ACTIVITY 1

Origin and Structure of the Earth

 1 Guide Questions

My Environmental “To
CONTENT 2
Do” List
 What are Factors that make a
planet habitable?
Yes, the conditions for temperature and
pressure must allow for the existence of
solid, liquid, and gas phases. It is at the
proper distance from the Sun, has a
magnetic field that shields it from solar
radiation, has an insulating atmosphere
that keeps it warm, and contains the
correct chemistry for life, including
carbon and water.
Compering Earth
 Earth and Mercury
As a terrestrial planet, Mercury is similar to Earth in that
its silicate minerals and metals are divided into a solid
metal core and a silicate crust and mantle. These
elements break down more quickly on Mercury than on
Earth. While the majority of the minerals on Earth are
silicates, Mercury is made up of 70% metallic and 30%
silicate elements. Like Earth, Mercury is thought to have
an interior made of molten iron that is encased in a
silicate mantle. Earth's core, mantle, and crust are 3478
km, 2800 km, and up to 100 km thick, compared to
Mercury's 1,800 km, 600 km, and 100–300 km
thicknesses, respectively.
 Earth and Venus
For good reason, Venus is frequently referred to as
"Earth's Twin" (or "sister planet"). There are enough
parallels between Earth and Venus, despite some very
obvious differences, not the least of which being their
radically different atmospheres, that many scientists
believe the two are closely related. In essence, it is
thought that they once resembled each other greatly
before diverging in their evolutionary paths. Venus and
Earth are both terrestrial planets with similar sizes and
compositions that are situated in the habitable zone of
the sun (also known as the "Goldilocks Zone"). But that's
about all they have in common. Let's examine each of
their traits individually to determine how they differ and
how they are similar.
 Earth and Mars
Given that both Earth and Mars are terrestrial planets,
their fundamental makeups are identical. This means that
both are distinguished between an inner, dense metallic
core and an outer, less dense mantle and crust (like
silicate rock). The fact that Earth is denser than Mars, at
5.514 g/cm3 versus 3.93 g/cm3 (or 0.71 Earths), suggests
that Mars' core region has more lighter elements than
Earth.
 Earth and Saturn
Let's first examine Saturn's physical attributes. About 9.5
times larger than the diameter of the Earth, Saturn's
equatorial diameter is 120,536 km. Saturn's volume is 764
times larger than Earth's, while its surface area is 83 times
larger. In other words, Saturn has enough room to
accommodate 764 planets the size of Earth. Last but not
least, Saturn has 95 times the mass of the Earth. The
density of Saturn and the Earth is an intriguing point of
comparison. In the Solar System, Saturn is the least dense
planet while Earth is the densest. Saturn has a density of
0.687 g/cm3, compared to Earth's 5.52 g/cm3. Earth is
therefore eight times as dense as Saturn.
 Earth and Uranus
Compared to Earth, Uranus is significantly different.
Because it is a gas giant and has gas on its surface, you
couldn't even stand on it. Uranus is much, much colder
than Earth since it is so much farther from the Sun.
Additionally, Uranus has significantly varied seasons due
to its peculiar rotation in regard to the Sun. Parts of
Uranus would receive up to 42 years of sunlight, followed
by 42 years of darkness.
 Earth and Neptune
Despite being part of the same solar system, Earth and
Neptune are quite different planets. Unlike Neptune,
which is a strange planet on the extreme reaches of the
solar system, Earth is home to life. The two planets'
differences are brought out by comparison. Both Earth
and Neptune have elliptical, rather than fully circular,
orbits around the sun. Neptune takes 165 Earth years to
complete its orbit, compared to Earth's yearly cycle
around the sun.
What four subsystems of the Earth?
All of the land masses, water resources,
living things, and gases on planet Earth
are divided into four overlapping
subsystems. The term "spheres" refers to
these four subsystems. The atmosphere
(atmosphere), water (hydrosphere), land
(geosphere), and living things (biosphere)
are the four spheres that make up the
Earth's systems (biosphere).
Describe the characteristics of four subsystems of the
Earth.
The upper mantle, the crust, and the stiff outer
layer of the Earth make up the Lithosphere.
Biosphere, the areas where life is found. Water
can be found in the Hydrosphere in the forms of
solid (Antarctica), liquid (oceans), and gas (the
atmosphere). The Atmosphere, which covers the
whole surface of the planet and stretches from
below sea level to a distance of 10,000 kilometers,
is further broken down into a number of smaller
spheres.
 My Environmental “To Do” List
To Do List Process
Consume less. The next time I'm tempted to buy or accept
something that is not necessary, I'll consider whether
it will actually improve my life. Refusing to accept
unnecessary stuff into my life can help you save
money and lessen the amount of clutter in my home.
If not, it's okay to just say, "No, thanks!"

Buy local. It's crucial for me to consider the route my

belongings take to reach me. The environmental cost
of all that packaging and the fuel required for delivery
is significant. Instead of opting for two-day shipping,
consider visiting our neighborhood farmers market
for fresh, package-free food, dining at a farm-to-table
establishment, and purchasing from local artists,
garment makers, and merchants.
ACTIVITY 2
define the 8 Theories of the universe
 Content.

01 Gaseous hypothesis of Kant

05 Russel’s binary Star Hypothesis

02 Nebular hypothesis of Laplace

06 Hoyle’s supernova hypothesis

03 Planetesimal hypothesis of
Chamberlin 07 Schmidt’s interstellar hypothesis

04 Jean and Jeffery’s tidal theory

08 Big bang theory
 01 Add the topic title here
Based on a few presumptions, Kant proposed his gaseous hypothesis for the genesis of the earth.
He believed the universe was filled with primordial hard matter that had been supernaturally
produced. His theory was refuted because it was founded on false assumptions and an incorrect
interpretation of Newton's laws of gravitation. Immanuel Kant asserted that the size of the
nebula grew larger as the heat level rose. Nine systems of concentric rings were separated from
the nebula by repeating the same method. According to Kant, the separation of the nebula from
the ring's constituent parts by the force of centrifugation resulted in the aggregate formation of
the earth.
Despite the fact that Immanuel Kant based his gaseous theory on principles to address the origin
mystery using Newton's law of gravitation of the Earth and the solar system, but his theory has been
refuted. It is unfounded since it is based on a number of false scientific facts.
02 Nebular hypothesis of Laplace

Laplace, a French mathematician, presented his "nebular

hypothesis"in 1796, when. He clarified his ideas regarding
the solar system's origin.In his treatise, "Exposition of the
World," he discusses the solar system and the earth.System’.
In some ways, the nebular idea of Laplace was akin to
theKant's gaseous hypothesisLaplace's idea looks to be a
simplified version ofKant's assertion. It should be noted that
Laplace made hiswithout a formal mathematical formulation.
According to Laplace's idea, the solar system was formed inside of a massive, hot, revolving gas
nebula. Due to rotation or circular motion, the nebula's outer surface gradually lost heat through
radiation. Laplace asserts that there is only one ring of material, not nine rings as Kant proposed,
that separates the nebula. According to Laplace, the initial ring was split into nine smaller rings, each
of which drifted apart from the others. Later, each of these agglomerations was cooled and
condensed to create a planet.
 03 Planetesimal hypothesis of Chamberlin

It is believed that the Solar System's planets were created via a collision between the Sun
and another star. In this case, a series of bolts are torn from the solar surface by the gravity
of the passing star. A massive swarm of solid particles formed when the outer portions
expanded and cooled.

The idea that the material extracted from the stars would condense is the theory's biggest problem.
The gravitational forces within a star hold the incredibly hot gases that make up the star together.
The substance would expand due to its heat once it was dragged away to an area where the
gravitational forces were weaker. The gases would have nearly all evaporated before condensation
could occur. The planetesimal theory of the solar system's formation is no longer regarded as a
viable theory.
 04 Jean and Jeffery’s tidal theory

Sir James Jeans, a British scientist, first proposed the "tidal hypothesis" to explain the origin
of the earth in 1919. Harold Jeffreys, another British scientist, suggested changes to the
"tidal hypothesis" in 1929, making it more significant and relevant in the context of growing
understanding of the cosmogonic theories of the first quarter of the 20th century. One of the
contemporary explanations for the formation of the earth and solar system is the tidal theory.

Due to its simplicity, inherent logic, and scientific appeal, the tidal hypothesis as developed by James
Jeans and Harold Jeffreys enjoyed a long period of popularity and widespread appreciation until the
end of the first half of the 20th century. However, the hypothesis was harshly criticized on a number
of grounds. Even Jeffreys acknowledged in Guttenberg (1951) that his modified version of the tidal
hypothesis needed significant revisions and was incorrect in several places.
 05 Russel’s binary Star Hypothesis
In order to improve upon Sir James Jeans' tidal concept, astronomer H.N. Russell proposed his
"binary star hypothesis" in 1937. According to Russell, there were two stars in the universe
close to the original sun. The incoming star rotated in the opposite direction from the
companion star. Large amounts of stuff were ejected from the companion star when the huge
approaching star was closest to it. due to the giant's strongest gravitational pull on a
companion star. advancing star. The ejected materials later formed planets, and satellites may
have been ejected from these planets as a result of their attraction to one another.

Though Russell partially resolved the issues of the sun's distance from the planets, as well as
the angular momentum of by assuming the earth's creation, alternative solar system members
might be considered.by ejecting the necessary material with the aid of two stars in addition to
the sun. matter from the companion star, not the sun as previously thought James Jeans for
planets to form.
 06 Hoyle’s supernova hypothesis
In 1946, a notion known as "supernova theories“ provided by F. Hoyle, a
mathematician. His methodology was based on nuclear physics principles.as well
as what he wrote about in his article. "Nature of the Universe" is the title. The
companion star's size was extremely massive and later, as a result of nuclear
fusion, it became supernova reactions when "nuclear fusion" occurs, the Atoms of
the lighter elements in the star mixed at a high temperature and pressure to atoms
of heavier elements, releasing energy in the process.in great quantity. The partner
star was eaten as a result, and as a result, it violently collapsed and exploded. the
gaseous explosion caused by the forceful put from the companion supernova and
transformed it into a rotating disc It commenced orbiting the sun.

The "supernova hypothesis" by Hoyle seeks to the angular momentum issue of the
the issue with planets is their great distance between the sun, the planets, and
also the difficulty with heavy components in the material. the sun than the
planets. However, it was unable to explain the odd the positioning of the planets
based on their the same rotational axis, the same dimension, and the planets'
paths and the plane of revolution and the lighter components that make up the
outer solar system planets in a circle.
 07 Schmidt’s interstellar hypothesis
Otto Schimidt, a Russian scientist, put out the "Inter-Stellar Dust
Hypothesis" in 1943 as a solution to the perplexing questions
surrounding the creation and nature of the solar system and the earth. It
can be fairly accepted that these gaseous clouds and dust particles may
have been generated from the stuff that is pouring out of the meteors
and stars, despite Otto Schimidt's explanation of the genesis of this dark
matter. These murky substances were known as "interstellar dusts" by
Otto Schimidt. following the pairing and dust particles compacted,
altered began into a flat disc of retrieved dark matter rotating under the
influence of the sun combined effects of three different motions:
1. Gravitational force exerted by the sun on
the dark matter disc.
2. The rotational motion of the sun itself.
3. The angular momentum of dark matter of
the disc.
 08 Big bang theory
The Big Bang theory was proposed in the 1950s and 1960s. The Big Bang theory, which
explains the birth of the universe and everything in it, including ourselves, on the
assumption that the universe included numerous galaxies in millions of numbers, was
confirmed in 1972 with substantial data obtained from Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE).
There are billions of stars in every galaxy, and there are many planets orbiting each star.
There was a separation between the galaxies. The chasm that exists between them expanded.
The universe was considerably smaller in the beginning because there was less room
between galaxies. The universe's entirety of matter was generated in a single instant at a
specific point in time. It was estimated that there was a single fireball about 15 billion years
ago. "For fifteen billion years as universe expanded, the hot radiation in the original fireball
also expanded with it, and cooled as a result," it was said. "Wispy clouds of matter were
already present, spanning huge distances of up to 500 million light years. These clouds
would have broken up and produced clusters of galaxies, with the galaxies themselves
breaking up into stars like those in the Milky Way as they crushed in on themselves, drawn
close by their own gravity. To create their planets, including our earth, the stars must have
split apart.