh e n t h e bar i s r es train e d by t he o th e r m e mb e r s s o that

“

t h e cl e aranc e i s n ot m or e than 9 ; in t o g i h t h e u s e of s uch . .

wa s h e r s i s unn e c ess ary .

A RT 1 6 3
. R I VE TE D TRUS S JO I NTS 3 33

1 63 . R iv eted Truss J o i nts The d e sign of t he j oi n t s of rive t e d

.

tru sse s i s of e qual imp o rtanc e with t he d e s ign o f t he main m e mb e r s

“

an d s h o uld r e c e ive m os t car e ful s tudy The ob se rvanc e of

.

t he f oll owi n g rul es i s n e c e s s ary in o rd er t o pr e v e nt e c c e ntri city

in t he applicati on of t he f orc e s t o t he m e mb e r s m ee ting at a
j oint and c on s e qu e nt incr e a se in fib re s tr e s s in t he main m e mb e r s .

1 Ce ntr e of gravity lin e s of m e mb e r s m eeting at a j oint

.

s h o uld int e r s e ct at a p oint .

2 Conn e cti on rive t s in a m e mb e r s h ould b e arrang e d s ym

.

m e tri cally ab o ut t he axi s pa s s ing thr o ugh i t s c e ntr e of gravity ,

with as f e w riv e t s as practicabl e in a lin e parall e l t o i t s lon gi t u

di n al axi s .

3 Me mb e r s c omp os e d o f a s i n gl e a n gl e o r of t w o a n gl e s
.
,

back t o b ack s h o ul d b e c o nn e ct e d t o plat e s by m e an s of lug

,

a n gl e s in t he m ann e r illu strat e d by Fig 25 7 or e l se t he all o wabl e

.
,

unit str e s s in t he m e mb e r s h o uld b e r e duc e d t o pr o vid e f or t he

e cc e n tric appli cati o n o f t he l o ad Th e us e of t he lug angl e i s
.

o ft e n d e s irabl e n ot o nly t o pr e v e nt t he e cc e n tricity o f applica

,

ti on of t he l oad but al s o t o d e cr e a se t he s i z e of t he c onn e cti on

,

plat e whi ch w oul d oth e rwi se b e n e c e s s ary .

FIG . 2 57 .

4 . tr e ss at any j oi n t i s t o b e tran s fe rr e d fr o m on e m e mb e r
If s

i nt o a gu sse t plat e an d th e nc e tran s f e rr e d t o an oth e r m e mb e r ,

t he gr oup o f c on n e cti on riv e t s in t he s e c ond m e m be r s h o uld

hav e i t s c e ntr e of gra vi ty c oi n cid e nt as n e arly as p oss ibl e with
t he p oint of int e r s e cti on of t h e t wo m e mb e r s .
3 34 PIN A_
ND R I V ETE D TRU SS JO I N TS AR T . 1 63

5 . The
arrange me nt of the c onn e cti on rive t s i n a t e n s i o n
m e mb e r s h o ul d b e s uch as t o r e duc e the cr oss s e cti o n are a o f
-

t he m e mb e r as littl e as p o s s ibl e c o n s i s t e nt wi th e c o n o my in th e
c onn e cti o n plat e I n o r de r that this r es ult may b e obta ine d
.

Max Co m
. press i on

4 Ls

it i s u s ually d e s irabl e t o have n ot m or e than t w o rive t s at r ight

angl es t o t he lin e of acti on of s tr e ss in t he ro w fa rt he s t fr o m t he
p oint of int e r se cti on of t he m e mb e r s m ee ting at t he j o int an d t o
,

mak e t he di stanc e b e twee n thi s row and t he row n e xt t o it as much

as 5 i n s in o rd e r t h at riv e t s i n o ut s tanding l e gs of a n gl e s o r in
.

chann e l fl an ge s may s t agge r c ompl e t e ly with t he c onn e cti on rive t s .

I t s h o uld b e ob s e rve d that t he c onn e cti on rive t s gradually trans

3 36 P IN A ND R I VETE D TRUS S JO I NTS AR T 1 6 3
.

tanc e b elo w the c e ntr e of grav ity of the cross s ection The strength -
.

of t h e pla t e at thi s s e cti on wi ll th er efo r e b e i nv esti gat e d .

The forc es acting t o th e right of my are th e pr op orti onate part of

the chord s tr es s carri e d i n t o th e pl at e by th e chord riv et s an d th e ,

to t a l str ess i n the diago nal Evid en tly the s tre ss d ue t o the chord
.

i s th e m or e i mp ortan t fac t or s i nc e i ts li n e of action i s f ur th er from th e

,

c en tr e of the cr oss se ctio n henc e the c ondi t ion of l oadi n g c orr esp ondi ng
-
,

to maxi mum s tr ess i n t hi s chord b ar will b e ass um ed Computati ons

. .

show that f or thi s c onditi on t he str es s i n t he diagonal i s lbs The .

s tress pa ssi ng i nt o t he plat e fr om t he chord rivet s will b e ta k en as the pr od

uc t of t he numb e r of rivets t o the ri ght of my and t he all owabl e stre ss

p er riv e t
,
it b e i ng as sum e d that t h e t otal n umb e r o f riv e t s i s li ttle if a nyi n

exc ess of t he numb er actually ne ede d The as sumpti on that t he thick

.

n es s of the pla t e wi ll b e s uch a s t o ca us e th e ri v et s t o b e li m i t ed by she ar

rather than beari ng and that th e allowabl e u ni t s tress i n shear i s
lb s per s quar e i nch gi ves a tota l forc e of 1 4 x72 00 =
.
,
lb s the .
,

rivets c ut by the secti on b e i ng i ncluded ,

s in c e t h ey b e ar up on t he p orti o n o f th e plat e

to the right of ay n r a th er tha n t o th e l eft .

The forc es acting up on s e ction xy o f on e

of th e tw o c onne c t i o n pl a t e s will th e r efo r e , ,

b e a s s hown i n Fi g 2 59 . .

I t h as already b ee n shown i n c ons id eri ng

plate gi rd er web splic es t ha t the e ffect of a
ro w of riv e t ho l es s uch as e xi s t at s e c t i on

say i n r e duci n g t h e s tr e n gth i n b en di n g will

FIG 2 59 . . pr obably b e amply allo w ed f or if t h e m o

me n t o f i nertia b e c onsid er e d as thr e e
q uart e rs o f t he value f or t h e gr o ss cr os s s e cti o n I f this all owa n c e b e
-
.

ma d e t h e maximum str es s i n t h e plat e a ssumi ng i t s thic k nes s a s t will

,

b e give n by t h e f oll owi ng expr es s i o n :

1 0 08 00 —3 1 4 00 4 — 3 1 4OOX 1 1
)
— +
(4 0 1 0) t 3 t(4 0 ) 2

69400 1 0658 0 7 642

3 0t 20 t t

7 64 2
S i nc e the all owabl e v al ue of f i s 1 6000 lb s t= . re q uu ed thi ck
1 6 000
n ess . This thic k ness would d evelop mo re than th e sh eari ng val ue of
th e ri v et s an d i s c on se que n t ly s u ff ici en t
, at l eas t f or the s e ction
,

i nves t i gated .

A mor e acc urate determi n at i on c ould b e ma de i f thought desi rabl e

by ac t ually d e t ermin in g the n et momen t of i ne rt ia an d o ther section s
-

m ay b e t es t ed i n a s imi lar ma n n er if d o ubt e xi st s as to t h e cri ti cal se ct i on .

 CHAPT ER XIH

G R A PH I C A L S TA TI CS

1 64 . Gr aphi c a l a nd A nalyti ca l Meth ods Com pared

I t i s ge n .

e rally p os s ibl e t o s o lv e by graphical m e th o d s all s tatical pr o bl e m s

which can b e solv e d analytically whil e f or c e rtain cla sse s of ,

pr obl e m s s uch m e th o d s are s om e what s impl e r and m or e r apid

than analytical m e th o d s s uch f or e xampl e b e i ng th e ca s e in
, , ,

t he pr o bl e m s of A rt s 8 9 and 90 . A s a ge ne ral r ul e h o w e v e r
.
, ,

analytical m e th od s are m o r e s ati s fact o ry b o th in accuracy and

s p ee d . Th e e n gin e e r s h o uld n e v e rth e l es s b e th or oughly familiar
with the principl e s of graphical s tatic s s o that he may b e pr e par e d
t o apply th e m particularly in ch e cking analytical c o mputati on s
,
.

A kn owl e dge of th e m i s al s o n e c e ss ary in o r d e r that e ngin e e ring

lit e ratur e may b e r e ad int e lli ge ntly .

For a c o mpr e h e n s iv e tr e at me nt o f
the s ubj e ct the s tud e nt i s r e fe rr e d
to Graphi s ch e S tatik by Mull e r,

B r e s lau .

1 65 F or c e
. an d F u ni c u l a r
P oly gons The m os t obvi o u s m e th o d
.

o f d e t e rmi n i n g graphica lly the mag

n i tud e ,
dir e cti on and p oin t o f
,

applicati on of the r e s ulta n t of a

se t of c opla n ar f o rc e s may b e
b ri e fl y s tat e d as f o ll ow s :
P l o t the c o rr e ct p os iti on and
dir e cti on of the f o rc e s as in d i
c a te d in F ig 2 60 by F 1 F 2 and
.
, ,

F3 . P r o l ong an y t w o f orc e s s uch ,

as F 1 and F until th e y m ee t F IG 2 6 0
, . .

thu s ob taining the p oi nt of appli

cati o n o f t he r e s ultant of th e se t wo f o rc es De t e rmin e t he .

magn itud e and dir e cti on of thi s res ultant f or c e by t he

337
33 8 GRA P HI CA L S TA TI CS A RT . 1 65

'

parall e l ogram of f o rc e s I n a s im ilar mann e r c ombin e thi s

.
.

re s ultant with one of t h e o th e r f orc es and c o ntinu e t he pr o c e s s ,

until the res ultan t of all the f o rc e s h as thu s b ee n d e t e rmin e d in

dir e ct i on p o int of applicati on and magnitud e Thi s pr o c e ss
,
.

may b e c ontinu e d in d e fini te ly if the f or c e s are n ot p aralle l but ,

fail s f o r pa ralle l f o rc e s s inc e f o r s uch f o rc e s it giv e s only the

,

magnitud e an d dir e cti o n of t he r e s ultant t he p oint of applica ,

ti on b e ing ind e t e rm i nat e Thi s m e th o d i s s impl e in i ts applica

.

ti on b ut t h e fact that it i s n ot applic abl e t o t h e c a s e of p aralle l

,

f o rc e s a n d t hat it d o e s n ot giv e c o mpact dia gram s make s t he

f o ll o wing g e n e ral m e th o d m or e d e s irabl e :
L e t t he f o rc e F 1 b e r e s olv e d int o any t w o c o mp o n e nt s s uch
-

as OP and P I o f F ig 2 6 1 .an d le t t he f o rc e F 2 b e r e s o lv e d int o

,
’ ’
t he t w o c o mp on e nt s O P and
S inc e t he e f f e ct of any
’ ’
P I .

f o rc e i s e qual t o that of i ts
c o mp on e nt s it i s e vid e n t that OP
an d P I may b e s ub s ti t ut e d f or
’ ’
F 1 and O P a n d P I f o r F 2 with
’ ’

o u t cha n gi n g t h e r e s ult h e n ce
F ro 6
. 2 1 . ,

t h e r e s ultant of F 1 and F 2 e qual s

t h e r es ultant of t he f o ur c o mp o n e n t s OP
’ ’ ’ ’
PI P I and O P , , ,
.

S i n c e P I and F 2 may b e r e s o lv e d i n t o c o mp o n e nt s at any p o int

a n d i n an y dir e cti o n a n d s i n c e P I an d P I may b e ma d e parall e l
’ ’
,

it i s e vid e n t that P I and P I may b e mad e t o c o incid e in d i re c

’ ’

ti o n I f th e y c an al s o b e m ad e e qual th e n t he r e s ult an t of F 1
.
,
’ ’
a n d F 2 e qual s t h e r e s ulta n t o f OP a n d O P a n d act s i n t h e s am e
'
dir e c t i o n Th e c o mp o n e n t s c o rr e s p o nding t o P I and P I will
.
’

b e e qual parall el a n d o pp os it e in dir e cti o n if t h e f or c e s F 1 a n d

, ,

F 2 b e r e s o lv e d as s h o wn i n F i g 2 62 in which F 1 and F 2 a re
,
.
,

g iv e n in di r e cti o n a n d ma g nitud e but n o t in p o s iti o n P b e in g ,

tak e n at an y c o nv e n i e nt p oi n t .

I n F ig 2 63 the f o rc e s are s h own i n the ir c o rr e ct p os iti on s and

.

th e c o mp on e n t s OP P I I F an d P 2 are pl ott e d s o that P I

, , ,

an d I P c o incid e i n p o s iti on and are e qual in magnitud e and

O pp os it e in dir e cti on th e r e f o r e the r es ultant of F 1 and F 2 act s a
,
t
t he int e r se cti on of OP and P 2 i ts magnitud e an d dir e cti on b e in g
,

giv e n by the s id e 0 2 of the triangl e of f o rc e s 0 1 2 in F ig 2 62 , ,

. .

H ad th e f o rc es P I and F 2 b e e n parall e l th e s am e m e th o d
c o uld hav e b e e n u s e d a s i s illu s trat e d by F ig 264
,
. .
34 0 GR A P H I CA L S TATI CS A RT . 1 65

t he f orc e p olyg on mu s t b e a cl ose d fi gure i e p oi nt 0 and p o int n ,

. .
,

mu s t c o incid e s inc e o nly und e r thi s c onditi on can EH = 0 and

,

EV =0 . Th e fu n icular p o lyg o n mu s t al s o cl os e that i s t h e , ,

s tr i ng P 0 ,
and the s tring P n mu s t c o incid e s inc e o the rw i s e ,

t he r e s ultant f orc e which e quals t he r e s ultant of the tw o c om

pon e n t s r e pr e s ent e d by th e s e s tr ing s w ould b e a c o upl e F or .

c oncurr e nt f o rc e s i e f o rc es all of which m ee t at a p o int

,
. .
, ,

cl os ur e of the f orc e p olyg on i s s uffi c i en t t o s h o w that e q u ili b

r i um e xi s t s s inc e s uch f o rc e s are in e quilibrium i f EH = 0 an d
,

Z V = O a c onditi on whic h obvi ou s ly e xi s t s i f the f orc e p olyg on

,

cl os es.

FI G . 26 5 .

I t i s cl e ar that unle s s t he p ol e b e l o c at e d o n t he lin e On t he

c o inci d e nc e of t h e fi rs t and l as t s trin gs of t h e fu n ic ul ar p o lygo n
will i n v o lv e t he cl os ur e of t he f o r c e p ol yg o n Thi s i s illu s trat e d .

by F i g 2 65 in which t h e funicul ar p olygo n s h o wn b y full lin e s

.
, , ,

cl o s e s s inc e P 0 and P 4 c o inci de a r es ult whic h o bvi o u s l y w o ul d

, ,

n o t o c cur if 0 a n d 4 in t h e f o rc e p o lyg o n w e r e n o t t o c o incid e .

W e r e t h e f o rc es in this c a s e t o c o n s i s t o f F 1 F 2 an d F 3 o nly t h e , , ,

fi rs t a n d la s t s trin gs of t h e fu n ic ular p o l yg o n c ould n ot c o i n cid e

unle s s t he p o l e w e r e t o b e l o cat e d o n t h e li n e 0 3 o r i n t h e m o r e ,

ge n e ral c a s e o n t h e li n e On
, ‘
I f F 4 w e r e t o act in t he dir e cti o n
v
.

'
i n dic at e d by t h e d ott e d li n e mark e d F 4 t h e f o rc e p o ly go n ,

w o ul d cl os e as b ef o r e but t he las t s tring of t h e funicul ar p o ly go n

,

w oul d n ot c o i n ci d e with t he fi rs t s tri n g b ut w o uld i n s t e ad hav e ,

t h e d o tt e d p o s iti o n P 4 an d t h e r e s ult ant of t h e f o rc e s OP

’
,

and P 4 w o ul d b e a c oupl e with a valu e of (P 0 ) a = (F 4) b .

A RT . 1 6 6 C H A R A C TE R I S TI C S O F TH E FUN I C UL A R P O LY G O N 3 4 1

1 66 . C h a r a c t e r i s ti c s of th e Fu ni c u l a r P o lygo n
tri n g s . Th e s

of t h e funic ular p olyg o n r e pr e s e n t t h e bar s of a fram e w o r k

which w ould b e h eld in e quilibrium by t he appli e d f o r c e s and ,

i n all of which t he s tr e s s e s w o uld b e e ither dire ct t e n s i on or d i r e ct

c o mpr ess i on Ah i n fi ni te numb e r o f s uch fram e w o rk s can b e
.

s e l e ct e d th e ir p os iti o n an d s hap e b e ing d e t e rmin e d by the

,

l o cati o n o f the p ol e .

S i n c e e ach i n t e rm e diat e s tring r e pr e s e n t s t w o f o rc e s which

a re e qual in ma gnitud e and o pp os it e in dir e cti on t h e r e s ulta n t ,

of all t he f o rc es w i ll b e h e ld in e quilibrium by t he f o rc e s r e pr e

se n t e d by t he e xtr e m e s trin gs he n c e thi s r es ultant act s at the

,

p o int o f int e rs e cti on of t he e xtre m e s trin gs as h as alr e ady b ee n ,

s tat e d The r e s ulta n t of a n y set o f c on s e cutiv e f o rc e s i s al s o

.

h e ld in e quilibrium by the e xtr e m e s tring s c o rr e s p ondin g t o that

particular s e t of f o rc es h e nc e it act s at t he p o i n t of i n t e r s e cti o n
,

o f th e se e xtr e m e s tri n g s Thi s may b e i llu s trat e d by Fi g 2 65

. .
,

in which the r es ultant of F 1 and F 2 a ct s at the in t e r s e cti on of

P 0 and P 2 ; of F 1 F 2 and F 3 at t he int e r s e cti o n o f P 0 an d
, ,

P 3 ; o f P I F 2 F 3 an d F 4 at t h e int e r s e cti on of P O and P 4 ‘

, , , , ,

that i s at any p oint al on g P 0 or P 4 an obvi o u s ly c o rre ct

, ,

c onclu s i on s inc e t he r e s ulta n t of F 1 F 2 F 3 an d F 4 e qual s z e r o

, , , , ,

th e s e f o rc e s b e ing in e quilibrium .

The f oll o win g ge ne ral rule may b e appli e d t o t he d e t e rmina

ti on of t he p oint of applicati o n of the re s ult an t z—The r e s ultant
of any s e t of c on s e c utive ly num b e r e d f o rc es act s thr ough the
p o int of i nte r se cti on of the two s trin gs on e of which i s d e s i gnat e d ,

by a n um b e r e qual t o t hat of the high es t numb e r e d f orc e and the

' ,

o th e r by a num b e r o n e l o we r tha n t he l o we s t numb e r e d f o rc e .

For e xampl e t he r es ultant of a s e ri es o f f orc e s F 4 t o F 7 i n c lu

, ,

s iv e act s thr o ugh t he p o int o f int e r s e cti o n of P 3 and P 7

,
In .

applying thi s rule the f o rc e s and s trin gs s h o uld b e numb e r e d

in t he e xact man n e r u s e d in the illu s trati on s .

1 67 Re ac ti ons
. S inc e in o rd e r that a se t of f orc es may b e
.

in e quilibrium t he f o rc e an d funi cul ar p olygo n s m us t cl os e ,

it i s e vid e nt that t he r e acti on s o f a give n s tructur e may b e

d e t e rm i n e d graphically if th e ir value s are s uch t o mak e th e s e
tw o p o ly gon s cl os e The m e th o d of d o i ng thi s i s cl e arly s h o wn
.

by t he f oll owing e xampl es .

P ro blem . De te rmi n e by us e o f t he f unic u l a r po lygo n the re ac t ion s

f o r the b e am sh own by Fi g 2 66 .
342 G R A P H I C AL S TA TI C S A RT . 1 67

S oluti on In ord e r that the fun ic ular p olygon may

. cl ose the fi rst ,

a nd la s t s trin gs mu s t li e on the s ame li ne To i ns u r e that such will .

b e t he ca se draw the stri ng P 0 thr o ugh t he p oi n t of ap plicati on of the

l e ft r e acti on sinc e thi s i s the only k nown p oi n t on the li ne of acti on of
,

this reacti on .

FIG 2 66
. .

D raw the remai nd e r of_the f uni cular p olygon i n the u sual ma n ne r ,

and draw al so t he li ne mar k e d cl osi ng li ne , which should c onne ct t he
poi nt of i nt er se cti on of the stri ng P 4 and the reacti on RR, wi th the
poi nt of i nte r se cti on of P 0 and RL The fi rst a nd last stri ngs P 0
.

a n d P n of t he fu nicular p olygon may n ow b e mad e t o c oi n cid e by

dra wi ng the li ne P K i n the f orc e p olygon parall el to the cl osi ng li ne ,

FIG 2 67 . .

a nd fi xi ng the positi on of K by drawi ng fr om 4 a l i ne parall el t o the

r eacti on t he di re cti on of which i s k nown that i s t o RR 4K will e qual , ,

.

t he ri ght han d r e acti on an d K 0 the l eft ha nd one s i n c e by usi n g these

- -
,

as appli e d f o rc es a nd dra wi n g th e funicular po lygon f or t h e si x fo rc es

F 1 F 2 F 3 F 4 RR and RL the fi rs t and l as t s tri ngs will c oi n cid e

, , , , , ,
.

P rob le m D e t e rmi n e by the funic ular p olygon the r e acti o n s f o r

.

th e tr u s s sh own by Fi g 2 67 . .

S olu ti on For thi s ca se th e l eft r e acti on i s the one that i s k no wn i n

.

dire cti on The funicular p olygon h as the ref ore be en c onstructe d

.

by drawi ng P3 first thus r eve r si n g th e u sual me th od of c onstructi on

,
“

The cl os i ng li ne i s drawn fr om th e ri ght poi nt of s upp o rt t o the i nt e r

s e cti o n of P 0 wi t h th e l e ft r e acti o n Th e value of th e ri ght r e acti o n i s
.

g iv e n by 3 K a n d o f t h e l e ft r e acti o n by K 0 .

Furth er e xampl es n ee d n ot b e given as n o n ew m e t h ods ar e r e q u ir e d

,
.

Th e e ss e n tial thi n g f or t h e s tud e n t t o gra s p i s tha t t h e cl osi n g li ne

s h o u ld c o nn e ct t h e p o i n t s o f i n t e r se cti o n o f t h e r e ac t i o n s a n d t h e
3 44 R
G AP H I CA L S TA TI C S A RT 1 6 8
.

This int e r c e pt m e a s ur e d t o t he s cal e of di s tanc e multipli e d by th e

p e rp e ndicular di s ta n c e h e r e aft e r c all e d
,
H
fr o m t h e p o l e of t he
f o rc e p o lyg o n t o t he r e s ult ant of t he giv e n f orc es m e a s ur e d t o t h e
s c al e o f f o rc e e qual s t h e d es ir e d m o m e nt F or a h o riz ontal b e am
.

c arrying v e rtical l o ad s thi s e qual s t h e p ro duct of t h e i n t e rc e pt o f

t h e v e rtic al o rdi n at e thr o ugh a and t h e h o riz o n t al p o l e di s ta n c e

II
—
4l o

F u ni c ular P o lygo n

F o rc e P olygon
S c ale 1

FIG . 2 69 .

I t f o ll o w s tha t f or s uch a be am t he funicu lar p o lyg o n c o r re

s po n d s t o a curv e of m o m e n t s f o r t h e giv e n l o ad s r e f e rr e d t o t h e
,

cl os i n g lin e as an axis t h e m o m e nt s b e ing m e as u r e d by v e rtical

,

o rdinat es .

The cha r act e r of the m om e nt can u s uall y b e d e t e rmin e d by

in s p e cti on I f d o ubt e xis t s the p o in t of applicati o n of t he
.

r e s ultant of the f orc es on on e s id e of the s e cti on s h ould b e l o cate d ,

and with thi s kn o wn and t he dir e cti on o f the r e s ultan t giv e n i n

Am . 1 69 M O M E N TS W I TH A CONCE NTR A TED LO AD S YS TEM 345

the fo rc e p olygo n the charact e r of the m o m e n t c an b e e a s ily

,

se e n Fo r a h o riz o ntal b e am with v e rtical l oad s the fact that

.
,

the m o m e nt i s z e r o wh e r e v e r the cl o s ing li n e int e r s e ct s t he

funi cu l ar p o ly gon and h e n c e ch a nges s i gn at s uch a po i nt
'

may o fte n b e u se d t o advant age in d e te rmining t he charact e r

o f t he m om e nt as i s illu s trat e d in t he pr obl e m W hich f o ll o w s
, .

P roble m . Dete rmi n e by the graphical method of momen ts the

b ending moment at se ctio n a o f t he b e a m s hown i n F i g 2 69
. .

S olu ti on This problem i nvolve s the de t ermi nation o f the moment

.

of t he fo rc es R L F F a n d F ab ou t a ho ri z ontal axis pass i ng t hro ugh

, 1, 2, 3

a . S i n c e the fo rc es a re all v e rtical draw through a a v ertical li n e and ,

m easure to the scal e of di stan c e i ts i nte rc ept b e tween the s t ri ngs ho ldi ng
t he given fo rc es i n e q uilibri um These a re the clos ing lin e and P 3 h e n c e
.
,

t he momen t e qual s the prod uct of m n t o s cal e o f d is ta n c e a nd H t o

s cal e of fo rc e The res ult thu s obtai n e d e qua l s 0 8 5 X IO0 000 =
. .
,

f t lb s
.
-
This i s nega t ive s i nc e i t i s of t he same charac t e r a s the mome n t
.
,

i n the o ve rhan gi ng e n d t he p oi nt o f z e ro mome n t o cc urri ng t o t he l e ft

,

o f p oi nt a .

1 69 Gr aph i c al Met h od
. t w ith a C on c e ntrated L oa d
of Mom en s

S y s te m The applicati o n of t he graphic al m e th o d of m o m e nt s

.

f or a sy s t e m o f m o ving whee l l oad s may b e e a s ily mad e as

f oll o ws
L ay off t he f o rc e s t o any c onv e nie nt s cal e and l o cate the p o l e
o f t he f o rc e p o lyg o n s o that i t s n o rmal di s tanc e fr o m t he f o rc e

line m e a s ur e d t o s cal e of f o rc e e qual s s om e e v e n numb e r s ay ,

1 00 000 1b s ,
P l o t the l oad s t o any c onv e ni e nt s c al e and draw
.
,

t h e funicular p o lyg o n c o n s i d e ri n g t h e unif o rm l o ad as e qui v

ale n t t o a s e ri es o f e qual c o nc e nt r at e d l o ad s e qually s p ac e d If .

t h e giv e n l o ad s y s t e m i s lik e ly t o b e u s e d f or a n umb e r of s p a n s

t h e funi cular p o lyg o n s h o uld b e m ad e c o mpr e h e n siv e e n o ugh
t o pe rm i t i t s u s e f or any s p an lik e ly t o b e i n v e s ti gat e d S uch .

a fu n i cular i s s h o wn by F ig 2 70 t he f or c e p olyg o n b e in g .
,

o mitt e d .

W ith t h e funicular p o lyg o n c o n s tru ct e d th e op e rati o n o f ,

fi n di n g t h e m o m e n t W ith an y l o ad at a gi v e n p o i n t o f an e n d
s upp o rt e d s p an i s v e ry s i mpl e S upp o s e it b e d e s ir e d t o d e t e r
.

min e th e m o m e nt at th e c e ntr e of a (50 f t s p an W ith l o ad F 1 3 .

at t h e c e ntr e .

L ay o ff o n t h e funi cula r p o lyg on t he di s t a n c e 30 f t t o t h e .

l e ft o f F 1 3 and an e qual di s tanc e t o t h e right of t h e s am e l o ad

, ,

an d draw v e rtic al s t o int e r s e ct t h e funicular p o lyg o n at s and t ,

346 G RAPH I AL S C TATI CS A R T 1 70
.

The o rd i n a t e , m n , t o t he
cal e o f dis tanc e multiplie d by t he dis tanc e
H
s
,

in the f o rc e p olyg on e qual s the d e s ir e d m o m e nt The m o m e nt .

thu s o btain e d X f t lb s I n this mann e r .

-
.

s e v e ral l o ad s m ay b e tri e d and that giving the large s t o rdinate ,

will give the maximum m om e nt at th e c e ntre of th i s s pan .

Thi s m e th o d may b e V e ry c onv e ni e ntly u se d to v e rify the

r es ult s o f analytical c o mputati on s and a diagram onc e pre ,

par e d f or a s ta n dard l oadi n g lik e Co o p e r s E 60 and a l ong s pan ,

’

, ,

s h o uld b e of mat e rial valu e t o the d es i gn i n g e ngi n e e r .

és
se
t qt
a s
a s s
,

’ ’ ’ '
5 lo 15 20

S ca l e of Di s tan ce

F IG . 2 70 —
O m i tt e d .
FH u n i c u la
of
r Polygo n f o r
f o rc e P o lygo n
C o o pe r
’
s E 60
lb s .
L o a din g . F
o rc e P o lygo n

Lo ad s a re Wh e e l L o ad s .

1 70 . Graph i c al Meth od h e ar at an y
of S h ea r . S inc e the s

s e cti o n o f a b e am e qual s t he r e s ulta n t parall e l t o t he giv e n ,

s e cti on o f t h e f o rc e s on e ithe r s id e o f t he se cti on i t s valu e may

, ,

b e d e t e rmin e d graphically by t h e fo rc e p o lygon t he r e acti on ,

havi n g pr e vi o u s ly b e e n d e te rmin e d by the m e th o d of A rt 1 67 . .

The f oll o wing m e t h o d h o w e v e r i s s o m e what b e tt e r adapt e d

’

, ,

t o t h e tr e atm e nt o f c on c e n trat e d l o ad s y s t e m s and s h ould b e

th o r o u ghly und e r s t ood .

Con s id e r th e b e am s h o wn in F i g 2 7 1 an d le t the pr obl e m .

,

b e t o d e t e rmi n e t he s he ar at a dis tanc e x fr o m t he l e ft e nd W ith

34 8 G R A P H I C AL S TA T I C S A R T 1 70 .

and turning it e nd f or e nd If th e r e f o r e th e glv e n l o ad s are laid

.
, ,

o ff a s in F i g 2 7 2 t h e s h e ar at a di s tanc e x fr o m t h e l e ft e n d of a
,
.
,

s impl e e n d s upp o rt e d b e am m ay b e f o und wh e n t h e l

-
fi r s t oa d i s at

x b y laying o ff t h e di s ta n c e L x t o t h e left of F 1 and s caling t o

t h e s cal e of f o rc e t h e o rdinat e b e tw e e n P 0 and t h e fu n ic ular
p o lyg o n Thi s i s e quival e nt t o s c aling t he o rdinat e b e tw e e n P 0
.

and t h e funicular p olygo n at t h e s e c

ti o n of t h e b e am wh e r e it i s d e s ir e d '

t o d e t e r min e th e s h e ar I n o rd e r t o .

d e t e rmin e t h e maximum s h e ar at a .

giv e n s e cti o n d ue t o a c o nc e ntrat e d

l o ad s ys t e m it m ay b e n e c e s s ary t o try
s e v e ral l o ad s at t h e s e cti o n I f l o ad .

(2 ) b e m o v e d up t o t h e s e cti o n t h e l e ft
r e acti o n s h o ul d b e d e t e rmin e d i n t h e
F I G 2 72
. .

m a n n e r pr e vi o u s l y s tat e d : i e b y . .
,

m e a s uri n g th e o rdinat e at t h e fi rs t l o ad which will n ow b e at t h e

di s t a n c e x d fr o m th e l e ft e n d of t h e b e am Th e s h e ar may n ow .

b e o btain e d by s ubtracting t he fi rs t l o ad fr o m thi s r e acti on .

Th e s h e ar m ay b e f ound dir e ctly by s c alin g t h e o rdi n at e b e tw e e n

t h e funicular p olyg o n and a h o riz o ntal drawn thr o ugh (1 ) o f t h e
f o r c e p o lyg o n Thi s m e th o d i s applic abl e o nly if t h e fi rs t l o ad
.

r e m ain s o n t h e s pan I f F 1 g oe s o ff t h e s p an duri n g t h e pr o c e s s of

.

m o ving u p t h e o rdinat e s h o uld b e m e a s ur e d at t h e di s t anc e L x

,

fr o m F 2 b ut t h e i n t e rc e pt s h o uld b e t h e v e rtic al di s t anc e b e tw e e n

,

s tri n g P I and t h e fu n icular p o ly o n s inc e t h e v alu e s o f v e rtical

g ,

o rdi n at e s a r e in n o wi s e a f f e ct e d b y t h e fact th at t h e fi rs t s trin

g is
i n clin e d rath e r th an h o ri z o ntal thi s c o rr e s p o nding m e r e ly t o a
,

ch a n ge in t h e v e rti cal p o s iti o n of t h e p ol e and n ot a chan ge i n i t s

h o ri z ontal p o s iti o n I f fl oor b e am s are u s e d t h e s h e ar mu s t o f
.
,

c o ur s e b e d et e rmi n e d b y s ubtractin g fr o m t h e r e acti o n t h e pr o p e r

,

p e rc e n ta ge of t h e l o ad s b e tw e e n t h e s upp o rt and t h e pan e l p o i n t

at wh ich t h e l o ad u n d e r c o n s id e rati o n i s l o c at e d I f t h e l o ad .

s y s t e m i s t o b e u s e d f o r a numb e r o f s pan s t h e diagr am s h o uld b e

drawn f or t h e l o n ge s t s pan and th e s cal e f or any giv e n s pan d e t e r

,

mi n e d by pr o p o rti o n Th e applic ati o n of t h e graphic al m e th o d

.

o f s h e ar i s cl e arly s h o wn by F i
g 2 73 . .

I t s h o uld b e n o tic e d that t hefu n icular p oly go n s will be e xactl y

alik e what e v e r t he s pan ch o s e n provi d ed t h e rati o of t he s c al e s o f
, ,

f o r c e s b e inv e r s ely pr o p orti o nal t o t he s pan s e g t h e funicula r ,

. .
,
A RT 1 7 1
. P OL Y G O N TH ROU G H SE VE RA L P O I N TS 3 49

p o lyg o n o f F ig 2 73 i s c on s truct e d f o r a 2 00 f t s pan t o a s c al e o f

. .

lb s = 1 i n but if c o n struct e d f o r a 1 00 f t s pan

l

f o rc es of . .
,
.

with a s cal e of f o r c e s of lb s 1 i n as al s o indic at e d t h e . .

,

s am e e quilibrium p o lyg o n w o uld b e o bt ai n e d I t f oll o w s that .

thi s p o lygo n m ay b e u s e d f o r any s pan by m ultipl yi n g t h e s cal e d

o r dinat e by t h e rati o b e tw e e n t h e s p a n f o r which t h e p o lyg o n i s
c on s truct e d and t h e giv e n s pan .

k — 200 ’

S c ale of - Di st an c e 1 00 f t .
=1 m .

S h ea r, P1 at 1 0 f t. f ro m le f t e nd of 200 s pan
'
=ab '
52200 lbs .

' u X 2: 30000 1b 8 4
n
F) u 10 6‘ u u u 1 00 Cd
'
.
.

10 u n u 5 0 f X 5: 1 6000 1b8 .
Pl u c e

FIG . 2 78 .

1 71 . Fu ni c u l a r P o lygo n th r ou gh S e v e r a l P o i nts I t i s cl e ar .

th at if a hin ge d fram e w o rk b e c o n s truct e d id e n tic al i n s hap e t o a

giv e n fu n icular p o ly go n an d with i t s b ar s d es i gn e d t o c arry t h e
s t ri n g s tr e s s e s o f t h e p o lyg o n it will b e in e quilib rium und e r t h e
,

l o ad s f o r which th e funicul ar p o lygo n i s drawn Thi s fact may .

b e u s e d in d e t e rmi n i n g t h e pr o p e r o utli n e f o r a v ou s s o ir arch

int e n d e d t o c arry a s e t of fi x e d l o ad s b ut c an no t b e u s e d f o r ,
.

m o vi n g l o ad s On t h e o th e r ha n d if a funic ul ar p o ly go n c an n o t
.
,

b e drawn W ithin th e limit s o f an arch t h e s h ap e of which h as

alr e ady b ee n d e cid e d up o n it i s r e a s on abl e t o s upp o s e th at s uch
,

an arch will n o t b e s tabl e an d it i s up o n thi s hyp o th es i s th at t h e

,

c o mm o nly ac c e pt e d th e o ry of s t o n e arch e s i s b a s e d Th e th e o ry .

o f s uch arch e s will n o t b e tak e n up at thi s p o i n t b ut s i n c e in ,

s tudyi n g th e m it i s o ft e n u s e ful t o b e ab l e t o draw a funicular

p o lyg o n thr o u gh c e rtain fi x e d p o int s m e t ho d s of d o i n g thi s will b e ,

d e riv e d .

F u ni c u la r P olygon thr ou gh O n e P oi n t S in c e t h e p o l e m ay b e .

ch o s e n anywh e r e and any s trin g of t he funicular p o lygo n drawn

,
3 50 G RA P H I C AL S TA TI C S AR T 1 7 1
.

thr o ugh a giv e n p o int it i s e vid e n t that

, an i n fi n i te numb e r of

funicular p o lygo n s may b e drawn thr o u gh p o int

o ne .

F u ni c ula r P olygon thr ou gh Two P oi n ts S i n c e t h e fi r s t an d

.

la s t s tri n g s of a fu n icular p o lygo n mu s t always m e e t o n th e lin e

of acti o n o f t h e r e s ultant of t h e s e t of f o rc e s f o r which t h e p o lyg o n

i s drawn it i s e vid e nt th at a funicular p o lygo n may b e draw n

’

thr o u gh tw o p oint s by fi rs t drawin g an y funicular p o lyg o n

thr o u gh th e fi rs t p oi n t an d pl o tti n g t h e r e s ultant of t h e s e t of
f o rc e s in dir e cti o n and p os iti o n ; t h e appr o priat e s trin g of t h e
d e s ir e d p o lyg o n may th e n b e c o n s tru ct e d thr o u gh t h e s e c o nd
p o int in qu e s ti on and th e i n t e r s e cti o n of th e r e s ultant a n d t h e
fi rs t s tri n g This m e th o d i s illu s trat e d by F ig 2 74 in which t h e
. .
,

F IG 2 7 4
. .

o ri gi n alf u n i c u lar p olyg o n i s c o n s truct e d with a pole lo c at e d at r an

d o m t h e s t ri n g P 0 b e in g drawn thr o ugh p o int a
,
Th e fi n alf un i c
.

’
ular p olyg o n may th e n b e c o n st r uct e d s o that P 4 will go thr o ugh
'
p oi n t b P 0 r e mai n ing uncha n g e d in p o s iti o n b y dr awi n g P 4
, ,
’
thr o ugh p o int b and t h e int e r s e cti o n of P 0 and P 4 P 3 may n e xt .

b e c o n s truct e d by c o n n e cting t h e p o int of int e r s e cti o n o f P 4 a n d

’

F 4 with t h e p oint o f int e r s e cti o n o f P 0 an d P 3 an d in a s i mil ar ,

mann e r P 2 and P I may b e l o c at e d Thi s c on s tructi o n i s e v i

’ ’
.

d e n tly c on s i s t e nt with c o rr e s p o n di n g s tring s of t h e t w o funi c ul ar

p o lygo n s int e r s e cting o n th e r e sultant of th e f o rc e s h e l d in
'

e quilib rium b y th e s e s tri n gs I f t h e int e r se cti on s as o bt a i n e d

.

b y th e m e th o d j u s t giv e n are n o t on th e s h ee t t h e s e c o nd funic ul a r

’
p oly go n may b e c ons truct e d by l o catin g a n e w p o l e P an d c o n ,

s t r u c t i n g an e n tir e ly di s ti n ct p o ly go n Th e m e th o d o f d o i n g th i s
.

i s illu s trat e d b y F ig 2 7 5 in which t h e li n e of acti o n o f t h e r e s ul t

.
,
’
ant of all t h e f o rc es i s pl o tt e d and t h e n e w s trin gs P 0 an d P 4
drawn at rand o m thr o ugh p o int s a and b r e s p e ctiv e ly t o m e e t at
 52 G R A P H I C AL S TA TI C S A RT . 1 71

Th e r e
’
P Ois e qual an d o r e s ultant of P I and I P
pp os it e t o th e .

s u lt a n t o f 0 P an d P 0 = P P and act s at t h e int e r s e cti o n a o f t h e

’ ’
, ,

'=
s tri n g s P 0 an d P 0 ; t h e r e s ultant of P I an d 1 P P P an d act s
’ ’

at t h e int e r s e cti o n b of t h e s tri n gs P I and I P

, S inc e th e s e r e ’
.

s u lt an t s ar e in e quilibrium th e y mu s t n ot o nly b e e qual but act

al o n g th e s am e li n e th at i s b o th mu s t act al on g th e lin e a b h en c e
, , ,

a b mu s t b e p ar all e l t o t h e actual dir e cti o n of th e s e f o r c e s ; th at i s ,

to P P
’
. I n t h e s am e w ay it m ay b e s h o wn th at th e r e s ult ant o f
P I an d I P act s in t h e s am e lin e but in th e o pp os it e dir e cti o n t o
’

t h e r e s ulta n t o f P ? an d 2 P thi s dir e cti o n b e ing p arall e l t o P P

’ ’
, ,

h e nc e t h e p o int of i n t e r s e cti o n of and Z P al s o li es o n th e pro

lon ga t i o n o f t h e li n e a b I n t h e s am e m a n n e r th e int e r s e cti o n of
.

all th e c o rr e s p o ndin g s trin gs m ay b e pr o v e n t o b e o n th e lin e a b , ,

h e n c e th e th eo r e m i s pr o v e n .

FIG . 277 .

F u ni c u la r P olygon throu gh Thr ee P oi nts . A pplicati o n of the

th e o r e m j u s t s tat e d en abl es a funicular p oly gon t o b e p a s s e d
thr o u gh thr e e p oint s The f oll owin g i s the m o d e of pr o c e dur e :
.

Con s truct a p olyg on thr o ugh e ithe r tw o of the give n p o i n t s s ay

, ,

t he p o int s a and b F ig 2 7 7 an d c onn e ct the s e p o i nt s by a

,
.
,

s traight lin e I f this l i n e b e mad e the lin e of int e r se c tion of the

.

c orr e s p on din g s trin gs it i s e vid en t that if a n e w p olyg on b e drawn

it will al s o pa ss thr o ugh the p o int s a an d b h enc e it i s m e r e ly ,

n e c e s s ary t o draw a n e w s trin g thr o u gh the third p o int 0 and , ,

t he in t e r s e cti on of t he c o rr es p on di n g s tring o f t h e fi rs t p o ly
"

gon with t h e lin e a b and fi n i s h t h e p olyg o n by the m e th o d

,

giv e n f or a p oly gon thr o u gh t w o p o int s The fi gure s h o ws t he .

application of this m e th o d a s s um ing that t he p o lyg on P 0 , ,

P I e t c has alr e ady b e e n drawn thr o ugh t wo p o i n t s

,
.
,
.

I t will b e n o t e d that in the c on s tructi on it w as n e c es s ary to

’
l o cat e the p ol e P in o rd e r that P 2 might b e drawn s inc e the ’

,
A RT . 171 P OL Y G O N TH ROU GH SE V E AL R P O I N TS 3 53

int e r se cti o n of P 2 an d th e lin e a b d oe s n ot c o m e on t h e sh e e t .

Th e r e m aind e r of t h e p o lyg o n w as draw n by u s i n g t h e int e r

s e cti o n s o f t h e s tri n gs of t h e o ri gi n al p o lyg o n and t h e li n e a b .

A lter na ti ve M ethod f o r F u ni c u la r P olygon throu gh Two a nd

Three P oi n ts . A n o th e r s im pl e an d u se f ul m e th o d of drawing
a fu n icul ar p olygo n thr o ugh tw o p o int s a and b i s as f o ll o w s :
, ,

A s s um e t h e f o rc e s which are h e ld in e quilibrium b y t h e s tring s

which are t o pa ss th r o ugh t h e giv e n p o i n t s t o act up o n a b e am
s upp o rt e d at a an d b Fi g 2 7 8
,
. A s s um e t h e r e acti o n at b t o b e
.

fi x e d in dir e cti o n v e rtical i n thi s c a s e an d d e t e rmin e gr aphic ally

, ,

FIG . 2 78 .

b o th r e acti o n s f o r th e s e l o ad s drawi n g o n e o f t h e s tring s thr o u gh

,

a. Th e funicular p o lyg o n thu s drawn will pa ss thr o u gh p o int a

by c o n s tructi o n an d t h e valu e of t h e r e acti on s will b e i nd epen de n t
o f t h e posi ti o n o f t h e fu n ic ul ar p o lyg o n I f a n e w funi c ular
.

p o lygo n b e n ow drawn with i ts p ol e at a ny p o int o n a lin e draw n

fr o m t he cl o s in g p o int K of t h e f o rc e p o lyg o n parall e l t o t h e li n e
a b a n d wi t h t h e s am e s tri n g pa ss i n g thr o u gh a a s in t h e o ri gi n al
,

p o lygo n thi s p o ly go n will pa s s th r o u gh b o th p o i n t s s i n c e i t s

, ,

cl o s ing li n e pa s s e s thr o u gh a an d i s parall e l t o a b Thi s c o n s t ru c

,
.

'
ti o n i s illu s trat e d b y t h e fi gu re i n which t h e p o l e P of a fu n icular
’
p o lyg o n with t h e s tring P O pa s s ing thr o u gh a and P 4 thr o ugh
’

b mi ght li e at any p oint o n a li n e dr awn fr o m K parall e l t o a b .

3 54 G R A P H I C AL S TA TI C S A RT 1 7 1
.

To xt end thi s m e th o d t o a third p o int 0 pr o c ee d as f o ll ow s

e , ,

D r aw a v e rtic al thr o ugh 0 t ill it int e r se ct s t h e o rigi n al funic ular

p olyg o n at d F r o m th e p ol e P draw a lin e parall el t o a d t o i t s
.

int e r s e cti o n K Wi th a v e rtical thr o ugh 2

,
’
,
Draw fr o m K a .
’

lin e par all e l t o a o Th e i nt e r se cti o n of thi s lin e with th e lin e

.

"
K P l o c at e s P which i s t h e p o l e of a funic ula r p o lyg o n pa ss ing
’

thr o ugh a b and c , ,

.

Thi s m e th o d c on s i s t s e sse ntially of th e d e t e rminati on of th e

r e acti on s up o n a b e am a o d ue t o t h e f orc e s P I and F 2 and th e
, , ,

l o cati o n of th e cl o s ing p o int K of th e f or c e p olyg o n c o rr e s p o nd

’

i n g t o th e s e r e acti on s A funi c ul ar p olyg o n with i t s p o l e at any

.

’
p o i n t o n a li n e fr o m K paralle l t o a c will pa s s thr o ugh p o int s a and
0. S i n c e as h as alr e a dy b e e n s h o wn a funi c ular p o lyg o n with i t s
, ,
’
p ol e at any p oi n t on K P will pa s s thr o ugh a and b it i s e vid e nt ,

that a p olyg on with i t s p ol e at t h e int e r s e cti on of th ese tw o lin es

W ill pa ss th r o ugh t he thr ee p oi nt s a b and 0 , , .

P rob le m s

6 1 De te rmi ne graph i cally by the funic ul ar polygon me th od th e

.

bend i ng mome n t at a s ecti on l ocate d 6 f t to l e ft of l e ft supp ort f or .

e ach b eam s h o wn i n Pr obl ems 6 t o 1 0 , i n c 1us i v e , pa ge 7 1 .

6 2 Co n s truct a fu ni cular p o lygon p ass i n g t hrough the thr ee

.

h i nge s of the arch shown i n P r ob 60 , p age 284 . .

3 56 DE FL E CTI ON A ND C AMB E R A R T 1 74.

Th e l e ngth of e ach m e m b e r aft e r the applicati o n of the l o ad

may b e f o und by addin g t o i t s o rigin al l e n gth t he change o f
l e ngth d u e t o t e n s i on or by s ubtracting t he change o f l ength
,

d u e t o c o mpr e s s i on .

I f t he n on e lastic d e fle c t i on b e d e s ire d t he s am e m eth o d may

-

b e u s e d but f or thi s ca s e t he change in l e n gt h o f a m e mb e r wi ll

,

e qual t he av e rage play in t h e pi n h ol es at t h e t w o e nd s in s t e ad

o f t he chang e d u e t o s tr e ss .

W hil e t hi s m e th o d i s s impl e in th e o ry and applicati on it i s ,

v e ry lab o ri o u s and i s n ot u s e d in practic e .

1 74 Tru s s Defl e c ti on
. Meth od of R otati on The d e fl e c t i on
. .

o f an y j o i n t o f a s impl e tru ss d u e t o a chang e in l e ngth of o n e

bar only may b e r e adily d e t e rmin e d by inv es tigati n g t he r e s ult

i n g r o tati on o f on e p o rti on of t he tru ss with r e s p e ct t o t he o th e r ,

FIG . 2 79 .

t he latt e r b e i n g a s s um e d as fi xe d By c on s id ering the e ff e ct .

o f e ach bar s e parat e ly and s umming up t he r es ult s t he fin al ,

d e fl e c t i on may b e d e t e rmin e d To illus trat e thi s c o n s id e r t he

.
,

tru ss s h o wn by full lin e s in F i g 2 7 9 and le t it b e d es ir e d t o d e t e r

.
,

mi ne t he v e rtical d e fl e c t i on 3 of pan e l p oint e d ue to a d e cr e a s e

, 6, ,

i n l e n gth 8 o f bar bc , ,
Evid e n tly bc e i s t he only tria n gl e which
.

will b e cha n ge d in s hap e by t he change i n l en gth of thi s bar .

If t he p o rti on a be o f t he tru s s b e a ss um e d f or t h e tim e b e i n g t o

, ,

r e main fi xe d i n p os iti on t he fi gure a bc f h ea will r e pr es e nt t he

,
’ ’ ’

n e w p os iti o n of t h e tru s s Th e valu e o f 5 f o r an y o rdinary cha n ge

.

of l e n gt h i s v e ry s mall c o mpar e d with t he o riginal l e n gth of t h e

bar e g f o r a s t e e l bar s ubj e ct e d t o a s tr e s s of

,
. .
,
lb s pe r .

s quar e i n ch 8 i s appr o ximat e ly 1 — o f t h e l e n gth of t he bar I t

, 73 0 6 .

f oll o ws that t he angular r otati on of ba r 6 6 i s e xtre m e ly s mall ,

A RT . 1 74 TRU S S D E FL E C TI ON . M E TH O D OF RO TA TI ON 3 57

and in c on se qu e nc e t he di s tanc e cc in F i g 2 80 may . be a s s um e d

as e qual t o 3 as s h o wn t h e e rr o r b e ing i n fin i t es i m al
,
.

The a n gular m o v e m e nt 0 of bar c c e vid e n tly e q u als the

‘

, ,

i
i —5
angular m o ve m e nt of eh . The s in e of thi s an gl e e qual s ,
c c cc

3
h e nc e hk
’
= ’
eh B ut eh
’
= eh, hen c e h k=
’ % 6 t he ve rtical
cc cc

d e fl e c t i on of
p o i nt h with r e s p e ct t o the axi s (1 6 which i s ,

a ss um e d t o r e main un change d
i n p os iti on A ctually h o we ve r
.
, ,

p oint h r e mai n s on the abut

m e nt and a c change s i t s p os iti on .

Th e c o rr e ct p os iti o n of t he d i s
t o rt e d t ru ss may b e f o und by
r otating it ab o ut a h o riz o ntal
axi s pa s s ing thr o ugh a until ah ’

b e c o m e s h o riz on tal This r o ta .

ti o n will cau s e 6 t o d 1 op b e l o w
i t s o ri ginal p os iti o n by t he
am o unt which it i s n ow b e l o w
'
ah ,
that i s by one half of h k ,
-
F m ggo
’
.

(n e gl e cti n g t he e f fe ct o f t he s light
di f fe r e nc e in l e n gth b e twe e n ek and h e n c e t he v e rtical
d e fle c t i on 5 o f p oint 6 due t o t he chang e 3 in bar be will b e
, 8, , , ,

g1 ve n by t he f o ll o wi n g e quati o n :

I n a s imilar mann e r t he d e fle c t i on of oth e r p oint s d ue t o t he

chan ge in l e ngth of thi s or oth e r bar s may b e obtain e d .

I n o rd e r t o illu s trat e thi s m eth o d m or e c o mpl e t e ly i ts applica

ti on t o t he pr obl e m of d e t e rmi ning t he v e rtical d e fl e c t i on of p o int 6
r e s ulting fr o m an in cr e a se 5 in t he l e ngt h of bar a b w i ll al so b e
, , ,

give n Fo r thi s ca s e the p o rti o n dbf hed o f t he tru ss will b e c on

.
, ,

s i de re d s tati o nary The c o nditi o n o f t he tru ss aft e r t he change

.

in l e n gth o f t he bar will b e as s h own gr e atly di s t o rt e d in F ig , ,

.

2 8 1 and
,
will b e t he actual v e rtical upwar d d e fl e cti o n of
p o int e .

Th e value o f a m may b e d e t e rmin e d as f oll ow s : Le t t he

’

di s t o rti o n of t he trian gl e a bd b e as s h o wn gre atly e xa gge rat e d

, , , ,
358 DE FL EC TI ON A N D CAM B E R A R T 1 74 .

in F ig 28 2 Th en bn e qual s the new l e n gth of ba r a b and the

. .
,

n e w p os iti on of a will b e at t he int e r s e cti o n of ar c s s w ung fr o m

b and d as c e ntr es with radii bn and da re s p e ctiv e ly

,
The fact .

that 5 i s v e ry s mall c o mpar e d wi th t he s id es of t he t rian gl e mak e s

FIG . 28 1 .

t he err o r in a s s uming t he tange nt s n a and a o t o c oincid e with t he ’ ’

c o rr e s p onding arc s n e gligibl e and give s t he c onditi on s h o wn in

,

F ig fr o m whic h it at nc e f oll o ws that qual s

?
’
. 282 , o ao e
S I1 a

d
I— ( l b
— Thi s
si n = h c aa = 5 i and th e r e f o r e
’
Bu t a
~ ~

,
en e .

ab bd bd
m e th o d i s vid e n tly much s impl e r in applicati o n than t he trig
e

o no m e t ri c al m e th o d pr e vi o us ly
m e nti on e d but i s n e ve rth e l es s ,

awkward f or ge n e ral u se s inc e ,

it inv olve s an e ntir e ly s e parat e

s oluti o n f or e ach bar It is .

give n h e r e t o illu s trat e graphi

cally t he dis t o rti on d ue t o
change in l engt h of a single bar .

1 75 Tru ss Defl e c ti on Me th . .

o d of W o rk The m e th o d whi ch .

f oll o ws i s a m o d i fi c at i on of one
us uall y attribut e d t o P r o f Ott o .

Mo hr and pr o vid es a ve ry s impl e ,

FIG 2 8 2 .
and
.
i n ge n i o u s s o lut i o n o f t h e pr o b
le m of d e t e rmining t he d e fl e c t i on
o f a tru ss Th e m e th o d i s ba s e d up o n t he fact that if a tru ss i s
.

l o ad e d by a s i ngle loa d of u ni ty at any p oi nt and i s th e n de fle cte d by

t he applicati o n o f other forc es t he e xt e rnal w o rk d on e by t he l o ad
,
3 60 DE FL E C TI ON A N D CA M BE R A RT 1 75
.

w o rk of 35 . Equating t he int ernal and

xte r nal wo rk give s e

52 = s 5 ; the r e f o r e t he v e rtical d e fl e c ti o n 52 of p o int L 2 d ue t o a , , ,

chan ge in l e n gth 5 of bar UI U2 e qual s t he pr o duct of t he s tr es s

, , , ,

3 in UI U2 an d t he chang e in l e n gth o f t h e bar

, ,
We r e t he l o ad o f .

u n ity i n clin e d in st e ad of v e rtical 8 w ould have a di ff e r e nt valu e

, ,

and 52 wo uld b e t he de fle c t i on al ong t he i n c li n ed li n e of acti o n

o f t he l o ad of unity A c o mpari s on o f t he r e s ult s obtaine d by
.

thi s me th o d and t he m eth o d of r otati o n s h o ws th e m t o b e e qual .

The s i gn s mu s t b e car e fully c o n s id e r e d I f t e n s io n and i n cr e a se .

i n l e n gth are b oth d e n o t e d by p os itive s igns t he d e fl e c t i on will ,

b e in t he di r ec ti on of acti on of t he l o ad of u n ity if t he r e s ulting

valu e o f 3 5 i s pos i ti ve and in t he opposi te dire cti o n if thi s pr o duct
,

i s n e gativ e For t he ca se c on s id e r e d 3 i s c o mpr e s s i o n and o

.
,

i s a s h o rt e nin g h e n c e e ach has a n e gativ e s i gn an d t he pr o duct

,

FIG . 28 3 .

will b e p os itiv e ; th e r e f o r e t h e d e fle c t i on w i ll b e in t he dir e cti on of

acti o n o f t he l o ad of unity that i s d o wnward , ,
.

The c o rr e ct n e s s o f thi s m e th o d of d e ali n g with t he s ign s may

b e r e adily s e e n by e xamining t h e c as e of a s ingl e v e rtical bar
with a fo rc e o f u n ity acti n g d o wnward at i ts l o we r e nd The .

s tr es s 3
,
i n thi s ca s e i s t e n s i o n and h e nc e h as a p os itiv e s ign
,
.

I f t he l e n gth of t he bar b e incr e a s e d by t he am o unt 5 t he pro , ,

duct 3 5 will al so have a p os itive s ign s h o wi n g acc o rdin g t o

, , , ,

o u r c o nv e nti on that t he l o w e r e n d o f t he bar d e fl e c t s in t he d i re c

,

ti on of acti o n of the u n it f o rc e ; that i s d o wnward I f the ba r ,

.

b e s h o rt e n e d 8 5 will have a n e gativ e s ign indicating a d e fl e cti o n

,

of t h e l o we r e n d o f the b ar in a dir e cti o n c on trary t o t he d i r e c

ti on of acti on of t he un it f o rc e ; that i s upward B oth of th ese ,

.

c on clu s i on s are obvi o u s ly c o rr e ct and t he di r ec ti on of t he d e fle c

,

ti o n with r e s p e ct t o t he dir e cti o n of acti o n of t he unit f o rc e

A RT 1 7 5
. TRU SS D E FL EC TI ON . METH O D OF WORK 36 1

wo uld e vid e ntly b e unchange d if t he unit f o rc e we r e t o b e ap s

~

pli e d t o t he bar thr o ugh a s e rie s of o th e r bars i n st e a d of dir e ctly ,

and if it we r e t o b e inclin e d or h o riz o ntal in st e ad of v e rtical .

To apply t he m e th o d t o all bar s o f a tru ss it i s only n e c e ss ary

t o o btain t he s ummati on o f t he vari ou s pr o duct s The fi n al
.

f ormula f or d efle cti on m ay th en b e w ritt en ,

5n = 2 35

which 5u = th e c o mp o n e nt of t he d e fle c t i on of any jo i n t n of t he
, ,

tru ss in any d e s ir e d dir e cti on ;

s = s t re s s in any ba r of t he tru s s d u e t o a l o ad of

unity acting at j o i n t und e r c on s id e rati o n and

in t he dire cti o n of t he d e s ir e d d e fle cti on ;
5 = chang e in l e ngth o f t he bar of t he tru s s in which
t he s tr e s s 3 o ccur s ;
Es 5 = s u m m at i on o f t he pr o duct s 3 5 f o r all bar s o f
, ,

t he tru s s .

I f 2 3 5 i s f o u n d t o have a p os itive value t he d e fle c t i on W ill b e

in t he dir e cti o n of acti o n o f t he f o rc e o f u n ity ; if a n e gativ e value ,

it will b e in t he o pp os it e dir e cti o n .I f t he actual de fle c t i on of a

give n j o i n t i s d es ir e d t he d e fle c t i on in b oth a h o riz o ntal and
v e rtical dir e cti o n mu s t b e o btain e d and t he r es ultant fo und .

Th e u s ual pr o bl e m i s t o d e t e rmin e t he d e fl ec ti on in a giv e n

dir e cti o n of a give n j o i n t due t o appli e d l o ad s s uch a s t he we ight
o f t he s tructur e it s e lf o r a giv e n p os iti o n of t he liv e l o ad s
,
F or .

this ca s e 5 will b e t he change in l e n gt h d ue t o t he s tre ss cau s e d

by t he appli e d l o ad s h e nc e t h e f o rmula may b e writt e n
,

111 W hich 5 n = d e fl ec t i on in fee t o f any j o int in any d e s ir e d dir e cti o n ;

L = le n gt h of any bar i n f ee t ;
A = ar e a o f s am e bar in s quar e i n che s ;
P = s t re s s in p o und s i n s am e bar d u e t o appli e d l o ad s ;
E = m o dulus of e la s ticity ;
s = s t re ss in s am e bar d ue t o f o rc e of unity acting
,

at j o int und e r c on s id e rati on and i n dir e cti on of

d e s ire d d e fle c ti on.
3 62 DE FL E C TI O N A N D C A M BE R AR T . 1 76

I f E i s c on stant f or all ba r s of the tru ss as i s u s ually the ca s e , ,

it i s si m pl e r t o expr ess the change in l e n gth of e ach ba r in

te r m s of E and s ub s titut e t he fi n al num e rical valu e o f E aft e r
the s ummati on i s c ompl e t e .

1 7 6 Tru s s D e fl e c ti on I l lu s trate d
. The fo ll o wing e xampl e .

i l lus t r at es cl e arly t he applicati on of thi s m e th o d .

P ro blem Let the pr obl em b e the d ete rminati on of the vertical

.

deflec ti on of p oint L 2 of truss shown i n Fi g 2 84 f or a uniform live l oad .

of 2000 lb s per f oot ov e r t he entir e truss

. .

S oluti on The simpl est method of s o luti on of s uch a prob lem i s t o

.
’

prepare a table i n which separate c olum ns are assi gned f or t he t erms

8 , P , L , an d A ; f or t he change i n length of t he bar ; an d f or t he pr o duct

of t he change i n l en gth of the bar an d t he str ess , 8 The tabl e on pa ge .

3 63 i s prepar ed i n thi s manner and i s self explanat ory -

.

'
s 35 2 s 35 7# 2-1 5 C9 35 #
0 1 1 18 P lU 1 -1 8 % C o v PL U4
" " "
11 9g Co v 9mm 1 - 18
-
. . 2 x . x .

L2 2 E ye B a rs L3
n u
6 x 1fi

5 pan els

FG I . 284 .

The u mati on
s m of the numbers in t he last c ol umn of t he tabl e
and e quals t he vertical defl ection downward of L2 .

W ere thi s summati on have a

ative si gn it would e ual the upward
to n eg q
deflec ti on of thi s p oin t The nume rical value of t he de fle c ti on may b e
.

ob t aine d by sub stituti ng the value of E I f thi s b e tak en as .

2 1 70 000 N 1 II
6 0 0 74 9 f t 090 8 appr 0 x1 m ately

An in s p e cti on of t he tabl e s h ows that the s tr esses due t o

l o ad unity s h ould b e c omput e d b e for e t he chan ge in l en gt h of
th e ba rs s inc e if t he s tr e s s in any ba r cau se d by thi s l o ad i s z e r o
,

t h e d e fl ec ti on d u e t o thi s bar i s z e r o and i ts change in l e n gth

n ee d n ot b e fi gur ed .

H ad the p r obl e m b ee n that of c o mputin g t he h oriz ontal

m ov e m e nt o f the roll er— en d t he l o ad o f unity s h o uld hav e b e e n

appli e d h ori z ontally at that en d Th e only tru s s ba rs which .

3 64 DE FL E C TI O N A N D CAM BER A RT . 1 77

w ould b e s t res s e d by thi s l o ad w o uld b e thos e in the b ott om

ch ord in which th e s tr es s w ould b e w e r e the l o ad
tak e n as acting to the ri ght The d e fl ec ti on w o ul d th e n b e .

f ound by t he s um mati o n of t he changes in l e n gth of the b ott o m

ch o rd ba rs which e qual s
,
h enc e t he
h o riz o ntal m ov e m e nt of the r oll e r end of t he tru ss und e r th e -

l o ad of 2000 lb s per f oo t . f t or i n t o t h e ri ght H ad it

. . .

b ee n d es ir e d t o fin d the e la stic de fl e c ti on du e t o t he d e ad l o ad
t he d e ad s tr e sses s h ould hav e b ee n u se d in s t e ad o f t h e s tr e s s es d ue
t o t he l o ad of 2 000 lb s per f oot . .

F or t he n on — e la s tic d e fl ec t i on d u e t o play in t he pin h ol e s

t he change in l e n gth of the ba r c o uld b e writt e n dir e ctly and

‘

t h e third f our th and fi f th c olum n s omitt e d For exampl e

,
.
,
1
if t he all o wabl e play in the pin h ol e s at L 1 an d L 2 i s 3 ; i n .
,

t h e chan ge in l e n gth of bar L 1 L 2 t hat i s t h e chan ge in di s tanc e

‘

, ,

c e ntr e to c e ntr e of pin s w o uld b e 32 i n ,

and thi s valu e 7
.

s h ould b e wr itt en in t he s ixth c olumn .

De fl e c t i on at c e n tre
De fl e c ti on at ce n tre

De fl e c t i on at f ree e n d De fl e c t i o n at f ree e nd
FIG . 2 85 .

1 77 . D e fl e cti on of Be am s an d
fo rmula s f or Gi r d e r s . S impl e
t he d e fl ec t i on oi b e am s and gird e r s of c on s tant cr o ss se cti o n -

s upp o rt e d at b o th e nd s or fixe d at on e e n d a re d e riv e d in all

s tandard w o rk s on m e chani c s The m or e c omm on ca ses are .

r e pr e s e nt e d by F i g 28 5 i n which th e de fl e c ti on s giv e n are

.
,

t h e maximum d e fl e cti o n s in inch es pr o vid e d lin e ar dim e n s i on s

a re in inch e s an d f o rc e s i n p ound s F o r m o r e c o mplicat e d .

c a s e s o f l o ading o r f or gird e r s with variabl e cr os s s e cti on

,
-
A R T 1 77
. DE FL E C TI O N O F B E AM S AN D G IR D ERS 3 65

th e m e th o d of w o rk m ay be appli e d i n t h e s am e m ann e r as f o r
tru s s e s t h e fi b re s of th e
,
b e am b e ing s ub stit ut e d f or t h e bar s of
t h e tru ss .

A ge n e ral f o rmula f or t he d e fle ct i on may be d e ve l op e d by

th i s m eth o d in t he f oll owing mann e r

Le t M = m o m en t at se cti on ,
d e, of t he giv e n b e am (s ee
Fig . 2 8 6) d u e t o t h e e xt e rn al f orc e s cau s i n g t he
d e fl e c t i on of p oint a;

U n i ty

FIG . 286 .

m = m o m ent at s am e se cti on d ue t o l o ad u
n ity acting

v e rtically at a ;
5= l on gitudinal di s t o rti on d ue t o t he e xt e rn al f or c e s of
, ,

t he pri s m f d eg at a di s t an c e y fr o m t he n e utral
,

5a = d e fle c t i on of p oi nt a d ue t o t he e xt e rnal fo rc e s ;
= lo n i t u d i n al tr e s s d ue t o m o m e n t
fib re at a di s
f 1 g s ,
m ,

t anc e y fr o m t h e n e utral a xi s ;
= fi b re tr e s s at s am e p oi n t m o m ent M
f2 s d ue t o

w = i n te r n a l w or k d on e in pri s m of l en gt h dx d e pth dy , ,

and width b with i t s c e ntr e at a di s t anc e y f ro m

,

t he n e utral axi s of t he b e am by t he l o ad u n ity , ,

durin g t he di st ort i on of t he b e am by t he appli

cati on of t he e xt e rnal f orc es ;
W = t ot al int e rn a l w o rk d on e in t he b e am by t he s tr e s s e s
d ue t o t he l o ad of unity duri n g t he b e am s d i s t or
’

ti on by t he e xt e rnal f or c e s .

I = m o m e n t o f i n e rtia o f b e am in inch e s 4
.

Th e n
3 66 DE FL E C TI ON A N D C A M BE R A RT . 1 77

Mg
w= (f l bdy) d

h e nc e

Th e e xt e rnal w o rk d u e t o t he l o ad of unity = 1 X 5 he nc e
a,

The applicati on of thi s e quati on t o a b e am of c on st ant cr oss

s e cti o n i s illu s trat e d by t he f oll o wing pr obl e m :

FIG . 28 7 .

P r o ble m L e t i t be
. re q ui red to fi nd the d e fl e c ti on at t he l oad f or the
c as e shown i n Fi g 2 8 7
. .

S oluti on . Con s ide r a se c t i on at d i s t an c e x from l eft e nd . Then

an d m
3 68 DE FL E CTI ON A ND CAMB E R AR T 1 78 .

le ct e d . a full di s cu s s i on of thi s m eth od t he re ade r i s re fe rr e d

For
t o a pap e r by Clar e nc e W H ud so n in t he Tr an s acti on s of t he
”
.

A m e ri can S o ci e ty of Civil Engin e e r s V ol LII ,

. .

1 7 8 Graph i cal Meth od of Tr u s s Defl e c ti on

. Wi lli ot Di agra m . .

The m e th o d of w ork give n in Art 1 7 6 fur ni s he s a simpl e and accu .

rat e m eth o d of d e t e r m ining t he de fle cti on in a give n dire cti on of a

pa rticular j oint in a trus s I t i s h owe ve r o cca s i onally d e s irable
.
, ,

t o d e t e rmin e t he actual di s t o rti on of se ve ral or all j o int s a ,

pr obl e m which can b e s olve d s o me what m or e re adily by graphical

than by analytical m e th o d s .

I t i s obvi ou s that t he actual m o ve me nt of any t ru ss j oint ,

d ue t o change s in t he bar l e n gth s may b e d e t e r min e d graphically

in t he f oll owing s impl e mann e r

FIG . 289 .

Le t F ig 2 8 9 b e t he tru ss b e f or e t he bar l e n gth s are

a bc d , .
,

chan ge d p oi nt a b e ing fi xe d in p os iti on Le t t he ne w le ngth s

,
.

'
of t he bar s b e a b b c c d d a and b d
’
,
’
As s ume f or t he
,
’ ’
,
’
,
’ ’
.

pre s e nt t hat bar a b r e main s unchange d in dir e cti on I f i ts .

l e n gt h b e n ow chan ge d t o a b b will m o ve t o b and if fr o m ’

,
’
,
’ ’ ’
a and b as c e ntr e s ar c s with r adii a d and b d b e s wung the s e
’

arc s will i n t e r s e ct at d whi ch will b e t he n e w p os iti on of d on

’
,

t he a ss umpti on that a b r e m ain s unchan ge d in dir e cti on In a .

’
s imilar mann e r arc s s wun g fr o m b and d W ith t he n e w l e n gth s
’

o f t he oth e r b ar s as radii will give t h e n e w p os iti on of c at c

’
,

h e nc e a d c b wi ll b e t he actual s hap e of t he tru s s aft e r d i s

'
’ ’ ’
v

t ort i on t akes plac e It s p o s iti o n i s of c o ur se inc o rr e ct s inc e

.
,

p oint 0 s h o uld r e main on t he abut me nt he nc e t he lin e c c s h o uld ,

’

act ually b e h ori z ontal and by s o c on s id e ring it t he de fle c t i ons

,

of all p o int s may b e obtain e d ; e g t he ve rtical d e fle c t i on of . .

,
A R T 1 78
. GR A P H I C A L METH O D OF DE FL ECTI O N 369

p oint b e qual s t he n o rmal di st anc e fr o m b t o a o t he h o ri z ontal ’ ’

,

de fle c t i on o f p oint c = a c —a o e t c ’
.
,

Thi s me th o d whi ch may b e e xt e nd e d t o c o ve r any f o rm of

,
‘

tru s s i s impracticabl e in p ractic e s inc e ac curat e r e s ult s cann ot

, ,

b e obtain e d with out t he use of a ve ry large s cal e o wing t o t he ,

ve ry s mall chan ge s in bar l en gth s f or mat e rial s having t he high

m o duli of e la s ticity of structural mat e rial s To o ve rc o m e t hi s .

d i ffi c ult y a m o d i fi c at i on of thi s m e th o d by which change s o f l e ngth

only ar e d e alt wit h wa s d e v e l op e d by t he F r e nch e n gin e e r ,

W i lli ot and wi ll n ow b e given

,
.

Le t t h e tru s s s h o wn in F ig 2 90 b e id e nti cal with that giv e n

.

in Fig 2 8 9 and a s s ume t he s am e change s in bar l e n gth s t o o ccur

.
,
.

As s um e al s o as b e f or e that bar a b i s fi xe d in dir e cti on and that ,

b m o ve s t o b wh e n di s t o rti on o c cur s
’
.

FI G . 2 90 .

’
Le t b parall e l t o bd an d e qual t o it i n l e ngth ;
e be
c c b e t he cha n g e i n l e ngt h of bd (an incre a s e ) ;
’

df b e t he chang e i n l e n gth of a d (a d e cr e a se ) .

I f n o rmal s t o a d an d b e b e e r e ct e d at p o int s f and 6 t h e y

’ ’ ’

’
will m e e t at d which will b e t he n e w p os iti on of d f or any rigid
,

tru s s of o rdi n ary s tructural mat e rial s s inc e t he di s t o rti on s are ,

s o s mall c o mpar e d with t he bar l e ngth s that t he n o rmal c d

’ ’

may b e c on s id e r e d as c o inciding wi th t he arc s wung fr o m b ’

a s a c e ntr e wi th radiu s b e and n o rmal f d may al s o b e c on

’ ’ ’
,

s i d e r e d as c o incidi n g with t he arc s wung fr o m a as a c e ntr e of

’
with radiu s af S inc e t he fi gure dee d f may b e drawn t o a n y
’
.

s c a le with out r e fe r e nc e t o t he tru s s it s e lf a s s h o wn in F ig 2 9 1 , .

,

it i s e vid e nt that the actual di splac e ment of p oint d wi th

re fe r e nc e t o a xi s a b may b e f oun d wi th gre at accur acy I n a .

s imilar mann e r e ach t ri angl e of whi ch t he t r u ss i s c o mp ose d m ay

b e d e alt wi th an d the di s plac e me nt of e ach ve rte x f oun d with
r e f e r enc e to any one of the sid es of the triangl e as an axi s .
3 70 DE FL E CTI ON A ND C AM B E R ART 1 78 .

t hi s pr o c e ss b e car ri e d o ut f or the entir e t r u ss e ach di s plac e

If
me nt may b e d et e rmin e d with r es p e ct to bar a b as an a xi s by ,

u s in g f or e ach n e w axi s the

n e w p os iti on of that bar w hi ch

i s c om m on to any t riangle pre

vi ous ly c on sid e r e d and that
und e r c on s id e rati on ; e g t o . .
,

F 1 G 29 1
. .
fi n d t he n e w p o s iti on of p oint

0 wi th r ef e r enc e to axi s a b
, ,
'
us e t he n e w p os iti on of t he ba r bd that i s b d a s an a i d s
’
, .
, ,

Thi s i s illus trat e d in Fig 2 92 wh e r e a b d i s the n e w p ositi on

.
,
’ ’

of t he t ri angl e ,
a bd r es ultin g fr o m t he chang e s i n l e ngth of bar s
,

a b bd
,
and a d To fin d t he p ositi on of 0 d ue t o the c o mbin e d
,
.
’

di s t orti on of t he t wo t riangl e s a bd and bed i t i s e vi de ntly n e c es

, ,

s ary t o d e t e r m i n e t he in t e r se cti on of t w o arc s one s wun g fr o m ,

b as a c e ntr e wi th the n e w l ength of bar be an d t he o the r fr o m

’
,

FIG . 2 92 .

d
’
with the ne w l en gth of bar dc He re as be f ore i t i s e s se n
.
, ,

t i ally c o rr e ct t o r e plac e t he arc s by the ir tange nt s The pr o c es s .

may b e acc o mpli s he d by laying off on e qual t o the c o mbin e d

‘

incr e a se i n l e n gth of a b an d be co e qual and paralle l t o dd

,
’
,

op e qual t o t he d e cr e a s e in l e ngth of c d an d no and pc pe r ’ ’

,

pen di c ular r e s p e ctive ly t o be and dc The p oint of inte r se cti on

.
,

of th e s e n ormal s i s t he n e w p os iti on of p oint 0

’
c , .

I t s h o uld b e ob s e rve d that the n e w p os iti on of p oin t c i s a

functi on of t he change in s hap e of t ri angl e a bd as we ll as of
tri angl e bc d e ven i f bar a b a ctually r e mai ns hon zon tal s inc e
’ ‘

, ,

bar bd ca nn o t b e chan ge d in l e n gth wi th out i n fluen ci n g t he

s hap e o f t rian l e bcd
g .
3 72 DE FL E C TI ON A N D CA M B E R A RT . 1 78

ca se p oint a he nc e if in ,
the diagr a m l e tter d i s re pla c e d by a1

t he di s plac e m e nt wi ll in e ve ry ca s e b e t he di s tanc e fr o m a to

Sc a le of t russ

b g o
o

g
\

c o Io
c
F , “
o
e
x »
00 0
h
N
o Ib
O

D i a gr am i s d r a w n as s um i ng a to e fi xe d i n o s i t i o n an d a b t
i n d i re c i o n t
D i s a nc es f ro m
q
.

a t o b h , c g d , f , an d e e u a ac t u a o v e m e n ts 0 e se p o m re f e r re d t o a xi s a b
t t
.
, , ,

F i g ure s i n b ra c ke s i n d i c a e b a r n um b e rs a n d are p la c e d o n t h e li n e s w h i c h s h o w t h e
t
c h a n ge s i n le n g h o f t h e c o r re s p o n di n g b a rs .

FI G . 294 .

t heinte r s e cti on s of t he pr o p e r n ormal s A Wi lli ot dia gram f or .

a m or e c o mpli cate d truss i s s h o wn by t he full li n e s of Fig 2 94 . .

The f oll o wi ng rules f or t he c on s tructi on of t he Wi lli o t diagr a m

may n ow b e gi ve n
AR T . 1 79 C ORRE C TI ON OF TH E W ILL IOT D IA G RA M 373

~
1 . Dr awa diagra m of t he tru ss and s e l e ct on e me mb e r as
,

an axi s or fi xe d r e fe r e nc e bar
,
a ss u m ing thi s bar as fi xe d in
,

dire cti on wi th one e n d fi xe d in p ositi on Ch o os e if p os s i bl e.

, ,

a ba r Whi ch d oes n ot change i ts dire cti on und e r t he give n l o ading .

2 F r o m s o m e c o n v e ni e nt p o int pl ot t h e axi al d e f o rm ati o n

.

of thi s r e f e r e nc e bar p arall e l t o and i n th e dir e cti o n of t h e

di s t o rti o n of i ts fr e e e n d Le tt e r th e o ri gin and th e p o int j u s t
.

pl o tt e d h e r e aft e r c all e d t h e se c o nd p oint t o c o rr e s p o nd with

, ,

t h e l e tt e rin g of t h e fi x e d and fr ee e nd s r e s p e ctiv e ly of t h e ch os e n

r e f e r e nc e bar .

3 S e l e ct t w o bar s whi ch with th e fi x e d r e f e r e nc e b ar f o rm a

.

trian gl e F r o m t he o ri gi n o n a lin e parall e l t o that on e o f

.
,

t h e t w o b ar s whic h i s hin ge d t o t h e fi xe d e n d of t h e r e f e r e n c e
bar l ay o ff t h e axial d e f o rmati on of thi s s e c o nd bar in t h e d i re c
,

ti on of t h e m oti o n of i t s far e n d F r o m t h e s e c o nd p oint

.
,

s imilarly lay o ff t h e d e f o rmati o n of t h e third b ar A t th e e x

.

t r e m i t i e s of th e s e pl ott e d d e f o rm ati on s e r e ct p e rp e ndi cul ar s .

Th e di s tan c e fr o m th e ir p o int of i n t e r s e c t i o n t o t h e o ri gi n e qu al s
t h e di s t o rti o n of t h e ap e x of t h e tria n gl e und e r c o n s i d e r ati o n
wi th r efer en c e to the fi xed a xi s and s h o uld b e l e tt e r e d t o c o rr e s
p on d to thi s ap e x in th e tru s s diagram .

4 Con s id e r t he bar s f or ming a trian gl e of whi ch the d i s

.
,

plac e d p os iti on s of the e nd s of one le g are give n by two of the

t hree p oints n ow pl ott e d F r o m e ach of the s e two p oints on a
.

lin e parall e l t o the bar of t h e triangl e whi ch i s c onn e cte d th e r e t o ,

lay off t he axi al d e f o rmati on of thi s bar in the dire cti on of t he

m oti on of i ts far en d A t t he e xtr e mitie s of the s e pl ott e d
.

d e f o rmati on s e r e ct p e rp e ndi culars The dis tanc e fr o m thi s

.

p oi n t of int e r s e cti o n t o the o ri gin e qual s t he dis t o rti on of t he

a p e x o f t he tria n gl e und e r c on s id e rati on wi th r e fe r e nc e t o t he

d i and h o uld b e l e tt e r e d t o c o rr e s p o nd t o thi s ap e x in

fi x e a x s s ,

t he tru s s diagram .

5 Con tin u e thu s till all p oint s are l o cat e d

. .

1 79 Corr e cti o n of th e W i lli o t D i a g r am

. I t i s e vid e nt that
.

t he W i lli o t diagram s h o ws t he actual m o ve m e nt of t he j o int s

o n ly wh e n t he bar which i s a ss ume d t o b e fi xe d in di l e cti o n

a ctually 1 e m ai n s fi xe d duri n g the cha n ge in s hap e and wh e n

the 0 1 igi n 5 150 1 e m ai n s fi x_ ed The latte 1 c onditi on i s l e a di ly
.

o btain e d by se l e ctin g a p o int which i s n o t on i olle 1 s and the ,

f o rm e r may s o me time s but n o t always b e se cure d e g in the ,

. .
,
 74 DE FL EC TI ON A N D C A M BE R A RT . 1 79

tru ss s h own by Fig 2 94 if l oade d with a uni for m l oad pe r fo o t

.
,

bar cg will r e mai n ve rtical whi l e t he tr us s de fle c ts As in .

many ca se s n o bar r e main s fi xe d in dir e cti on t hi s m e th od wo uld

b e inc o mpl e te un l e s s s o me m e an s can b e f o und f o r c orr e cting
t he di s pla c e m e nt s thu s o btain e d t o pr o vid e f or t he r o tati o n ab o ut
t he a ss um e d axi s . I f t he di s plac e m ent s f oun d by t he Wi lli ot dia
gram s f or tru s s of Fig 2 94 b e plotte d t he tru ss will app e ar as s h own
.
,

by d ott e d lin e s in Fi g 2 95 with the di s t orti on e xagge rat e d owing t o

.

t he pl o tting of the di s pla c e m e nt s on a di f fe r e nt s cal e fr o m the trus s

16

FIG . 29 5 .

diagram S inc e p oi n t e s h ould r e main on the abutme nt i ts true

.
,

m o ve m e nt b ei n g h o ri z ontal the c o rr e cti on n e c e s s ary t o apply t o

,

t he dia gr a m mu s t b e s uch as w o uld b e pr o duc e d by r o tati n g t he

wh o l e tru ss ab o ut a until e dr o p s t o the h ori z ontal li n e thr ough
’

a,
that i s un til e dr op s thr o ugh t he di s tanc e e h (s inc e he r e ’

again t he arc s wun g with a as a c e n tr e and a e as a radiu s di ff e r s ’

in p os iti on fr o m t he tange nt by only an i n fini te si m al am o un t ,

t he c o rr e ct di s tanc e e k be ing ve ry s mall )

’
.

The m o ve m e nt of t he o the r p oint s of t he tru ss due t o t hi s

r o tati on will b e ar the s ame re lati on t o t he m o ve m en t of e as
t he di s tan c e fr o m a t o th e se p oi n t s b e ar s t o t he di s tanc e a e .

I n Fi g 2 96 all t he full li ne s a re p e rp e ndicular t o the c orr e

.

s pon di n g bar s of t he a ctual tru ss s h o wn i n F i g 2 9 7 In c o n

. .

se qu e nc e a n y tria n gl e s uch a s a d e i s s imilar t o t he c o rr e s p on ding

’ ’ ’

trian gl e a d e he nc e
,
3 76 DE FL E C T I ON A N D C A M BE R A RT . 1 79

2 . th r o u gh t he p oint o n th e W i lli ot di agram c o rr e s p o nd

Draw
i ng t o t h e j o i n t at t h e fix e d p oi n t of s upp o rt o f t h e s truc ture ,

a lin e p e rp e ndicular t o t h e lin e in t h e tru s s c o nn e cting t he t w o

p o i n t s of s upp o rt of t he tru ss and d e t e rmin e i t s p oint of i n t e r
,

se cti o n with t h e lin e p r e vi o u s ly drawn .

3 I n se rt in the Wi lli ot diagra m a tru ss diagr am dra wn with

.

all i ts bar s perpendi cu lar t o c o rresp onding bar s in t he actual

trus s i e dra wn in a p os iti on p erp endi c ular t o t he ori gi nal
,
. .
,

p ositi on of the tru ss The l o cati on and s cale of thi s ne w trus s

.

he 9

FIG . 298 . FIG . 2 99 .

FIG 2 98 — D i s lac e m en t D i agram f or Tru s s S h own i n F i g 2 94 Bar c g

.
p s . .

as sum e d t o be fi xe d i n d i re c t i on
.

FIG 2 99 — Di s lace m en t D i a gram

f o r Tru ss S h own i n F i g 2 94 P oi n t h
. .
p . .

as s um e d fix ed i n po s i t i on an d b a r hg i n d ir e c t i o n Corre c t i on d i a gram .

” ” "
a , b , d , e
”i s d rawn on a s s um pt i o n t h a t po i n t a i s f re e t o m ove h o ri
t
z o n t a lly i n s e a d o f poi n t e .

diagra m i s fi xe d by l o catin g the j oint c orr e s p ondin g t o t he

e xpan s i on p oint of s upp o rt at t he p oint o f int e r s e cti o n pr e vi ou s ly
“

d e t e rmi n e d (see 2 ) and the j oint c orr e s p onding t o the fi xe d

p oint of s upp o rt at t he c orr e s p ondi n g p oint on t he Wi lli ot
diagram .

4 Th e c o rr e ct di s plac e m e nt of e ach j oi n t of the trus s may

.

n ow b e d e t e rmi n e d in ma gni tud e and dir e cti on by s cali n g t h e

d i s tanc e fr o m t he j oi n t as gi v e n on t h e c o rr e cti on diagram drawn

AR T . 1 80 CAM BER DE FIN ED 3 77

as d es c r ib e d un d e r (3 ) and th e p o s iti o n o f th e j o int as give n on

t he Wi lli ot diagra m .

Figs 2 98 2 99 and 3 00 illu s trat e m ore fully the graphi cal

.
, ,

me th o d as appli e d t o t he tru ss s h own in Fi g 2 94 I n Fi g 2 98 . . .

bar cg has b ee n a ss um e d as fi xe d in dir e cti on Thi s a gre e s wi th .

t he a ctual c onditi on if t he tru s s i s l oad e d uni f o r m ly and t he

di s pla c e me nt dia gr am n ee d s n o c orr e cti on f or r o tati on Fi g 2 99 . .

i s dra wn wi th hg fi xe d in di r e cti on and p oint h i n p os iti on Thi s .

n ee d s t o b e c o rre cte d f or r otati on an d t he c orr e cti on dia gra m i s

give n b oth f or t he trus s s h o wn and f or t he s ame tru ss with,

p oint a free to m o ve h o ri z ontally Fi g 3 00 i s drawn t o s h o w . .

S c ale

F IG . 3 0 0 —Di splac e m e nt D ag am f or T u ss S h o wn i n F i g 2 94
i r r P o i n t a an d . .

r
b ar a h ass um e d fi xed i n po s i t i on an d di e c t i on e s pec t i v e ly r
Ch an ge i n .

r
le n gt h ass u m ed t o oc c u i n b ar 2 only (De c ease o f fi g? f t )
. r .

t he ff e ct of a change in l e ngth of on e bar on ly

e . The c orr e cti o n
di agram mu s t al s o b e drawn f or thi s ca se and i s s h o wn in t he

fi gu re .

1 80 . Cam be r Defi n e dtruct ure i s s aid t o b e camb e r e d

. A s

whe n s o c on s truct e d that it will n ot a s s ume i ts the o r etical f or m

un til fully l oad e d F or b e ams and s h o rt s pan gird e r s n o pr o vi si on
.
-

f or camb e r n e e d b e m ad e Gird e r s of l ong s pan are o fte n ca mb e r e d

.

by b e ing s li ghtly arch e d Tru s s e s e xc e pt in t he ca se o f c o m

.
,

para ti ve ly s h o rt ri ve t e d s pan s s h o uld always b e camb e r e d

,
.

Thi s i s parti cularly imp ortant in the ca s e of pin b ridge s as

o rdinarily c on s tructe d with t he s plic e s o f t he t op ch o rd d e p e nd e nt

f or the i r s tr e ngth up on t he inti mat e c ontact of t he plan e d e nd s

of t he ch o rd s e cti o n s .
3 78 DE FL E C TI ON A N D C A M BE R AR T . 181

181 . Rules f or Com pu t i n g Cam ber s pan paralle l . S h ort s

ch ord tr us s e s are o rdina rily camb e r e d by the f oll o wing m or e or

l e s s e mpi ri cal r ule : Make the t op ch ord pan e l l e ngths l onge r
than th ose of t he b otto m ch ord by 4 i n f or e ve ry 1 0 f t in . .

l ength Thi s pr o c ess n e c es sitate s a c orre s p ondi n g c han ge i n t he

.

diag onal s but the ve rtical s and b ott o m ch ord s are un af fe cte d
,
.

For l ong s pan s or f or tr us s es with cur ve d t op ch ord s th e

camb e rin g s h ould b e acc o mpli s h e d by d e cr e asin g the l ength of
t he te n s i on m e mb e r s and in cr e a s in g that of t he c o mpr e s s i on
me mb e rs by an am oun t e qual t o the ir change i n l e ngth un d e r
the d e ad s tr e s se s and t he live s tr e sse s d u e t o full li ve l oad with
d ue all o wanc e f or pi n h ol e play us ing f or a ba s i s th e g eo me t ri cal
,

l e ngths of the bar s as give n in the trus s di agr am The l e n gths

,
.

of t he bar s th us o btain e d c orr e s p ond t o t he o utlin e of the

s tructur e whe n a s s e mbl e d on fal s e w ork and n ot ca rr yi n g i ts
o wn we ight W he n t he fal s e w ork i s r e m ove d the s tructur e will
.

de fle ct by an am ount e qual t o t he n on e la s tic d e fl e c t i o n plus the -

d e fl e c ti on d ue t o i ts o wn we ight I f camb e re d in thi s ma nn e r

.

the appli cati o n of t he live l o ad un d e r w hi ch t he change s in

,

l e n gth of the bar s w e re c o mpute d s h ould caus e the trus s t o tak e,

the s hap e of t he th e o r e tical di agram .

P ro blem s .

63 a Comp u t e h ori z ontal d efl e c t i on o f p oi n t L4 of t hi s s t e e l

. s t r u c tur e
d ue t o t h e a ppli ed loa d s h own , a n d s ta t e i t s dir e cti on E .

1 00000 lb s .

G ro s s A re a oi M em b e rs
s h o wn by Fi gu es in B r ac k et s

'
4 P an els se

P R OB . 63 a

b De ter m i ne the magn itud e an d dir e cti o n of the h ori z ontal f orc e
.

which m u s t b e appli e d at L ; t o d efl e c t p oi n t L 4 h o ri z ontall ya n amo un t

e qu a l t o t h e d efl e c t i on d e t e rmi ne d i n t h e fi rs t p o rti o n o f th i s p r obl em .

64 De te rmine th e ma gni tud e an d dir e c t i o n o f th e h on zont al m o°ve

.

me n t o f p oi n t L of above arch d ue t o the top ch ord b ei n g h e a t e d 5 0 F .

ab ove the remai nd e r o f the s t ru c t ure .

38 0 C O N TI N UOU S G I R DE RS A RT . 1 84

the r e ac ti o n s fi rs t b e ing appr o ximat e ly d e t e rmin e d t h e s tr e s s e s ,

and ar e a s c o mput e d an d th e c o mput ati o n s r e vi s e d t o c o rr e s p o n d

.

t o t h e n e w ar e a s t h e pr o c e s s b e ing r e p e at e d a s o ft e n as i s n e c e s
,

s ary t o o btain s u ffi c i e n t ly pr e ci s e r e s ult s A c o mm o n cu s t o m .

,

h o w e v e r f o r c o n tinu o u s gird e r s i s t o d e s ign t h e s t ructur e o n t h e

,

a ss um pti o n that t h e m o m e nt of i n e rti a i s c o n s tant thr o ugh o ut ,

th e Thr e e m o m e n t E quati o n
-
d e riv e d fr o m t h e di ff e r e n ti al
,

e quati o n o f t h e e l a s tic lin e b e i n g us e d t o d e t e r min e t h e r e act i o n s 1 .

“ —
1 84 De r ivati on of th e Th r ee m o m ent Eq u ati on
.
” Le t t h e .

gird e r s h own in F ig 30 1 have n s pan s

. Th e r e will then b e .

8 5 an
S pa n 3 7 1 -
1 S pa n 71.

FIG . 30 1 .

(n + 2) unkn own r e ac ti on s all t he s upp o rt s but on e b e ing on

,

o n n —
r ll e r s a d h e nc e ( l) e quati on s mu s t b e obtain e d fr o m o th e r
,

c onditi on s than th ose of s tatic s . Th e s e e quati o n s may be d e duc e d

d M
fr o m t he di ff e r e ntial e quati on of t he e la stic curv e ’
am ? EI
by t he m e th o d which f oll ow s e ach of t he n 1 r e s ulti n g e quati on s
,
-

c onn e cti n g t he m o m en t s at thr ee adj oini n g s upp o rt s

. .

Let F ig 30 2 r e pr e s e nt a p o rti on o f a c o nti n u o u s gird e r wi t h

.

FIG . 30 2 .

a c on s tant m o m e nt of in e rtia an d m od ulu s of ela s ticity t he ,

e ntir e s tructur e havin g n s pan s and t he s e cti on und e r c on ,

s id e rati o n in cludin g any p o rt i o n o f t h e gird e r s upp o rt e d up on

thr ee adj oining s upp o rt s The axi s of t he unload e d b e a m i s

.

a s s um e d t o b e straight an d t he s upp o rt s l e v e l The a s s umpti on .

that e ac h l oad act s at a di stanc e kL fr o m t h e adj oi n in g s upp o rt

“
,

”
, ,

i s ad opt e d fr o m Me rriman s Me chan ic s of Mat e rial s

’
an d ,

s i m pli fi e s gre atly th e r e s ulting e quati on s .

1
Se e a ls o A rt . 1 90 .
A RT . 1 84 TH RE E- MO ME N T E Q U A TI ON 38 1

Le t M a, Mb and M b e t he m om ent s up on t he b e am at the three

, C

adj oi n ing supp o rt s and let th ese b e a ss um e d as p ositiv e wh en the

, ,

m om e n t of t he f or c e s o n t he le ft o f the s e cti on i s cl ockwi s e ‘

Le t S S b_1 an d S b + 1 b e t h e s h e ar at i n fi n i t es i m al di s tanc e s
a ,

fr o m t he s upp o rt s a and b an d le t th e se b e a ss um e d as p os itiv e

, ,

wh e n a cting as s h own .

Le t M e qual t h e m o m e nt at any s e cti o n o f t he gird e r .

Le t t th+ 1 and tb_1 e qual t h e tang e nt s at c and at i n fi ni t e s i m al

o, ,

dis tan c e s on e ith e r s id e o f b of t he a n gl e b e tw ee n t he n e utral axi s

o f t he d e fl e c t e d gird e r and i t s o riginal p o s iti on .

Le t k = n o rmal di s tan c e s of p o i n t s a b and 0 ab ov e s o m e ,

a s s um e d axi s parall e l t o a bc and b e l o w i t .

Fo r t he p o rti on of t he gird e r b e tw e e n b an d c t he m o m e nt ,

at a di stan c e x fr o m b i s gi ve n by the f oll o wing e quati on s

, ,

2
4

f
iz z b
Mz -
S b + 1 x (f or p o rti o n of gird e r b e twe e n b and d) .
(3 0 )

d2 y
+ S b+ 1 x P 2 (1 3 10 2 11 2 )

(f o r p o rti on o f gird e r b e twe e n d and

F r o m (3 0) by in t e grati on we o b tai n
2
3 54 4 31
2
b -
i + 0 1 EI,
2

z 3
b S b+ 1 x

an d = h, Cl and
y
:
i b+ l s h

he n c e

n
2 3
S b+ lx
= +
fi

F r o m (3 1 ) by int e grati on we o btain

d S x2 P
z
, 3:
:
b + + P 2 k2 L 2 x - L 03,
d

0 3 5 1—
z
b P 2 113 15 14
1
2 2 2 5
13
2
04 .
382 CON TI NUOU S G I R DE R S A RT . 1 84

d
When 33 : ks ,
E
l m (3 5 ) = 0 0 1 r e sp ondi n g valu e m

C3 = i b + l El

W he n x= L 2 , y= h,

C4 = E 1 h

P2
L 2 —5 k2 1

He n c e
+—
6
3
2
1
2
3
tb + 1 E1 L 2
g
fi kzs s

S bH P2
E IZ/ L 22 ) (
113
3 L2 3
)
fi

)
1
(x ks ) tb + 1 EI (x L 2)

1 2
+ E Ih + —— k2 L 3
2 (k2
;
The valu e of y giv e n by (3 4 ) e qual s i ts valu e as giv e n by (3 8 )
wh en x= k2 L 2 ; e quati n g th e s e valu e s giv e s

P2 P2
_ 11 2 3
00 2 3
1 ) — tb + 1 E 1 L 2 3
6 2
19 s (kz 1)

h e nc e
Arb
(1 3
k2 + 3 h2 2 ~
3 k2 ) i Lz

M b + S b+ 1 L 2 ~
F 2 L 2 (1 —k2 ) = M c

by s ub s titutin g f o r S b+ 1 i t s value fr o m thi s latt e r e quati on ,

we
o btain

L — —2>k2 —2 Mb —M 1
=
6 51 [ 2 2 < kz> (kz
P L 1 . .

Z
W he n x= L2,
ZZ :
t he v alu e of to may be
’
o btain e d fr o m

(3 5) by placi n g x= L2 , an d s ub s tituting f or C 3 i ts value as

3 84 C ONTI NUOU S G I RD E R S A RT . 18 5

For t h e ca se of a l e ve l b e a m and n on l ev el supp o rt s the c on -

s t an t s of int e grati o n w o ul d hav e c ontain e d valu e s of h which

w o uld n ot hav e canc e ll e d h e nc e th e fi n al f o rm of the e quati on

,

w o uld hav e includ e d th e s e t e rm s I f t he o riginal axi s of t he .

gird e r b e slightly curv e d b e f o re l oad s a re appli e d and i f t he ,

s upp o rt s fi t t h e cu rv e o f thi s unl o ad e d gird e r t he r e s ult s f o und ,

will h o w e v e r b e c o rr e ct For c e rtain in t e re s ting p r op e rti es of

, ,
.

th e t hr e e m o m e nt e quati o n and f or inf o rmati on c onc e rning i ts

-

hi s t o rical d e ve l o pm e nt t he re ad e r i s ref e r re d to Me chanic s of

Mat e rial s by Me rriman .

1 8 5 Appli c a ti on of th e T h r ee m o m e nt Eq u ati on
. F or pu r
-
.

p os e of illu st rati on t he f oll o wi n g e xampl e of t he application

of t he th r e e m o m e nt e quati on i s giv e n :
-

P r o ble m . by the thre e—

Comp ute mome n t e q ua t ion the reactions f or
t he c onc en t ra ted l oad s s hown i n Fi g 303
F
. .
1

S olu ti on .irs t apply e quation (4 3 ) to spans 1 an d 2 .

For the se two spans

M a = momen t at R1 = O s i nc e thi s , is at the e nd o f the gi rde r ;

Mb = mome n t a t
.

M C = moment at R, = 111 3 ;
Pl = 0 ;
P 2 = 1 0 , OOO lb s ; .

L 1 = L2 = 1 0 f t , .

6
’
10
h e nc e
2 M z(20) + 1 0M 3 X 1 00 (1 0 8 . 1 f t lb s
.
-
.

Now apply e q (4 3) to spans 2 and 3

. .

F o r th es e sp an s : M = mom en t a t R = M
a 2

M b = mome n t a t R = M 3

M = m om en t a t E = M
c 4

PI lb s ; .

P 2 = 5 , 000 1b s ; .

L1 = L2 = 1 0 f t , .

6
k‘ ’
10
5
’
10
h enc e
l OM z 4 4 0111 3
5000
f t -lb s
. .
A RT . 185 TH R EE MO ME N T E Q U ATI ON
-
385

F i nally apply eq .
(4 3) to s pans 3 an d 4 .

F or the se Span s M amome nt at R = Jll

=
3 a ;
M b = m omen t a t R = M 4

M = m omen t at R5 = O;
C

PI 5000 lb s .
;
P2 = 0 ;
L1 = L2 = 1 0 f t ; .

5
kl 7
10
.

h en c e
1 0M 3 5000 1 00 (O 1 25 . f t lb s
.
-
.

1 0000 lb s .

1
’
L< 4 pane ls 10

F I G 30 3 . .

S olvin g the thr e e equ a t i on s th us d e rived f or the thr e e un kn own s ,

111 2 , M3, an d M 4 , gi v e s th e followin g val ue s

f t lb s
.
-

f t lb s ;
.
-
.

f t lb s
.
-
.

B ut
—5 2 5 lb s (a c t i n d o wn
g ), .

-
1 54 lb s .
(a cti n g d own ) .

Mor eove r ,

111 3 2 0131 + 1 0 R2 2 0 R5 + 1 0R4

h e nc e
1 0 R2 + 1 0 , 5 OO R2 ) 3 790 (a cting up) ,

an d

Ii?4 (a ctin g up) .

Applicati on o f E V = O gives R3 = (acting up) .

In a s imil a r ma nn e r the r eac t i o n s f o r a ny numb e r of s pan s , whe t he r

e qual o r une qual i n l e ngth , a n d f o r a ny l oadi n g m ay b e r e adily c omp u t e d .
38 6 CON TI NUOU S G I R DE R S AR T . 1 86

1 86 . Reac ti o ns , S h ear s , a nd Mo m
t f or Com m on Case s of en s

Co nt i nu o us G ir d er s I n o rd e r t o s implify the d e t e rminati on

.

of r e a cti on s s h e ar s an d m o m e n t s f o r c e rtain c o mm on ca s es of
,

c ontinu o u s gird e r s t he diagram s of F igs 304 t o 3 1 2 in clu s iv e

,
.

have b e e n pr epare d I n sp e cti on of th e se diagram s s h ows t hat

.

f or a c onti n u o u s gird e r of e ith e r t wo o r thr e e e qual span s l o ad e d

with a unif o rm live l o ad w pe r f oo t t he maximum live m o m en t
, ,

P 1 -
( k) P
-
Pk + (k—k 3
)

Cu rve of t if or pos i ti on of load

m om e n s

g i vi n g m axi m u m {n e g ati ve m om e n t

Cu rve of t t
m om e n s f or pos i i on of load
g i vi n g t
m ax i m u m pos i i ve m om e n t
FIG . 304 — Con ti n u ou s Gi rder R e ac ti on s an d Mom
. t
en s f or a Si n gle
Con c en t rat e d L oa d .

o c cur s at a s upp o rt and i s n e gative i ts valu e e qualling f or , ,

t he t wo — s pa n gird e r that of t he p os itiv e liv e m o m e nt on an en d

,

s upp o rt e d s pan and b e ing slightly l e s s than thi s f or t he thre e

,

s pan gird e r Th e maximum p o s itiv e m o m e nt e qual s 1 10 s

. f or
b o th ca se s o r ab out thre e —
,
qua rt e r s of t he valu e it w o uld have
f or an e n d s upp o rt e d s pan
-
.
38 8 CONTI NU OU S G I RDE RS A RT . 1 86

S pan 1 S pan 2

—| w l
.

Cu rve of r
sh e a s r
f or u n i f o m load =w pe r f t . on one span om y,
A RT . 186 C ON TI NUOU S G I R DE R S 38 9

l
Cur ve of m om e n s t f or posi i o n t of !
load gi vi n g m axi m u m

1 t
pos i i ve m om e n t .

& —
L . 58 L —i
>

Cu rve of m om e n s
t f or posm on
0 0

of load : gi vm g
0 0

m axnnu m
0

t
n e ga i ve m om en t .
:
1

w
4 P (k -
7o )
m?4 ?
3 8
- 0
a 1

p0 59 -
1 )

—
4 P (k k )
3

Cu r ve o f s h e ars for load o n s i d e s pa n .

Maxi m u m sh e ar wou ld e q u al P wi th load at e i t her and .

FIG Conti nuou s Gi rder Cu rve S hears Mom t

d
. 30 7 . . of an d en s . Si n gle
Con c en t ra t e d L oa .
3 90 C ONTI NUOU S G I RDER S A RT . 186

£
3-- 2 a 2
(5 k i 7k
-
12 k ) 9
1 0 (5k H4 k 9k
' -
)
l

r
C u ve o f m om en s t f or pos i t i on of load gi v i ng
m axi m u m ne gat i ve m om e n t i n m i d d le s an
I
p .

Cu rve of m om en t
s f or pos i t i on o f load g i vi ng
m ax i m u m t
pos i i ve m om en t i n m i d di e s pan .

9, ’

g(ek a zk )
-
sk

p
(2 k: + 3 1
c
_ 2
2k )
3

Cur ve of s h ears f or t t
c o n ce n r a e d lo ad i n m i d dle s pan .

Max i m um sh e a r w ould e qu al P wi th load at e i th e r e n d of m i d dle span .

FIG — Con ti nuous Gi rd er Cu rv e s Mom t S he a rs Si n gle

d
. 30 8 .
. of e n s an d .

Con c e n t ra t e d Loa .
3 92 C ON TI NUOU S G I RDE RS A RT . 186

C ur v e of m om e n st f o r li ve lo a d z w pe r f t . o n s pa ns 1 a nd 2
Th i s loa d i ng g i ve s m a xi m u m n egat i ve m o m e n t t t
o n s r uc ure .

C ur ve o f m o m e n ts f o r li ve loa d =w pe r f t . 0 11 s pa n 2 o nly .

Th i s loa d i ng g i ve s m axi m u m p os i tw e m o m e n t o n s pan 2 .

FIG . 3 10 .
—
Canti nouu s Gi rd er . Cur ve s of Mom en s t for Uni f orm Lo ads .
ART 1 8 6
. C ONTI NUOU S G I R DE RS

S pa n l

1 1 ’'
—w L

C ur v e o f sh e a rs £ 0 1 u ni f o m
"
n load z w per f t on s pans 1 and 3 on ly
. .

S pa n l S pa n 2 S pa n 3

Cur ve o f sh e a rs f o r u n i f o rm load =w pe r it ov e r en ti re s truc tune.

d
.

Fm . 311 .
—Conti nuous Gi rder . Curves O f Shears f or Uni f orm L oa .
3 94 C ONTI NUOU S G I RDE RS AR T 1 8 6
.

C ur ve o f s h e ar s f or u n i f or m loa d = pe r f t 0 11
. s pa n 2 o nly .

Cur ve o f s h e ar s f or un i f o r m lo a d =w pe r f t o n . s pa ns 1 a nd 2 o nly.

Thi s loa d i ng gi ve s m axi m u m s h ear i n m i d d le a nd e nd s pa ns.

FIG . 312 . Co nti n uou s Gi rder . Curve s of S he ars f or U ni f o r m L o a d .

P ro blem s

65 . De t e rmi n e re ac t i on s on t h i s be am by a ppl i c a t i o n of the thre e

mome nt e qu a ti o n .

P ROB . 65 .
3 96 TH E OR E M O F L EA S T W OR K A RT . 1 88

L l e n gth of bar in f ee t .

W t o tal w o rk in bar in f oo t p o unds due to f o rc e 8

-
.

5 chan ge in l e n gth of b ar d ue t o app li cati o n of f o rc e P .

Fr o m m e chani cs it i s kn o wn that t he t o tal int e r n al w o rk d o n e

in a b ar by a gradually appli e d f o rc e e qual s on e half t he pr od uct -

of t he f o rc e by t h e chan ge in l e n gth o f t h e b ar and that pra c tic ally ,

all f o rc e s t o which s tructur e are s ubj e ct m ay b e c on s id e r e d t o b e

gradually appli e d .

A ls o that
He nc e ,
I S L 2

2 AE

Ca se b . B ar ubj e ct e d t o b e ndin g o nly

s .

The expr e s s i o n f or thi s c as e may b e d e t e rmin e d i n t he f oll o w

i n g m ann e r r e f e rrin g t o F ig
2 8 6 A rt 1 7 7 b u t ass u m i n g the
.
,
.
,
'

d e pth and width o f t he b ar t o b e variabl e in o rd e r t o o btain a

ge n e ral s o luti o n .

Le t 5 and f 2 b e t he s am e as in A rt 1 77 . .

we int e rnal w o rk in a pri s m o f l e n gth dx d e pth dy and ,

width 0 ) with i ts c e nt e r at a di s tanc e y fr o m t he

n e utral axi s of the b ar thi s w o rk b e in g d ue t o the
,

appli cati on of o ut e r f o rc e s .

I m o m e nt of in e rtia in inch e s ab o ut t he n e utral axi s , ,

wi th r es p e ct t o fi e xu re of t he cr oss s ecti on of t he bar

,
-
,

at any se cti o n s uch as f g .

M b e ndin g m o m ent in bar in inch p o unds at t he s am e -

cr oss se cti o n due t o gradually appli e d l o ad s

-
.

W t otal int e rnal w o rk in t he ba r in i nch p o und s d ue -

t o appli e d l o ad s .

T he n

1 dx
f E

My
f _ 2
I

1 bd yd x 1 M 2
1]
?
bdydx
f
2
2
‘

2 E 2 1 2
E
A RT . 1 89 A P PL I C A TI O N O F TH E O R E M 3 97

bM y dyd a:
2 2

2E I 2

f y bd
z =
y 1
M dx 2

W
I 2 B] (4 6)
The x pr ess i on f or the t otal Wo r k in a ba r s ubj e ct e d t o b o t h
e

dir e ct s tr ess and b e ndin g m ay e vi d en tly b e o btain e d by c om

bining e quati on s (4 5 ) and
I t s h ould b e n ot e d that in the e xpr e ss i on f or w ork due to b end
i ng t he w o rk r es ultin g fr o m the di s t o rti on d ue t o s h e ar i s n e g
le c t e d . The e f f e c t of thi s h o w e v e r i s n ot larg e and t he s tr es s
, ,

d ue t o it may b e cla s s e d with s e c ondary s t r esse s which m ay u s u

ally b e i gn o r e d in d es i gn
r
.

1 89 Exam pl e s of Appli c ati on s of Th e or e m of L e a s t W o k

. .

The f o ll o win g e xampl e illu s trat es cl e arly t h e applicati o n of t he

th e o r e m t o a s impl e c a se .

Mom en t o f i n e r t i a p f b ea m = Iz
Mo d ulus o f e las t i c 1 t y = E .

F IG 3 1 3
. .

Pr ob le m D et ermi ne by the theor e m of l e as t work th e r e acti ons o n

.

t he b e am s h own i n Fi g 3 1 3 . .

S olu ti on Fo r thi s cas e th er e ar e f our unkn o wn r eacti ons and thr e e

.

s t atical e qua t i on s , h en c e only on e un known n ee d b e ob t ain e d by th e

theorem of least wor k Let this un known b e ta ken as R 1 By sta ti c s ,

. .

R3 = Rn
R2 = 2wl—2 RI ‘

The i n t er nal wor k mus t n o w b e expr esse d i n t erms o f R1 Fo r t he .

ca se u nd e r c o ns idera t i on t he t otal wor k i n t h e beam will b e d oubl e that

i n t he l eft s pan ,

h en c e

M R 1 55

2
L 3
l L ‘
MD
3 98 TH E OR E M O F L E A S T WOR K A RT . 1 90

Fo r a mi ni mum l
v a ue mus t e q ua l z e r o h en c e
,

O an d R1 =

1 90 . Re ac ti on s in T r u s s e s The re acti o n s in
Conti nu ou s .

c o ntinu ou s t r u s s e s m ad e up of ba r t he cr oss se cti o n s of which

,
-

hav e b ee n pr e vi o u s ly d e t e r m i n e d by appr oxim at e m e th o d s s uch ,

a s t h e thr ee m o m e nt e quati o n m ay b e r e adily d e t e rmin e d with

-
,

a ccura cy by t he m e th o d of l e a s t w o rk To illu s trat e the m e th o d

ig
.
,

e quati o n s f or t h e typi cal c o ntinu o u s t r u s s s h o wn in F 3 1 4 will .

b e d e v e l o p e d in t hi s a rticl e Thi s tru ss i s ind e t e rminat e t o the

.

s e c o nd d e gr e e and t he t w o c e ntral r e acti o n s Rb and R will b e c

tak e n a s the ind e p e nd e nt variabl es e nt e ring int o t he expr e ss i o n

f or w o rk .

s i on Ba rs

FI G . 314 .

N ow c o n s id e r the tru ss as a s impl e e n d- s upp o rt e d s tructur e

s ubj e ct e d t o t he appli e d l o ad P and t he t wo unkn o wn f o r c e s Rb
and R and und e r th e s e c onditi on s :
C,

Le t So s tr e ss in any m e mb e r d ue t o app li e d l o ad P .

Sb s tr e s s in any m e mb e r d u e t o an upward f o rc e o f

u ni ty actin g at s upp o rt b .

Sc s tr e s s in a n y m e mb e r d u e t o an upward f o rc e o f

u nity actin g at s upp o rt 0 .

T he n RbS b s tr ess in any m e mb e r d ue t o t he u nk n o wn upward

r e acti o n Rb .

and ROS . s tr e s s in any m e mb e r d u e t o t h e unkn o w n upward

r e acti o n R C.

H e nc e , t he actual s tr e s s in any m e mb e r of t he tru ss wh e n c o n

s i d e re d as c o ntinu ous S S + RbS b + RC SC o .

— S 2
L
The w o rk in e ach bar h e nc e t h e w o rk in t h e e ntir e
2A E
’

S L
2

tru s s E '
2A E
4 00 TH E OR E M O F LE A S T WOR K A RT . 1 90

Thed e n o minat or s o f the t wo r e acti o n e quati o n s (5 1 ) and (5 2 )

a re alik e and a re ind e p e nd e nt o f t he p o s iti o n o f t he appli e d l o ad .

Th e y al s o c o ntain fac t o r s which o ccu r in t he num e rat o r s and are

al s o ind e p e nd e nt of the appli e d l o ad ; h e nc e th es e e quati o n s m ay
b e w r itt e n in th e f o ll o win g s impl e f o m r .

S S bL
o
_
A
n
2 —m p
S S L —
O C

77 2 n2
A
71
2 —m p

m which n m and p a re c o n s tant s

,
f or any particular s tructur e ,

th e ir valu es b e in g as f oll o w s :
S L 2
Sb L
2
=2
C

m
A A

I t s h o uld b e particularly n o t e d that bar s in which b o th S b and

S a re z e r o may b e e ntir e ly i gn o r e d in applyin g th e se e quati o n s
6 .

Thi s e vi de ntly i n c lu des e ac h ba r t he s tr e ss in which may b e d e t e r

min e d by s tatic s .

I f th e r e are m o r e than f o ur s upp o rt s additi o nal e quati on s may

,

b e o btain e d in a s imilar mann e r F o r e xampl e if t he numb e r of

.
,

unkn o wn r e acti o n c om p o n e nt s i s n + 2 t he n e quati o ns n e c es s a r y

f or s o luti o n may b e d e riv e d fr o m t he e quati on of l e a s t w o rk by
e xpr e s s in g t he s tr e s s in e ach m e mb e r in t e r m s of t he n unkn o wn s

and di f fe r e ntiatin g n tim e s placin g e ach d e rivativ e e qual t o z e r o

,
.

I f th e r e i s but o ne int e rm e diat e s upp ort t he e quati o n f or Rb

may b e o btain e d by placin g the la s t t e rm in e quati o n (4 7 ) e qual
t o z e r o and s o lving the r e s ultin g e xpr e s s i o n giving t he f o ll o win g
r e s ult
8 0 8 511
E
AE
S L o
z

2
AE
a c o n s tant v alue o f
‘
E giv e s
s s bL
.
2
A
s
—s
E
A
A RT . 1 90 R EA C T I O N S I N C O N TI N UOU S TRU SS E S 401

As b e f o r e the d e n o m inat o r i s a c o n s tant which i s ind e p e nd e nt

,

o f t h e appli e d l o ad and any bar in which S b e qual s z e r o may b e

i gn o r e d in t he c o mputati o n ; thi s includ e s e ac h b a r the s tr ess

in which may b e c o mput e d by s tatic s .

The e quati o n s d e duc e d by thi s m e th o d giv e m or e a c curat e

valu e s than t he thr e e m o m e nt e quati o n ina s much as t he latt e r
-

a ss u m e s a c o n s tant m o m e nt of in e rtia whil e t he m e th o d of l e a s t

w o rk tak es d u e a c c o unt of t he variati o n in the m o m e nt of in e rtia .

On t he o th e r hand t he applic ati o n o f thi s m e th o d r e quir e s t he

,

pre d e t e rminati o n of t he ar e a s o f all t he m e mb e r s which c ann o t b e

-

d o n e until t he r e acti o n s are at l e a s t appr oxim at e ly d e t e r min e d .

A pr o p e r m o d e o f pr o c e dur e f or s uch tru sses i s th e r e f o r e t o

, ,

m ake a pr e liminary d e s i gn ba se d up o n t he d e t e rminati o n of t he

r e acti o n s by t he appli cati o n o f t h e thr e e m o m e nt e quati o n
-
, and
th e n to ch e c k thi s by the d e t e rminati o n of the re acti o n s by t he
m o r e ac curat e m e th o d of l e a s t w o rk .

For t he appli cati o n of e ith e r m e th o d a tabl e s h o uld b e pre

,

par e d in which the vari o u s c o n s tant s f o r e ach bar s h o uld b e plac e d

in v e rti cal c olumn s s o that the s ummati o n s may b e o btain e d by
addin g the c olumn s S uch a tabl e s h o uld hav e the f o ll o win g
.

h e a din gs f or t he c a s e wh e r e E i s c o n s tant and wh e r e th e r e are t wo

ind e p e nd e nt variabl es .

I n o btaining the s u m m ati o n s d ue att e nti o n s h o uld b e giv e n t o

,

t he s i gn s of t he vari o u s t e rm s ; e g if f or any bar S i s t e n s i on and

. .
, .

S b i s c o m pr e s s i o n the v alu e of t he pr o duct i s n e gativ e

,
.

To d e t e r min e t he m aximum valu e o f any o n e of the r e acti o n s

o r ba r s tr e s se s infl u e nc e lin es m ay b e drawn o r i n fl u e n c e tabl es

c o n s tru ct e d f r o m which t he p o s iti o n of t he l o ad f or m aximu m

v alu e s m ay r e adily b e d e t e rmin e d .

The e xampl e s which f o ll o w t he t e xt of thi s arti cl e illu s t r at e

402 TH E OR E M O F L EA S T WOR K A RT
'

. 1 91

the appli cati o n of the ab o v e tabl e t o t he uti o n

s ol of an actual
c as e .

1 91 . T ru s s e s w ith Re d un d an t M e m b e r s The
S tr e s s e s i n .

m e th o d u s e d f o r r e a cti o n s m ay b e appli e d e qually w e ll t o tru s s e s

whi ch a re s tati cally ind e t e rminat e with r e s p e ct t o t he inn e r

f o rc es t o t r u sses with r e dundant m e m b e r s ) by s ub s titutin g
f or t he unkn o wn r e acti o n s the unkn o wn s tr e s se s in t he r e dundant

FG I . 3 15 .

m e mb e r s The e quati o n s f or s uch ca s es may b e d e riv e d as

.

f o ll o w s :
C o n s id e r t he tru s s s h o wn in Fi g 3 1 5 which has t w o r e dund ant
.

m e mb e r s C o n s id e r th ese t w o r e dundant m em b e r s t o b e U n
.

and L 2 U3 alth o u gh any o th e r t wo su pe rfl u ou S m e m b e rs c o uld

,
'

b e u se d e qually w e ll .

F G I . 316 .

N o w c o n s id e r t he am e tru ss with bar s U1L 2 and L 2 U3 cut

ig
s ,

s uch a tru ss b e in g s h o wn in F 3 1 6 t he cut e nd s a and b and c and

.
,

d o f t he r e s p e ctiv e bar s b e in g an i n fi n i te s i m al dis tanc e apart .

F or thi s latt e r tru s s

Le t S . s tr ess in any ba r due t o appli e d l o ad P .

Sb s tr e s s in a n y b ar d u e t o t w o f o r c e s of unity appli e d

s imultan e o u s ly at a and b in dir e cti o n U l and acti n g

t o ward e ach o th e r .
4 04 TH E OR E M O F L EA S T WOR K A RT . 191

I f the valu e of E i s c on s tant in all c a ses it may and s h ould b e

canc e ll e d f or all t e rm s thu s r e du cin g gr e atly t he lab o r of c o m
,

puta ti on .

Th e s e e quati on s m ay b e writt e n in the s am e f o rm as e quati o n s

(5 3 ) and E b e in g a ss um e d as c o n s tant vi z ,
.
,

m p

I n whi ch n m and 19 hav e the valu es pr e vi ou s ly giv en

,
.

The applicati o n of t he f or e going f o r mula s s h ould b e m ad e by

m e an s of a t abl e as pr e vi o u s ly s h o wn B ar s in which b o th S b and
.

S0 0 s h o uld b e om itt e d ; thi s includ es in t he t r u ss s h o wn by

Fi g 3 1 5 all bar s s uch as L oU1 L 5 L 1 e t c t he s t r ess e s in which c an
.
, ,
.
,

b e c o mput e d by s tati c s .

To d e t e rmi n e t he p os iti on of t he liv e l o ad f or m axi m u m s t r ess

in any m e mb e r i nfl ue n c e lin es or i nfl ue n c e tabl es m ay b e u se d
,
.

Equati o n s f or a tru s s with m o r e than t w o r e dundant m e mb e r s

may b e d e riv e d in a s imilar m ann e r as pre v1 ously s ugges t e d in t h e
arti cl e d e alin g with r e acti o n s .

For t h e ca se of a tru ss with one r e dundant m e mb e r t he valu e ,

o f t he s tr e ss in thi s m e mb e r m ay b e o btain e d by placin g Y

in e quati on (58 ) givin g the f o ll o win g r e s ult

Sb L Q

2
AE

which tak e s the f o ll o win g f o rm f or a s tructur e in whi ch E is

c o n s tant .

S b IL
2
A
Sb L2

E
A

The illu s trativ e pr o bl e m s which f o ll o w cl e arly s h o w t he m e th o d

appli cati o n of t he e quati o n s .
A RT . 191 TR U SS E S W I TH R E D U N D A N T M E M B E R S 405

P r ob le m Comput e the str esses in the r e dundant memb er s of t he

.

truss , s hown by Fi g 3 1 7 , d u e to t he l oa ds s hown Gr oss ar eas of vari ous

. .

membe rs are given i n the tabl e acc ompanyi ng t he s ol uti on The m od .

ulus of e las tici t y i s ass ume d to b e c on s t a n t thr ough out .

S olu ti on T hi s truss i s evid en tly i ndete rmi nat e t o t he s e c on d degr ee ;

.

bars L 1 U2 and U2L 3 will b e c ons ider e d t he r e dun da nt memb ers , although
a ny tw o bar s e xc e pt L O U1 L oLl U3 L4 , an d L 3L4 m i ght b e u s e d S b is
, , .

t he s tr e s s caus e d by a f o rc e o f u nity in bar L 1 U2 an d S t he s tr es s cau s e d

c

by a f orc e of u nity i n bar Us .

ou n d a

The f oll o win g tabl e c o ntain s all t he n e c e ss ary valu e s and t he

e quati o n s b e n e ath it giv e t he fi nal re s ult s .

0 0 0 0 0 0

ooooooooo

13 2

—3 0 1

-
30 1
406 TH E OR E M O F L E A S T W O RK A RT . 1 92

W ith X and Y d e t e rmin e d s tr esses in all , o th e r b ar s may be

r e adily c o mpu te d by applyin g e quati o n
Pr ob le m C omput e str ess i n r e d unda nt membe r U3 U4 of the truss
s h o wn by Flg 3 1 8 , d ue t o l oad s hown A r eas of all me mbe rs are give n
. .

i n tabl e acc o mpa nyi ng t he sol u ti o n a nd are se l e ct e d arbi t rarily as fac

tors of bar l engths to s ave nu m erical wor k , t he truss b ei ng a hypothe tical
o ne . E i s c ons tant f or all m e mb e rs
S oluti on S i n c e t he truss h as but one r e d un dant me mb e r e uati on
.
.

q
(65 ) i s applicabl e The foll owi ng tabl e gives all n e c es s ary val ues ; t he
.

d e t ermi na t i on of the stress foll ows t he tabl e .

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

E f or h alf t ru s s n e gle c t i ng b a rs U 3 U4 and L 3L 4 .

E f or en t i re t ru s s n e gle c t i ng b a rs U 3 U4 a nd L 3L 4 .

20
U 3 U4 . . 20

*
So e q u a ls z e ro f o r all b ars e xc e p t t h os e f or whic h num e ri c al v alu e s a re

S oS bL
gi v e n ; h e n c e , z e r o f o r s am e b a rs .

X s t re s s i n U 3 U4

S t r es s e s i n o th e r b a rs
t e rm om i tt e d .
c an b e f ou n d b y a pplic a t i o n of e q ua ti o n (5 7 ) w i th las t
40
U pli f t at

1 92 . Infl ue nc e Li ne s and T ab l e s f or Ind e t e r m i nat e S tru c

tur e s Th e c o n s tructi o n of i n fl u e n c e lin e s o r tabl es f or r e acti on s
.

o r b ar s tr ess e s f or ind e t e rminat e tru s s e s i s c ompa r ativ e ly s impl e

4 08 TH E OR E M O F L EA S T WOR K A RT . 1 93

t e mp er atur e of the e ntir e t op ch or d it i s n e c ess a r y to u s e f or S , o

f or e a ch s e parat e bar of t he t o p ch o rd t h e axial f o r c e whi ch w o uld

cau se a chan ge in l e n gth e qual t o that due t o the chan ge in
t e mp e ratur e .

I n c o n s id e ring t he e ff e ct of a chan ge of t e mp e r atur e in s tatic

ally ind e t e rminat e tru sses it s h o ul d b e n o t e d that a unif o rm
chan ge in t e mp e ratur e of t he e nt i r e tru ss i f the t r u ss r e a cti on s ,

a re v e rtical will n ot c au se s tr es se s in any m e mb er but that a

,

s imilar cha n ge will c au s e mat e rial s tr e sse s in m any if n o t m os t of

t h e bar s of a s tructur e s uch as an arch which i s ri gidly r es train e d

a gain s t h o riz o ntal m o v e m e n t I t s h o uld al s o b e ob s e rv e d that a
.

cha n ge in t e mp e r atur e of s o m e but n ot all bar s of a tru s s with

v e rtic al r e acti o n s will al so s tr ess m any m e mb e r s .

Bi b li ograph y

The orie de l e q uilbre des

1 8 7 9)
’
s ys temes clas t i q u e s e t ses applications .
(Turin
C as ti glia no
,

S tatically I n dete rmi n ate S tructures an d t he P ri n cipl e of Leas t W or k .

M artin
(Lon d o n ,
1 89 5 )
S tatically I n de te rmi nat e Str esse s i n rames c ommonly F use d f or Brid ges
.

(Ne w Y or k , 1 905 ) H i roi .

Der Ei s enbau (M i i n c he n , 1 905 )

. V ia ne ll o .

M e chanic s of I nte rnal W or k (N ew Yor k 1 9 1 0) .

, C hurch .

P R OB LE M S

66 . C ompute by metho d of l east work t he ho ri z o ntal r e acti on c om

p o n e nt o n t h i s two hi n ge d arch d ue to l oad s hown

-
.

1 00000 lb s .

(20 ) U3

G ro s s A re a of Mem b er s
s h o wn by Fi gu e s i n B rac ket s
r

67 . by me t ho d of l eas t wor k t he h ori z on t al r eacti on c om

C omp u t e
p onent on s am e s t ruc t ur e d ue to an i ncr ease of 60 F i n te mp eratur e of °
.

all m embers .
 C H A P T E R X V II

SWIN G B R DG I ES

1 94 M ovab l
. e B r i dge s— G e ne r al
Th e t e r m m ova b l e brid ge i s .

appli e d t o all b r id ge s which m ay b e t e mp o rarily chan ge d in p osi

ti o n to all o w pa ss a ge o f v e s s e l s in th e s tr e am s which th e y s pan .

S uch brid ges m ay b e c lass i fi e d in t he f o ll o wing si x ge n e ral

divi s i o n s :
1 . S wi n g B rid ges .

a . C e nt e r
upp o rt e d
s .

b R i m s upp o rt e d
. .

2 . B as c ul e B ri d ges .

(B rid ge s which r e v o lv e v e rtically ab o ut o ne e n d ) .

3 . D ir e ct L if t B rid ge s .

(B rid ges which are lift e d b o dily ) .

4 . R e tractile B ri d ge s .

(B rid ge s which are m o v e d in a h o riz o n tal plan e ) .

5 . F e rry o r Tran s p o rt e r B rid ge s .

(B i rd ges s upp o rtin g a m o vabl e car which tr an s p o rt s

v e hi cl e s or p as se n ge r s ) .

6 . P o nt oo n B ri d ges .

(B rid ge s built o n b o at s ) .

I t i s t he purp os e of thi s chapt e r to d e al m e r ely with the s tr es ses

in s wi n g brid ge tru sses ; n o att e nti o n will b e giv e n t o t h e o th e r
typ es e xc e pt f o r t he bri e f r e f e r e nc e which f oll o w s t o s tr e s s es in
ba s cul e brid ge tru ss e s The d e s i gn of t he machin e ry f o r m o v abl e
.

brid ge s wi ll n o t b e c on s id e r e d as t o do thi s th or o ughly w o uld

r e quir e a l ar ge am o unt of s pac e .

1 95 S t r e s s e s i n Ba s c ule Br id ge s
. B a s cul e bridg e s m ay c o n .

s i s t o f o ne l e af which wh e n cl os e d act s a s a s i m pl e e n d s upp o rt e d -

s pan s o fa r as t h e liv e l o ad i s c o nc e rn e d o r th e y m ay b e m ad e up ,

o f t w o l e av es which a re c o nn e ct e d at t he c e ntr e wh e n t he bri d ge i s ,

cl os e d by a l o ck which can t r an s mit s h e ar but n ot b endin g m o

,

m e nt thu s givin g a s tructur e which act s und e r liv e l oa d lik e a

,

4 09
4 10 S WI N G B R DG I ES A RT . 1 96

thr e e— hin ge d a r ch S inc e c o unt e r w e i ght s m u s t b e u s e d t o b alanc e

.

t h e d e ad w e i ght th e r e will b e n o d e ad r e acti o n at t h e e n d away

,

fr o m t h e c e ntr e o f r o tati o n and t he m aximum d e ad s tr e s s es m ay

o c cu r with t h e b r id ge partially o r fully o p e n e d o r with t h e brid ge

cl ose d The f o ll o wing r ul es f or d e t e rmining t he m axi m u m d e ad

.

s t r e ss in any m e mb e r m ay b e appli e d :

Le t S h d e ad s t r ess brid ge cl os e d
,
.

°
S ” d e ad s tr es s bridg e s tandin g at 9 0 t o cl ose d p os iti o n
,
.

S m axi m u m d e ad s tr ess .

0 an gl e of o p ening b e tw ee n cl os e d brid ge and p os i

,

ti on of b ri dg e at which m aximu m s tr e s s o c cur s in

the giv e n m e mb e r .

a .I f S h and S are o f t h e s am e charact e r t h e m aximum s t r e s s

, ,

and t h e an gl e at which it o c cur s will b e giv e n by t he f oll owin g

e xpr e s s i on s

S (66)
a .
tan 0
SE (6 7 )

b . I f S h and S ”are unlik e in cha r act e r t he m aximu m s tr es s ,

e qual s t h e lar ge r o f t h e t wo v alu es S h and (S ee a r ticl e entitl e d

M axi m u m S tr e s se s in B a s cul e B ri dg e s by W W P a go n , . .
,

T r an s A m S o c C E V ol L XX V I p
,
. . . .
,
.
,
.

1 9 6 Type s of G i rd e r s an d T r u s s e s f or S win g B r i d ge s
. M ain .

gir d e r s and tru s ses of s win g brid ges are s tati cally d e t e rmin e d with
r es p e ct t o t he o ut e r f o r c es wh e n t he bridg e i s O p e n but are u s ually ,

s tatically und e t e r min e d f or t h e c o nditi o n whic h exi s t s wh e n t he

brid ge i s cl ose d and s ubj e ct e d t o liv e l o ad The gird e r s of plat e .

gird e r brid ges und e r t h e latt e r c o nditi o n g e n e rally act as c o ntinu

o us gird e r s s upp o r t e d at thr e e p o int s T ru ss es may h o w e v er b e
.
, ,

c o n s t r uct e d a c c o r ding t o any o n e of th e f o ll o win g typ es :

a . C o ntinu o u s —s up po r t e d at th re e p oint s .

b C o ntin uo u s — s upp o r t e d at f o u r p o int s

. .

0. P artially c ontinu o u s — s upp o r t e d at f o u r p o int s .

d D i s c ontinu o u s — s upp o rt e d at f o u r p o i n t s
‘

. .

The diff e r e nc e b e tw e e n typ es b and c li es in t he fact that

th e latt e r typ e i s s o c on s tru ct e d that m o m e nt but n ot s h e ar c an
b e t ran s m itt e d acr os s t h e c e ntral pan e l thu s p r o ducin g a c on di ,

ti o n s i m ila r to that d e s c r ib e d f or cantil e v e r tru sses in A r t 1 2 5 . .

412 SWI N G BR I D G E S A RT . 2 00

Th e i nt er nal w or k in this gird e r i s giv e n by t he f oll o win g

e qu a ti o n s it b e ing a s s um e d t hat
,
E and I a re c o n stant thr ou gh o ut :
—k)
( )
2
R 1 1 3 d23 “1“ [l L1 (RI —P x 2
) ] dx

dW
De t e rmi n ing t h e valu e of fr o m ab o v e e quati on and
dR1

e quating to z e r o giv e s t he f oll o wi n g valu e f o r R1 :

L‘ L
<1
L1 L3
“ “
h Lz t -

g ?

FG I . 319 .

Fo r t h ep e cial ca s e in whi ch L 1
s a wh e r e n e qual s
the numb e r of pan el s in e ach arm of t he s, we m ay s ub s titut e
L
L f o r L I and L 3 and f o r L 2 glv m g t he f ollo wm g e xpre s s 1 o n s f or
h
t he r e acti o n s t h e s i gn s i n dic atin g t h e a ctual dir e cti o n
,
of the
r e acti o n s as c o mpar e d with t he dir e cti o n s a s s um e d in F i g . 3 19 .

Pn ( —
k k3
)
Rl — P (1 -
k)
4n + 6
3
(k k )
R2 = P ,

—
k h3
Pn( )
4n + 6
—
P n (k k3
)
4n + 6

200 . In fl u e nc e of E nd Su ppor ts u po n S win g Br i dge R eac ti on s .

The c onti n u o u s and partially c ontinu o u s gird e r s hith e rt o c on

A RT . 20 1 SWI N G BR I D G E R E A C TI O N S 413

s i d e re d hav e b een ass u m ed t o b e l e v el and s up por t ed on l ev e l

s up po rt s I t i s e vid e nt that if thi s c onditi on exi s t s f or a cl os e d
.

s win g bridg e t he tru ss es w i ll d e fl e c t at t he e nd s b e l o w t he l e v e l of

,

t he c e ntr e s upp o rt s wh e n t he bridg e i s o p e n e d and h e n c e wh e n

t h e bridg e i s a gain cl ose d will hav e t o b e r ai s e d t o r e a ch th e ir
o r i ginal l e v e l t h e f o r c e r e quir e d t o a c c o mpli s h thi s e quallin g t he
,

d e ad r e a cti on s which w ould e xi s t wh e n t he tru ss i s cl ose d I f t he .

e nd s b e n o t rai s e d th e r e will b e n o d e ad r e acti o n s at t h e e nd s wh e n

cl ose d t he d e a d s t r ess es b e ing t he s am e as wh e n t he brid ge i s

,

open . I f thi s latt e r c onditi o n exi s t s h o w e v e r a p artial liv e l o ad

, ,

i ng whi ch w o ul d t e n d t o p r o duc e n e gativ e r e a cti o n s at t he e nd s

w o uld c au se the e nd s t o ri s e unl ess lat ch e d d o wn a se ri o u s o bje c ,

ti o n es p e ciall y f or a d o ubl e t r ac k r ailr o ad brid ge I t i s c o mm on

,
-
.
,

th e r e fore in th e c a s e of railr o ad s wing brid ges t o r ai s e t he e nd s

,

wh e n t he brid ge i s cl ose d thi s b e in g a c c o mpli s h e d by m e an s of

,

l e v e rs t o ggl e j oint s or hyd r auli c j ack s I n ca s e t h e e nd s are

, ,
.

r ai s e d s u ffi c i e ntly t he r e acti o n s f or t he cl ose d brid ge f o r b o th W ye

w
,

d léald s wfl l b e giv e n by t h e f o rmula s alr e a dy d e duc e d

‘
‘
‘

I f the e nd s are latch e d d o wn and no t r ai s e d t he e n d d e ad re ac ,

ti o n s will b e z e r o and the liv e r e a cti on s will b e giv e n by t he f or

m ula s of thi s chapte r I f the e nd s are n e ith e r l atch e d d o wn no r
.

r ai se d the e n d d e ad r e acti o n s will again b e z e r o and t he liv e

, ,

r e acti o n s will b e th os e giv e n by t h e f o r m ula s p r o vi d e d n o n e of ,

t h e e n d r e acti o n s b e n e gativ e and t h e n e gativ e liv e r e acti o n at

t h e c entr e pi e r d o e s n ot e xc ee d t he p os itiv e d e ad r e acti o n at that
p o int I f the latt e r c o nditi o n s are n o t f ulfi lle d t he s tructur e
.

b e c o m es a gi r d e r s upp ort e d at t wo p o int s if of t h e cla s s a ty pe and ,

at thr e e p o ints i t of typ e s b and c and t he f or mula s a re i n appli

,

c abl e I t s h o uld b e add e d that t he partially c o ntinu o u s tru s s has

.

an adv anta ge o v e r t he c o ntinu o u s gi r d e r up o n f o u r p o int s o f s u p

p ort in having the n e gativ e r e acti on d ue t o liv e l o ad s o ccur at o ne
,

end wh e re it may b e pr op e rly tak e n car e of in st e ad of at

t he c e ntr e s upp ort wh e re it might c au se th e d rum t o lift fr om
,

t h e r o ll e r s .

20 1 T ab l es of Rea c ti on s f or Conti nu ou s and P arti all y Con

.

ti n u ous Gi r der s U s e d f or S win g Br i dg es The a ctual s tr e s se s

.

in gird e r s u se d f or s wing b r id ges may b e c omput e d by t he m e th o d s

a lr e ady giv e n f o r s impl e gird e r s and t r u s s es on c e t he r e acti on s
,

are d e t e r min e d I t m ay b e n ot e d that i n fluen c e tabl es or

.

i n fl uen ce lin e s m ay b e e mpl oy e d t o advanta ge .

4 14 S WIN G B R DG
I ES AR T . 201

TA BLE 1
R EA CTI ONS F OR UN I T L O AD —G I R DE R C ONTI NUOU S OVER
TW O E Q U A L S P A NS
Mom en t of I n e rti a an d Mod u lus of Ela s ti c i ty A ss um ed t o b e Con s t an t .

P o s i t i v e s i gn s i nd i c a t e u pw a rd re a c t i on s
F y
.

o rm u la s u se d i n d e ri v i n g t h e s e va lue s d e t e rm i n e d b t hre e
q
are t he
m om en t e ua ti on and are a s f ollow s :

R, = (1 - k)
4

n= 10 K
0 o . 2 1 28
0 o . 4 1 69
>1 o
0 1 o o o . 60 35
0 o . 7 63 8
0 o . 8 8 93
0 o . 970 9

o
0
[ o . 8 572

To t al 7 92 8 0 247 7
. 592 6 0 48 1 5
n= 9 40 62 0 68 7 5

O 240 7
1 0 30
0 851 9

0
[ . 1 3 53 0 -3 6 45

7 5 20 0 2 9 60
5 1 60

O .
30 4 0
1 2 80
O 7 920
0 94 4 0

n= 8
416 SW I N G BR I D GES A RT . 20 1

T A BLE 3
REA CTI ON S F OR UN IT LO ADS — PA IA LLY RT C ON TI NUOU S
R R
G I DE W ITH F OU R S U P P ORTS AN D E Q U A L S I DE S PA NS
e r e pa el = 0
She a r i n c nt n
M om e n t of In e rt i a an d d s
Mo ulu of E l a st i c i ty As sum e d to be ns n
C o ta t .

Ce n t re s pa n
fi
s
1
n
— s id e p a .

P os t ii s ig s i di a e u a rd r ti o ns
Fr th s pw
y me
ve n n c t ea c .

o m ula s u eds r i n de i vi n g e e v a lu e s a re d e ri ve d b t he th od 0 1
le ast w o rk a n d a re a s f ollo w s :
P n (k ka)
4n + 6 4n + 6
P n (k k “
)

n
— 10

0 02 1 5
.

0 0 7 20
.

0 3 4 93
.

0 0 720
.

0 0 4 68
.

0 0 83 5
.

0 7 77 6
. 2 6 4 70 0 3 528
.

n 6
0 . 800 9 0 1 9 9 1 0 0 3 2 4 0 0 3 24
.

To t a l 0 . 60 7 4 0 3 9 2 6
.

0 . 4 2 50 0 5 7 50 0 0 7 50 0 0 7 50
.

0 2 5 92
n = 9
.

0 . 1 1 57
0 1 3 4 6 0 0 23 5 .

N 20 8 2
J

. 0 29 1 7
.

n= 5
0 4 79 1 0 5 2 0 9
.

0 0823
.
. 7 63 1
5 3 54
0 0 794

O
.

. 3 2 62 0 67 38 0 0 73 8 .

. 1 44 6 0 8 5 5 4 0 0 55 4 0 0 554
. .

0 2 30 7
.

n= 4
n =8

0 5 5 7 1 0 4 42 8 0 0 6 7 8 0 0 6 7 8
. .

n= 3
A RT . 2 02 MA X I M U M S TRESSES I N SW I N G BR I D G ES 417

I n o rd e r t o f a c ilit a t e the c o mput a ti o n of t he r e a cti on s t he pre

c e ding t a bl e s h av e b e e n pr e par e d f or gird e r s with e qual a n s p el .

Th e se will b e f o und su ffi c i en t f or man y stru c ture s F or b ridg es .

n ot c o ve r e d by th e s e t abl e s t he f o rmula s pr e vi o u s ly d e v e l o p e d

s h o uld b e m oy d e pl e .

202 M axi m um S tre s s e s i n S wi n g Bri d ge s

. A ss u m ed Condi .

ti ons To d e t e rmin e t he m aximu m s tr e ss e s in s wi n g b r i d ge

.

tru ss e s t he s tr e ss e s d ue t o s e v e r al c o nditi o n s of l o ading mu s t b e

,

d et e rmin e d T h e s e c o nditi on s m ay b e s t at e d as f oll ow s

.

a D e ad l o ad with b r idg e O p e n ; i e , with e n d r e a cti o n s e qual

er
. . .

to
pe
z o .

b S n ow l o ad brid ge O n The w e ight t o b e a ss um e d f or t he

ri ge
.
.
,

s n o w d e p e nd s up o n t he s itu ati o n of t he b d A n all o wanc e of

l
.

1 0 bs pe r s q f t i s pr o bably a r e a s o nabl e on e f or t he l atitud e of

Y
. . .

N e w ork or B o s t on A s n ow l o ad s h o uld b e u s e d o nly f or high

.

way b ridg es an d rail r o ad brid ges with s olid fl o ors .

Live l o ad o nly tru ss t o b e c o n s id e r e d e ith e r c o ntinu o u s o r

rr
0 .

p arti ally c ontinu o u s as it s c o n s tructi o n m ay w a an t .

d D e ad l o ad with b r id ge cl ose d a n d with e n d r e a cti on s a cting

.

upw a rd e a c h e qual t o twic e t he m aximu m liv e e n d upli ft at t he

pplie
,

e n d wh e r e a d T hi s a ss umpti o n f or t he r e a cti o n s i s t o
.

pr e ve nt en d h amm e r by p r ovi din g lib e rally f or imp a ct ef f e ct of ,

c h ang e s in t e mp e r atur e an d w ear in e n d lifting app a r atu s The

,
-
.

e n d lifting a pp a r atu s s h o uld b e s o d e s i gn e d th a t n e ith e r e n d of t he

-

s tructur e c an b e lift e d a di s t anc e gr e a t e r th an t he upw a rd d e fl e c

ti on at th at e n d d ue t o t he applic ati o n th e r e of a c onc e ntr at e d l o ad
e qual t o t h e a s s um e d valu e of t he d e ad a t on re c i .

6 Liv e l o ad o nly tru ss t o b e c o n s id e r e d as s upp ort e d at on e

.

e n d a n d a t t he c e ntr e p oint o f s upp ort a dj o ining thi s e n d t hu s

p
,

a cting as a s impl e s an T hi s c o nditi o n m ay o c cu r if t he e nd s

.

a re n o t r ai s e d a ft e r t he b r id ge i s cl os e d e ith e r by c a r e l es s n e ss or ,

1
b e cau se of br e akd o wn in t he e nd lifting a pp ar atu s -
.

The m axi m um s tr e ss f or an y giv e n b ar will b e e ith e r th at d ue

t o C as e s 0 an d b c o mbin e d or th at d ue t o an y r e a s onabl e c o mbi
l ig
,

n ati on of live an d d e ad oa d n S uc h c ombin ati on s m ay b e as

.

f oll o w s it b e in g und e r s t oo d th at imp a ct s h o uld b e add e d in ea ch

,

c as e in ac c ordanc e wit h appr opri at e s pe c i fi c ati ons .

I f o n e e n d on ly i s ra i s e d i s n orm al am oun t t d e a d re ac i o n t '

w i ll o c c u r
t tt
1 no
,

at e i h e r e n d t h e b rid ge b e ing si m ply

,
il e d .
4 18 S WI N G B R I D E GS A RT . 2 03

ls t . s tr e ss C a s e d and live s tr e ss C a s e 0
D e ad , , , .

2 n d D e ad s tr e ss C a s e a and live s tr e ss C a s e 0
.
, T hi s c ondi
, , .

ti o n m ay e xi s t i f t he e nd s are m e re ly s upp o rt e d a t t he a butm e nt s

w h e n t he brid ge i s cl ose d and n ot actually r ai s e d and if t he live
cc r
,

l o ad b e s o appli e d th at n o e n d uplift will o u Th e d e s ign e r .

s h o uld o b s e r v e th a t a liv e l o ad m ay b e di s c o ntinu o u s and th at

h e n c e a full p an e l l o ad m ay b e c o n s id e r e d at e ith e r e n d with liv e

p an e l l o ad s at an y or all o th e r p oint s of t he s tructur e and th at ,

t h i s e n d pan e l l o a d m ay b e s u ffi c i e nt t o o v e rc o m e uplift d ue t o t he
l
o th e r o a d s The d e s ign e r mu s t u s e hi s j u dgm e nt in d e t e rmini n g
.

wh e th e r th e c o nditi o n s d es crib e d in thi s para graph are lik e ly to

o c cu r f or t h e l o adi n g giving m aximum s tr e ss in any giv e n b ar o f

t he tru ss und e r c o n s id e r ati o n .

3 rd D e ad s tr e ss C a s e a and liv e s tr e ss C a s e e
.
,
T hi s c o ndi
, , .

ti on m ay o c cur if t he e nd s are n ot rai se d an d if an unbalanc e d

uplift e xi s t s a t o n e e n d .

2 0 3 S pe c ifi c ati on s f or Im pa ct and Re ve r s al of S tr e s s
. O pin .

i on s as t o t h e pr op e r m e th o d of m akin g all owanc es f or imp a ct

a n d f or r e v e r s al of s tr e ss d u e t o m oti o n of bri d ge a y The vr .

f o ll owing qu ot ati on s are indic ativ e of th e s e v ari ati on s

F r o m P r o c e e ding s of t he A m e ric an S oci ety of C ivil E ngin ee r s
o f M a rch 1 9 1 3 ,

t
I n c alcul a in g the d e ad l oad s r e ss es in t he m oving str u ct u r al p ar s t t
t t
-
,

f or the vari ous p os i i o n s of t h e Op en brid ge s uch s r e ss e s shall b e i n

cr eas ed 2 5 per c e n t a s allowan c e f or i mp ac F or s a i o n ar y str u c t u r al t ,

tt
t t t
. .

p ar s (as o w ers an d s upp or ing gi r d ers i n r olling brid ges ) t o which m ov

t t ,

tt
i ng s r uc u r al p arts are a a ch e d or o n which s uch p ar s r oll 1 5 per c e n t ,

t
t t
.
, ,

o f t h e st a ic s r e ss s hall b e add e d as im p a c t

t t t t
“In s r u c ur al s eel p ar s wh er a p er c e n ag of t he d e ad l oad or t
.

t tt t t
e e ,

s t at ic str e s s i s add e d f or im p a c t he uni s r e ss e s f or st a i on ar y s r u e

t t ,

u r e s s h all b e u se d ; t h e im p ac p er c e n a g e s are an all owan c e similar t o t

t
t h at pr ovid e d by an im p a c f ormula f or s a i on ar y railr oad b r i d g s tt e
b t t
.

I n str uc t u r al m emb ers s u je c t t o r ev ers al on acc oun of t he m o i on

t
of t he s pan t h e e ff e c of r ev e r s al s hall b e n e gl e c e d Th e m emb er shall t
t t t
.
,

b e d e s ign e d f or t h e s r e ss givin g t he lar ger s e c i on For r iv e e d c onn e c

t t t t t
.

i o n s t he numb e r of r iv e s shall b e i n cr eased 2 5 per c e n ov er h a

tt t t
.
,

r e qui re d f or th e s a ic s r e s s plus im p ac t s r e s s
“
t t
.

Th e all owan c e f or im p ac in r unni o n s cabl es cabl e att aé hm en t s

t t t t
machin ery p ar s and s r uc u r al p ar s s upp or ing t h e machin ery i s a e n t , ,

tk ,

car e of by l owe r e d uni s r e ss es

,

tt .
,
4 20 S WI N G BR I D G E S A RT .2 0 4

Th e t
s r e ss es or h e i r c o m p o n e n s in t t th e th r bar giv e n by
t
o e s are

t h e f o ll o w in g c o mpu t a i o n s :
B ar s U3 U4 an d U4 U5 Us e m e h o d . t of m m n t s wi t h
o e L; as o ri gi n .

H or iz o n tl a c o m p on ent
40
+ 93 7 5 .

B ar L 4L 5 S tr ss
tr ss t
. e

B ar U4L 4 . S e v er ic al c o m p o n e n t i n U 3 U4 .

10
—
X
25

S t re s s e s in t h i s h a l of f
r u s e s a m e as th os e in t h
o er

a lt.

15 15

FI G 3 2 1
. .

B ar U3L 4 . Us e t
m e ho d of t t
m o m e n s wi h v ert i c ar sec ti on et w e e n b
L3 an d L 4 an d o r igin at i nt e rs e c t i o n of U3 U4 and
b tto o m ch or d which o cc u rs at L o .

V ert lc al c o m p onen t —1 5 (1 + 2

D EA D S TR ESSES ,
CA SE A , IN U NI T S OF 1 0 0 0 P OUN D S

O O O O O O O O O O

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A RT . 20 4 M AX I M U M S TRESSES IN SW I N G B R DGI ES 42 1

The t t
c t u al s r es s es in all bars f or hi s c as e an d t he r e ac i o n s at all t
tb
a

p o ints are giv e n in the p re c e d in g a l e :

R t
e a c i o n s at L 4 a n d L 5 are e qu a l t o o n e h a lf tt
o a l d e a d l o a d = 7 5 ; o h er t
t
-

rea c i on s are ze r o
T b
.

Cas e b hi s c a s e n ee d not b e c on s id er e d as s n ow l oa d i s n e gligi l e

t Tb
. .

Ca se 0 The tr u ss is p art i ally c on i n u ous h e nc e the v alu es i n a l e 3

t t t
.
, ,

Ar t 2 0 1 wi ll b e us e d i n c o mp u in g t he r e a c i ons Th e p os i i on of the
t t
. .
,

l oads f or an y giv e n b ar m ay b e r ead i ly d e er min e d by use of t he r e ac i on s

tb
giv e n i n t h e a l e an d s uch f ew c om pu at i o n s as are n e c ess ary will n ott
ge n er ally b e g i v n e ,

t t
.

The maximum v alu es of u plif ts and r e a c i on s will fir st b e c o m pu e d

t t
.

Maxi m um En d Uplif ts I n s p e c t i on of ab l e s h ow s h at maxim um

t t t
.

uplif at L o o cc urs wi t h full l oa d fr o m L 5 t o L 9 and wi h E at L7 I s .

v alu e X x4 0
Thi s e qu al s t h e maxi mum uplif t at L g which will o cc ur wit h f ul l l o ad
fr om L O t o L4 an d wi h E at L2 t T
hi s i s s o s m all t h at a fr a c t i o n of the
.

full liv e p an el l oa d at t he en d w o uld balan c e i t h e nc e C ase 0 m ay o cc ur

e v en i f en ds are n ot r a i s e d t
t h a i s C as e a and C ase 0 m ay b e om b n d
,

c ie
t
.
,

N o up lif Will o ccur at p oints L 4 an d L 5 s inc e a l oa d u p on any p ort i on

t t
of t he s r uc ur e will c a u s e upw ar d r e a c i o n s at t h e s e s up p ort st
t
.

Mami m a m Rea cti ons The maximum gr o s s up w ar d r ea c i on at L a will

t t
.

o ccur wi h l oa d s f r o m L 0 t o L 4 inclu s iv e an d wi h E at L o I t s v alu e .

Thi s e q u al s t he maxi mum gr oss r eac t i on

at L9
t
.

The maximum gr os s u pw ar d r e ac i on at L 4 occur s w it h f ull l oa d fr om

L 0 t o L 9 i nclu s iv e wi h E at L 4 t
I s v alu e t
t
.

Thi s e qu al s the maximum u pw ar d g r oss r ea c i o n at L 5

tt
.

The l oa d in g and ne c e ss ary c o m pu a i o n f or maximum stre ss es i n all

t
t he bar s of h i s tru ss f or all p oss i b l e c om bin ati ons are gi v en in the f ol
l o w i ng ab l e :t
4 22 S W IN G B R DGI ES A RT . 2 04

M AX I M U M L I V E S TR ESS ,
CA SE C , IN UN I TS O F 1 000 LB S .

L 0 130 L 4 L 1 RL

L l
o a
incl .

S 94 8 X
zé
30
‘

L 1L 2 L 5 130 L 9 L 7 RL X 50 + 0 0 68 X 4 0 )
incl . 25
S X
30

L O 130 L 4 L 3 RL 1 3 3 0 X 5 0 + 0 1 90 X 4 0
. .

Ls incl . 75 sox7 5
an d

L 3L 4 L 5 t o L 9 L 7 RI

X
,

incl
S
.

U 3 U4 L O t o L 9 L 7 RL
in cl 50 X 6 X 2 5 1 0 0 x 55 28
.

H C
.

40
. .

U4 U5 L O to L 9 L 7
incl .

L 4L s L O tO L 9 L 7
i n cl .

X 5 0 + 0 4 3 2 X 40
0 — 50 X 2 5
X 5
U1 U2 30
a nd

U 2U 3 L 5 t o L 9 L 7 RL
incl .

L OU 1 L 0 t o L 4 L 1 RL + 1 3 3 0 X 50 + 0 7 0 7 X 4 0
incl V C

X
. . .
4 24 SWING B R DG S I E A RT . 2 04

D E A D S TR E SS E S , C A S E D IN U NI T S
,
OF 1 000 LB S .

22 5 X .
+ 1 8 75 + 18 8

+ 22 5

Cas e I nd e x s tr ess e s f or thi s c a s e

6

ig
.

a r e s h o wn in F 3 22 A ctu al s tr e ss e s are
. .

giv e n in t h e f oll owing t abl e

FG I
U NI T S
. 3 22 .

MAXIM U M L IVE S TR E SS E S , C A S E E , IN O F 1 000 LB S .

+ 62 5 + 2
(40 ) + 25 0

—1 00

— 75

+ 26 0

t
A ll o h e r b ars 0 .
A RT . 2 04 M A X IM U M S T R ESSES I N SW I N G B R DG S I E 4 25

TA BL E G I V IN G M A X I M
I M PAC T
U M S T R ESSES
*
MB D WI T CO IN E H

9 4 X 1 75 .
+ 8 7 5 X 1 75
. . I & III
+1 5 3 1
+ 79 0 X III IV + 144 5

+ 60 3 X + 1 53 1 I & III
+ 1 05 5
28 2 X. III IV 86 8

U 3U4 + 126 6 +42 6 X .

+405 I & III + 1 68 2
+ 66 9

U4 U 5 + 39 4 X 1 57 . .
+ 37 5 I & III + 1557

I & III
I & II I

U 1 U2 X 1 16 6 X I & III
+ 32 9
98 0 X 1 75
. . II I IV

Lo + 14 6 X. 1 36 5 X . I & III
+ 25 5
1 2 3 2 X 1 75 . . I II IV
—2 1 5 6

+ 74 8 X 1 8 6
. . I II IV + 1 07 5
+ 1 39 1
29 3 X 1 92
. . I & III

L zU a 22 2 X .
+ 29 2 I & III + 2 19 8

+ 96 6 X .
+ 56 3 I & V —8 0 6
+ 161 3

U 3L 3 + 1 67 4 III IV + 1 82 4

Us

D e ad i m p a c t d ue t o m i
ot on of b r d gei as s u m e d a t 2 5 per c en t .

L i ve i m pac t b y f or m ula I =S
L
300
3 00
i
w th o n e ar m f u lly lo a d de .

wi t h b ot h ar m s fu lly l d d
oa e .
4 26 SW I N G B R DG I ES A RT . 2 04

R ct i ns
ea o

X
,

E nd
I n t r m di t
e e a e X

En d X
b
Pro l e m 68 Com p u t d e fl e c t i on d ownw ar d d u e t o d e ad p an e l
t t b en
. a . e

l o ad s s h own on fi gure of ea ch en d of hi s r u ss wh e n r idg e i s o p .

All a re a s a r e g ross a r e a s

k i i
—
23
I o t to m C h o x-d zii

25 25 28
i 22
Lo ad sin un it s of
'
1 000 lb s .

14 P n
-
a e ls ao
|

P ROB . 68 AND 69 .

b C o m pu t
u pw ar d d efl e ct i on at ea ch en d d ue t o s im ul an eo u s ap t
t
. e

plic a i o n of upw ar d f or c es of l bs at e ach end

b t t
. .

Pr o l e m 69 C o m pu e maximu m liv e s r e ss e s in bars a b and 0

t t t i e
.
, , ,

assumi n g s r uc ur e t o a c t as a c o n in u ous g r d r Us e l o a ding of 1 5 00

t
.

lb s per lin eal f oo

. .
4 28 M A S O NR Y D A M S A RT . 2 08

s e cti on of a bl o c k of h om og e n e o u s m at e ri al c a p abl e of r e s i s ting

b oth t e n s i on and c ompr e ss i o n i s giv e n by the fo ll owi n g w e ll k n own -

e qu a ti o n

in whic h
8 m aximum unit s tr e ss in bs per s q f t l
l
. . .

P r e s ult ant in bs of t he v e rtic al fo rc e s a b o ve t he s e cti on

.
.

A a r e a o f s e cti o n in s qu a r e f ee t

l
.

M m o m e nt in f t bs a b o ut n e utr al axi s 1 o f t he s e cti on

. .

o f t he e xt e rn a l f o rc e s a ppli e d t o t h e p orti o n of t h e s tru e

tur e ab o v e t he s e cti on c ombin e d with t he m om e nt a b o ut ,

the s am e axi s d ue t o t h e w e ight of th at p orti on of t he

st ructur e lying ab ov e t h e giv en s e cti o n .

0 di s t a n c e in f t fr o m n e utr al axi s t o t he e xtr e m e fi bre

.

of t h e s e cti o n

i
.

I m o m e nt of ine rti a of s e cti on in f t a b o ut n e utr al ax s

4
. .

If E qu ati o n 6 8 b e a ppli e d t o t he c as e of a r e ct angul ar j oint

one ft . in width and d f t in l e ngth it b e c om e s
.

P 6M
”

a d 2 (6 9)

The b o v e e qu ati on m ay b e u se d t o d e t e rmin e t he di s tributi on

a

of s t r e ss o v e r t h e j oint o f a ma s onry s tru ctur e which i s i n c ap

a bl e of c a rrying t e n s i o n pr ovid e d t h e v a lu e of s i s n e v e r n e g a tiv e .

Th e limit ati on s which thi s l att e r c onditi on imp os e s are expl aine d
l ate r
ig
.

208 Appli c ati on of Eq uation s to D am s

. F 3 2 3 illu s tr a t e s . .

t he f o rc e s a cting up o n a p o rti o n of a d am .

M 1 r e s ult an t m om e nt ab o ut c e ntr a l axi s of ba se due to w at e r

pr e ss ur e a cti n g up o n t he right h and s urf a c e of t he e ntire dam -

ab o v e b as e of s e c ti o n s h o w n c o mbi n e d with th at up o n b as e if u p
w ard pr e ss ur e i s a ss um e d and P w e ig h t of e n tire dam a b o v e
,

b as e of s e cti o n s ho w n E vid e ntly M 1 . P2 M of pre vi o u s

f o rmul as .

I n s t e a d of u s iné t he m om e nt M 1 d ue t o t he w at e r t he r e s ult a nt ,

of t he w at e r pr e ss ur e and t he w e ight of t h e dam m ay b e d e t e r

t
ne u ra l a xi s t
h ere u se d i s th e ne u r a l a xi s of th e c ro ss -s e c i o n wi h t t
t t t
1
Th e as

re s p e c i i s th e p r incip al a xi s of t he s e c i o n lying
t
t o fl e xu re o n ly; i e . .
,

p arall e l t o th e l ongi udin a l a xi s of t h e d a m .

A RT . 20 8 DIS TRI UT I O NB OF S TRESS O V E R J O IN TS 429

m in e d and t he p o int wh e r e t hi s r e s ult ant cut s t he J oint l o c a t e d .

Th e m om e nt of t he r e s ult a nt m ay t h e n b e c o mput e d an d t he
maximum fi b r e s tr e ss d e t e rmin e d as fo ll o w s :
Let t he v e rtic a l c o mp o n e nt of t hi s r e s ult a nt b e V a n d le t t h e ,

di s t a nc e fr o m it s p oint of int e r s e cti o n with t he j oint t o t he n e u

tr al axi s of t he joint b e x th e n t he g e n e r al f ormul a f or m a ximum
,

int e n s ity of s tr e ss b e c om e s ,

FG I . 3 23 .

For a r e ct a n gul ar j oint of width unity a nd l e n gt h d, th i s m ay be

writt e n :
V 6 Vx
+
?i d z

T hi s c a s e i s illu s tr a t e d by F ig . 3 24 .

Ve r ti c al c om po n nt
e

o f re s u lt n t
a

Mini m u m c om pr e s
I = z e ro
Max . c om p .
s i on

As t he ss umpti on s of A rticl e 2 06 are not s trictly c o rr e ct f or a

i cl
a

m at e ri al li k e ma s on r y fo rmul as 68 t o 7 0 n ,
a re s o m e w h a t .

a ppr o xim at e but a r e in g e n e r a l u se a n d a re pr o bably as a c c ur a t e

,

a s t he ch a r a ct e r of t he d at a a v a il a bl e in pr o bl e m s of dam d e s ign

will w arr ant .

430 M A SO N RY DA MS A RT . 2 09

Ex a min ati on of f o rmul a 70 s h o w s th at t he s tr e ss a t one e dg e of

17
3
5 g
6
t he j o int wi ll e qu al z er o wh e n — 2;
0, i e wh en x ; and
5 2
. .
,

th at wh e n x i s gr e at e r t h an
2 th e r e will be a te nd e ncy f o r

t e n s i o n t o o ccur at on e e dg e of t he j oint . Th e f o ll o wing imp or

t a nt t h e or e m m ay t h e r e f o r e b e s t at e d
In order tha t tens i on m a y n ot exi s t a t a ny poi n t of a r ec ta n gu
la r m a s on r y joi n t ,
the r es u lta n t pr es su re on the j oi n t m u s t li e

wi thi n i ts m i ddle thi rd .

F urth e r c o n s id e r ati o n of thi s f o rmul a s h o w s th at wh e n x

XZZ I
f
2
t he maxi mu m pr e ss ur e on t he j o int = +

a v e r a g e pr e ss ur e . Th a t i s f or a j o int wh er e t he r e s ult a nt p a ss e s
,

t h r o ugh t he middl e third p o int t he

maximum c o mpr e ss i on i s twic e t he "

a ve r a g e and t he mi ni mum i s zer

ig
o .

T hi s i s illu s tr a t e d gr a phic a lly by F .

32 5 .

I t i s al s o e vid e nt th at if t he r e s ul
t a nt p a ss e s o ut s id e of t he middl e t h ird
FI G 3 2 6 . .
o f t h e e ntir e j o i n t and if t h e m a t e ri al

c ann ot r e s i s t t e n s i on t he c o mpr e ss i on ,

will b e di s tribut e d o v e r o nly th at p o rti o n of t he j o int which h as

it s middl e third p o int at t h e p oint of app lic a ti o n of t h e r e s ult a nt ,

t he r e m aind e r of t h e j o int o ff e ri n g n o r e s i s t anc e t o b e nding

ig
.

S uch a di s tributi o n of s tre ss i s s h o wn in F 326

rc
. .

2 0 9 O ut e r F o e s
. Th e o ut e r f orc e s t o b e c on s id e r e d r e quir e
.

t he m o s t c ar e ful s tudy e s p e c i ally f or high d a m s,

I n g e n e r a l it .

w o uld s ee m as i f t wo c a s e s o nly n e e d b e tr e at e d r e s e rv oir full ,

1
and r e s e rv oir e mpty but t he qu e s ti o n of wh at if any upw a rd
, , ,

w a t e r pr e ss ur e s h o uld b e ass um e d und e r t he d a m and at t he

M uch di f fe re nc e t
xi s s a m o ng s e ngine e rs as t o wh a al
O pini o n t t
t
1
of e

l o w a nc e s h ould b e m a d e f or upw ar d p re ssu re an d f o r di s cu ss i ons o n hi s

t
p o in t h e re a d er i s re f err e d t o re f e re nc e s at cl os e of ch a p er I m a y b e s af ely
,

t t
tt t t b t t
.

s a e d h o we v er h a t h e a s olu e e xclu s i o n of upw ar d w a er p r e ss u re c an

,

o n ly b e a cc o mpli s h e d
,

b
y t h e u s e of n on p o rou s m a eri al l aid i n t he d ry in t
t t b t t t t
-
.

w a e rp roof m or ar o n a n o n p oro u s as e an d h a th e a m oun of w a e r

t t t t
-
, ,

p re ss u re wh ich will ac u a lly o ccu r v ari e s di re c ly wi h th e p oros i y of f oun

t t t
d a i o n c e m e n ing m a eri a l a n d m asonry
, .
432 MA S O N R Y D A M S A RT . 2 10

The r e s ult a nt of t he d e a d l oa d a c t s at t he fo ll o wing p o int s

C ase I I nn e r middl e third p oint
. .

C a s e I I O ut e r middl e third p oint

. .

C a s e III C e nt e r o f s e cti o n
. .

I n o rd e r t o o bt a in t he m aximum e c o n o my c on s i s t e nt with no
t e n s i o n on t he b as e t he r e s ult a nt mu s t e vid e ntly p ass thr o ugh the
,

ou ter m i ddle thi r d p o int (c on s id e ring t he ou ter s id e t o b e th at f ar

t he s t a w a y fr o m t he w at e r ) The m o m e nt o f t he r e s ult ant und e r

.

th es e c o nditi o n s ab o ut t he middl e t hird p oint e qu al s z er o e qu al s ,

t he c o mbin e d m o m e nt o f t he w e ight of t he d am an d t he w at e r
pr e ss ur e h e nc e t he widt h of b as e m ay b e o bt ain e d by putting t he
,

e xpr e ss i o n f or t he mo m e nt a b o ut t he o ut e r middl e third p o int

e qu a l t o zero .

The r e s ulting e qu ati o n s are as f o ll o w s :

4
4 ) 9 (9 9
10
—
1
2 3 3 2
M 2

(5) (2)
W
(T ) 9 1
H -
—

(g 6
) (5) (g )
10
C as e III ( h ) d —
.
Y

S o lvi n g th e s e e q u ati o n s gi v e s t he f o ll o wing r e s ult s

C as e I d=h
.

C as e II . d=h

C a s e III d = h .

S inc e i s a lw ay s l e ss t h an 7 it i s e vid e nt th at C a s e I giv es a

m o r e e c o n omic a l s e cti on f or full r e s e rvo ir th a n e it h e r of t he oth e r
c as es I t s h o uld b e n o tic e d th at t hi s c a s e al s o giv e s t he limit
.

ing c onditi on wh e n t he r e s e rv oir i s e mpty t he r e s ult ant pr e s ,

s ur e t h e n p ass ing thr o ugh t he inn e r middl e third p oint .

”
Y
s pe c i fi c gr avity of t he m a so nry h e nc e if t h i s be d e n ot e d
w ,

by B we m ay writ e f or C a s e I,

55 “M ?
The s e cti o n s h o wn by C a s e I c a nn ot be a d o pt e d in pr a ctic e
A RT . 211 R
P O F IL E OF A LOW DA M 4 33

s inc e an a ppr e ci a bl e t o p width i s n e c e ss ary t o r e s i s t t h e a cti o n of

w a ve s i c e and fl oati n g m at e ri a l of all s ort s and to Se rv e as a f oo t
, ,

p ath or driv e w a y M o r e o v e r t he t o p of t he dam f or t he s a me

.
,

r eas o n s s h o uld e xt e nd s o m e wh at ab o v e t he n orm al w at e r l e v e l

‘

A t t h e b ott o m of t he dam hydr a ulic pr e ss ur e m ay a l s o o c cur o n

t he d o wn s tr e a m s id e and on t he b a s e
I t i s a l s o n e c e ss ary t o
.

c o n s id e r t he all o w a bl e pr e ss ur e at t he b a s e of t he dam which f or

high d a m s i s o ft e n t he c ontr olling f a ct o r in d e t e rmining t he width
of b a s e
The r e s i s t anc e of t he d a m t o s lipping on an y j oint
.

mu s t al s o b e c o n s id e r e d and t he s e c ti o n s o pr o p orti o n e d t h at t he
,

r e s ult a nt pr e ss ur e at a n y j oint will n o t mak e an a ngl e wi th t he

v e rtic al gr e at e r th an t he angl e o f r e p o s e at th at j oint
Re g a rd f or t he ab o v e—
.

m e nti o n e d c o n s id e r ati o n s c o upl e d wit h

t he n e c e ss ity of giving a pl e a s ing s e cti o n o rdin arily r e s ult s in

He e l o f dam To e of d a m

FI G . 328 .

s e l e cting f or high r e s e rv o ir d am s a profile s o m e wh at li k e th at

indic at e d in Fi g 3 2 8 . .

2 1 1 D e t e rm i nati on of P rofile of a Low D am

. I f t he dam .

und e r c o n sid e r ati on i s c o mp ar ativ e ly lo w with a n arr o w t o p ,

width a tr a p e z o id al profi le m ay pr o v e m o s t e c o n omic a l The

, .

width of b a s e f or s uch a dam m ay b e r e a dily d e t e rmin e d a n a lyt

i c ally by t he f o ll o wi ng s impl e m e th o d .

Le t the width of b as e b e a ss um e d as e qu a l t o x so th a t t he ,

w e ight of t he d am it s elf as w ell as t he upw a rd w at e r pr e ss ur e c an

b e e xpr e ss e d in t e rm s o f x The w at e r pr e ss ur e o n s id e bc
ig
.

(F 3 2 9) c an b e e xpre ss e d in t e rm s of t he k n o wn h eight h
. .

S inc e t he li m i ting c as e f or s t a bility will o ccur wh e n t he r e s ult ant

434 M A SO N RY DA MS A RT . 211

of a ll t he
f orc e s a cting o n t he d am p a ss e s t h r o ugh t he o ut e r
middl e third p oint e the m om e nt of t h es e f orc e s a b o ut e m
, ay be
pl ac e d e qu al t o z e r o and t he r e s ulting e qu ati o n s ol v e d f or x . Th e
pr o c e ss i s illu s tr at ed by t he f oll o wing e x ampl e
r e D t r in n ly t ic lly
.

P ob l m dam s h w n in f or the Fi g 3 2 9
i dth b s c n i s t n t wi t h t ns i n ss um ma ry
. a . e e m e a a a o .

th e w of A
b s qu l third s
a e o s e no e o . e son to
w igh cu
1 50 1bs peru pw r d p r ss u r ft an d t o t w o-
hy dr s t t ic h d
e . . . a e e on a e e a

h l up str f c r ducin un f r y
at z r i l to e o at

d wn s t r f ce
o a ea ee or eam a e e g o m

D t r min maximum in t ns i t y bs
t oe or o ea m a .

I) p r ss u r of e at a e of dam
D t r in ngl b t w n r s t n t n rm l b se
. e e e e e .

e ul a an d to
in l ng t h
c . e e m e a e e ee o a a .

n s id r a s lic
S olu ti on . Cow ll e e of the a on e ft . e pe rpen di c u

r f ac e

1 2 5 1b a.

FI G . 3 29 .

lar t o the p ap er an d let t he w i d h of bas e e qu al x t

h en t he f or c es T
t t
.

a c in g up on hi s s lic e w ill b e as s h o wn i n Fi g 3 3 0

tt t t t
. .

To p r e v e n e ns i o n t h e m o m e n t of t h e r e s ul a n of a l
l th e e x e r n a l
b t ,

f or c e s a ou the m i ddl e thi r d p oin 6 mu s e qu al Z r o The p os i i o n of t , ,

t e . t
6 m ay b e a ss um e d at a ny c o nv e ni e n t pl a c e p r o vid e d the s ign s of t h e

t
m o m e n s of the v ar i ou s f or c e s a o u i are pro p er ly us d The e qu a i on b tt e t
t
.

r e s ul in g f r o m applying E M 0 abo u t 6 i s a s f ollo w s :

g _3 —
(g )
§
=0
3
'

3
+ 225 0 ( 6)
x - 4

Solu ti n this qu a i on giv es a:

of t
f t which i s t he wi d h of as e t b
tt
o e .

r e qui r e d t o p r e v e n e n s i o n
t t b
.

b The ma ximum in e n s i y of p re ss u r e m ay b e o t a in e d b y a pplying

.
436 M A SO N RY DA MS A RT . 2 13

o f the da m on a n other
T hi s c onditi on will b e s at i s fi e d if t h e
.

a ngl e b e tw ee n t he r e s ult a nt a n d n o rm al at a n y s e cti o n d o e s n o t

e xc ee d t he a ngle o f r e p o s e o f t he m at e ri a l a r e a s o n a bl e f a ct o r of ,

s afety b e ing a ll o w e d A s d am f ail ur e s h a v e o c c urr e d thr o ugh

.

l at e r al s liding thi s limit ati o n s h o uld b e c a r e fully o b s e rv e d

,
.

The d e t e rmin ati o n o f an e x ac t pr o fi le t o c onf o rm t o all th e s e

c onditi o n s w o uld pr o v e a di ffi c ult pr o bl e m an d i s n ot att e mpt e d ,

in pr a ctic e I n s t e a d t he a ss um e d s e c ti o n of t he d am m ay b e
.
,

divid e d int o h ori z o nt al s lic e s of tr ap e z o id al s e c ti o n an d of r e as o n

a bl e thic k n e ss an d t he s t a bility of e a c h s lic e c o n s id e r e d i n d e pe n d
,

e ntly The s id e s of t he v ari o u s tr a p e z oid s m ay th e n b e c on

.

n e c t e d by s m oo th cu rv e s t o giv e t h e d am a gr a c e ful a pp e ar a nc e .

The d e pth of t he s lic e s int o w h ic h t h e d a m s h o uld b e divid e d

d e p e nd s up on it s h e ight an d mu s t b e s e ttl e d by t he j udgm e nt of
t h e d e s ign e r A thi c k n e ss of 1 0 f t f or a high d am may h o w e v e r
. .
, ,

b e c o n s id e r e d r e a s on a bl e .

2 1 3 G raphi c al M e th o d of S olu ti o n
. W h il e all t h e v ari o u s .

c a s e s of A rt 2 1 2 m ay b e tr e at e d m ath e m atic ally s o m e of t h e

.
,

f o rmul as are l o ng an d c o mplic at e d a n d f o r s implicity e it h e r a

pur e ly gr a phic a l m e th o d o r a c ombin ati o n o i gr aphic a l and
a n alytic a l m e th o d s m ay b e us e d Th e gr a p h ic a l m e t h o d inv o lv e s
.

t he c o n s tructi o n o f an e quilibrium p o ly go n f o r e a c h c o nditi o n o f

l o a ding The int e r s e c ti o n s o f t he appr opri at e s tring s wit h t h e
.

h ori z o nt al pl a ne s at t o p an d b ott o m of e ac h s lic e int o whi c h t he

d am i s a ss um e d t o b e divid e d give t he p o int s of a ppli c ati o n of t he
r e s ult ant fo rc e s a c ting on th e s e s lic e s A li n e c o nne cting th e s e .

p o int s of int e r se cti o n i s c all e d t he lin e of r e s i s t anc e an d s h o uld n o t

p ass o ut s id e t he b o und ari e s of t he middl e t h ird of t he cr o ss se c -

tio n The r e s ult a nt up o n an y j oi n t s h o uld no t m a ke an angl e

.

with t he n o rm al t o t he j oint gr e a t e r t h a n t he a ngl e of r e p o s e

ig
.

F 3 3 1 s h o w s t he a ppli c a ti o n of thi s pr o c e ss t o a s impl e c ase

. .

To c o n s truct t he li n e of r e s i s t a nc e r e s e rv o ir e mpty r e quire s the , ,

d e t e r m in a ti o n of t he p oint o f a pplic ati o n of t he r e s ult ant of t he

t o t a l w e ig h t ab o ve e a c h j oint Fo r cl e arn e ss thi s i s d e te rmine d
.

by a fi gure l o c at e d ab o v e t he d am pro fi le The v ari o u s r e s ult a nt .

w e ight s F 1 F 3 e tc are pr oj e c t e d u p t he e quilibri um p o ly go n

, ,
.
, ,
’
dr a wn a n d t he int e r s e cti o n o f t he s tring s P 1 P 3 e t c with
,
1
, ,
.
,
’
P o pr o j e ct e d d o wnw ard t o t he j o i n t ab o v e w h ich t he f o rc e s
,
.

F 1 , F 3, etc .
, ac t .

The line o f r e s i s t anc e r e s e rv oir full i s c o n s tru c t e d by dr a wing

A RT . 2 13 L IN ES OF R ESI S T A N C E 437

s tring P 2 thr o ugh t he int e r s e cti o n o f F 1 and F 2 till it m ee t s F 3 ,

fr om thi s int e r s e cti o n P 3 i s dr a wn till it m ee t s F 4 e tc A lin e ,

.

c o nn e cting t he p oi n t s o f i n te r s e c ti on of t he e quilibrium p o ly go n
s tring s with t he v a ri o u s h o ri z o nt al j o int s i s t he line of r e s i s t a nc e .

'

FORCE P0 1 Y6 0 ”
Wa f er Pr es s ure f Dea d M
éfg/n
‘

oh m s tance reser voi r f al/

L/Nf S OF
MAS O/V/PY DAM
FI G . 33 1 .

Fo r c h j oint t he p o int o f int e r s e cti o n i s th at m a d e by t he s tring

ea

numb e re d to c o rre s p o nd to the h o ri z o nt al fo rc e a cting o n t he

s e cti o n o f t he d am imm e di ate ly ab o v e t he j oint .
438 M ASON RY DA MS A RT . 2 14

I f upw a rd pr e ss ur e b e a ss um e d as o ccurring at t he j oint s it ,

s h o uld b e r e pre s e nt e d by an upw ard f o r c e a t e a c h j oint which

s h o uld b e t ak e n int o a c c o unt in c o n s tru c ting th e e quilibri um
p lyg
o on .

The m a gnitud e o f t he r e s ult a n t up o n any j o int m ay b e d e t e r

m in e d fr o m t he f o r c e p o ly go n by s c a l e e g t he r e s ult a nt pr e ss ur e

plg
. .
,

o n j o int 3 r e s e rv o ir full
,
P 6 o f t he f o rc e o y o n .

The m aximum int e n s ity o f pr e ss ur e at an y j o int m ay b e f o und

w h e n t he p o s iti o n an d m a gnitud e o f t he r e s ult a nt i s k no wn by t he
m e th o d s pr e vi o u s ly give n f o r t he di s tributi o n o f s tr e ss o v e r m a
s o n ry j o i n t s .

I t i s e vid e nt th a t t he gr a phi c a l m e th o d i s pur e ly a m e th o d of

tri a l The f a ct t h at it i s p o ss ibl e to s t art at t he t o p an d w o r k
.

d o wnw a rd fi xi ng t he s i z e of e ac h tr a p e z o id al s lic e in s ucc e ss i o n

,

m a k e s it much l e ss t e di o u s th a n if it w e r e n e c e ss a ry t o try a n

e n tir e n e w pr o fi le e a c h tim e .

I n t he a pplic ati o n of t he gr a phic a l m e th o d it i s oft e n d e s ir able

t o d e t e rmin e gr aphic ally t he
c e ntre of gr avity of a tr a p e z o id
e
.

T hi s m ay b e f o und by t he f ol
l o wing m e t h o d :
P r o l o ng t he p ar alle l s id e s a b
a nd cd Fi g 3 3 2 . and lay o ff be
f cd , an d o
ab C o nn e ct 9 a n d
FI G 3 3 2 .

h, t he c e ntre s of s i d e s a b an d
. .

c d r e s p e c tiv e ly a n d e a n d f
, Th e int e r s e cti o n o f ef an d gh will
.

b e at t he c e ntr e of gr a vity of t he tr a p e z o id .

2 14 . G raph i c a l an d Analyti c alM e th od s C om b i n e d I n o rd e r .

t o r e duc e t he numb e r of tri a l s n e c e ss a ry in t he a ppl i c a ti o n of t he

gr a p h ic al m e t h o d it i s s om etim e s d e s ir abl e to apply a n alytic al
,

m e t h o d s t o C a s e s 1 a n d 2 A rt 2 1 2 an d t h e s e m e t h o d s will n o w
,
.
,

b e giv e n .

Case 1 The pr o bl e m h e r e i s t o d e t e rmin e t he d e pt h at which

.

t he width mu s t b e gin t o b e incr e a s e d t o s e cur e s t ability a g ain s t

o ve rturning The f o rmul a a lr e a dy d e duc e d f or t he d e pt h of a
.

r e ct a ngul ar d am h d VB m ay b e u s e d
, ,
.

T h a t t he a ll o w abl e c o mpr e ss i o n will n ot b e e xc e e de d in thi s

p orti o n of t he d am m ay b e e a s ily s h o wn Le t t he w e i ght of t he .

m as o nry b e ass um e d as lb pe r c u f t 6 will t he n h av e a

.
,
. .
,
440 M A SO N Y R D A MS A RT . 214

BEG H mu st bin e quilibrium und e r t he a cti on

e of t he e xt e rn al
fo rc e s w e m ay apply EM 0 a b o ut t he p oint G an d s o lv e f or x
The f oll owing e qu a ti o n r e s ult s
a 1 m + a zz + M 1 %A $
L+x
in which 0 1, m ,
and M1 are k n o wn ,
0 2 =h
< 2
an d (1 22 c an be

e xpr e ss e d in t e rm s of h L an d 113 , ,
.

To d e t e rmin e a gz m a k e u s e of t he prin c ipl e th at t he c e nt e r of

gr a vity of a tri a ngl e i s c oincid e nt with t he
p oint o f a pplic ati o n of t he r e s ult a nt of a s et
o f p ar a ll e l f o rc e s a ppli e d in a n y dir e cti on at

t he a pi ces of t he tri a ngl e an d e a c h e qu al

1
t o 3 it s a r e a To apply t hi s principl e .
,

divid e t he tr a p e z oid int o t wo tri angl e s EP H

F1 G 334
a n d EGH
°

F 3 30 The a p e x l oa d s f or
,
ig . .

hL k:
tri angl e EF H are ea ch
6
1
a nd f or tri angl e EGH ,
g
Th e m o m e nt of a 2 a b o ut G e qu al s t he m om e nt of all o f a b ove
a p e x l o ad s a b o ut G e qu al s x
0 22 . By s ub s tituting f or (1 22 t he a b o ve va lu e ,
an d f or A it s
v alu e ,
viz .
, a1 + a2 = al +
) h, t he e qu ati o n a1m + a gz + M 1
Ax b e c om e s ,

2
L x+ x 2
) +M 1 ?[
9
5 1 +
)] h

which by r e ducti o n giv es t he f oll o wing e xpr e ss i o n f or t he limiting

v a lu e
4a 1 6
x
2
+x
<
L+
) =
(M 1 + a 1 m ) + L
2
.

T h i s e qu a ti o n give s t he r a ti o b e tw ee n a: and h f or t he limiting

c o nditi o n s pr o vid e d M 1 i s a l s o e xpr e ss e d in t e rm s of h as m ay
e
,

ea s ily b e d on The e q u a ti o n i s s om e wh at c omplic at e d and

.

m os t d e s ign e r s w o uld pr e f e r t o use t he gr a phic al m e th od

thr o ugh o ut .

The a b o v e m e t h od i s applic a bl e pr o vid e d t he c ompr e ss ive ,

s tr e ngth and r e s i s t a nc e to h o ri z o nt al s liding are n ot e xc ee d e d ,

until a p oint i s r e a ch e d wh e r e t he lin e of pr e ss ur e ; r e s erv oir

e mpty p a ss e s o ut s id e t he middl e third fr o m which p oint on a
, ,

pur e ly gr a phic al m e th o d m ay b e appli e d .

A RT . 214 B I BL I O G RAP H Y A N D P RO B LE M S 44 1

Bi b l i ography
t
Wa er Power E ngineering (N Y 1 9 08 ) M a ed
b t R
. .
, .

P u lic Wa er Suppli e s (N Y 1 909 ) u ss ell

T t t t
Tu rne au re . .
, .

rea i s e o n M asonry C on s ruc i o n (N Y 1 909 )

"

e n
B ake r . .
, .

Arch e d M aso n ry D am s (E ngin eering N ew s Oc t 2 7 S h rm a

t R t R , ,

t
. . .

C o nc re e P l ain an d e inforc e d C h ap er o n e inforc e d C o nc re e D am s an d

Rt
e aining W a ll s
,

ayl o r h omp s o n
,

T T
(N Y 1 9 1 0 )
t t
. . . .
,

D es ign an d C o n s ruc i o n of D am s (N Y 1 9 1 1 ) We gm ann

t t er
.
,
.

Th e C o n ro l of W a er (N Y 1 91 3 ) ,
P ark
.
, . .

P R OBLEM S
70 D et er m ine wid t h of b a s e of t hi s d am wit h w at er s an ding at
. t
l e v e l s h o wn as s u m in g t h at no t e n s i o n m ay e xi st and t h at no u pw ar d
b l
.

p ress u re o ccu rs a t ase A ss u m e mason ry to w e igh 1 50 bs per cu f t

t
. . . .

7 1 0 D e er m in e wid t h of b as e of t his d arn ass u ming t h at n o te n

t
. .

s i o n m ay e x is a n d t h at u pw ar d w ater p r e ss u re a c ts on its base c orre

,

spon d i ng to full hyd rost at ic h ea d at h ee l an d z er o at t o e

t
.

b C o m pu e m aximu m in t e n s i t y of p r e ss ure at toe an d t ang e n t of

t
.
,

a ngl e b e w ee n nor m al and r e su l t ant at b a s e .

of Wntel

Maxi m u m t
Wa e r Level
Wa e r t Su f r ac e -1 3 l« Wate r Su fr ace

e — w
'
—
1
P ROB . 70 . P R OB . 71 .

of
P R OB
re
.

o
s
7 3 — Wa
inf rc d c nc r t
b
.

e
s
o
ll
e e,
an d
wt
a e
.

1 5 0 lb s pe r . cu . ft .

72 D raw
diagram s h ow ing the i nte n s i t y of pressur e ac r oss the
i
. a . a

b as e of the dam s h own in F g 3 2 9 a ss u m in g i ts w id t h to b e 24 f t . .

b D ra w a s im il ar di agr a m a ss u min g t he wid t h of ba s e t o b e 1 8 f t

t
. .

7 3 D ra w a di a g ram s h o w ing int ens i y and distr ibution of stre ss

t
.

o v e r t he b a s e of h i s c ondu i t :
Wh en c o n dui t i s fu ll
t
0 . .

b Wh e n c ondui i s e m p ty
t
. .

C o n d ui t i s e xp os e d to ex r em e w at er p r es s u r e on o ne s id e o nly as
s h o wn A ssu m e up w ar d p re ss u re o n a s e c orre s p o nding t o t wo hi r d s b t
t
-
.

of hy d r os t a ic p r e ss u re at a a n d z er o a t b .
 C H A P T E R X IX

EA RT H P RESSUR E
21 5 . C oh e s i on an dFri c ti on I n t he th e or e tic a l tr e atm e nt of
.

e a rt h pr e ss ure it i s c o mm o nly a ss um e d th a t t he ea rth i s a gr a nul a r

m a ss with o ut c o h e s i o n a cting li ke a pile of p e bbl e s A s to the .

n e gl e ct of c o h e s i o n it m ay b e s aid th a t whil e und e r s om e c o ndi

ti on s a c o n s id e r abl e am o unt o f c o h e s i o n m ay e xi s t i n e a rth as i s
s h o wn by t he ve rtic a l s l o p e s whi c h f re q u ently o c c ur in fr e s hly cut
'

b an k s it s v alu e i s i n fl ue n ée d gr e atly by the e fi e c t of m o i s tur e

, ,

a n d i s o ft e n e ntir e ly d e s tr o y e d by r e m o ving t he e a rth fr o m it s

o rigin a l s itu a ti o n h e nc e in n e wly m a d e e mb an km e nt s c o h e s i on

p
,

c anno t b e r e li e d u on .

I f c o h e s i o n d o e s n ot e xi s t the s urfa c e s l o p e of a m ass of e arth

,

will m ak e an a ngl e wit h t he h o ri z o nt al the t an g e nt o f whic h

,

e qu al s t he c o e ffi c i e n t o f fri c ti o n The v a lu e o f thi s c o e ffi c i e n t

.

v a ri e s with t he ch ar a ct e r of t he ea rth and with t he am o unt o f

m o i s tur e whi c h it c o nt ain s ; in r ail w ay c o n s tructi o n it h as b ee n
f o und n e c e ss ary f or o rdin ary m at e ri a l t o u s e a s l o p e o f o n e an d
, ,

o n e h a lf h o ri z o nt a l t o on e v e rtic a l t o pr e v e nt s lipping
-
T hi s i s
.

e quiv a l e nt t o u s i n g a c o e ffi c i e n t of fricti o n of t w o t h ird s c o rr e

-

s pon di n g t o an angl e of r e p o s e o f 3 3
°
a v a lu e whic h m ay

pr ob ably b e u s e d with s af e ty f o r m o s t e art h .

2 1 6 A ctive a n d P as s ive P re s s u r e
. I n a fl ui d li ke w a t e r in
.

w h ich fricti o n b e tw e e n t he p arti c l e s i s z e r o t he r e s ult ant pr e ss ur e

o n an y pl a n e i s n o rm a l t o t h a t pl a n e a n d c an h a ve but o n e v a lu e
,

c o n s i s t e nt wit h e quilibrium I n a gr anul a r m at e ri a l o n t he

.
,

o t h e r h a nd t he r e s ult a nt pr e ss ur e o n a giv e n pl a n e m ay m a k e an
,

a ngl e with t h e n o rm al l e ss th a n or e qu al t o t h e a ngl e of r e p o s e an d

h e nc e m ay h a ve s e ve r a l v a lu e s e a ch of whi c h i s c o n s i s t e nt with
e quilibrium in t h e m at e ri a l T h i s m ay b e illu s tr a t e d as f oll o w s :
ig
.

C o n s id e r t he e q u i librium of a tri a n gul ar pri s m a bc F 33 1

,
.
,

c o nt ain e d in a m ass of gr anul a r m at e ri al li k e s a nd t he upp e r ,

s urf a c e o f t he pri s m c o inciding with t he s l o ping u pp e r s urf a c e o f

t he s an d . A ss um e th at t he pr e ss ur e P on a b i s p ar all e l t o t he
442
444 EA RTH P R ESS U RE A RT . 217

P p , t he l arg e r v alu e of P o s h wn by F ig 3
3 6 i s t he m aximum
,
.
,

Va lu e which m ay b e e x e rt e d o n a b with o ut f orcing t he pri s m t o

s lid e up on t he s urfa c e be I t i s c all e d t he p ass iv e pr e ss ur e b e
.

c a u s e it i s a m e as ur e of t he p ass iv e r e s i st anc e of t he e arth t o

p r
b e ing f o rc e d u w a d I t c o rr e s p o nd s t o t he f o rc e which c o uld
.

b e c o unt e d up o n t o r e s i s t w at e r pr e ss ur e a cting a g a in s t a b or ,

t o r e s i s t t h e o v e rturning f orc e s a cting on a t e l e gr a ph p ol e .

I n o rd e r t o d e t e rmin e t he e xtr em e v a lu e s of P in any giv e n ,

c a s e th at i s t he mi ni mum an d m ax i mum v alu e s c o n s i s t e nt with

,

e quilibrium it w o uld b e n e c e ss a ry t o d e t e rmin e t he v a lu e of t he

,

a ngl e a bc c o rr e s p onding t o th e s e e xtr e m e c a s e s as w e ll a s t he

p oint s of applic ati o n of t he f orc e s t h e m s e lv e s A c omm o n .

m e th o d in us e f or d oing thi s i s a m eth od of tri al whic h will no w

b e e xpl ai n e d .

2 1 7 M e th od of Tri a l
. B y t h i s m et h o d f orc e t ri angl e s are
.

dr a wn f or v a ri ou s pl a ne s p a ss ing thr o ug h p oint b Fi g 33 5 I f ,

. .

th e a ctiv e pr e ss ur e b e d e s ir e d t h e minimum v alu e of P c o n s i s t e nt

with the r e s ult ant pre ss ur e on any pl a n e be m a king t he angl e go
b e l o w t he n o rm al i s d e t e rmin e d ; f or t he p a ss ive pr e ss ur e the c or
r e s p o nding v a lu e i s obt aine d f or t he r e s ult ant m aking t he angl e
go ab ov e t h e n o m a r l
The pr e ss ure on any pl an e i s a ss um e d t o
.

v a ry u ni f o rmly d o wnw a rd fr o m t he t op The a pplic ati on of thi s

ig
.

m eth o d t o a s im pl e c a s e i s illu s tr at e d by F 338 in which t he .

pl an e s bl b2 e tc r epr e se nt tri a l pl ane s The t hru s t on t he b ac k

, ,
.
,
.

°
o f t he w a ll i s in thi s c a s e a ss um e d t o m a k e an a ngl e of 3 0 with
t he n o rm al ; i e t he a ngl e of r e p o s e b e tw ee n e ith e r e a rth an d e arth
. .
, ,

or e a rth an d w a ll i s a ss um e d t o b e The arc s s h o wn are

dr awn i n ord e r t o s im pli t he c o n s tru c ti o n T h e s e arc s are s wung .

with e qu al r a dii fr o m 0 an d go as c e ntr e s gos l 9 0 8 2 e t c s h o w t he .

, , .
,

a ss um e d d i r e c ti on of t he t h ru s t on t he pl a n e s bl b2 e t c 8 1 8 2 , ,
.
, ,

8 28 3 e t c
, ar e l aid o ff o n t h e ar c s w ung with go as a c e ntr e an d are
.
,

m ad e e qu al t o t he int e rc e pt s b e tw ee n t he lin e s bl b2 e t c on the , ,

.
,

a r c s wung with b a s a c e ntr e T hi s pr o c e ss i s e quiv al e nt t o

.

l aying off angl e s b e tw ee n t he diff e r e nt n orm al s e qu al t o t he angl e s

b et wee n t he pl a n e s c o rr e s p o nding t o t he di ffe r e nt n o rm al s .

The di s t a nc e sgogl glgg e t c r e pr e s e n t t h e w e ig h t s of t he v ari

, ,
.
,

o u s tri a ngul a r pri s m s a n d m ay e vid e n tly b e m a d e e qu a l t o th e ir

bas e s 1 2 2 3 e t c pr o vid e d t h e s c al e b e pr o p e rly c h o s en

, ,
.
,
.

The lin e s gl f l n z e t c are dr aw n p a r a ll e l t o t he ass um e d

, ,
.
,

dire cti o n of t he pr e ss ur e on t he w all an d t he p o int s f l f a e t c , , ,

.
,
A RT . 2 17 ME THO D OF TRI AL 44 5

are l o c at e d at t he int e r s e cti on of th e s e line s with t he lin e s gos l ,

etc . T hr o ugh t he f p o int s a s m o ot h c urv e i s dr a wn an d the m axi

mum v alu e of a lin e p a r a ll e l t o t he gf lin e s int e r c e pt e d b e tw e e n
,

t he v e rtic a l thr o ugh b an d thi s curv e i s t a k e n as e qu al t o t he m a xi

EA R TH P RE S S URE
M E THOD OF TRI A L

FI G . 338 .

mum thru s t I n t he c as e s h own thi s line as s c al e d on t h e s c al e

.

of di s t a nc e e qu a l s T hi s mu s t b e multipli e d by t he s c a l e of
f orc e which e qu al s o ne h a lf t he pr o duct of t he c o m m o n a ltit ud e
-
,

bm of t he v ari o u s tri angul a r pri s m s an d t he w e ight per c u f t

l
. .
, ,

of t he e arth a ss um e d a s 1 2 0 bs f o r t h i s c a s e
, . .
44 6 EA RT H P R ESS U R E A RT . 218

21 8 . Ranki n e M e th od Ra n k in e s m eth o d i s b a s e d prim ar

’
s .
’

ily up on the a ss umpti o n th at t he prin c ipl e s g o v e rning t h e di st ri b u

ti o n of s tr e s s in a h o m o g e n e o u s rigid b o dy are a pplic a bl e t o a
m ass of e arth I t i s al s o b a s e d up o n th e f o ll o wing additi o n al
.

a ss umpti o n s :

(1
. The m a ss o f e a rth und e r c o n s id e r a ti o n ha s a pl a n e upp e r
s urfa c e of unlimit e d e xt e n t .

b The pr e ss ur e on e v e ry pl an e i s a t hr us t i e t e n s i on o r s h e a r
. . .
,

c ann o t o c cur o n a ny pl ane .

0. The pr e ss ur e o n s om e o n e pl an e p ass ing thr o ugh t he giv e n

p o int m ak e s an angl e with t he n orm al t o th at pl an e J u s t e qu al to
t he a ngl e of r e p o s e o f t he m at e ri al an d on n o pl an e d oe s it m a k e
,

an a ngl e with t h e n o rm al gr e at e r th a n thi s a ngl e .

I f th e s e a ss umpti o n s b e m a d e it i s p oss ibl e t o s h o w th at

,

t he s tr e ss e s on t w o p a rticul a r pl a n e s p a ss ing t h r o ugh a giv e n

p oint are c o nj ug at e s tr e ss e s (S tr e ss e s a re c o nj ug at e wh en t he
.

s tr e ss on a giv e n pl an e at a giv e n p o int of a b o dy i s p a r a ll e l t o

a n o th e r pl an e t he s tr e ss up o n w h ich i s p a r a ll e l t o t he fi rs t pl a n e ) .

T h at thi s r el ati o n e xi s t s b etw e e n

t h e s tr e ss on a v e rtic a l pl an e an d
t h at o n a pl an e p a r all e l t o t he
e a rth s urf a c e ass uming ab ov e
a ss u m pti o n s t o b e c o rr e ct m ay
Au
I b e d e m on s tr a t e d as f o ll o w s f or
y _ p o int s on t he lin e of int e r s e cti on
o f t h e t w o pl an e s

L e t m n in F ig
3 3 9 r e pr e s e nt .

Fm 33 9 , ,
t he e a rth s urf a c e an d c o n s id e r
t he r e l ati o n b e tw e e n t h e s tr e ss e s
o n t w o pl a n e s o n e v e rtic a l an d t he o th e r p a r a ll e l t o t h e e a rth
,

s urf ac e at p oint d at t he int e r s e cti o n of t he two pl an e s

,
.

L e t a bc d r e pr e s e nt a p a rticl e of e a rth h aving a l e ngth of unity

a t right a ngl e s t o t h e pl an e of t h e p a p e r a n d a w e ight of W a cti n g
,

as s h o wn . L e t the dir e c t f o r c e s a cting up o n it s s id e s b e re pre

s e nt e d b y P O P I a n d P 2 a ss um e d t o a c t as s h o wn By hyp oth e s i s
‘

.
,

th e r e c an b e n o othe r f orc e s a cting F or e qui librium all f o rc e s

'

mu s t m e e t at a p oi n t an d thi s mu s t e vid e ntly li e on t he li n e of

a cti o n o f W h e n c e P I mu s t b e a ppli e d a t c e ntr e o f d c S inc e ~

.
,

t he e arth m a ss i s c o n s id e r e d o f i n fi ni t e e xt e nt c o nditi on s on ,

pl an e s a d an d be mu s t b e id e ntic al h e nc e P o a n d P 2 mu s t b e
,
448 EA RTH P R ESS U R E A RT . 2 18

I n thi s e qu ati on the n e g ativ e s ign in t he num e r at or and t he

p o s itiv e s ign in t h e d e n omin at o r s h o uld b e u s e d t o ge t t h e a ctiv e
pr e ss ur e ; t o get t h e p ass iv e pr e ss ur e t he s ign s s h o uld b e r ev e r s e d .

The f o ll o wing in e qu aliti e s m ay n ow b e writt e n t o c o v e r all p o ss ibl e

c as e s of e quilibrium .

CO S —
0 V c os
2
0 c os
2
90
k
p wy c o s 0
c os 0+ c os
2
0 c os
2
<p

c os 0+ c os
2 — 2
9 0 0 8 q0
i w c os 0
p y

T h e s e e qu a ti on s giv e limiting v alu e s c on s i s t e nt with e q ui li b

the
ri um of t h e int e n s iti e s of pr e ss u re on a v e rtic al s u rf a c e ; an y

v alu e of p b e tw ee n th e s e v alu e s will th e r ef o r e b e c on s i s t e nt with

e quilibrium . I t i s to b e r e m e mb e r e d th a t the d i r e cti on of the
pr e ss ur e i s p a r all e l to the s urf a c e of th e e a rth .

Th e t o t al pr e ss ur e o n a ny v e rtic a l pl an e m ay b e o bt ain e d —

by multiplying th e v a lu e s in e qu a ti o n s (74 ) and (7 5 ) by giv

ing th e f o ll o wing f o rmu l a s f or a ctiv e an d p a ss iv e pr e ss ur e s ,

r e s p e ctiv e ly
c os 0 —V c os 2
0 — c os 2
(0
P
0 — c o s 2 <p
0
00 8 0+ c os 2

(7 50 )

S inc e wy c os 0 v a ri e sdir e ctly with t h e di s t anc e y p al s o v ari es ,

with y h a ving t he v a lu e z e r o at t h e s urf a c e of t he e arth Th e .

p oint of a ppli c ati on of t h e r e s ult a nt pr e ss ur e on a v e rtic al pl an e

'

i s th e r efo r e at a d i s tan c e fr om t he s urfa c e of t he e a rth e qu al to

, , ,

t w o t h ird s t he d e pth of t h e pl an e
-
W h en t he e arth s urfa c e i s
.

h ori z ont al
1 sin 90
1 i s in g
o

wh e n 0 so p ,
wy c o s 0 and t he a c tiv e a nd p a ss iv e pr e ss ur e s
are e qu a l .

I f go z e r o as in the c ase of w at e r pr e ss ur e

B y f o rmul a s 7 4 a a nd 7 50 it i s p o ss ibl e to d et e rmin e t he t o t al pr e s

s ure at any p oint on a verti ca l pl an e wh e th e r it b e a v e rtic al w all
A RT . 2 18 RAN K IN E S M E H O D
’
T 449

s urf a c e or a v e rtic al pl an e of ea rth I f it b e d es ir e d to d e t e rmin e .

t h e pr e ss ur e on an inclin e d w all it i s n e c e ss ary t o c o mput e t he pr e s

s ur e on t he v e rtic al pl an e p ass ing thr o ugh t he b a c k c o rn e r of t h e
w all an d t o c o mbin e thi s with t h e w eight of t he pri s m of e arth b e
tw e e n t h e w all an d thi s pl an e T hi s i s illu s tr at e d by t he pro bl e m
.

w h ich f o ll o w s .

’
R an k in e s m eth o d i s e vid e ntly in applic a bl e wh e n a w all l pes
ig
b a c k w a rd as s h o wn in F 3 4 0 s inc e f or s uc h a c as e t he r e s ult ant
.
,

of t h e w e ight o f t h e pri s m a bc an d t h e pr e ss ur e on a c a s d e t e r
’
min e d by R an k in e s m eth o d m ay e vid e ntly m ak e an angl e with
t he n o rm al t o the w a ll gr e at e r th a n t h e angl e of r e p o s e Fo r .

s uc h a c a s e t he m eth o d of tri al s h o uld b e u s ed .

I t s h o uld b e o b s e rv e d th a t R a n k in e s m e th o d m a k e s no as ’

s umpti on as to t he dir e cti o n of t h e r e s ult ant pr e ss ur e o n an in c lin e d

s urf a c e T hi s m ay e as ily b e d et e r
.

mine d h o w e v e r s inc e t h e r e s ult ant

, ,

of t he pr e ss ur e on a v e rtic al pl a n e

i s p a r all e l t o t h e e a rth s u rf a c e an d
t he r e s ult ant w eight b etw ee n t he
l 3 1 73
’

FI G . 3 40 .

v e rtic a l pl a n e and t he s urf ac e of t he w all i s v e rti c al The . f ol

l o wing e x ampl e illu s tr at e s t h e applic ati o n of thi s m e th o d .

P r ob l e m t
D eter m in e the in e n sit i e s of t he a c t iv e and p ass i v e
t
.

p re ss u r e s at p o in t b o n s u r f ac e a b an d the t ot a l a c iv e p r e ss u re pe r
t t
f o ot in l e ng h o n h at surf a c e f or the w all s h own in F i g 3 4 1 . .

A ss u m e w e igh t o f e art h 1 00 1b s cu ft
t
. . .

Ass u m e we igh of mason ry 1 5 0 lb s . cu . ft .

A ss u m e 5 0

S olu ti on . c os 0 c os
2
0
c os w = 0 8 19 . c os
2
¢
= 0 671 .

2 2
V 008 0 00 8 ¢
“
m y 00 8 0 3 1 73 X 2 74 8
4 50 EA RT H P RE SS U R E Am . 2 19

Th r f r the t wo t
x tre m e c o ndi i o ns c ons i ste n wi h e quili r iu m t t b
t
e e o e, e are

giv e n b y the f oll ow i ng e qu a i ons :

p 2 74 8 2 74 8 X

+ 0 28 1 1 1 47
p 2 74 8 2 748 X
0 8 66 585

Th s tw o v alu e s of p are the m in i mu m an d m ax im u m int e n s i i e s of t

t
e e

p r e ss u r e at b c on siste nt wi h e quili br iu m The s m all er i s the a c t iv e .

p re ss u r e .

Th e t ot al press u re on be f or eit h er c o n dit i on of e art h p re ssur e m ay

ow b e o bt
a in e d b t
y m ul iply i ng t he a v er a g e p re ss u re o n be i e o ne h alf
bt b t
-
.
, ,
.

'

of e i t h er of t h e v alu es j u st o a in e d y the d i s an ce be The t ot al ,

.

a c t iv e p r e ssur e on be per f oot of w a ll i s t hu s f ou nd to b e

4 92
£ 2
2 2 , 2 5 0 1b s .

T his pr ssur v ert ic al pl an e m ay b e c o m i n e d wi th the w e igh t of

t he b
t b k
e e on

th e p r is m a bc an d t he r e s ul w i ll b e t h e p re ss u r e o n th e a c of w a ll
t k t t
.
,

A g r aphic al s olu i o n of R a n in e s m et h o d i s o f e n a dv an a g eou s t o

’

t t
u s e p ar icul ar ly in d e e r mini n g t he p r e ss u r e up on v ar i o u s s e c i o n s o f t
a c ur v e d s u r f a c e s uch as a t
unn e l w all F or a d e s c r i p i o n o f s uch a t
t t t y
.

m e h o d s ee A m er ic an Se w erage P r a c ic e V ol II — Me c alf an d Edd ,

. . .

21 9 . l
W a l A m ass of ea rth i s s urch arg e d wh en
S ur c h ar g e d .

it c arri e s an app li e d l o ad s uch f or e x ampl e as a building o r a

r ailr o a d tr ac k an d tr ain as i s illus tr at e d by F 342 I n s uch ig . .

a c as e t h e r et aining w all mu s t r e s i s t n ot o nly t h e h ori z ont al

FI G . 342 .
FIG . 3 43 .

pr e ss ur e due t o th e e a rth but al s o t h e a dditi o n al pr e ss ur e d ue t o

t h e s up e rimp os e d l o ad c omi ng fr o m t h e tr a ck an d t h e tr ain whi c h
it m ay a y c rr .

S uch c a s e s are c o mm only tr e a t e d by r e ducing t he a dditi on al

w eight t o an e quiv al e nt h eight of e a rth F or t h e c as e s h o wn in .
452 EA RT H P R ESS U RE A RT . 219

76 The t
c tiv e eart h pr e ss u r e per f t of l e ng h e x erte d o n t he v erti c al
b k t
. a .

ac of t h i s r e t a in in g w a ll 30 f t high i s . l bs Wh a w o uld the .

p ass iv e p re ss u r e b e ? p = 3 o <
o

— —
'
i 4 ia
e >

<_
a f
:
8
- - 4

P ROB .

'C
A rc hR i b s 1 0 A:

P ROB . 76
. P ROB . 77 .

77 t
D eter m in e the m agni u d e and d i re c t io n (H V C om p on ents )
t
.

a nd t h e p o in t o f a pplic at i o n o f t h e r e s ul t a n t of th e p re ssur e u po n t h a

t
p or i on of t h is w al l which c an b e c oun te d u p on to r es i s the t hrust of one t
ar ch ri b .
 C H A P T E R XX

M ASO N R Y AR C HES W I T H F IXED E N DS

2 20 . D e s cript i on . S ee C h a pt e r X .

22 1 . Pre li m i nary D e t e rm i nati on of Cros s - s ec ti on d e s ign . To

a n a rch it i s fi rs t n e c e ss a ry t o m a k e a pr e limin a ry d e t e rmin a ti o n of

it s s h a p e an d thic k n e ss One m e th o d of d oing thi s i s a s f oll o w s

.

'

ls t A ss um e thic k n e ss a t cr o wn t o c orr e s p ond with o th e r

.

a rch e s of s imil a r s p a n an d l oa ding .

2 n d D e t e rmin e t h e curv e of t he intr a d os

. T hi s s h o uld b e .

s uch as t o pr o vid e pr o p er cl e ar a nc e o v e r t he way or s tr e am an d ,

t o giv e a gr a c e ful a pp ea r anc e A s e gm e nt of a circl e i s s o m e tim e s

.

e mpl oy e d f or fl a t a rch e s but it i s m or e cu s t o m a ry t o u s e a c o m

,

p ound curv e thr e e c e ntr e d curv e s b eing fr e qu e ntly e mpl o y e d

, .

Elliptic a l a rch e s are a l s o built .

3 rd A ss um e t he thic k n e ss of t he a rc h a t t h e s k e wb a c k T his
cr
. .

s h ould b e c o n s id e r a bly gr ea t e r th a n th a t at o wn F ormul a s f or .

thi s thic k n e ss are s om etim e s u s e d but e qu ally g o o d r e s ult s m ay

,

b e o bt a in e d by t he us e of t he d e sign e r s j udgm e nt A thic k n e ss

’
.

of fr o m t w o t o thr ee tim e s th a t a t cr o wn will oft e n giv e a g oo d pre

liminary s e cti on .

4 t h C o n s truct t he curv e of t h e e xtr a d o s so a s t o m a k e t he

.

a rc h ring s ymm e tric a l T hi s curve s h o uld of c o ur s e d e p e nd

.
, ,

up o n t h e intr ad o s curv e .

222 Lut e n M e th od of D e t erm i ni ng Tri a l S e c ti ons

. The f ol .

l o wing m e th o d of d e t e rmining t h e s h ap e of th e a rch ring f or e arth

c ov er e d r e inf o rc e d c o ncr e t e arch e s i s giv en by D ani e l B L ut e n o f .

t he N a ti o n a l B ridg e C o mpany of I ndi an a p oli s I ndi an a a n d i s , ,

r e pr oduc e d h e r e by p e rmi ss i o n I t i s s aid t o giv e g oo d r e s ult s

. .

Let t cr o wn thic k n e ss in inch e s .

ri s e o f a rch a xi s in fe e t .

L s p an in fee t .

'

F fill o v e r e xtr a d o s a t cr o wn i n f e e t .

P c o nc e ntr a t e d l oa d in t on s per tr a c k appli e d t o h alf s p an

(f or r ailr oa d bridg e )
4 54 R R
M A S O N Y A C HES W I H T F I XED E N DS A RT . 2 22

U u nif orm l oad in p ound s per s qu ar e f oot .

R .r adiu s of i ntr ad os c urv e in f ee t .

R r a diu s of extr ad o s curv e in f ee t

. .

C c oe ffi ci e n t of fricti o n of c oncr e t e on f o und a ti o n m at e ri al .

A ar e a in s qu a r e f ee t of a butm e nt b el o w s pringi n g lin e

an d a dj a c e nt t o t h e b a c k t a ng e nt

H
.

h e ight of intr a d o s at cr o wn ab ov e gr o und in fe e t .

0 Lo c a t e t he intr a d os curv e of t he arch a s f oll o w s :

.

D r a w an e llip s e of t he r e quir e d s p an an d ri s e ; p a ss a s e gm e nt
a circl e t hr ough c ro wn and s pringing s of e llip s e ; bi s e ct t h e

TO] ; of i
F ll

FI G . 344 .

v e rtic al di s t anc e s b etw ee n t he e llip s e an d t he circl e ; appr o xim at e

t he r e s ulting cur v e by arc s o f circl e s a dj u s ting t h e curv e a t t he
,

s prin gi ng s t o b e c om e t ang e nt t o t h e v ertic al s To c on s truct

ig
.

an e llip s e , s tri k e t wo c onc e ntric circl e s with c e ntr e a t 0 F ,

.

3 4 4 p a ss ing r e sp e ctiv ely thr o ugh cr o wn an d s pringi ng an d

,

dra w r a di i int er s e cting th e s e circl e s Th e p oint s of int e r s e cti o n

.

of h ori z ont a l an d v e rtic a l lin e s dr a wn thr o ugh t h e p oint s of i n

‘

t ers ec t i on of ea ch r a diu s with t h e cr o wn circl e an d s pringing

cir cl e r e s p e ctiv ely d e t ermi n e p oint s o n t he e llip s e .
4 56 MA SO N RY A R CHES W I T H F IXED E N DS A RT . 224

a bcd an d ee fd F , ig
3 4 6 m ay n e xt b e d e t e rmi n e d
.
,B o th of th e s e .

a r ea s m ay b e c o n s id e r e d as tr a p e z oid s The p oint s of a pplic a

t
.

ti o n of t he r es ul ant of t h e w eight s r e pr e s e nte d by tr ap e z oid s

a bed a n d edef mu s t th e n b e d e t e rmi n e d e ith e r gr a phic a lly o r ,

a n a lytic a lly
1
.

I f d e s ir e d t he live l oa d m ay b e c ombin e d with t he d ea d l oa d

l
, ,

b o th b ei ng r e duc e d t o an e quiv a l e nt d ea d oa d I na s muc h as it .

i s n e c e ss ary t o inv e s tig at e at l eas t t wo p o s iti o n s of t he liv e l oa d ,

a n d s o m e tim e s m or e it i s u s u ally a d vi s a bl e t o c o ns id e r it
,

s e p ar a t e ly I t i s s om e tim e s s impl e r t o d e t ermi n e a n alytic a lly

.

t he p o s iti o n of t he p o in t o f a pplic ati on of t h e r e s ult a nt of t he

w e ight of t he filli ng an d t he arch r i ng r ath e r th an t o r e duc e t o
c o mm o n uni t s I mpact i s g e n e r ally di s r e g ard e d in ma so nry
.

a r c h e s o wing t o t h e d ea d e ni ng e f f e ct of t he fi l
li n g .

W ith r e s p e ct t o t he p o s iti o n of t he liv e l oa d it m ay b e s aid ,

th at f ull liv e l o a d ov er t h e e ntir e arch d oe s n ot giv e t he w o r s t con

diti on f or s t ability but m ay giv e t he m aximum fib re s tr e ss at
,

s om e s e cti on s For a rch e s of s h ort s p an it i s u s u ally c o n s id e r e d

.
,

s u ffi c i e n t t o c o n s id e r full l oa ding a n d h a lf l oa di ng only F or .

imp ort ant s tructur e s an influ e nc e t abl e o r i n fl ue n c e lin e s m ay b e

,

c on s tru ct e d and t he c o rr e ct p o siti on of liv e l oa d f or m axi mum

,

s tr e ss e s m i nimum s t a bility e t c d et ermi n e d

, , .
,
.

224 T h e ory
.
2
An a rch s p a n with fi xe d e nd s i e fi xe d in p o si
.
,
. .
,

ti on an d d i r e cti on i s ind e t e r m i n at e t o t h e third d e gr ee with

,

r es p e ct t o t h e o ut e r f orc e s The t h r ee unkn o wn s which c a nn o t b e

t
.

d et e rmi n e d by s t a tic s m ay e i h e r b e t a k e n as thr e e of t h e r e a cti o n

functi on s or as a m o m e nt s h ear an d thru s t a cting at t he cr o wn or
, ,

a t a n y o th e r c o nv e ni e nt s e cti o n of t h e a rch o r a t a ny c o nv e ni e nt

ig
,

p oint in s p a c e S uch un kn o wn s are i llu s tr a t e d by F 3 4 8 in

t
. .

which t he ar c h i s s h o wn as di v id e d in o t wo p art s which ar e

s e p ar a t e d f or c o nv e ni e nc e in r e pr e s e nt ati o n ; th e s e un k n o wn s
might e qu ally w e ll b e c o n s id e r e d a s a cting at any p oint in s p a c e .

t
d e e rmin e t h e c e n re of g ravi y of a t t
t t
1
To
r a p e z o id t h e g r a phic a l m e h o d s al re ady
,

giv e n m a y b e u s e d u t h e fo ll owi n g m e h o d bt t
t t b
illu s ra e d y F i g 34 7 is o f e n m ore c o nve n
,

t
t
.

= B is e c
t t
i n t L ff fg = b n d d cb
d e a y . o a a e , .

by a nd be Th e c e n r e of g ra vi y i s at th e
FI G 347
t t
.
. .

i n e rs e c i o n o f e h a n d gh
T h s tr a t m n t b t b
.

as e d up o n t h e m e h o d give n y M i i lle r B re s l au i n
i ts ch if t A chi t kt
2
i e e is -

Z e r d es r e e n und I ng e ni e u r V e re in s H a nn o v e r 1 8 8 4 , ,
.
ART . 224 T HE O RY 457

An x a ct th eory f or t he a rch i s c omplic at e d an d will not b e

e

give n h er e The s impl e e qu a ti on s w hi c h f ollo w are d e riv e d by

.

t he th e o r e m of l ea s t w or k an d are b a s e d up o n t h e f oll o wing

a ss umpti o n s in a dditi o n t o th os e c om m only m a d e in t he d e v el op

m ent of t he b ea m f o m u a r l .

1 The di s tributi on of s tr e ss ov e r t he cr oss s e cti o n of a curv e d

.
-

b ar i s t he s a m e a s th a t o v e r t he cr o ss s e cti o n of a s tr aight b ar
-
.

2 Th e a xi a l thru s t f or a rch e s h a ving o rdin ary r a ti o s o f ri s e t o

.

s p a n i s c on s t a nt thr o ugh out t he a rc h an d in t he c as e of s ym

m e tric al a rch e s c arrying v e rtic a l l oa d s i s appr o xim at ely e qu al
to t he h o ri z o nt al c o mp o n e nt of t he cr own thru s t 1
.

3 Wo r k d ue t o s h e ar i s n e gligibl e
. .

FGI . 3 48 .

With r e s p e ct th e s e a ss umpti on s it m ay b e s t a t e d th a t t h e
to
e f f e ct o f curv a tur e up o n t he di s tributi o n o f s tr e ss o v e r t h e cr o ss

s e cti o n i s n e gligibl e f or curv e d b ar s h aving a r atio of thic k n e ss t o

r a diu s of curv a tur e l e ss th an i e f or pr a ctic ally all. .

bridg e a rc h e s .

The e f fe ct of t he s e c ond ass umpti on i s t o giv e an appr o x

i m a te v alu e t o t he s e c o nd t e rm in t he g e n e r a l e qu ati on f or
w o r k in a b ar c arrying b oth dir e ct s tr e ss an d b e nding ; vi z .
,

(S ee a rticl e 1 8 8)

w or k d ue t o dir e ct thru s t in an ordin a ry a rc h i s

A s t he
s mall c o mp a r e d with th a t d ue t o b e nding an d m ay ordin arily b e
The t
xp re ss i o n f o r a xi a l h ru s
xa c t t d ue t o s ingl e l o a d o f P i s as f ol
T t t t t
1
e e

l ow s : = H c os p P s in w; in which T a x i al h ru s H c ro wn hru s
T t <

t
.
,

hi s e vid e n ly is a pp ro xim a ely e qu al to H f o r s m all v alu e s o f p ( .

4 58 MASO N R Y A R C HES WI TH F I XED E N DS A RT . 2 24

en tir ely n e gl e ct e d with o ut s e ri o u s e rr or an appr o xim a ti on in it s

,

v alu e i s a ll o w a bl e M o r e o v e r t he appr oxim a ti on i s f o rtun at e ly

.

t he l e a s t o v e r t he c e ntr a l p o rti o n o f t he a rch wh e r e t he arch ring i s

t h inn e s t an d t he e ffe ct of dir e ct thru s t gr eat e s t .

M a king t h e s e a ppr o xim a ti o n s t he m e th o d of l e as t w or k m ay

,

n o w b e a ppli e d t o t he s ymm e tri c al a rc h s h o wn di a gr a mm a tic a lly

in F ig . 34 8 . I n all c as e s m o m e nt i s t o b e c o n s id e r e d p o s itiv e
w h e n c a u s ing c o mpr e ss i o n in upp e r fi b re of arc h .

L e t XX a n d Y Y b e t w o a x e s o f r e f e r e nc e t h e f o rm e r b e ing s o ,

l oc at e d 0 an d t he t
l a t e r b eing an axi s of

s ymm e try .

(5 a n d y b e t h e ordin a t e s in f t . o f a nyp oi n t o n t he a rch a xi s

r e fe rr e d t o th e s e ax e s , as b e ing p o s itiv e t o l e ft an d y
p o s itiv e u wa d p r .

s b e t h e l e ngth in f t o f a ny p orti o n of t h e arch axi s

. .

M 0 b e t he m om e nt a b o ut an a xi s n o rm a l t d pa per a n d p a ss
ing thr o ugh t h e int e r s e cti o n o f XX a n d Y Y
H
.

o a n d V 0 b e h o ri z o nt a l a n d v e rtic a l f o rc e s r e s p e ctiv e ly

t
a ss um e d as a c ing o n e a c h h alf o f a rch a t i n t e r se c

ti o n o f XX an d YY .

num e ric a l v alu e o f m o m e nt of a ppli e d l o a d s t o l e ft

of a ny giv e n n o rm a l s e cti o n a b o ut a ny p o int my o n

l e ft h a lf of a rch c o n s id e ring thi s h alf t o a c t as a c an

,

t i le v e r b ea m fi xe d at t h e a butm e nt .

m R s imil a r m om e nt on rig h t h alf of a rch .

M ca c tu a l b e nding m o m e nt in f t lb s ab o ut a n a xi s no r
. .

m al t o t he a rch a xi s at p o int a .

I m o m e nt o f in e rti a in f t unit s of a n o rm al cr o ss s e c
.
-

ti o n ab o ut an a xi s n orm al t o t he arch axi s at p o int my .

A a r ea of a n o rm a l e r o ss s e cti o n o f t h e a rc h a t p o int my
-
.

E m o dulu s o f e l a s ticity in f t unit s (E in inch unit s

.

X
d thic k n e ss in f t of n orm al s e c ti o n at c e ntr e of any
.

s e gm e nt int o whic h a rch i s divid e d .

Th e r e s ulting equ ati o n s f o r a fi xe d e nd e d s ymm e tric a l arch of

t
h o m og e n e o u s m at e ri al l oa d e d wi h v e rti c a l f o rc e s a re as f oll ow s :
4 60 MASO N R Y A R C HES W I TH F I XED E N DS A RT . 224

M L = M o —m L —H oy+ V o:e
an d M R = M o —m R —H oy—V o:v

H e nc e W

b tt t
S u s i u in g v alu e s o f ML a nd M R p re vi ou s ly d erive d tt
di f feren i a in g
t t t b
and

wi h re s p e c t o th e in d e p e nd en v ari a l es giv e s

ds ds
(M o
—m L (M o
—m R
—H oy “
V ox)
EI

(M o
—m R
—H o
—
y V ox)

b t t
S inc e y c ons ruc i o n i th r 0, e e f or th e whol e a nd or f or h alf of

a s ymm t ic l a ch a ll t rm s c n s s t i g t t t
p ro duc of his er m an d a
c nst ant m a y t t t
e r a r , e o i n of the
o pl a c d qu l
be r e E li
e a to ze o . m in a i ng s uch erm s h ere fore

a nd c m b ini g t h r t rm s n t i g th a t
o n o e e o n ds , an d th t
a

give s th e foll o win g e xp re ss i o n s

AE
0

2
(m L + m R ) yd s
+ 2H 0
El

d W —
( R m L ) xds
m

d Vo E]

Fr m whi ch qu a i n s
o e t o 8 0—82 are e a si ly d erive d .
 AR T . 2 25 T HEO R Y 4 61

The a u xili ary e qu a i on t 83, i s bt in d b y l c t ing

o a e c n tr
o a th e e e of gra vi y of t
t t t t t
,

1
a se t of f o rc e s ea ch h aving th e v lu
a
;
e of I 9i s vid n h e e a th e m om e n of

th s b u t h riz ntal xis i s

e e a o any in which i s o o di s t nc a
7
2 th e a e of the

c nt r
e ch f rc
e of ea xi s D ividing t hi s b y t h i r s um
o e t o the giv s
a e e
7
.
, ,

di s t nc fr m r f r nc xi s xi s p ass i g t hr ugh t h ir c n t
g vi ty b u t which
'

the a e t o the e e e e a to an a n o e e re

of ra ,
i . e .
, o ne a o

int e gr ati on of e qu ati on s 8 0—

As 8 3 i s di ffi c ult it i s a dvi s abl e t o
divid e t he arc h axi s int o p art s of e qu al l e ngth s As an d t o re
pl ac e t he int e gr ati on s ign by th at of s umm ati on M or eo v e r in .
,
3

a rc h e s of m as onry or pl ai n c o ncr et e I m ay be r epl ac e d by if a

s lic e one f t in width i s c on s id e r e d . T hi s i s a l s o s uffi c i ently c o r

.

r e ct f or r einf orc e d c oncr e t e arch e s t o m ak e it s u se p o ss ibl e in a

pr e limin ary d e s ign M aking th e s e s ub s tituti on s an d c a nc elli ng
.

A s an d E fr o m t he e qu ati on s giv e s the f oll o wing s impl e e xpr e s

s i on s in which t he s umm ati on s ign appli e s t o one h alf the arch -
.

E
1
2
2 y 1
Z fi z
a m

_1
2 3
d

2 2 5 F orm
. ula f or Arc h e s of C ons tant Cros s - s e c ti on . For
rch e s of c on s t ant cr o ss s e cti on be c anc e ll e d fr om e qu a
3
a -
, d m ay
462 M ASO N RY A R C HES W I T H F I XED E N DS A RT . 2 26

87 I f n e qu al s t he numb e r of e qu al p art s int o w h ich

.

divid e d t he e qu ati o n s th e n b e c om e
,

I n t he a b ov e e q uati o n s t he s umm ati o n s f or x y 2 r ef e r t o , ,

one h alf t he arch

-
.

The e ff e ct of rib s h o rt e n ing d ue t o di r e ct thru s t a pp e ar s only

H
in t h e t e rm f or o an d i s d ue t o t he l as t t e rm in t he d e n omin at or
of t h at e xpr e ss i o n ; t he e f fe ct of thi s t e rm up o n t he v alu e of i, H
i s v e ry s m all s inc e y i s alw ay s l arg e c omp ar e d with d .

226 C ompari s o n of Arc h an d F i x e d - e n d e d B eam

. Exam i .

n ati o n o f f o rmul as 8 0 t o 8 2 s h ows th at t h e e xpr e ss i on s f or M o

a n d V 0 d o n o t c o nt ain t e rm s in y an d h e nc e ar e ind e p e nd e nt

of t h e ri s e of t he a rc h fr o m whic h it f oll o w s th a t t he v alu e of

,

th e s e t e rm s s h ould b e t he s am e as f or a fixe d e nd e d b e am hav -

1
£19
ing a v alu eof e qu al to th at of t he a rc h . The a cc ur acy of
1
t h e s e e qu ati on s m ay t h e r e f o r e b e t e s t e d by c omputing M o an d V 0
f or a unif orm l oa d a ppli e d t o a fi xe d e nd e d b e am of c o n s t ant
-

cr o ss s e cti on
-
.

For s uc h a b ea m e qu a ti o n s 8 0 a nd 8 2 b e c om e f or t he c as e
a unif o rm l o a d o f w pe r f oo t o v e r t he l e ft h a lf of t he b eam
’
4 64 MASON R Y A R C HES W I T H FI XED E N DS A RT . 227

ci o nEd
e to Ed and s tr e ss per sq . ft . eto E as s h o uld be
n

t he c as e .

For a c oncr et e arch 6 m ay b e t a ke n as 00000 6 an d . E as

h e nc e e qu ati o n (92) m ay b e writt e n thu s f or a rib

one ft . in width .

1 4 4nt
1 1
E 3 + 2
d 12 d
E qu a i on t (92 ) m ay be d er iv e d y b th e m e ho d t of t k
l ea s w or as foll ow s

T t l w rk in
o a o a rch
2
ds

I n wh i ch M and T are m om e n t an d hr u st due to t em p er atur e o t nly

t t t k tt t
.

I n hi s e xp ress i o n th e l as t w o er m s giv e t h e w or d u e t o dir e c h ru s

k tt t
m a ing du e all ow anc e f o r t h e f a c h a t h e chang e in l e ng h d u e t o e mp era t t
t t t t t
u re i s o pp os i e i n e ff e c t o h a du e to the hru s c ause d y the ch ang e in t t b
te mp e r a t u re

t t
.

V 0 d u e t o ch ang e i n e mp e ra u re e qu al s z e ro h e nc e ,

M L = M o — H oy = M R
We m ay a l s o w ri t e

T H o CO S go

k t
M a i ng h e s e su b s ti t u t i n s di ff ere n i a ing wi h res p e c tt t t
b
o an d t o t he t w o
v ari a l es M o an d ,
H gives
0, the f oll owin g e xp re ss i on :

2 M —
( o H oy) yds
+2Ho c os e ds 0
EI

B ut ds se w dx, he nc e 2 eto C OS ¢ d8 = € toL

M o re o v e r , 0, h e nc e M o 0

Ho = i ‘

thru st c rr sp nds r s in t mp r tur

H will b e
s c nd t rm d n min a t r s m ll
0 a if to o e o to a i e e e a e .

rdin ry rch s
m d in s u b s t i tu t ng uni t y W
Th e e o e i n t he e o o is a an d f or o a a e no

s ri u s rr r will
e o e o v lu be a e i f or c os ¢p
2
t he a e of e

m ay l s r pl a c b y by
.

(1
3
a o e e I — an d A d .

12
A RT . 228 T A UT E N TS
M O VE ME N OF B M 4 65

M ak ing t h s ch ng s su b s t i t u t ing s u m t i n s v r h f
e e a e m a o o e al a rch t f or in e

qu l s num b r p rt s int
,

L
gra t i on s , pl c ng E
an d a i whic h 2 71 , i n n e a e of a o

which h lf rch i s divid d giv s qu t i n ( ) in which d n min t r

v rt ic l l d s
t he a a e e e a o 92 th e e o a o

is sa m
the H
e as f or 0 due t o e a oa .

2 28 . M ov e m e nt of Ab utm e nt s The eff e ct of a m o v e

E ff e c t of .

m e nt of th e abutm ent s up o n t he h o ri z ont al c omp on e nt of t h e arch

thru s t m ay b e d e t e rmin e d fr o m t he w e ll k n o wn e qu ati o n f or t h e -

h o ri z o nt al d efl ec t i on of a curve d b ar T hi s e qu ati on if t h e .
,

a ss umpti o n s m a d e in A rt 2 2 4 ar e a g a in m a d e i s as f o ll ow s
.
,

(S ee M e c h anic s ) .

w h ich A L = e h an ge in s p an d ue t o h ori z o nt al c omp o n ent of

abutm e nt m o v e m e nt

H
.

h o ri z o nt al c o mp o n e nt of abutm e nt thru s t which

i s e qu al by a ss umpti o n t o t he n orm al c o mp o n e nt
of a ctu a l t hru s t at a ny s e cti o n .

o rdin at e at an y p oint on t h e a rc h a xi s m ea s ur e d

HH
z

fr o m a h ori z ont al axi s c orr es p onding t o

F ig . 3 48 .

b e nding m o m e nt c au s e d by h o ri z o nt al thru s t
M
a b o ut a n a xi s n o rm a l t o p a p e r a t s am e p o int

H
.

S ub s tituting f or M it s v alu e z giv e s

2
ds
s
z

0 El

Sub s tituti o n o f s umm ati o n s f or int e gr a ti o n s giv e s t he f oll o w

ing e qu ati o n in which t he s u m m ati on i s appli ed to one ha lf of a rch -

in ord e r t o ob tain t e rm s id e ntic al with th os e d e v el op e d in pr evi o u s

e qu ati o n s .

B AL —2 H 2
% + 2H 2

EA L
h e nc e
z A S A x
“
22
1 14
Ii I and A r e pl ac e d by th eir v alu e s in t erm s
H
are

v alu e of f or a rib one f t in width i s giv e n by t he

.

e xpr e ss i o n .
 M ASO N R Y A R C HES W I TH FI XED E N DS A RT . 231

For fl at arch e s A s m ay b e pla c e d = A x .

For an a rch of i n fin i t e r a diu s an d c on s t a nt cr o ss s e cti o n ; -

i . e .
,

A 8
a b eam Ax a nd z 0, h e nc e f o rmu la (95 ) b e c om e s
,
2
d
—E A L
E

T hi s agr e e s wit h the v alu e of H f o r t he ax1 al s tre ss in a s tr aight

b ar c orr e s p onding t o a ch ang e of A L in it s l e ngth .

2 29 Eff e c t of a S in gl e L oad E qu ati o n s 8 0 t o 9 1 m ay b e

H
. .

a ppli e d t o a s ingl e l o a d an d influ e nc e lin e s f or M o o and V 0 , ,

c o n s tru ct e d with gr e at e as e .

I f t he u ni t l o a d i s on t h e l eft h alf of t he s p an m R 0 an d 7m ,

m om e nt of t h e l o ad t he r e ver s e b eing tru e f or a l o a d on t he

,

right h alf of t he s p an .

230 Ac c ur acy of F orm ul as

. The f o rmul a s d e v e l op e d in thi s
.

ch apt e r are m o r e a ccur at e th an t he f o rmul as o r din arily d ev e l o p e d

in t h e tr e atm e nt of a rch e s s inc e th ey t ak e a c c o unt fr o m t h e s t art
of t h e e f f e ct of rib s h ort e ning an d do n ot inv olv e t h e divi s i o n of

A
c o n s t ant with t h e r e s ulting l ac kof a ccur a c y
s .

t he a rch so th at 1s
7
n e ar t he abutm e nt Th e y are e as y t o apply s inc e any dr aft s m an
.

c an o bt ain a ll n e c e ss a ry d at a f or a s ymm e tric al a rch an d fi ll

out t abl e s s i mil a r t o th o s e giv e n in t h e illu s tr ativ e e x ampl e which

f oll o w s M or eo v er th ey c an b e fi tt e d t o an un s ymm etric al arch

.
,

with littl e tr o ubl e by pr op e rly s el e cting inclin e d a x e s of r ef e r e nc e .

T h e s e ax e s s h ould b e s uch th at
de
y El

and t h at

as i s t he c as e f or t he h ori z o n t al a n d v e rti c a l ax e s u s e d f or t he
s ymm e tri c a l a rch tr e at e d .

2 31 Li n e of R e s i stan c e
. I t i s alw ay s a dvi s abl e t o c ons tru c t
. .

a lin e of r e s i s t anc e f or an a rch aft e r t he v alu es of t h e v ari o u s

un kn o wn s h av e b ee n d et e rmin e d T hi s m ay b e d on e i n a m an
.

n er s imil ar t o th at e mpl oy e d in t he c as e of a m a s onr y d am For a .

s ymm e tric al a rch symm etric ally l o ad e d t he r es ult ant cr o wn ,

4 68 MASO N RY A RC HES WI H T F I XED E N DS A RT . 23 3

ti c a llyby t he f o rmul a , m an d t he v alu e of 77m e qu al s z e r o

f or all es cti o n s .

We r e t he pr obl e m th at of d e t e rmining t he e f fe ct of t he d ea d
l o ad s t he l o a ding s h o uld b e divid e d int o a s e ri e s o f p arti al l oa d s
as indic a t e d in A rt 2 2 3 an d t he m o m e nt a t t he c e ntr e of e a ch
.
,

s e cti o n int o which t he arc h i s divid e d c o mput e d as if th e s e l o a d s

w e r e c o nc e ntr at e d l o a d s .

For c onc e ntr a t e d liv e l o a d s t he m o m e nt a t t he c e ntr e o f e a c h

,

s e c ti o n w o uld b e fi gure d in t he u s u a l m ann e r f o r any p o siti o n o f

t he lo a d s .

Th e divi s i o n o f t he arc h int o s e cti o n s o f e qu al l e ngth m e a s ur e d

a l o ng t he a xi s c an b e r ea dily a c c ompli s h e d as it i s unn e c e ss a ry t o

F IG . 350 .

w o r k a c c ur at ely b e tw e e n s k e wb a c k s a v a ri ati on of a foo t or s o

,

e a ch wa y m a ki ng littl e di ff e r e n c e in t he fi n al r e s ult s The num .

b er of s e cti o n s int o which t o divid e t he arch s h o uld b e s uch th at

n o m at e ri a l e rr o r will o ccur fr o m t a king t he m om e nt thr o ugh o ut

e a c h s e cti o n as c o n s t ant an d e qu al t o th at a t it s c e ntr e The o rdi .

n at e s an d thic k n e ss of t he a rc h ring give n in t he t a bl e s which

foll o w w e r e s c al e d fr o m a l arg e s i z e d l ayo ut of t he arch .

The c o mpl e t e c o mput ati on s are give n in t he t abl e whi c h

f oll o w s an d r e quir e no c o mm e nt
H
.

With t he t abul a r v ae s o nc e d e t e rmin e d t he v alu e s of M o o

, ,

a n d V 0 m ay b e r e a dily o bt ain e d fr o m e qu ati o n 6 1 t o 6 4 t he ,

n e c e ss ary c omput ati on s b eing giv e n at foo t of t abl e 5 .

ART . 2 33 ILLU S TR A T I O N C O PUT AT I O N
OF M 4 69

TA LE B 4

d t rmin t i n
Us e f o r e e alu a o of V e of t

z 1
2
33 53
See num eric al v a lu e a foo t t t bl of a e

Sec t i on

Ttl
o a

ft . h -
t ft .

TA BL E 5

t t
min a i o n o f H a nd M t
qu a i o n s a nd v alu e s d e riv e d
t t tb t t
Fo r de er 0, V0, o Fo r e

1 000—
.

h ere fro m ,
s e e foo o f a le . Mo m e n s in lb u n i s
. .

T ta l
o
4 70 MASO N R Y A R C HES W I T H FI XED E N DS A RT . 2 33

TA LE ( B 5 Con ti nued )
Liv l a d v r l f t h a lf
.

e o arch o e e of

Ttl o a

H°

M
2
+ 1 68 0 f t l bs
l bs
. . .

1
V0 “
- 1615
5
.

For t mp atur str ss s M

e er e e e 0 an d n 10 he nc e e t
qu a i on (93 ) give s
t t
o

26
40
H _ $ 8 8 1b s
d g r F ch ange in e mp era u re h e nc e
pe r e ee

X lb s t mp r tu
0 .

8
.

M o $ 88 i 361 f t . .
pe r d e gree F . c h ang e in e e a re .

B i b l i og raph y

E mpir ic al For mul as Ri rc e d C onc re t Arche s E ngine ering N ew s

t
f or e nf o e .
,

J un e 2 8 , 1 906 Lu e n
t T tur Ch ng s M s nry Tr n
. .

E ff e c of e mp era e a e on a o , a s ,
Am . So c . C E . .
, V ol .

LX I G w n M rrim n
Tr atis Mas nry C nst ucti n Y rk kr
,
1 908 . o e a nd e a .

C nc r t Pl in R inf rc d Y rk T yl r Th mps n
e e on o o r o ,
N ew o ,
1 909 Ba e .

Wa lnu t L n ridg P hil d lphi Tr n

o e e, a an d e o e New o ,
1 909 . . a o an d o o .
,

Q uim b y W b st r
a e B e, a e a, a s ,
Am . Soc C E , V ol L X V , 1 90 9
. . . . .

R inf rc d C ncr t C nstructi n Y k

and e e .

P incipl s
r e of e o e o e e o o ,
New or ,
1 912 .

M ur r
Th ry Arc s Susp nsi n idg s Tr nsl ti n b y St inm n
Tu rne au re an d a e .

eo of he a nd e o Br e ,
a a o e a ,

C hic g M l n
T mp ratur Ch ng s R inf rc d C ncr t ull tin
a o, 1 91 2 e a

, E ngi
n ring E xp rim n t a l S t t i n I w S t t C ll g
e e e a e 1n e o e o e e . B e No . 30

S ymm tric l M as nry Arch s Y rk

ee e e a o , o a a e o e e . 1 913 .

e a o H w e ,
New o ,
1 914 o e .
 IN D E X

t t
A c iv e e ar h p re ssu re d e fi n i t i on
j tb b ,

A d u s a l e ars re a s on s f o r u se in c an il e v e r r idg e s t b
,

A nch ora ge f or c an il e v e r ridg e s t b

,

An chor arm s f o r c a n ile v er ridg e s t b

t t ,

Arch ch ara c e ri s ic s of
,

t bt
re l a io n e w e e n sh a p e of arch an d funicul ar p ol go y n .

Arch e s fixe d e nd e d m as onry

,
-

a ccu r a cy o f f or mul a s

bb
4 66
i li og raphy
t b
. 4 70 47 1
c o mp ari s on wi h fi xe d e nd e d e a m s 4 62 —
tt t b t t
- 4 63
c o mpu a i o n of e x e rn a l f orc e s y a pp roxim a e m e ho d 4 6 7—4 7 0
t t t b t t
. .

d e e rmin a i o n of c ro ss s e c i on y Lu e n m e h o d 4 5 3—455
tbt t t
-

di s ri u i on of s re ss o ve r cro ss— sec io n

t t bt t
4 67
e ff e c up on of m o v e m e n of a u m e n s 4 6 5—4 6 6
t
e f fe c up on of a s ingl e l oa d
t t t
. 4 66
formu l as f or arche s of c on s an c ross s e c i o n
t
-
. 46 1
lin e of re s i s anc e . 4 6 6—4 6 7
o ut er f or c e s up on 4 5 5—4 5 6
t t
p re limin ary d e ermin a i on of c ro ss s e c i o nt
b
-
. 453
p ro l e m s up on
t t t
47 1
e mp er a u re s re ss e s in 4 6 3—4 6 5
t h e or y . 4 5 6—4 62
Arc h e s hi nge s in
tb t
, 270, 2 7 1
i n flu en c e a l e f or a hre e hing e d 2 7 9—2 8 3
b t t
-

m as onry d e s c r i e d an d illu s ra e d
t b t t
,
2 69 .
,
2 73 , 2 7 1
m e al d e s c r i e d an d illu s ra e d
,
2 70 , 2 7 1
hing d
p r b lic ch r c t i s t ic s
o n e- e . 2 70

r cti n s thr hing d

a a o ,
a a er of 2 76 , 2 7 7

s p nd r l b r c d d s c ri b d illu s tr t d
ea o f or ee - e 2 72

thr ing d d scrib d illu str t d

a e a e , e e an d a e 271

m ximum s tr ss s
ee - h e ,
e e and a e 2 70, 2 7 1
2 78 —
p ara b lic
a e e in . 28 4

ing d d s c ri b d illu str t d

o . 2 76 , 2 7 7

Arch r i b di s tri b u t i n s tr ss v r s c ti n
t wo - h e , e e an d a e 2 70
, o ss— of e o e e ro e o 2 7 3 , 2 74, 2 7 5

Bal t im r t u ss d s c ri b d
o e, r ,
illu s tr t d
e e an d a e

s c nd ry di g n l s
s cul b r idg s tr ss s
i n fluen c e of e o a a o a .

tt n pl t s
Ba e e, e e in .

Ba e a e
4 74 IN DEX

B ea m s ,c o mp ar i so n of fixed e nd e d wi h arch e s t
t
-

c o mp o s i e
c o mm erci a l s i z e s o f im er t b
c o s of s e e l t t
e x a mpl e s in d e s ign

fi xe d— e nd e d

f ormul a s f or
t
l a eral rigidi y o f t
t
s i ff n e ss of
B eav e r B r idg e
b t t
.

B o x gi rd e r d e s c r i e d an d illu s r a e d
,

Br idg e s d e fin e d
,

t t
.

sp an of illu s ra e d
t , .

s y s e m s o f l oa ding c o mp a re d
S ee a ls o D e c k
H a lf—hrough I e a m hrough an d S e w ridge s t b T k b
tt b tt
-
, , , .

Br idg e pin c o mpu a i o n f or a o o m chor d pin 3 2 6—

b t
, 3 30
cu rv e of e ndin g m o m e n f or
t t b n
32 6 32 8 3 2 9 , ,

e f f ec o f ch ang e in arrang e m e n o f m e m ers u p o

t
3 30 . .

nu s
k
. 33 1
p a c ing r in g s f or
t b
331
B r idg e pin s arrang e m e n o f m e m e rs o n
tt b tt
, 31 8
c o mpu a i o n of a o o m ch or d pin 3 2 7—3 3 1
tt
-

c o mpu a i o n of a t op— ch o r d pin 3 2 3—3 2 7

tt
c ompu a i o n o f m a ximum m om e n and sh e ar t
b
32 3 .

d e sc ri e d . 318
m in imum s i z e
t t
32 1
.

s re ss e s c a u s ing m a ximum m o m e n s an d sh e ars 32 2 .

b
C a m er
c mpu t a t i n
,
d e fi ne d
rul s
C n t il v r arm i lu s tr t d
e f or o o

C n t il v r b r idg s d j u s t b l b ars
a e e ,
l a e .

a e e e ,
a a e in .

a nch orag e s
t t t
f or
nch or an d c an il e v er arm s i llu s ra e d
b
a ,

d e s c ri e d
s u s p e nd e d s p a n illu s ra e d t t
u s e of f al s ew o r k
,

t
t t t t
in e re c i o n
C an il ev e r ru sse s e qu a i on s of c o ndi i o n f o r
,

i n fl u e n c e lin e s f o r m o m e n s up o n t
i n fl u e n c e lin e s f o r s he ars up o n
re ac i o n s up on t
t
Cas iro n c olumn s d e sig n of
-
,

f ormul as f or
tt n
.

es s up o

t
.

C e n r ifug a l f orc e
t t
.

C h a nn e l s di s a nc e ap ar whe n u s e d f or c olumn s
C olumn s c as iron
,

, t
-
476 IN DE X

s n s f or c o mpu in g t PA G E

t t t t
D e fl e c t i on , rea o

rig on om e ric al m e h o d f or ru ss es 3 55 , 3 5 6

t
E ar h c o h e s i o n fr ic t i n
c t s u rch rg up n r th p r ss u r
,
an d o in .

E rth p r ssu r c t iv
e ff e of a e o ea e e

p ss iv
b ibli graphy
a e e, a e an d a e d e fined
o

m t h d tr i l
e ff ec t o f s u r c h arge

p r b l m s up n
e o of a

Rank in s m th d
o e o

E cc n tric f c s c t up n b uilding c lumn s

’
e e o

f c t up n s tr ss s
e or e ,
e ff e o o .

E l c tric rs ll w a nc imp c t
ef e o fib re e e

w igh t
e ea ,
a o e f or a .

e of

E nd h ng r
a ppl c a t i n m as n y d a m
-
a e ,
i lu s tra ted .

Funicul r
‘

ch r c t ri s t ic s
a polygon , i o to o r

a a e of

d s c ri b d
d e fin e d .

e e .

C p s l din
r l t i n b tw n funicul ar
’
f or oo er E 50 oa g
rch e s
t r ugh p int polygon
e a o e ee an d a .

s v ra l p in t s
h o on e o

thr p ints
e e o

p nts
ee o

two oi

E ul e r f ormul a .

t
F c r fs f y t
k t t
a o o a e

F l s w or u f in r c ing c n il v rs
t
a e ,
se o e e a e e

F ill s f pl a gi d s
b t
er or e- r er .

F ix d nd d m c mp ari s n wi h arch s
b
e -e e ea o o e
,

F ix d nd d c lumn s d s c ri d
t b
e -e e o e e .

Fl nd d c lumn s d s c ri d
t t t b
a -
e e o e e .

Fl xu r a nd hru s n c lumn s f f c f wh n c m in d
b tt t
e e o o ,
e e o e o e

F l r m s c mpu i n s f m m en s and sh ars up n

oo -
ea , o a o o o e o

t sh rs m m nts in gi d rs and tru ss s

d e fin e d .

c
illu s tr t d
e ff e oi ,
on ea an d o e r e e .

F rc p lyg n d sc ri b d
a e

F rth idg
o e o o ,
e e

Fric t i n c f ici n t in b r idg c mpu t t i n s

o Br e .

o ,
oe f e oi ,
f or u se e o a o

Gi d rs
r e C nt inu u s Part i lly C n t inu u s
, s ee B ox, Pl a t G ird rs
o o ,
a o o an d e e .

G or d on f ormul a f or c olumn s 2 8 7 —2 90
 IN DEX 4 77

G ra phic al an d a t
n aly ic al m e ho d s t f or solving p ro l e m s b in s t tic s
a c om
P A GE

p are d
t ts
337
Graphic al Me h o d Mom e n
t
of 3 4 5 , 3 46
Graphic a l Me h o d of S he ar 3 4 6 , 3 4 7 , 348 , 3 4 9

thr ugh bridg

H a lf— o e, d e fi n ed an d illu s t tdra e

H arv ard B r idg e .

H ing e s us e of i n arche s
,

c a n il e v e r ru sse s t t
t
H o w e ru ss d e s c ri e d ,
b
b m bridg illustr t d
I mp c t bridg s buildings
I- ea e, a e 2

imp a c t swing b r idg s

a on e an d 2 8 , 2 9, 3 0
4 1 8 —4 1 9
p s t illu s tr t d
s pe c i fi c a t i o n s f or in e

I nclin d
I nd t min t s truc t u r s tabl s
e e nd - o , a e 2
lin s 4 06 —4 0 7
s tr ss s ch ng s t mp r tu
e er a e e ,
i n fl ue n c e e and e f or

I nd x s tr ss s
due to of re 407 40 8
-
e e a e e e a .

c rr c t d
e e e ,
d e fi ne d 1 7 1 , 1 72, 1 73
p r ll l di g n l s
c mpu t t i n
o e e f or n on- a a e a o a . 184
x a mpl s e e in o a o oi ,
1 7 4 , 1 7 8 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 1 , 1 8 4 , 2 09 ,

lin e s
t t
In fl u e n c e ,
d e fi ned . 6 1 , 62
c an il e v e r ru ss e s
t t
f or 2 6 2 , 2 66, 2 6 7 , 26 8
illu s ra e d
t
63 , 6 4
p ro p e r i e s o f
t bl
65

thr hing d p ab lic arch

In fl ue n c e a e, d e fi ne d 6 1 , 62
2 7 9—2 8 3
illu s tr t d
f or a ee - e ar o

a e 6 2 , 2 79—2 8 4
I nn r f c s
I n t rn a l w k c lumn
e or e ,
d e fi ne d . 4
e or gi d s xp ss i n s
in o s an d r er ,
e re o f or 3 9 5—3 9 7

in t s a n ly t ic l m t h d ppli d
d s c ri b d
Jo , a a e o of , a e

g r phic l m th d
e e

ppli d
d s c ri b d
a a e o oi ,
a e

in t s iv t d tru ss s x mpl
e e .

d s ign
riv t d tru ss s rul s
Jo f or r e e e ,
e a e of e

f or e e d s igning e ; e f or e

K n e e b rae e s pl a t gird r b ridg s

f or e- e e

L a tt ic b rs
L t r l b r cing
e a 30 1 3 0 7
-

L s t w k pplic a t i n th m m as nry t
a e a a 2 40 , 2 4 1 , 2 42 , 2 4 3
ea or ,
a o of e o re to o ar che s wi h fi xe d
ds 4 5 6—4 6 2
b ibli graphy
en .

qu t i n t u s s wit t
o . 40 8
s s s re du n d a n
b rs
e a o f or tre s e in r s e h m em

e 402—406
 IN DEX

t k
Le as w o r t
qu a i o n f or re a c i on s on a p ar i ally c on i nu o u s gird er t t t
t t b t
e

e x a mpl e s of appli c a i o n o f he ore m t o e a m supp or e d at

t t
hree p o in s
b t
3 97
p ro l e m s f or s olu i o n
tt t t
4 08
s a e m e n o f h e or e m 3 95
Liv e l o a d s d e fi n e d
b b
, 4
v alu e s f or ridg e s an d uild i ng s 1 5—1 9
t t
.

Lo a d s p o i n o f applic a i o n oi
,

t 38 39.

L oc o m o iv e e xc e ss d e fin e d
tt
,
. 1 70
e x a mpl e i n c o mpu a i o n o f

t
1 74
L oc o m o iv e s whe e l l oa d s a nd sp a c i ng
t t t t t t
, 16 17 ,

Lu e n m e h o d applic a i on t o d e erm i n a i o n o f s e c i on f o r fi xe d e nd e d
,
-

a rc h e s . 4 5 3 —4 55

M as o n ry arch e s d e s c ri e d and illu s b trat d

t t ns
,
e .

M as on ry d a m s a pplic a i o n s o f e qu a
ass ump t i n s vi t y d m s
,
io
g ra
b ibl g phy
o f or a

io ra

d t r min t i n
d e fin i t i on .

e e a o of pro file of a low dam

d s tr i b u t i n
high d am
' '
Z
t
i o of s t re s s ov e r o i n t S O f
j
c n omic al c ro ss s e c i on of
t t t
e o -

g ra phic a l a nd a n a ly ic a l m e hod s of s olu i on c om

4 38 —4 4 0
t t
b i n ed .

g rap hi c al m e h o d o f s o lu i o n 436 —
t
4 38
o u e r f o rc e s o n 4 30—4 3 1
p ro l e m s b
t b t t
. 44 1
M e a l a r che s d e s c ri e d a n d i llu s ra e d
t t t t
,
2 70 , 2 7 1
M e rop o li a n ow er c o lumn se c i o n
t b t tt
,
2 94
M o m e n a s o lu e m a x i mum c o mpu a i o n o i
, ,
. 90—9 1
c o mm on c a s e s
t t b
45
c onc en tra e d l o a d s y s te m gi rd er wi h fl oo r e a m s
t t b
,
. 8 7, 8 8
wi h ou fl o o r e a m s . 79 , 8 0 , 8 1
d e fi ne d . 44
di a gra m d e fin e d ,
96
di a gra m f or C o o p e r s E l o a ding
tbt d
97
’
40

di s ri u e d l o a
t
. 47
e ff e c o f hing e s up o n

t b am s and gi d rs
2 5 9, 2 60
f ormul as f or m aximum o n e n d s u pp o r e d -
e r e

t
l oc a i on o f s e c i o n of m a ximum t
t tt
51
’

m e h od of c o mpu a i o n of
b
44
f o r r idg e pin s
t tt
32 3
he o re m f or c o mpu a i o n s of 5 1 , 52
unif ormly v arying l oa d 4 8 , 49, 5 0
4 80 I N DEX

Pl a t gi rd e r fl a ng e s ,
ll ow a nc e f o r riv e h ol es t
t
e ,
a

a pp ro xim a i o n in f o r mul a f or

f o rmul a
h e or y t
wid h t
illu s ra e d t t
t R t
.

r iv e s S ee iv e s
t tt
. .

s i f fe n ers c o mpu a i o n of s p a cing

t
d eriv a i o n of formul as
,

illu s ra e d t t
t t
t o c arry c o nc e n ra e d l oad s
w eb a pp ro xim a i o n in h e o ry t t
di re c s re ss i h tt ,

t k
.

mini mum hic n e ss

t
.

h e o ry
Po l e o f forc e p o lyg o n d e fin e d
t ,

t t t , .

Por a l s app ro xim a e s o lu i o n f o r s re ss e s

,

t t
.

illu s ra e d
mi s c e ll an e ou s
k
Po ugh e e p s i e Bridg e
tt t
Pra ru ss c o mpu a i on o f m a ximum s re ss e s in tt t
d e s c ri e d
,

b
Q ueens b o ro B ridg e . 2 5 9, 2 9 4

R nk in c lumn f rmul
R nk in s m th d d t rmin ti n arth p ssur
a e o o a

R a y s f rc
’
a e e o f or e e a o of e re e

R a c ti ns cantil v r truss s polygo n , d e fi ne d

,
of o e

c mpu t a t i n s
e o , e e e

c nv n t i n l s ym b l s
o o .

o e o a o .

g a phic ally
p in t a pplic t i n
r

s lu t i n p r b l m s
o of a o of

th hing d arch s
o o of o e

R ck idg
re e - e e .

R v sal st ss s tr ss in swing
Re d o Br e .

r v rsa l
b idg s
e er of re ,
s pe c i fic a ti o n s f or e e of e

Riv t d j in s inv stigati n iv ts

r e . 4 18 4 1 9
-

1 2 2—1 2 6
Riv t pitch
e e o t , e o of r e in .

x a mpl in c mpu t a t i n pl a t gi d
e ,
d e fin e d . 1 26 , 1 2 9
ang s 1 28 —1 3 1
m th d c mpu t a t i n pl t gi rd r ng s
e e o o for e- r er fl e

o rd i n a iy '
e o of o o f or a e- e fla e

p s m h d c mpu ta t i n pl a t gi d a g
Riv t d t uss s d sign j ints
re 0 1 e et o of o o f or e- r er fl n es . 1 28
3 3 3—3 3 6
Riv s ll wabl uni t st ss s
e e r e ,
e of o

c nv n t i n l rul s l c t i n a nd s p a cing in gi d
et , a o e re e 31
o e o a e f or o a o r e rs . 1 23 , 1 2 7
 IN DEX 48 1

Riv t
s c o nve n i o n a l rule s f o r l o c a i o n a nd s p a c i ng t c o lumn s
t t b t
et , . .

d e e rmin a i o n o f a ll ow a l e s re ss
in pin pl t
m th d s f a ilu
a e

r s i s t a nc t rsi n
e o of re .

d u bl sh r
e e to o o

s ingl
R und
e and o e ea d e fin e d
o -
e nd e d c o lumn s .

S h e ar a pp ro xim a e m e ho d f o r m a ximum
, t t 69 , 7 0
c o mm o n c as e s
t t t t b am s
. 45
c o nc e n ra e d l o a d s y s e m gi rd e r wi 8 1 —8 7
wi th u t b ms
, h fl oo r e

o fl oor ea . 7 5—7 9
cu rv e s
t t
oi , d e fi ne d . 45
illu s ra e d
t
46
ypic a l .
5 4—6 1

tbt d
d e fi ne d 44
di s ri u e d l o a
t b
. 47
f o r mul as f o r m a ximum o n s upp or e d m
t
e nd - ea 67 , 68 , 6 9
g ra phic a l m e h o d o f
t tt
3 46, 3 47 , 34 8
m e ho d o f c o mpu a i on
b idgepins
44

p s i t i n c nc n t ra t d l a d s m a ximum a t a s c t i n
f or r 3 23

unif rmly v rying l d

o o of o e e o f or e o 66

S h ars m t h d
o a oa . 4 8 , 4 9 , 50
a ppli d
d s c ri b d
e , e o oi , e . 1 64 , 1 65

S k w b ridg s a nd illu s tra t d

e e 1 63

S p a nd r l b r c d rch s c mpu t a t i n s
e e ,
d e fin e d e 239, 24 0
2 7 8 —2 8 4
d s c ri b d illu s tra
e -
a e a e , o o f or .

ted e e an d . 27 1
S plic s ngl s
pl t s
e ,
of fl a n ge a e . 1 46, 1 47, 1 48

pl t s
a e 1 48
1 4 3—1 4 6
S t a t ic a l d t min a t i n b y in s rt ing ing s in arch s
web a e

by mitting c rd b ars in c antil v t u ss s

e er o e h e e . 2 70, 2 7 1

di a g n al s in c a n t il v t u ss s
o ho e er r e 2 6 1 , 2 63

S t a t ic lly d t min d s t ruc tu r s

o e er r e . 2 63

S t a t ic a lly und t rmin d s truc tu r s

a e er e e d efin ed 1

S t a t ic s l aw s a nd qu ti n s
e e e e d e fine d 1

S t i n rs P l a t gi d rs
, e a o . 34

S tr ss s ll w b l
ff e e . S ee e- r e .

m as n ry
S t r ss s ll w b l st l
e e ,
a o a e f or o

timb r
e e ,
a o a e f or ee

S tring rs
e

a ng riv t s
e ,
d e fi ne d .

illu s tr t d
fl e e

S tring s
a e

funicul ar p lyg n
S truc tu r s
,
of o o ,
d e fi ne d

typ s l ng s p n b r dg s
e , d e fine d
e oi , f or o -
a i e
4 82 I N DE X

t t tb
S r uc u re s un s a l e d e fine d
bt t
S u s ruc u re d e fin e d
, ,

t t
S up e rs ruc u re d e fin e d
,

t b ,
.

S u s p e nd e d s p a n c a n il e v er ridg e s
b
S u s p e n s i o n ridg e
,

b cing
S wing b idg s supp rt s
S w ay ra .

Sw ng b ridg s c mpu t a t i n m xi um s t ss s b y a pp r xim a t

r e ,
i n flu e nc e of e nd o

m th d illu s tra t d
i e , o o of a m re e o e

c ndi t i n s m ximum s tr ss s
e o e .

qu a t i n s r a c t i n s m a in gird rs truss s
o o f or a e e

supp t s up n r a c t i n s
e o f or e o on e an d e

p i t s s upp t
i n fl u en c e of e n d or o e o .

pr bl m s lu t i n
o n of or .

imp c t r v rs l s tr ss
o e s f or o o .

t bl s r ac ti ns unit l ad s
s pec i fi c a t i o n s f or a an d e e a of e .

typ s gird rs tru ss s

a e of e o f or o .

e of e an d e

T nsi n m mb rs d sign ir n st l
T sts c ast ir n c lumns
e o e e , e oi , o and ee

s t l c lumn s
e ,
-
o o

Th r m l ast w k
ee o

t hr m m n t s
eo e of e or

Thr hi g d arch s c mputati ns m aximum str ss s

ee- o e . .

Thr h ng d rch s d scrib d i lust at d

e e- n e e ,
o o f or e e .

p ra b l c
e e- i e a e , e e an d l r e

T r m m nt qu ati n
a o i

Thr ugh ridg s a nd llu s tr t d

h e e- o e e o

o b e ,
d e fin e d i a e

wh n u s d
Timb r c lumns
e e

Tr nsv rs b nts build gs

e o

Tru ss pin c nn ct d illustr t d

a e e e f or in .

Tru ss s ,
-
o e e ,
a e

D fl c t i n
e , c la ss i fi e d an d d efin e d

t h ry
d e fle c t i on of S ee e e o .

ty s b idg
eo

r f
pe of r e

wi th s c nd ry s y s t m s d s c ri b d
oo .

Truss s tr ss s mb igu u s c as s
e o a w eb e ,
e e .

by analytic l m th d j i s
e e ,
a o e .

g phic a l m t h d j ints
a e o of o nt 1 54

th d m m n t s
ra e o of o

me o of o e .

s h ar
d t rmin a t i n
e

g n r l ul s
s y s t m up n
e e a r e f or e e o of

s c nd y
m t h d s c mpu t t i n
i n fl u en c e of e o ar w eb e o

e o of o a o .