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(Asce) LM 1943-5630 0000138
(Asce) LM 1943-5630 0000138
Leadership from
Management: An
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Empirical Investigation
of Leaders and Managers
SHAMAS-UR-REHMAN TOOR, PH.D.
ABSTRACT: There has been a long-standing debate in the literature as to why and
how leadership is similar to, or different from, management. Although several scholars
have contributed to the debate, there seems to be an absence of pragmatic evidence.
Hardly any study that attempts to differentiate leadership from management provides
empirical findings. The purpose of the current paper is to begin to cover this research
gap. Interviews were conducted with 49 leaders and senior executives in the construction
industry of Singapore. The interviewees were asked how they perceived the differences
and similarities between leadership and management. Thematic network analysis was
used to analyze the interview data. Findings show that there are clear differences
between leadership and management on the basis of how leaders and managers define
and conceptualize these terms. Leadership and management are different phenomena
and processes in which leaders and managers perform varied functions and play
different roles in organizations. The study shows that leaders and managers, at least in
the construction industry, apply a mix of both leadership and management to perform
their daily jobs and fulfill their organizational responsibilities. The findings also echo the
many striking overlaps between the roles of leadership and management.
T
here has been a long-standing argu- 1992; Capowski 1994; Bennis 1989; Covey et al.
ment about whether or not leadership 1994; DuBrin 1995; Kumle and Kelly 2000;
and management are different from Weathersby 1999; Yukl 1999; Maccoby 2000;
each other. If they are different, on Zimmerman 2001; Perloff 2004; Daft 2003; Kotter
what grounds do they differ? If not, 2006; Toor and Ofori 2008b). Apparently, interest
what similarities do they share? Many in differentiating leadership from management has
researchers have contributed to the debate since the grown over the years. After Zaleznik (1977) started
1970s (see Zaleznik 1977; Kotter 1982, 1990; Sarros this debate, the number of publications on the topic
very different stance. In their view, terms such as as distinctive. Authors such as Kotter (1982, 1990,
leaders, managers, and entrepreneurs “can be seen as enact- 2006), Bennis (1989), Maccoby (2000), and Perloff
ments of archetypes, embodying the different fears and (2004) apparently belong to this school. Table 1 sum-
hopes of those who create organizations by their daily marizes the literature on how the two terms differ.
performance” (p. 529). They also argued that various According to the other school of thought, leader-
sociopolitical and economic forces shape different fash- ship and management significantly overlap and are
ions and form various occupational and organizational hard to clearly differentiate. Many think that these
cultures. Under the various historical, economic, and roles, although different and distinct, are interrelated
political circumstances in which organizations oper- in many ways (Kotter 1990; Bass 1990; Conger and
ate, terms like leadership or management emerge and Kanungo 1992; Zaleznik 1998; Batemen and Snell
become popular according to the need of the era 1999; Yukl 1999; Perloff 2004; Hay and Hodgkinson
and demands of the time. In the contemporary world, 2006). The two functions are blended and comple-
where leadership is looked at as very important and mentary because sometimes leaders manage and some-
special while management is perceived as otherwise, times managers lead (see Bass 1990; Kotter 2006).
it is even more important to clarify the meanings Both leadership and management can be explained
of these terms. Otherwise, blurring the difference using the same processes and models, as both leaders
between leadership and management can engender and managers use a mix of leadership and manage-
difficulties in measuring, testing, assessing, hiring, ment behaviors (Yukl 2005). According to this school
developing, and promoting leaders and managers of thought, leadership is not a specialized phenome-
(Kotter 2006). Misinterpretation of terms can also non and an entirely distinct activity, but simply an
hinder programs that seek to develop managers and aspect, perhaps a highly salient aspect, of managing
leaders for organizations (Zaleznik 1998). This confu- (Mangham and Pye 1991). Therefore, it is undeniable
sion over differentiating leadership from management fact that organizations need people who are good at
is likely to grow if the distinctiveness of each term is leading as well as managing if they want to become
not well articulated. internationally competitive and better places in which
to work (Sarros 1992).
group presidents/chairpersons, managing/executive process. First, past and present presidents of various
directors, managing partners, general managers/ professional organizations and trade associations were
deputy general managers, and directors of various interviewed based on the assumption that they were
construction-related businesses and organizations, in- leaders in their respective professional fields as they
cluding developers, architects, engineers, contractors, were elected to leadership positions by their own
and quantity surveyors, in Singapore (see Table 2). peers. These leaders were then requested to nominate
A combination of purposive and snowball sampling professionals in the industry whom they thought
was used in this research to select the interviewees. could be considered leaders in their respective profes-
The leaders were selected through a peer nomination sions. Since the interviewed leaders were nominated
imperative for the effective functioning of an organi- the view of needing to balance leadership and manage-
zation. She said, ment. He said,
“Well, I think you can’t draw a clear line there. “I don’t know about others, but for me, it’s
You can’t say that this belongs to leadership and both. There has to be a balance of leadership and
this belongs to management. In my view, you can’t management, because in order to be a good leader,
lead if you can’t manage. So if you lead and you you have to know how to manage.”
don’t manage, it does not work with the absence
of one. You need both. You may be weaker in
one aspect, but you definitely need both.” DISCUSSION AND EMERGENT THEMES
A senior construction manager commented that The leaders’ interview responses clearly show their
construction management required a mix of leadership belief that leadership and management are two differ-
and management under different circumstances. He ent phenomena and processes in which leaders and
observed, managers perform varied functions and play different
roles in their organizations. In their respective roles,
“We have to do both in construction. When we leaders and managers apply different sets of behaviors
are dealing with other parties, we mostly use and exercise a range of diverse tactics that suit their
the management skills. Coming to our own work, personality and character. To elaborate further on
leadership is more important. If you manage the the difference between leadership and management,
employees, it does not go to their minds and ears. Fig. 1 shows a thematic network that was developed
Some people can lead to show the way, and that is as part of the analysis. This network shows several
how the work is done much better.” basic themes—such as change, empower, flexible,
A senior director in an architect practice joined the long-term, and so forth—that group together to
above stance, saying, summarize more abstract principles or organizing
themes such as definitional differences or behavioral
“In the present company, I am a director in charge differences. The organizing themes dissect the main
of finance. In my office, we have different directors assumptions underlying the broader themes to finally
handling different things. We have design directors establish a superordinate or global theme (see Attride-
who handle the design work specifically. In that Stirling 2001), which in this case is the difference
case, they don’t run the company. I don’t run proj- between leadership and management.
ects, but I am functioning as more of an adminis- Although both leadership and management occur
trative and finance director, worrying about the within an organizational context, an important theme
cash flow, manpower, cost, and related issues. It is that emerges from the findings in this research is that
getting more and more complicated. We are doing leadership is rather more flexible and open to new
projects overseas as well. We have grown from a ideas, whereas management is more rigid and looks
10-person staff to 70 staff members. Management for tested approaches. This view is shared by many
is different than with the previous partnership.” scholars in the literature who recognized that leader-
ship is predominantly associated with creating and
Another senior executive from an engineering
coping with dramatic change in organizations (Kotter
design firm opined,
1982; Bennis and Nanus 1985; Tichy and Devanna
“Leadership is the next level of management. 1986; Kotter 1990; DuBrin 1995). In the view of
Managers like me, we do 100% management, some, change is inherent in the leadership process
(Osborn et al. 2002; Parry 1998; Hackman & Johnson about a project or mission, or the opportunity to
1996; Yukl 2002; Sarros 1992; Kan and Parry 2004; stretch oneself to the limit (Maccoby 2000). The
Toor and Ofori 2008a). Management, in contrast, is leader’s power is legitimized by the followers (Bass
focused on stability in the system, predictability 1990; Stogdill 1997), and the leader influences others
of outcomes, and order in processes (DuBrin 1995; by giving them hope, inspiring their self-efficacy,
Kotter 1982, 1990). establishing their desires, and consistently following
Another important theme that dominates the find- a set of personal values (Zaleznik 1998; George and
ings in this study pertains to authority and power that Sims 2007). In contrast, management predominantly
are vested in the roles of leadership and management. relies on position power, formal authority, and control
Leadership relies on personal power, informal ways of processes through the power of a small group who
and means of influence, one-to-one touch and commu- take orders directly from the top (see Kumle and Kelly
nication between leaders and followers, and coherence 2000; Capowski 1994; Daft 2003; Toor and Ofori
between the goals of leaders and those of followers. 2008b). Managers are more impersonal in their atti-
This view also prevails in the extant literature; many tude and rely on moderate and widely distributed
scholars view leadership as a relationship between attachments (Zaleznik 1977). Their authority is legiti-
leader and led that can energize an organization mized by the position they hold, and they influence
(Maccoby 2000), an art of creating a supporting work others by transactional means in a reward and
environment (Thamhain 2004), a phenomenon that reinforcement approach.
works on the system (Covey et al. 1994), inspiration Despite the differences, a strong message found in
of and support for people to do things (Bennis 1989), most interviews with leaders was that there are many
and creation of a common vision to achieve results by overlaps between the roles of leadership and manage-
persuading others (Weathersby 1999) in a trust-based ment and that the leaders performed a mix of leader-
environment (Kumle and Kelly 2000). ship and management to achieve the desired results in
People follow a leader for a mix of positive reasons, a team process. Interviewees repeatedly observed that
such as hope of success, trust in the leader, excitement managers in the construction industry applied a mixed
and achieve the same goals (Kotter 1990; Bass 1990; managers function and lead projects. They need
Conger and Kanungo 1992; Zaleznik 1998; Batemen to develop as authentic leaders to successfully
and Snell 1999; Yukl 1999; Perloff 2004; Hay and operate in the increasingly complex working envi-
Hodgkinson 2006; Toor and Ofori 2008b). ronment. Within a fast changing construction
The opinion of a senior executive director inter- industry, there is mounting pressure on project
viewed in this study echoes the above assertion. managers to do more with fewer people and less
He said, resources. Under such circumstances, the people
side of project management, or what many would
“We have to do both in construction. When we are call leadership, is paramount to the successful deliv-
dealing with third parties or clients, we mostly go ery of desired results.”
purely by the management skills, like attending
meetings, writing letters. But coming to your The findings from the current study show that
own work, leadership is more important than just effective leaders in the industry fully recognize the
management. You can tell people that these have to need for balance between effective management and
be done this way, but I don’t think it will go into influential leadership—usually referred to as people side
their minds and ears. Whereas if you get some of management—to achieve their desired objectives in
people to lead, somebody that you know of to lead construction. A senior manager and head of a division
in a developer’s firm reflected this view in the follow-
and to show the way, work will be done better.”
ing words:
Both leaders and managers use a mix of leadership
“To a large extent, project management to me is
and management behaviors, combining the necessary
people management. So it is how you motivate a
skills to direct day-to-day affairs effectively while team of consultants to actually work together with
anticipating and managing change (Maccoby 2000; you to meet the common goal. Thus, each of them
Yukl 2005; Kotter 1982). To lead better, leaders is a professional trained in their own field. So I per-
should be well versed in management and vice sonally do not have any specific skills as I am not an
versa because sometimes leaders manage and some- engineer or architect. We employed these special-
times managers lead (Bass 1990). According to ists from other places. Motivating the people is a
Capowski (1994), vision without structure is likely key quality; the people look up to you as a leader,
to result in chaos, while structure without vision will and you actually bring the team toward the goal.”
result in complacency and perhaps catastrophe. There-
fore, to achieve the vision of leadership, someone has to
perform the routine tasks and manage the details to CONCLUSIONS
achieve leadership goals. It is logically incomprehen- Leadership and management are different and distinct
sible that every manager in an organization can have based on how they are defined, the underlying con-
his or her own distinct vision, as people are needed at cepts, the functions they involve, and the behaviors
the operational and functional level executing the that leaders and managers use to perform these respec-
plans and implementing the strategies; this comes tive roles. Several themes emerge from the current
through management. Similarly, for management to study demonstrating the difference between leader-
be more effective and influential, leading is indispen- ship and management. Among all the emergent
sable. To exploit the full potential of their human themes, three were found to be most significant. First,
and other resources, organizations need to develop leadership pursues change that is coupled with sus-
leadership skills in their managers (Priestland and tainability, while management endeavors to maintain
management cannot accomplish organizational goals, DuBrin, A. J. (1995). Leadership: Research findings,
nor can it result in effective teamwork. Therefore, practice, and skills, Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
organizations need leaders with managerial astuteness George, B., and Sims, P. (2007). True north: Discover
and managers with leadership qualities. Comple- your authentic leadership, Wiley, San Francisco.
menting leadership with management can pave the Hackman, M., and Johnson, C. (1996). Leadership: A
way for organizations to achieve sustainable growth communication perspective, 2nd Ed., Waveland Press,
and a long-term competitive advantage in the form Prospect Heights, IL.
of competent leader–managers. Hay, A., and Hodgkinson, M. (2006). “Rethinking
Finally, it is essential to continue efforts to identify leadership: A way forward for teaching leader-
the differences between leadership and management ship?” Leader Organ. Dev. J., 27(2), 144–158.
using other methodologies. Such endeavors will help Kan, M. M., and Parry, K. W. (2004). “Identifying
management researchers clearly understand the differ- paradox: A grounded theory of leadership in over-
ence. This research can also provide useful input into coming resistance to change.” Leader. Q., 15(4),
leadership development initiatives. Leadership devel- 467–491.
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are targeting: producing better leaders with manage- really do.” Harv. Bus. Rev., 60(6), 156–168.
ment skills, managers with leadership skills, and man-
Kotter, J. (1990). “What leaders really do.” Harv. Bus.
agers with managerial tactics. Future research can also
Rev., 5(3), 3–11.
focus on how human resource development programs
Kotter, J. (2006). “Leadership versus management:
can integrate training in both leadership and manage-
What’s the difference?” J. Qual. Participation,
ment without confounding them with each other to
29(2), 13–17.
make an adequate and useful blend.
Kumle, J., and Kelly, N. J. (2000). “Leadership
vs. management.” Supervision, 61(4), 8–10.
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