PRACTICUM REPORT

FLUID MECHANICS II – TL2201

MODULE 04
FLOW ABOVE THE BROAD-CRESTED WEIR
AND SHARP-CRESTED WEIR

Name : Safira Aryanti Gunawan

NIM : 15320021
Group : International B
Date of Practicum : 24 February 2022
Report Due Date : 02 March 2022
Module’s PIC : Adam Prisma Winartha (15318082)
Adjis Pramono (15319032)
Practicum Assistants : Sharnella Janet Yapfrine (15319086)
Muhammad Vito Sami Fauzan (15319119)

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAM

FACULTY OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI BANDUNG
2022
 A. FLOW ABOVE BROAD-CRESTED WEIR
1. PRACTICUM OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this practicum are:
1) To measure the flow discharge using the broad-crested weir as the
measuring tool
2) To determine the discharge coefficient (Cd), specific energy (ES),
critical depth (yc) and Froude number (NFr) from broad-crested weir
3) To determine the relationship of water level above the weir to the
overflow of water above the threshold
4) To determine the effect of the shape of the weir on the effectiveness
of debit distribution
5) To determine the characteristics of flow through a broad-crested
weir
6) To determine the velocity of flow

2. INITIAL DATA
The initial data obtained during the practicum:
Table A.2.1 Initial data of supporting parameters
Initial temperature 24 ℃
Final temperature 26 ℃
Channel width 0.075 m
Mass of load 2.5 kg
Mass of water 7.5 kg
Threshold width 0.075 m
Threshold height 0.025 m
Threshold length 0.115 m
 Table A.2.2 Initial data of time measurement
Variation Time (s)
t1 t2 t3 t average
1 16.66 17.53 15.28 16.49
2 8.9 9.03 8.9 8.943333333
3 4.29 3.96 4.1 4.116666667

Table A.2.3 Data of depth measurement in each point

Variation Water depth (m)
y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6 y7 y8
1 0.0365 0.0384 0.0373 0.035 0.0318 0.004 0.0055 0.011
2 0.0591 0.0603 0.0556 0.0464 0.0422 0.0128 0.0172 0.0284
3 0.0819 0.0826 0.0791 0.0614 0.0537 0.025 0.0348 0.04

Table A.2.4 Data of distance measurement for each point

Distance (m)
Variation
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8
1 1 1.56 1.73 1.84 1.95 2 2.32 3.3

2 1 1.4 1.52 1.65 1.76 1.85 2.93 4

3 1 1.4 1.54 1.65 1.76 1.86 3.31 4.5

Table A.2.5 Data of water density based on temperature

(Source: Finnemore, 2002)
Temperature Density (kg/m3)
(°C)
0 999.9
5 1000
10 999.7
 15 999.1
20 998.2
30 995.7
40 992.2
50 988.1
60 983.2
70 977.8
80 971.8
90 965.3
100 958.4

Graph A.2.1 Graph of water temperature in correlation to water density

Temperature (°C) vs Density (kg/m^3)

1005
1000
995
y = -0.0036x2 - 0.0695x + 1000.6
Density (kg/m^3)

990 R² = 0.9993
985
980
975
970
965
960
955
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature (°C)

3. DATA PROCESSING
3.1. Calculating average temperature of water (Tavg)
To find the actual flow rate, the average water temperature is required.
Determining the average water temperature can be done using the
following formula:
 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑇 𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2
Tavg = (24+26) / 2
Tavg = 25 °C

3.2. Calculating the average time

The average time is required to find the actual flowrate. The average time
for the first variation is calculated in the following formula.
𝑡1 + 𝑡2 + 𝑡3
𝑡 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
3
t average = (16.66 + 17.53 + 15.28) / 3
t average = 16.49 seconds
The average time for the rest of the variations can be seen in Chapter 4.

3.3. Calculating mass of water

By calculating the mass of water, we can find the water volume which is
needed to determine the actual flow rate. The mass of water can be
calculated by using the mass of load, as shown in the formula below:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 3 × 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Mass of water = 3 × 2.5
Mass of water = 7.5 kg

3.4. Calculating density of water

Using the linear equation of y = -0.0036x2 – 0.0695x + 1000.6 from
Graph 2.1 we can calculate the density of water at Tavg= 25 °C as shown
below:
Density of water = -0.0036(Tavg)2 – 0.0695(Tavg) + 1000.6
Density of water = -0.0036(25)2 – 0.0695(25) + 1000.6
Density of water = 996.6125 kg/m3

3.5. Calculating the volume of water

Determining the volume of water can be done by using the mass of water
and density of water as shown in the formula below:
 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Volume of water = 7.5 / 996.6125
Volume of water = 0.0075254926 m3

3.6. Calculating actual flow rate

The actual flow rate is calculated by using the data that was taken using
the hydraulic bench.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 3 × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑄 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = =
𝑡 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒
Qactual variant 1 = (0.0075254926) / 16.49
Qactual variant 1 = 0.000456367 m3/s
The actual flow rate of the other variants is shown in Chapter 4.

3.7. Calculating depth of water without threshold

The water depth in point 3, 4, and 5 included the height of the threshold.
Therefore, to find the water depth without the threshold can be done by
using the formula below.
𝑦 ′ = 𝑦 − 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
y’ = 0.0373 – 0.025
y’ = 0.0123 m
The calculation above is for variant 1 point 3. The calculation result of the
other variants is shown in Chapter 4.

3.8. Calculating wet cross-sectional area

The wet cross-sectional area of a rectangle-shaped channel can be
calculated by using the following equation.
A = b × y’
A = 0.075 * 0.0365
A = 0.0027375 m2
The calculation above is for variant 1 point 1. For the rest of the variants
and points can be seen in Chapter 4.
3.9. Calculating velocity of water
The velocity of flow can be calculated using the following formula.
v=Q/A
v = 0.000456367 / 0.0027375
v = 0.166709423 m/s
The calculation above is for variant 1 point 1. For the rest of the variants
and points can be seen in Chapter 4.

3.10. Calculating Froude number

The Froude number can be calculated using the following formula.
𝑣
𝑁𝐹𝑟 =
√𝑔 × 𝑦′
0.166709423
𝑁𝐹𝑟 =
√9.81 × 0.0365
NFr = 0.278598782
The calculation above is for variant 1 point 1. For the rest of the variants
and points can be seen in Chapter 4.

3.11. Calculating specific energy

The specific energy can be calculated using the following formula.
𝑣2
𝐸𝑆 = 𝑦′ +
2𝑔
0.1667094232
𝐸𝑆 = 0.0365 +
2 × 9.81
ES = 0.037916515 m
The calculation above is for variant 1 point 1. For the rest of the variants
and points can be seen in Chapter 4.

3.12. Calculating depth above weir (hu)

The depth above weir can be calculated using the following formula.
𝑦1 + 𝑦2
ℎ𝑢 = − 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2
0.0365 + 0.0384
ℎ𝑢 = − 0.025
2
 hu = 0.01245 m
The calculation above is for variant 1. For the rest of the variants can be
seen in Chapter 4.

3.13. Calculating critical depth

The critical depth can be calculated using the following formula.

3 𝑄2
𝑦𝑐 = √
𝑏2𝑔

3 0.0004563672
𝑦𝑐 = √
0.0752 × 9.81

yc = 0.015569656 m
The calculation above is for variant 1. For the rest of the variants can be
seen in Chapter 4.

3.14. Calculating theoretical discharge

The theoretical discharge can be calculated using the following formula.
3
𝑄 = 1.705𝑏 × (ℎ𝑢)2
3
𝑄 = 1.705(0.075) × (0.01245)2
𝑚3
𝑄 = 0.00017764
𝑠
The calculation above is for variant 1. For the rest of the variants can be
seen in Chapter 4.

3.15. Calculating discharge coefficient

The discharge coefficient can be calculated using the formula below.
𝑄 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝑐𝑑 =
𝑄 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
0.000456367
𝑐𝑑 =
0.00017764
cd = 2.569062107
The calculation above is for variant 1. For the rest of the variants can be
seen in Chapter 4.
 4. FINAL DATA
The final data obtained from the experiment and calculations are as followings:
Table 4.1 Calculation result of variant 1
Q
V actual A
Points y (m) y' (m) (m^3) (m^3/s) (m^2) v (m/s) NFr ES (m) yc (m)
0.0365 0.0365 0.0075 0.0005 0.0027 0.1667 0.2786 0.0379 0.0156
1
0.0384 0.0384 0.0075 0.0005 0.0029 0.1585 0.2582 0.0397 0.0156
2
0.0373 0.0123 0.0075 0.0005 0.0009 0.4947 1.4242 0.0248 0.0156
3
0.035 0.01 0.0075 0.0005 0.0008 0.6085 1.9428 0.0289 0.0156
4
0.0318 0.0068 0.0075 0.0005 0.0005 0.8948 3.4646 0.0476 0.0156
5
0.004 0.004 0.0075 0.0005 0.0003 1.5212 7.6794 0.1219 0.0156
6
0.0055 0.0055 0.0075 0.0005 0.0004 1.1063 4.7629 0.0679 0.0156
7
0.011 0.011 0.0075 0.0005 0.0008 0.5532 1.6840 0.0266 0.0156
8

Table 4.2 Calculation result of variant 2

V Q actual A
Points y (m) y' (m) (m^3) (m^3/s) (m^2) v (m/s) NFr ES (m) yc (m)
0.0591 0.0591 0.0075 0.0008 0.0044 0.1898 0.2493 0.0609 0.0234
1
0.0603 0.0603 0.0075 0.0008 0.0045 0.1861 0.2419 0.0621 0.0234
2
0.0556 0.0306 0.0075 0.0008 0.0023 0.3667 0.6692 0.0375 0.0234
3
0.0464 0.0214 0.0075 0.0008 0.0016 0.5243 1.1442 0.0354 0.0234
4
0.0422 0.0172 0.0075 0.0008 0.0013 0.6523 1.5880 0.0389 0.0234
5
0.0128 0.0128 0.0075 0.0008 0.0010 0.8765 2.4736 0.0520 0.0234
6
0.0172 0.0172 0.0075 0.0008 0.0013 0.6523 1.5880 0.0389 0.0234
7
0.0284 0.0284 0.0075 0.0008 0.0021 0.3951 0.7484 0.0364 0.0234
8
 Table 4.3 Calculation result of variant 3

V Q actual A
Points y (m) y' (m) (m^3) (m^3/s) (m^2) v (m/s) NFr ES (m) yc (m)
0.0819 0.0819 0.0075 0.0018 0.0061 0.2976 0.3320 0.0864 0.0393
1
0.0826 0.0826 0.0075 0.0018 0.0062 0.2951 0.3278 0.0870 0.0393
2
0.0791 0.0541 0.0075 0.0018 0.0041 0.4505 0.6184 0.0644 0.0393
3
0.0614 0.0364 0.0075 0.0018 0.0027 0.6696 1.1206 0.0593 0.0393
4
0.0537 0.0287 0.0075 0.0018 0.0022 0.8493 1.6006 0.0655 0.0393
5
0.025 0.025 0.0075 0.0018 0.0019 0.9750 1.9687 0.0734 0.0393
6
0.0348 0.0348 0.0075 0.0018 0.0026 0.7004 1.1987 0.0598 0.0393
7
0.04 0.04 0.0075 0.0018 0.0030 0.6094 0.9728 0.0589 0.0393
8

Table 4.4 Calculation result of discharge coefficient

Q
theoretical Q actual
Variation hu (m) (m^3/s) (m^3/s) CD
0.01245 0.00017764 0.000456367 2.569062107
1
0.0347 0.00082657 0.000841464 1.018018467
2
0.05725 0.001751656 0.001828055 1.043615082
3

5. ANALYSIS A
5.1. Procedure Analysis
The Hydraulic bench device uses a mechanism called the principle of
balance lever. In order to measure the actual flow rate, the balance lever
principle is used, where it results in obtaining a ratio from the mass of the
load and the mass of water. In this practicum, it is required to measure the
time from when the water raised the lever before a load is given (then
dropped) until the lever goes up again with the load. The mass of water
weighs three times more than the mass of the load due to the length of the
arm.
 The first step of this practicum is to place the broad-crested weir in the open
channel to find the actual discharge. Measure the dimensions of the weir
with the depth gauge tool. The depth gauge tool should be calibrated
beforehand in order to increase accuracy and minimize error of
measurement. Then, the pumped is turned on. The initial water temperature
is taken, which will be used later to determine the density of water. Set the
water to flow through the valve, but the channel should not be overflowed.
After that, the actual discharge is measure using the hydraulic bench. Water
depth measurement is done on 8 points along the channel. Note the water
depth at each point and the distance between those points. These steps are
done for a total of 3 discharge variations. After all is done, the pump is
turned off and the discharge control valve is closed. Lastly, the final water
temperature is measured.

5.2. Data and Graph Analysis

5.2.1. Flow profile (y and x)
Based on the data acquired in this practicum, a graph can be made to show
the flow profile, comparing the water depth with the distance of points
along the channel. The graph can be seen below.
Graph A.5.2.1.1. Flow profile

Water depth and distance of points

0.09
0.08
0.07
Water depth (m)

0.06
0.05
Var1
0.04
Var2
0.03
Var3
0.02
0.01
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Distance of points (m)

From the graph above, we can see that the water depth is different for each
point in each discharge variation. All three variations show a similar shape
in general, but with different water depths. The water depth from point 1 to
point 2 increases slightly, and undergoes a decrease until point 5 in which
it falls significantly down to point 6, that is the lowest depth in all
variations. According to the graph, the depth of water is affected by the
discharge. The higher the discharge, the higher the water depth. As the
water depth increases, the height of the fall also increases. In the end, the
hydraulic jump becomes bigger.

5.2.2. Q actual and b.hu3/2

Based on the data acquired in this practicum and the calculations done after,
a graph can be made to compare the actual flowrate and channel width
times water depth above the weir. The graph can be seen below.
Graph A.5.2.2.1. Q actual and b.hu3/2

Q actual and b.hu^(3/2)

0.002
0.0018
0.0016
Q actual (m^3/s)

0.0014
0.0012 y = 1.7932x
0.001 R² = 0.9827

0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
0.0002
0
0 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.001 0.0012
b.hu^(3/2)

From the graph above, we can see that the comparison between Q actual
and b.hu3/2 produces an equation y = 1.7932x where y represents Q actual
and x represents b.hu3/2. The value of R2 is 0.9827 which is close to 1,
meaning that one of the variables influence the other strongly. From that,
we can get the value of R that is 0.9913 which is close to 1, meaning that
the variables have a proportionally correlated.

The theoretical coefficient discharge can be determined using the following

formula.
 2 2𝑔 3
𝑄= × 𝐶𝑑 × √ × 𝑏 × ℎ𝑢2
3 3

2 2𝑔 3
𝑄 = ( × 𝐶𝑑 × √ ) × 𝑏. ℎ𝑢2
3 3

So, since y = 1.7932x

2 2𝑔
× 𝐶𝑑 × √ = 1.7932
3 3
3
𝐶𝑑 = 1.7932 × × 2.557
2
𝐶𝑑 = 1.051259358
Therefore, the error can be determined using the following equation.
𝐶𝑑𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝐶𝑑𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
𝐶𝑑𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
1.051259358 − 2.569062107
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
1.051259358
Error = 144.3794757 %
The calculation above is for variant 1. The results for other variants can
be seen below.
Error variant 2 = 3.162006705 %
Error variant 3 = 0.727154133 %

5.2.3. Y’ and NFr

Based on the data acquired in this practicum and the calculations done after,
a graph can be made to compare the water depth above weir and the Froude
number. The graph can be seen below.
Graph A.5.2.3.1. Water depth above weir and Froude number
 y' and NFr
0.09

Water depth aboce weir y' (m)

0.08 y = 0.0393x-0.667
0.07 R² = 1

0.06 Var1
y = 0.0234x-0.667
0.05 Var2
R² = 1
0.04 Var3
0.03 Power (Var1)
0.02 y = 0.0156x-0.667
R² = 1 Power (Var2)
0.01
Power (Var3)
0
0.0000 2.0000 4.0000 6.0000 8.0000 10.0000
NFr

From the graph above, we can see that the comparison between water depth
above weir and Froude number produces an equation for each variation.
The equations can be seen below.
y = 0.0156x-0.667
y = 0.0234x0.667
y = 0.0393x-0.667
For all of the variations, the value of R2 is the same, which is 1. This means
that the variable is strongly influenced by the other variable. Furthermore,
we can get the value of R which is also 1, meaning that the variables are
strongly correlated.

The error can be determined by using the following formula.

𝑣
𝑁𝐹𝑟 =
√𝑔𝑦 ′
1 𝑣
𝑦′ = ×√
𝑔 𝑁𝐹𝑟
So, according to the format y = a xb we can get b = -0.5 therefore
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
−0.5 − (−0.667)
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
−0.5
Error = 33.4 %
5.2.4. Y’ and ES
Based on the data acquired in this practicum and the calculations done
after, a graph can be made to compare the water depth above weir and
specific energy. The graph can be seen below.
Figure A.5.2.4.1 Graph of water depth above weir and specific
energy variant 1

From the graph above, we can see that the comparison between water
depth above weir and specific energy produces the actual critical depth
yc = 0.0123. The value of yc is not the same as the yc from the
experiment, therefore the error can be determined with the equation
below.
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
0.0156 − 0.0123
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
0.0156
Error = 21.15 %
 Figure A.5.2.4.2 Graph of water depth above weir and specific
energy variant 2

From the graph above, we can see that the comparison between water
depth above weir and specific energy produces the actual critical depth
yc = 0.024. The value of yc is not the same as the yc from the
experiment, therefore the error can be determined with the equation
below.
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
0.0234 − 0.024
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
0.0234
Error = 2.564 %

Figure A.5.2.4.3 Graph of water depth above weir and specific

energy variant 3
 From the graph above, we can see that the comparison between water
depth above weir and specific energy produces the actual critical depth
yc = 0.04. The value of yc is not the same as the yc from the
experiment, therefore the error can be determined with the equation
below.
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
0.0393 − 0.04
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
0.0393
Error = 1.781 %

5.3. Strengths and weaknesses of broad-crested weir

Because the broad-crested structure's design and construction are simple, it
may be installed at a low cost. A theoretical calibration based on post-
construction dimensions may be produced with the broad-crested weir, and
the accuracy of the calibration is such that the discharge error is less than
2% (this is assuming correct design and installation of the structure). A staff
gauge labelled in discharge units can be installed upstream, just like other
open-channel flow measurement structures operating under free-flow
 (modular) conditions; this permits a direct reading of the discharge without
the need for tables, curves, or calculators.

However, deposition will occur upstream of the building for water supplies
containing sediment. The water depth upstream will be slightly greater than
it was before the construction was built. Farmers and other water users are
generally opposed to the structure's implementation because they believe it
will severely restrict canal flow capacity. Although this is a misconception
about a well built broad-crested weir, it is a significant disadvantage when
compared to other flow metering systems.

5.4. Q theoretical formula derivation

The equation of theoretical flowrate above broad-crested weir is shown
below.

2 2𝑔 3
𝑄= × √ × 𝑏 × ℎ𝑢2
3 3

The equation derivation can be seen below.

2
𝑦= 𝐸𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑆2 = 𝐻
3 2
2
𝑦𝑐 = 𝐻
3
Then,
𝑄 = 𝐴 × 𝑐𝑣
𝑄 = 𝑏 × 𝑦𝑐 × 𝑐𝑣
𝑄 = 𝑣 × 𝑦𝑐 × √𝑔 × 𝑦𝑐
So,

2 2𝑔 3
𝑄= × √ × 𝑏 × ℎ𝑢2
3 3
3
𝑄 = 1.705 × 𝑏 × ℎ𝑢2
3
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 × 𝑐𝑣 × 1.705 × 𝑏 × ℎ𝑢2
 5.5. Error Analysis
During the experiment, there are a number of factors that can cause some errors
to occur. One of the factors is inaccuracy and lack of precision from the
practician when measuring the time using stopwatch. In addition to that, the
practician could make a mistake while emptying the weight tank or while filling
them in. There could be a leakage that the practician did not notice, and
therefore causing the volume of water to be inconsistent. Not only that, there
could be some mistakes when measuring the distance between points. There is
also a possibility of making a mistake while measuring the depth of the water
in the channel, where the measurement tool is prone to mistakes because it is
used to measure small distances. The depth gauge tool might not have been
calibrated properly.

6. ANALYSIS B
Applications of this topic in environmental engineering can be seen below:
1. Flow measurement in canal
A broad-crested weir can be used to measure the flow in a canal.

Figure 6.1 Broad-crested weir in canal (Source: openchannelflow.com)

2. Flow control
A broad-crested weir can be used to control the flow of a channel. It is useful
to manage the water speed and depth of the channel.
 Figure 6.2 Broad-crested weir (Source: hydrocad.net)

3. Flood prevention
A broad-crested weir can be used to reduce the flow of water, which is a
helpful way to prevent flooding.

Figure 6.2 Broad-crested weir (Source: hydrocad.net)

7. CONCLUSION
From this practicum, it can be concluded that:
1) The flow discharge using the broad-crested weir as the measuring
tool can be seen in the table below.
Table A.7.1. Flow discharge using broad-crested weir

Variation Q actual (m^3/s)

1 0.000456367
 2 0.000841464

3 0.001828055

2) The discharge coefficient (Cd), specific energy (ES), critical depth

(yc) and Froude number (NFr) from broad-crested weir can be seen in
Chapter 4.
3) The relationship of water level above the weir to the overflow of
water above the threshold can be seen in the flow profile in Chapter 5.
4) The shape of the weir, in this case, the broad-crested weir, is
effective at distributing the discharge, due to its flat top that constant height
throughout the length of the weir.
5) The characteristics of flow through a broad-crested weir can be seen
in the flow profile in Chapter 5.
6) The velocity of flow can be seen in Chapter 4 for each variation.

8. REFERENCES
1) Finnemore, J. 2002. Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Application.
New York: McGraw Hill.

9. APPENDIX
Figure A.8.1. Water density based on temperature (source: Finnemore, 2002)
 B. FLOW ABOVE SHARP-CRESTED WEIR
1. PRACTICUM OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this practicum are:
1) To determine the flow rate
2) To determine the discharge coefficient (Cd), critical depth (yc) and
Froude number (NFr) from sharp-crested weir
3) To determine the characteristics of flow through a sharp-crested weir
4) To determine the specific energy

2. INITIAL DATA
The initial data obtained during the practicum:
Table A.2.1 Initial data of supporting parameters
Initial temperature 24 ℃
Final temperature 26 ℃
Channel width 0.075 m
Mass of load 2.5 kg
Mass of water 7.5 kg
Threshold width 0.075 m
Threshold length 0.115 m
Threshold height 1 0.049 m
Threshold height 2 0.044 m
Threshold height 3 0.038 m

Table 2.2 Initial data of time measurement

Variation Time (s)
t1 t2 t3 t average
1 16.66 17.53 15.28 16.49
2 8.9 9.03 8.9 8.943333333
3 4.29 3.96 4.1 4.116666667
 Table 2.3 Data of depth measurement in each point
Variation Water depth (m)
y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6 y7 y8
1 0.06 0.0542 0.054 0.051 0.0012 0.0074 0.0113 0.0092
2 0.0787 0.0766 0.0745 0.0727 0.0124 0.0203 0.029 0.025
3 0.0985 0.0959 0.0922 0.0917 0.0212 0.0324 0.0358 0.0357

Table 2.4 Data of distance measurement for each point

Distance (m)
Variation
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8
1 1 1.83 1.88 1.93 1.97 2.22 2.25 3.3

2 1 1.75 1.76 1.77 1.83 3.45 3.58 4.46

3 1 1.83 1.88 1.93 2 4.2 4.45 4.68

Table 2.5 Data of water density based on temperature

(Source: Finnemore, 2002)
Temperature Density (kg/m3)
(°C)
0 999.9
5 1000
10 999.7
15 999.1
20 998.2
30 995.7
40 992.2
50 988.1
60 983.2
70 977.8
80 971.8
 90 965.3
100 958.4

Graph 2.1 Graph of water temperature in correlation to water density

Temperature (°C) vs Density (kg/m^3)

1005
1000
995
y = -0.0036x2 - 0.0695x + 1000.6
Density (kg/m^3)

990 R² = 0.9993
985
980
975
970
965
960
955
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature (°C)

3. DATA PROCESSING
3.1. Calculating average temperature of water (Tavg)
To find the actual flow rate, the average water temperature is required.
Determining the average water temperature can be done using the
following formula:
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑇 𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2
Tavg = (24+26) / 2
Tavg = 25 °C

3.2. Calculating the average time

The average time is required to find the actual flowrate. The average time
for the first variation is calculated in the following formula.
𝑡1 + 𝑡2 + 𝑡3
𝑡 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
3
 t average = (16.66 + 17.53 + 15.28) / 3
t average = 16.49 seconds
The average time for the rest of the variations can be seen in Chapter 4.

3.3. Calculating mass of water

By calculating the mass of water, we can find the water volume which is
needed to determine the actual flow rate. The mass of water can be
calculated by using the mass of load, as shown in the formula below:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 3 × 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Mass of water = 3 × 2.5
Mass of water = 7.5 kg

3.4. Calculating density of water

Using the linear equation of y = -0.0036x2 – 0.0695x + 1000.6 from
Graph 2.1 we can calculate the density of water at Tavg= 25 °C as shown
below:
Density of water = -0.0036(Tavg)2 – 0.0695(Tavg) + 1000.6
Density of water = -0.0036(25)2 – 0.0695(25) + 1000.6
Density of water = 996.6125 kg/m3

3.5. Calculating the volume of water

Determining the volume of water can be done by using the mass of water
and density of water as shown in the formula below:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Volume of water = 7.5 / 996.6125
Volume of water = 0.0075254926 m3

3.6. Calculating actual flow rate

The actual flow rate is calculated by using the data that was taken using
the hydraulic bench.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 3 × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑄 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = =
𝑡 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒
 Qactual variant 1 = (0.0075254926) / 16.49
Qactual variant 1 = 0.000456367 m3/s
The actual flow rate of the other variants is shown in Chapter 4.

3.7. Calculating depth of water without threshold

The water depth in point 2, 3, and 4 included the height of the threshold.
Therefore, to find the water depth at point 2 without the threshold can be
done by using the formula below.
𝑦 ′ = 𝑦 − 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
y’ = 0.0542 – 0.049
y’ = 0.0052 m
The calculation above is for variant 1 point 2. The calculation result of the
other variants is shown in Chapter 4.

3.8. Calculating wet cross-sectional area

The wet cross-sectional area of a rectangle-shaped channel can be
calculated by using the following equation.
A = b × y’
A = 0.075 * 0.06
A = 0.0045 m2
The calculation above is for variant 1 point 1. For the rest of the variants
and points can be seen in Chapter 4.

3.9. Calculating velocity of water

The velocity of flow can be calculated using the following formula.
v=Q/A
v = 0.000456367 / 0.0045
v = 0.101414899 m/s
The calculation above is for variant 1 point 1. For the rest of the variants
and points can be seen in Chapter 4.

3.10. Calculating Froude number

 The Froude number can be calculated using the following formula.
𝑣
𝑁𝐹𝑟 =
√𝑔 × 𝑦′
0.101414899
𝑁𝐹𝑟 =
√9.81 × 0.06
NFr = 0.13219
The calculation above is for variant 1 point 1. For the rest of the variants
and points can be seen in Chapter 4.

3.11. Calculating specific energy

The specific energy can be calculated using the following formula.
𝑣2
𝐸𝑆 = 𝑦′ +
2𝑔
0.1014148992
𝐸𝑆 = 0.06 +
2 × 9.81
ES = 0.060524209 m
The calculation above is for variant 1 point 1. For the rest of the variants
and points can be seen in Chapter 4.

3.12. Calculating depth above weir (h)

The depth above weir can be calculated using the following formula.
ℎ = 𝑦1 − 𝑝
ℎ = 0.06 − 0.049
h = 0.011 m
The calculation above is for variant 1. For the rest of the variants can be
seen in Chapter 4.

3.13. Calculating critical depth

The critical depth can be calculated using the following formula.

3 𝑄2
𝑦𝑐 = √
𝑏2𝑔
 3 0.0004563672
𝑦𝑐 = √
0.0752 × 9.81

yc = 0.015569656 m
The calculation above is for variant 1. For the rest of the variants can be
seen in Chapter 4.

3.14. Calculating theoretical discharge

The theoretical discharge can be calculated using the following formula.
2
𝑄= × 𝐶𝑑 × 𝑏 × √2𝑔ℎ3
3
2
𝑄= × 1 × 0.075 × √2 × 9.81 × 0.0113
3
𝑚3
𝑄 = 0.00025551
𝑠
The calculation above is for variant 1. For the rest of the variants can be
seen in Chapter 4.

3.15. Calculating discharge coefficient

The discharge coefficient can be calculated using the formula below.
𝑄 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝑐𝑑 =
𝑄 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
0.000456367
𝑐𝑑 =
0.00025551
cd = 1.78609989
The calculation above is for variant 1. For the rest of the variants can be
seen in Chapter 4.
 4. FINAL DATA
The final data obtained from the experiment and calculations are as followings:
Table 4.1 Calculation result of variant 1
Q actual A
Points y (m) y' (m) V (m^3) (m^3/s) (m^2) v (m/s) NFr ES (m) yc (m)
1 0.06 0.06 0.00753 0.00046 0.00450 0.10141 0.13219 0.06052 0.01557
2 0.0542 0.0052 0.00753 0.00046 0.00039 1.17017 5.18100 0.07499 0.01557
3 0.054 0.01 0.00753 0.00046 0.00075 0.60849 1.94276 0.02887 0.01557
4 0.051 0.013 0.00753 0.00046 0.00098 0.46807 1.31070 0.02417 0.01557
5 0.0012 0.0012 0.00753 0.00046 0.00009 5.07074 46.73547 1.31172 0.01557
6 0.0074 0.0074 0.00753 0.00046 0.00056 0.82228 3.05190 0.04186 0.01557
7 0.0113 0.0113 0.00753 0.00046 0.00085 0.53849 1.61734 0.02608 0.01557
8 0.0092 0.0092 0.00753 0.00046 0.00069 0.66140 2.20159 0.03150 0.01557

Table 4.2 Calculation result of variant 2

Q actual A
Points y (m) y' (m) V (m^3) (m^3/s) (m^2) v (m/s) NFr ES (m) yc (m)
1 0.0787 0.0787 0.00753 0.00084 0.00590 0.14256 0.16225 0.07974 0.02341
2 0.0766 0.0276 0.00753 0.00084 0.00207 0.40650 0.78122 0.03602 0.02341
3 0.0745 0.0305 0.00753 0.00084 0.00229 0.36785 0.67250 0.03740 0.02341
4 0.0727 0.0347 0.00753 0.00084 0.00260 0.32333 0.55417 0.04003 0.02341
5 0.0124 0.0124 0.00753 0.00084 0.00093 0.90480 2.59422 0.05413 0.02341
6 0.0203 0.0203 0.00753 0.00084 0.00152 0.55269 1.23850 0.03587 0.02341

7 0.029 0.029 0.00753 0.00084 0.00218 0.38688 0.72534 0.03663 0.02341

8 0.025 0.025 0.00753 0.00084 0.00188 0.44878 0.90621 0.03527 0.02341

 Table 4.3 Calculation result of variant 3
Q
actual A
Points y (m) y' (m) V (m^3) (m^3/s) (m^2) v (m/s) NFr ES (m) yc (m)
1 0.0985 0.0985 0.00753 0.00183 0.00739 0.24745 0.25173 0.10162 0.03927

2 0.0959 0.0469 0.00753 0.00183 0.00352 0.51970 0.76619 0.06067 0.03927

3 0.0922 0.0482 0.00753 0.00183 0.00362 0.50569 0.73540 0.06123 0.03927

4 0.0917 0.0537 0.00753 0.00183 0.00403 0.45389 0.62536 0.06420 0.03927

5 0.0212 0.0212 0.00753 0.00183 0.00159 1.14972 2.52110 0.08857 0.03927

6 0.0324 0.0324 0.00753 0.00183 0.00243 0.75229 1.33437 0.06124 0.03927

7 0.0358 0.0358 0.00753 0.00183 0.00269 0.68084 1.14886 0.05943 0.03927

8 0.0357 0.0357 0.00753 0.00183 0.00268 0.68275 1.15370 0.05946 0.03927

Table 4.4 Calculation result of discharge coefficient

Q theoretical
Variation h (m) (m^3/s) Q actual (m^3/s) CD

1 0.011 0.00026 0.000456367 1.7861

2 0.0297 0.00113 0.000841464 0.7423

3 0.0495 0.00244 0.001828055 0.74948

5. ANALYSIS A
5.1. Procedure Analysis
The Hydraulic bench device uses a mechanism called the principle of
balance lever. In order to measure the actual flow rate, the balance lever
principle is used, where it results in obtaining a ratio from the mass of the
load and the mass of water. In this practicum, it is required to measure the
time from when the water raised the lever before a load is given (then
dropped) until the lever goes up again with the load. The mass of water
 weighs three times more than the mass of the load due to the length of the
arm.

The first step of this practicum is to place the sharp-crested weir in the open
channel to find the actual discharge. Measure the dimensions of the weir
with the depth gauge tool. The depth gauge tool should be calibrated
beforehand in order to increase accuracy and minimize error of
measurement. Then, the pumped is turned on. The initial water temperature
is taken, which will be used later to determine the density of water. Set the
water to flow through the valve, but the channel should not be overflowed.
After that, the actual discharge is measure using the hydraulic bench. Water
depth measurement is done on 8 points along the channel. Note the water
depth at each point and the distance between those points. These steps are
done for a total of 3 discharge variations. After all is done, the pump is
turned off and the discharge control valve is closed. Lastly, the final water
temperature is measured.

5.2. Data and Graph Analysis

5.2.1. Flow profile
Based on the data acquired in this practicum and the calculations done after,
a graph can be made to compare the average depth and distance of points.
The graph can be seen below.
Graph B.5.2.1.1. Flow profile
 Flow profile
0.12

0.1

0.08
Water depth (m)
0.06 Var1

0.04 Var2
Var3
0.02

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
-0.02
Distance of points (m)

From the graph above, we can see that the water depth is different for each
point in each discharge variation. All three variations show a similar shape
in general, but with different water depths. The water depth from point 1 to
point 2 decreases slightly, and undergoes a decrease until point 4 in which
it falls significantly down to point 5, that is the lowest depth in all
variations. After that, the height increases again, although in a steadier
manner. According to the graph, the depth of water is affected by the
discharge. The higher the discharge, the higher the water depth. As the
water depth increases, the height of the fall also increases. In the end, the
hydraulic jump becomes bigger.

5.2.2. Q actual and b.h3/2

Based on the data acquired in this practicum and the calculations done after,
a graph can be made to compare the actual flowrate and channel width
times water depth above the weir. The graph can be seen below.
Graph B.5.2.2.1. Q actual and b.h3/2
 Q actual and b.h^(3/2)
0.002
0.0018
0.0016

Q actual (m^3/s)
0.0014
0.0012 y = 2.2368x
0.001 R² = 0.9836
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
0.0002
0
0 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.001
b.h^(3/2)

From the graph above, we can see that the comparison between Q actual
and b.hu3/2 produces an equation y = 2.2368x where y represents Q actual
and x represents b.hu3/2. The value of R2 is 0.9836 which is close to 1,
meaning that one of the variables influence the other strongly. From that,
we can get the value of R that is 0.9918 which is close to 1, meaning that
the variables have a proportional correlation.

The theoretical coefficient discharge can be determined using the following

formula.

2 2𝑔 3
𝑄= × 𝐶𝑑 × √ × 𝑏 × ℎ𝑢2
3 3

2 2𝑔 3
𝑄 = ( × 𝐶𝑑 × √ ) × 𝑏. ℎ𝑢2
3 3

So, since y = 2.2368x

2 2𝑔
× 𝐶𝑑 × √ = 2.2368
3 3
3
𝐶𝑑 = 2.2368 × × 2.557
2
𝐶𝑑 = 8.5792464
Therefore, the error can be determined using the following equation.
 𝐶𝑑𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝐶𝑑𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
𝐶𝑑𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
8.5792464 − 1.7861
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
8.5792464
Error = 79.1811564 %
The calculation above is for variant 1. The results for other variants can
be seen below.
Error variant 2 = 91.34768755 %
Error variant 3 = 91.26399679 %

5.2.3. Water depth above weir and Froude number

Based on the data acquired in this practicum and the calculations done after,
a graph can be made to compare the water depth above weir and the Froude
number. The graph can be seen below.
Graph B.5.2.3.1. Water depth above weir and Froude number

y' and Froude number

0.12
y = 0.0393x-0.667
0.1
R² = 1
0.08 Var1
y = 0.0234x-0.667 Var2
y' (m)

0.06 R² = 1
Var3
0.04 Power (Var1)
y = 0.0156x-0.667
0.02 R² = 1 Power (Var2)
Power (Var3)
0
-10.000000.0000010.0000020.0000030.0000040.0000050.00000
Froude number

From the graph above, we can see that the comparison between water depth
above weir and Froude number produces an equation for each variation.
The equations can be seen below.
y = 0.0156x-0.667
y = 0.0234x0.667
y = 0.0393x-0.667
For all of the variations, the value of R2 is the same, which is 1. This means
that the variable is strongly influenced by the other variable. Furthermore,
we can get the value of R which is also 1, meaning that the variables are
strongly correlated.

The error can be determined by using the following formula.

𝑣
𝑁𝐹𝑟 =
√𝑔𝑦 ′
1 𝑣
𝑦′ = ×√
𝑔 𝑁𝐹𝑟
So, according to the format y = a xb we can get b = -0.5 therefore
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
−0.5 − (−0.667)
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
−0.5
Error = 33.4 %

5.2.4. Water depth above weir and specific energy

Based on the data acquired in this practicum and the calculations done
after, a graph can be made to compare the water depth above weir and
specific energy. The graph can be seen below.
Figure A.5.2.4.1 Graph of water depth above weir and specific
energy variant 1
From the graph above, we can see that the comparison between water
depth above weir and specific energy produces the actual critical depth
yc = 0.013. The value of yc is not the same as the yc from the
experiment, therefore the error can be determined with the equation
below.
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
0.01557 − 0.013
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
0.01557
Error = 16.51 %

Figure A.5.2.4.2 Graph of water depth above weir and specific

energy variant 2
From the graph above, we can see that the comparison between water
depth above weir and specific energy produces the actual critical depth
yc = 0.0225. The value of yc is not the same as the yc from the
experiment, therefore the error can be determined with the equation
below.
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
0.0234 − 0.0225
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
0.0234
Error = 3.846 %

Figure A.5.2.4.3 Graph of water depth above weir and specific

energy variant 3
 From the graph above, we can see that the comparison between water
depth above weir and specific energy produces the actual critical depth
yc = 0.039. The value of yc is not the same as the yc from the
experiment, therefore the error can be determined with the equation
below.
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
0.0393 − 0.039
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100%
0.0393
Error = 0.7634 %

5.3. Strength and weaknesses of sharp-crested weir

A sharp-crested weir is easy and quick to install. It also has high precision
when it comes to measurement of flow. The measurement precision is also
easy to check. It is also highly adaptable to the measurement range.

However, a sharp-crested weir is original and unique, depending on each

project. It is unfortunately, not applicable for raw sewages. Not only that,
the headloss is also quite high.

5.4. Q theoretical formula derivation

 The equation of theoretical flowrate above broad-crested weir is shown
below.

2 2𝑔 3
𝑄= × √ × 𝑏 × ℎ𝑢2
3 3

The equation derivation can be seen below.

2
𝑦= 𝐸𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑆2 = 𝐻
3 2
2
𝑦𝑐 = 𝐻
3
Then,
𝑄 = 𝐴 × 𝑐𝑣
𝑄 = 𝑏 × 𝑦𝑐 × 𝑐𝑣
𝑄 = 𝑣 × 𝑦𝑐 × √𝑔 × 𝑦𝑐
So,

2 2𝑔 3
𝑄= × √ × 𝑏 × ℎ𝑢2
3 3
3
𝑄 = 1.705 × 𝑏 × ℎ𝑢2
3
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 × 𝑐𝑣 × 1.705 × 𝑏 × ℎ𝑢2

5.5. Error Analysis

During the experiment, there are a number of factors that can cause some errors
to occur. One of the factors is inaccuracy and lack of precision from the
practician when measuring the time using stopwatch. In addition to that, the
practician could make a mistake while emptying the weight tank or while filling
them in. There could be a leakage that the practician did not notice, and
therefore causing the volume of water to be inconsistent. Not only that, there
could be some mistakes when measuring the distance between points. There is
also a possibility of making a mistake while measuring the depth of the water
in the channel, where the measurement tool is prone to mistakes because it is
used to measure small distances. The depth gauge tool might not have been
calibrated properly.
6. ANALYSIS B
Applications of this topic in environmental engineering can be seen below:
1. Discharge measurement in rivers
A sharp-crested weir can be used to measure the flow discharge in a river.

Figure 6.1 Sharp-crested weir (Source: vtei.cz)

2. Flow measurement in drainage channels

A sharp-crested weir can be used to measure the flow of a drainage channel.

Figure 6.2 Sharp-crested weir (Source: engineeringexcelspreadsheets.com)

3. Flood prevention
 A sharp-crested weir can be used to reduce the flow of water, which is a
helpful way to prevent flooding.

Figure 6.3 Sharp-crested weir (Source: geocaching.com)

7. CONCLUSION
From this practicum, it can be concluded that:
1) The flow rate is shown in Chapter 4.
2) The discharge coefficient (Cd), critical depth (yc) and Froude
number (NFr) from sharp-crested weir is shown in Chapter 4.
3) The characteristics of flow through a sharp-crested weir is shown in
Chapter 5.
4) The specific energy is shown in Chapter 4.
8. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1) Finnemore, John. 2002. Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Application.
New York: McGraw Hill.

9. APPENDIX
Figure B.9.1. Water density based on temperature (source: Finnemore, 2002)