Earth Science

Quarter 2- Week No. 1

Answer Sheet #1

John Richard T. Cuenco 11/22/21

11-Darwin Score:

Activity No.1

B. (For Objective 2)

We live on a terrestrial planet where the surface is composed of varieties of rocks

that have always been subjected to a series of changes and transformations.
Consequently, often interacted with the processes that take place in the atmosphere,
biosphere, and hydrosphere. In research from the National Geographic Society (2018),
weathering is described as the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on the
surface of the Earth. Water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and changes in
temperature are all agents of weathering. Weathering is a long and very slow process.
Consequently, weathering can be physical, chemical, and biological.

Firstly, what is physical weathering?

It is also known as mechanical weathering which is the disintegration of the

physical break up of rocks into smaller pieces. There is no change in its composition or
there is no change in the chemical property of the parent rock. In addition, physical
weathering occurs when physical processes affect the rock, such as changes in
temperature or when the rock is exposed to the effects of wind, rain, and waves.
Physical weathering happens especially in places where there is little soil and few
plants grow, such as in mountain regions and hot deserts.

There is a heap of several processes of mechanical weathering. These are frost

wedging, thermal expansion and contraction, exfoliation, and abrasion.
 Frost wedging is described as the cracking of mass rock by the expansion of
water as it freezes in cracks. The water undergoes freezing and thawing hence, through
time as the water expands it may split the rocks in half. Temperature changes can also
contribute to mechanical weathering in a process called thermal stress. In other words,
happens through the process of thermal expansion and contraction. Changes in
temperature cause rock to expand (with heat) and contract (with cold). As this happens
over and over again, the structure of the rock weakens. Over time, it crumbles.
Furthermore, exfoliation takes place when an underlying rock is exposed hence, there is
less pressure. Thus, the rock expands causing the rigid layers to crack and some
sections to lose free so, resulting in an exfoliation dome. Also, one of the forms of
physical weathering is abrasion. Rocks and sediment grinding against each other wear
away surfaces. It happens as wind and water rush over rocks. The rocks become
smoother as rough and jagged edges break off.

Secondly, what is chemical weathering?

In research from Natural Environment Research Council (n.d.), chemical

weathering describes the process of chemicals in rainwater making changes to the
minerals in a rock. Consequently, carbon dioxide from the air is dissolved in rainwater,
making it slightly acidic. A reaction can occur when the rainwater comes into contact
with minerals in the rock, causing weathering.

There are different forms of chemical weathering, dissolving (dissolution),

oxidation, and hydrolysis. Water usually contains acid from the dissolved carbon
dioxide and this will dissolve minerals from a rock body leaving cavities in the rocks,
hence described as the process of dissolving or (dissolution). In addition, oxidation is
the breakdown of rock by oxygen and water, often giving iron-rich rocks a rusty-colored
weathered surface. Also, hydrolysis is the breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce
clay and soluble salts. These chemical processes need water and occur more rapidly at
higher temperatures, so warm, damp climates are best.

Moreover, what is biological weathering?

 In research from Natural Environment Research Council (n.d.), biological
weathering is caused by the movements of plants and animals. They release acid-
forming chemicals that cause weathering and plant roots, contributing to the breaking
down of rocks. For instance, as the plant grows in a crack in a rock and, as its roots
grow, it causes the crack to widen. Hence, as the roots increase their size it breaks the
rock sections apart. Consequently, through animals, they release acid-forming
chemicals that react with rocks, which may result in weathering. Even you can be a
source of weathering! Boots and shoes walking over the same patch of rock may
eventually wear down the rock.

Chemical weathering is by far the most destructive type of weathering to rocks

because it will alter the chemical composition of the rocks which may create an impact
on the environment and humans. In research from Vee (2018), chemical weathering
causes the decomposition, dissolving, and loosening of rocks. Chemical reactions
destroy the bonds that hold the rocks together. This causes them to break into small
pieces. One effect of chemical weathering is hydrolysis. Through hydrolysis, water gets
added into the chemical structure of a mineral, which turns the mineral into a new one.
For example, hydrolysis changes feldspar into clay. Because water is a catalyst in
chemical reactions, chemical weathering occurs mostly in areas with plenty of water and
high temperatures. It tends to be common in hot and humid tropics.

REFERENCE

National Geographic Society. (2018, April 19). Weathering. National Geographic.

Retrieved November 17, 2021, from
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/weathering/

Natural Environment Research Council. (n.d.). Weathering. British Geological Survey.

Retrieved November 17, 2021, from
https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/geological-processes/weathering/

Vee, A. (2018, April 20). Weathering Effects. Sciencing. Retrieved November 17, 2021,
from https://sciencing.com/weathering-effects-8012412.html
 Earth Science

Quarter 2- Week No. 1

Answer Sheet #2

John Richard T. Cuenco 11/22/21

11-Darwin Score:

Activity No. 2

A. (For Objective 1)

Why the earth's interior is hot?

As we go deep learning about Geology, a learner can find out and realize how
scalding hot the interior of the earth is. The heat inside Earth moves continents, builds
mountains, and causes earthquakes. But, the intriguing question is, where does all this
heat inside Earth come from?

Numerically, the earth's interior is very hot with its core temperature of 5,000-
7,000 degrees Celsius. That’s about as hot as the surface of the sun but vastly cooler
than the sun’s interior. The inner core is composed of solid iron and nickel, hence it is
solid hot metal. Due to the fact of, too much pressure will not melt an iron. Just above
the inner core is the outer core which is made up of liquid iron and nickel with a
temperature of about 4,000-5,000 degrees Celsius. Additionally, above the outer core is
the mantle which is composed of solid rocks that flow under pressure with a very slow-
moving current. Lastly, above the mantle, the crust where it is the outermost solid shell
of a rocky planet. Near the Moho, the temperature of the crust ranges from 200° Celsius
(392° Fahrenheit) to 400° Celsius (752° Fahrenheit).

There are three known reasons why the interior of the earth is hot. Firstly,
because of the impact during the formation of the earth. Secondly, because of the
radioactive decay of elements. Thirdly, because of the frictional heating caused by the
denser material sinking to the center of the earth.

When the Earth was created, it was extremely hot. A large portion of Earth's heat
is left behind from the formation of our planet four and a half billion years ago. The Earth
is assumed to have formed in space from a cloud of gas and dust. The cloud
condensed into solid particles known as "planetesimals." It's hypothesized that they
banded together to form the early Earth. Earth became molten as a result of
bombarding planetesimals. As a result, Earth began with a lot of heat.

Consequently, the earth was created through the accretion process. Meteorites
gravitationally attracted each other after the formation of our solar system, becoming
larger objects that attracted larger masses until our planets reached their current size.
Heat is generated when two items hit, hence this procedure generated a lot of heat.
That's why if you clap your hands for too long, they'll grow hot, and if you hammer a nail
for too long, it'll get very hot. This heat hasn't completely evaporated and accounts for
around 10% of the total heat inside the Earth. Meteorites, space rocks that crash to
Earth, also provide clues about Earth’s core. Most meteorites are fragments of
asteroids, rocky bodies that orbit the sun between Mars and Jupiter. Asteroids formed
about the same time, and from about the same material, as Earth. By studying iron-rich
chondrite meteorites, geoscientists can get a peek into the early formation of our solar
system and Earth’s early core.

Earth is currently cooling – but at a glacial pace. The Earth's temperature is

approaching a stable level. It could have cooled a few hundred degrees over billions of
years. Because it generates heat in its innards, Earth maintains a relatively constant
temperature. In other words, from its formation billions of years ago the earth has been
losing heat. However, it is producing nearly as much heat as it is losing. Radioactive
decay is the process through which Earth generates heat. It involves the internal
breakdown of naturally radioactive materials such as uranium. Uranium is a unique
element because it produces heat when it decays. It is this heat that prevents the Earth
from cooling down.
 Many of the rocks in Earth’s crust and interior undergo the process of radioactive
decay. This process produces subatomic particles that zip away and later collide with
surrounding material inside the Earth. Their energy of motion is converted to heat.
Without this process of radioactive decay, there would be fewer volcanoes and
earthquakes – and less building of Earth’s vast mountain ranges.

Furthermore, heating of the order of 2,000 kelvins would result from the thick
iron-rich material that makes up the planet's core descending to the center (about 3,000
degrees F). Radioactive heating, the third major source of heat, has an unknown
magnitude. In the deep earth, specific quantities of radioactive elements (mainly
potassium, uranium, and thorium) are unknown.

Moreover, iron and other heavy things sank to the center of the Earth due to
gravity, while lighter materials such as air and water ascended to the crust. The material
in the center is so dense that the outer core's gravity is three times that of the Earth's
surface. It retains some of its original heat, as well as heat generated by gravitational
friction when heavier items migrate closer to the center. Every thousand years, the inner
core expands by about a centimeter, gaining additional heat as it does so. As they
radiate from the planet's mantle, decaying radioactive isotopes add to the heat.

To sum, there was no shortage of heat in the early Earth, and the planet's
inability to cool off rapidly causes the Earth's interior to remain hot. Due to the fact of,
we need the planet's center to remain blistering hot so that it can protect Earth from
potentially harmful solar winds and debris. Hence, the earth's hot interior is indeed a
great help to why living things still coexist with the earth. Thus, with the impact during
the formation of the earth, the radioactive decay of elements, and the frictional heating
caused by the denser material sinking to the center of the earth, the interior of the earth
remains hot.
REFERENCE

Williams, Q. (1997, October 6). Why is the earth’s core so hot? And how do scientists
measure its temperature? Scientific American. Retrieved November 17, 2021, from
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-the-earths-core-so/#

EarthSky. (2010, September 6). What is the source of the heat in Earth’s interior?
Retrieved November 17, 2021, from https://earthsky.org/earth/what-is-the-source-of-the-
heat-in-the-earths-interior/

Opfer, C. (2021, April 7). What If Earth’s Core Cooled Down? HowStuffWorks.
Retrieved November 17, 2021, from https://science.howstuffworks.com/science-vs-
myth/what-if/what-if-earths-core-cooled-down.htm
 Earth Science

Quarter 2- Week No. 1

Answer Sheet #2

John Richard T. Cuenco 11/22/21

11-Darwin Score:

Activity No.2

B. (For Objective 2)

How heat in the earth's interior is transferred?

The Earth is a heat-storing body that radiates into space. This heat is caused by
three factors: one, impact during the earth formation, the heat generated by radioactive
decay of material in the deep Earth, and the frictional heating caused by denser material
sinking to the center of the earth. But, how does this heat transferred?

The liquid outer core and radiogenic heat production in the mantle are the two
principal sources of heat generation in the deep Earth. The mantle contains radioactive
elements such as uranium, thorium, and potassium, all of which produce heat as a
byproduct of radioactive decay. Many of these radiogenic elements are removed from
the mantle during melting and found in quantities 200 times higher than in the mantle in
the continental crust. Despite this, the mantle's radiogenic heat output is enormous due
to its large size. The Earth's liquid outer core also contributes significantly to surface
heat production.

Heat is a type of energy that travels through the Earth. In general, heat
movement is outward. There are three ways and methods on how heat in the interior of
the earth is transferred, namely, conduction, convection, and radiation.
 Conduction happens when the temperature of a body is raised in one spot, heat
is diffused to colder parts as the molecules in the body vibrate more strongly. Only heat
is transmitted via conduction. In the crust, where the material is stiff and cannot move,
and the temperature gradient is high, heat is transmitted by conduction. In some
materials, such as metals, conduction is extremely efficient, while in others, such as air,
it is inefficient. Insulators are inefficient conductors.

Consequently, the internal thermal energy flows from warm to colder parts by
conduction, with the heat flux proportional to the temperature difference and a
proportionality constant k, known as thermal conductivity, linked to material qualities.
Most rocks have a thermal conductivity of rough one-hundredth that of copper wire.

A circulatory motion of hot material is known as convection. Such motion occurs

when liquids and other weak materials are heated in one location (typically from below).
The heat is carried by the moving substance in convection. In most cases, the
convecting material also conducts heat, but heat transmission by convection in a fluid is
usually significantly more efficient than heat transport via conduction. Convection is the
major mode of heat movement in the Earth's mantle, however, conduction is also
present.

The mantle is best described as a viscous fluid that may flow, albeit slowly.
Convection should occur if the Earth has a sufficiently strong temperature gradient, i.e.,
if it is adequately heated from below, and a fair guess about the expansion coefficient
and diffusivity is made.

Plate tectonics is driven by well-developed convection cells in the mantle, which

are particularly efficient in transporting heat from depth to surface. The mantle is heated
from below (the core), and it rises (is buoyant) in hotter areas and sinks in cooler ones.
Convection cells form in the mantle, causing horizontal motion of mantle material near
the Earth's surface. This convection occurs in mantle rock (a combination of silicate
minerals) that seems solid to us at any one time. Even so, when the forces of buoyancy
are applied over millions of years, this seemingly inert material moves. It has the
consistency of a very viscous fluid and "creeps" along slowly.
 In addition, convection currents have long been recognized to circulate
throughout the mantle, generated by the temperature difference between the interior
and surface of the globe. The mantle rises slowly (millions of years) as hot material from
the earth's outer core rises through it. This hot material cools down to the point where it
can be sunk back into the core. These convection currents are thought to work like a
conveyor belt, carrying the lithospheric plates above it.

Convection (advective heat transfer) dominates heat transmission throughout the

mantle, except the lower mantle at the inner core boundary (the D" area), the top of the
mantle, and the crust (lithosphere), where conductive and hydrothermal (also advective)
processes predominate. Conductive boundary layers are zones where conduction
dominates heat transport, and the lithosphere can be conceived of as a convecting,
conductively cooling boundary layer.

Moreover, infrared radiation is emitted by heated surfaces such as land and

water. The majority of it is lost in space after passing through the atmosphere. Some of
that energy is absorbed by the atmosphere, which causes it to heat up. Under normal
circumstances, the amount of thermal energy used to heat the Earth and its atmosphere
through core heat and solar radiation is equal to the amount lost into space as infrared
radiation. As a result, the Earth's average temperature remains roughly constant, and
the heat input and heat loss are in balance.
REFERENCE

Mutter, J., & Langmuir, C. (n.d.). The Earth as a Heat Engine. Columbia University.
Retrieved November 17, 2021, from
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/ldeo/v1011x-1/jcm/Topic3/Topic3.html

Climate Policy Watcher. (2021, August 16). Internal Energy Sources Heat Transfer And
Flow From Deep In The Earth. Retrieved November 17, 2021, from https://www.climate-
policy-watcher.org/plate-tectonics/internal-energy-sources-heat-transfer-and-flow-from-
deep-in-the-earth.html

Kurtus, R. (n.d.). Heat Transfer on Earth. School for Champions. Retrieved November
17, 2021, from
https://www.school-for-champions.com/science/heat_transfer_earth.htm#.YZTvELcRVP
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