1: Cells

2: Movement of Substances

Q: Explain how a large number of mitochondria in root hair cells allow the plant to survive in soils that contain a
short supply of mineral ions.

A: More mitochondria mean a higher rate of aerobic respiration, providing the plant with more energy. The root
hair cell is able to carry out active transport. Mineral ions are maintained at a higher concentration in the root
hair cell compared to the soil.

Q: Root hair cells have high ion concentration. Explain how this is maintained and its importance.

A: Ions are absorbed by active transport against a concentration gradient, from the soil to root hair cells, using
energy from active transport. This maintains a lower water potential in the root hair cells so that water can
continuously move into root hair cells via osmosis.
3: Nutrients
4: Enzymes

Q: Suggest why protease (optimum temperature of 60°C from qn) is added to biological detergents.

A: It breaks down protein stains such as blood (MUST state example), and it is not denatured by temperature of
hot water.
5: Nutrition in Humans

Q: What is the function of the hepatic portal vein

A: It is to transport glucose and amino acids from the small intestine to the liver

Q: Describe the functions of the liver. (Drink Red Sweet PP)

1) Detoxification of alcohol

- Convert harmful substances into harmless substances

- Enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase converts alcohol into acetaldehyde

2) Regulation of blood glucose concentration

- Antagonistic hormones, insulin and glucagon, stimulate the liver to regulate blood glucose concentration

3) Storage of iron

- Haemoglobin is sent to liver to be recycled

- Breakdown of haemoglobin produced iron

4) Production of Bile

- Liver produces bile which emulsifies fat

5) Protein synthesis

- Liver uses amino acids to synthesise proteins such as prothrombin and fibrinogen

- Amino group in amino acids are removed and converted into urea during deamination

- Carbon residues od amino acids from deamination are converted to glucose in the liver

Q: State the short-term and long-term effects of drinking alcohol.

A:

Short-term:

- Slows down some brain functions

- Causes symptoms of drunkenness

- Reduced self-control

Long term:

- Causes liver cirrhosis

- Increases risk of gastric ulcers

- Frequent intake may lead to addiction

Q: Explain the importance of villi to a human being

A: Blood capillaries in villi absorb glucose and amino acids from the small intestine via diffusion and active
transport. Lacteal in villi absorb fat. There are numerous villi and each villus has microvilli, increasing surface
area to increase rate of absorption.

Q: Describe how the breakdown products of excess amino acids are transported in the blood from their site of
production to their site of removal from the human body.

A:

1. Excess amino acids are deaminated in the liver

2. Amino group of each amino acid is removed, and urea is formed.

3. Hepatic veins carry urea in the blood to the heart.

4. Heart transports blood containing urea to kidneys via the renal artery

5. In kidney, urea is filtered out of the blood into urine and stored in urinary bladder to be removed from body
6: Nutrition in Plants

Q: State the function of chlorophyll.

A: Chlorophyll converts light energy into chemical energy during photosynthesis, to produce the carbohydrate,
glucose.

Q: Describe how carbon dioxide enters the leaf and moves into a mesophyll cell for osmosis.

A:

1. CO2 is rapidly used up during photosynthesis

2. CO2 concentration is lower in the leaf than the atmospheric air

3. CO2 diffuses into the leaf via the stomata and accumulates in the intercellular air spaces

4. CO2 dissolves in the thin film of moisture surrounding the mesophyll cells and diffuses in solution into both
the spongy and palisade mesophyll cells

5. CO2 diffuses into the chloroplast where photosynthesis takes place where it will be converted into a molecule
of glucose

Q: Suggest why light is a major factor affecting the growth rate of trees.

A: Light energy is an essential factor for leaves of trees to carry out photosynthesis and is a limiting factor
affecting the rate of photosynthesis and the rate of glucose is produced. When more light energy is available,
more glucose can be produced and used to release energy through aerobic respiration, contributing to growth.
8: Transport in Humans

Q: Describe the function of blood in humans.

i) Transport function

- Carry various substances from one part of the body to the other

ii) Protective function

- Blood clotting prevents the entry of bacteria into the bloodstream and excessive blood loss

- Protects the body against pathogens

Q: Describe the process of blood clotting.

A: Platelets and damaged tissues release the enzyme thrombokinase. Thrombokinase will activate inactive
prothrombin to thrombin. Thrombin will convert soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin threads. Insoluble fibrin
threads will form a mesh. The mesh trap more red blood cells and platelets to form a blood clot and scab.

Q:

i) Account for the fluctuations in pressure at D (pulmonary artery)

ii) Important chemical changes occur in the blood as it passes through region E (lung capillaries). Suggest reasons
for the change in blood pressure.

A:

i) D is the pulmonary artery. When the heart muscles contract, pressure increases. When the heart muscles
relax, pressure decreases.

ii) E is the lung capillaries. Lung capillaries have wide branching, increasing the total cross-sectional area. Blood
flows at a slower speed to allow for effective diffusion of gases during gas exchange. Hence, the blood pressure
decreases.
Q: Describe what coronary heart disease is.

A: Fatty deposits build up on inner surface of coronary arteries. Lumen of coronary arteries become narrower.
Blood flow to the heart muscles will decrease because of the fatty deposit plaque. Heart muscles will receive
reduced or no supply of oxygen and nutrients. Heart muscles will be affected and respiration of heart muscle
cells will be affected. This may cause a heart attack.

Q: Suggest what causes the fall in blood pressure as the blood passes from the aorta to the vena cava.

A: Blood passing through vena cava is further away from the source of pressure, the heart. Friction along the
walls of the vessels slows the blood down, causing blood pressure to decrease.
9: Transport in Plants

Q: In the ‘ringing’ experiment, explain why bulging occurs at the region above the ring.

A: The removal of phloem prevents the translocation of sugars and amino acids to the region below the ring. The
accumulation of sugars and amino acids in the region just above the ring lowers the water potential of cells in
that region. Water enters the region and results in bulging.

Q: Explain how water moves in the leaf from the xylem into the atmosphere.

A:

1) Water vapour diffuses out of the stomata into the atmosphere, as the atmosphere has a lower concentration
of water vapour than the stomata.

2) Transpirational pull causes water vapour to evaporate from the thin film of moisture surrounding the spongy
mesophyll cells and accumulate in the intercellular air spaces.

3) As more water evaporates from the thin film of moisture, the water potential of the spongy mesophyll cell
decreases, causing water to move from the xylem into the spongy mesophyll cells.

Q: Outline the pathway of water from the roots to the leaves.

A:

1) The sap in the root hair cell has a lower water potential than the soil solution. Water enters the root hair cell
by osmosis.

2) Water moves across the root cortex via osmosis down a water potential gradient and enters the xylem vessels
into the roots by root pressure.

3) Water is drawn up the xylem by capillary action and transpirational pull.

4) Water diffuses from the xylem vessels into the mesophyll cells in the leaves.

5) Water evaporates from the surface of mesophyll cells into intercellular air spaces.

6) Water vapour diffuses out of the leaf through the stomata into the atmosphere.

Q: State the advantages of transpiration.

- Transpirational pull is the main suction force for moving water and mineral salts up the xylem, bringing water
to other parts of the plant such as the leaves for photosynthesis

- Evaporation of water cools the plant

- Helps to maintain turgidity as water that is lost at the aerial parts of the plant is replaced

Q: Describe what causes wilting.

A: It is caused by excessive transpiration, when the rate of water loss exceeds the rate of water absorption. The
plant does not get enough water and the cells lose turgidity and become flaccid. The plant will not be upright
and the leaves will droop.
10: Respiration

Q: Explain the importance of haemoglobin to a human being.

A: Oxygen binds reversibly with haemoglobin in the red blood cells to form oxyhaemoglobin. It helps to
transport oxygen to respiring cells to release energy during aerobic respiration. Upon delivering oxygen to
respiring cells, oxyhaemoglobin is converted back to haemoglobin to bind reversibly with oxygen again to
transport oxygen to respiring cells again.

Q: Explain the effect of carbon monoxide on the normal functioning of the human body

A: Carbon monoxide binds irreversibly with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin. Oxygen carrying capacity
of red blood cells is reduced.

Q: Suggest why the number of deaths from lung cancer in smokers is much greater than it is in non-smokers.

A: Tar in cigarette smoke enters the lung, causing uncontrolled cell division. This increases the chance of a
normal cell mutating into a cancer cell.

Q: A person is only able to produce low levels of carbonic anhydrase. Suggest and explain the effect of this
deficiency on gas exchange.

A: Blood acidity will increase. Carbonic anhydrase catalyses the conversion of carbon dioxide and water into
carbonic acid. Carbonic acid dissociates to produce bicarbonate ions. This allows carbon dioxide to be
continuously transported away from cells to lungs by blood down concentration gradient. Lesser carbonic
anhydrase means that less carbon dioxide is removed from the body cells, so lesser carbon dioxide is excreted
by lungs.
11: Excretion

Q: Explain the importance of excretion.

A: If excretion does not occur, waste products such as CO2 and urea will accumulate, affecting the pH of blood
plasma thus affecting enzyme activity, harming the body. It also prevents accumulation of excess salts and water
which affect water potential of blood.

Q: Describe the similarities and differences between the blood plasma and dialysis fluid.

A:

Similarities:

Both have the same glucose concentration

Both have the same water potential

Both have counter filter current

Differences:

Blood plasma has urea while dialysis fluid does not have urea

Q: Explain how dialysis works.

A: Blood is drawn from an artery in the patient’s arm and is pumped into a dialysis machine through a partially
permeable dialysis tubing. The dialysis tubing is bathed in a dialysis fluid that has the same composition of
substances as blood except it lacks the nitrogenous waste products, urea. Small molecules including urea diffuse
out of the blood plasma into the dialysis fluid because of the concentration gradient between the blood and the
dialysis fluid. The filtered blood is returned to a vein in the patient’s arm.

Q: Describe and explain how reduced secretion of ADH would affect the composition of urine.

A: Permeability of cells of distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct in nephron decreases. Less water is
reabsorbed. Urea concentration in urine decreases, water potential increases and volume of water produced
increases.
12: Homeostasis

Q: Explain the role of the sweat glands in body temperature regulation.

A: Sweat glands release more or less sweat depending on the body temperature. When body temperature
increases above normal levels, sweat glands become more active, producing more sweat, lowering body
temperature back to normal. When body temperature decreases below normal, sweat glands become less
active to produce less sweat, increasing body temperature back to normal.
13: The Nervous System

Q: Describe the pathway of nerve impulses when touching a hot object.

A: When touching a hot object, thermoreceptors in the skin are stimulated, generating nerve impulses which
are transmitted to the sensory neurone. Sensory neurone transmits nerve impulses to the brain, which
perceives the feeling of hotness. Sensory neurones also transmit nerve impulses to the relay neurone and then
to the motor neurone across 2 synapses. Upon receiving the nerve impulses from the relay neurone, the motor
neurone transmits nerve impulses to the effector, arm. The arm muscle contracts, resulting in the withdrawal of
the hand from the object.

Q: State the similarities and differences between voluntary and involuntary actions.

A:

Similarities:

Both involve at least one relay and motor neurone.

Both involve transmission of nerve impulses

Differences:

Voluntary Involuntary
Initiated at forebrain Initiated at receptors
Slower Immediate and quick
Deliberate Instinctive
Controlled by will Without conscious control
May produce different responses each time Same response every time
14: The Human Eye

Q: Describe how humans see.

A:

1. Light rays enter the cornea.

2. Cornea refracts the light rays

3. Light rays pass through the aqueous humor and pupil,

4. Lens alter the curvature for accommodation

5. Lens bring light rays to the yellow spot on the retina

6. Cones and rods convert light energy into electrical energy

7. Electrical energy in the form of a nerve impulse is transmitted along the optic nerve to the brain

8. The brain decodes the impulse to produce sight

Q: Describe what happens in the eye when focusing on a near object. (C2S2)

A: Ciliary muscle contracts. Suspensory ligament slackens. Lens become thicker and more convex. Light rays are
focused sharply onto a point on the retina. Photoreceptors are stimulated and nerve impulses are transmitted
by the nerve to the brain where it interprets the image.

Q: Describe what happens in the eye when focusing on a distant object.

A: Ciliary muscle relaxes. Suspensory ligament becomes taut. Lens becomes thinner and less convex. Light rays
are focused sharply onto a point on the retina. Photoreceptors are stimulated and nerve impulses are
transmitted by the nerve to the brain where it interprets the image.

Q: Describe what happens in the eye in bright light. (C2R2)

A: Circular muscles contracts. Radial muscles relax. Pupil becomes smaller and constricted. This decreases the
amount of light entering the eye.

Q: Describe what happens in the eye in dim light.

A: Circular muscles relax. Radial muscles contract. Pupil dilates and becomes larger. This increases the amount of
light entering the eye.

Q: Describe the pathway of nerve impulses in pupil reflex.

A: A change in light intensity stimulates the photoreceptors in the retina and nerve impulses are generated.
Nerve impulses are then transmitted to the sensory neurone in the optic nerve. Sensory neurone transmits
nerve impulses to the relay neurone in the brain. Nerve impulses are transmitted to the motor neurone, which
transmits the nerve impulses to the iris muscles which causes the iris to constrict/dilate.

Q: Explain how cataracts affect vision.

A: Vision will become blurry. Light rays cannot be properly refracted into the eyes to reach the retina.
15: Hormones

Q: Explain what is meant by an endocrine gland, with reference to the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.

A: An endocrine gland is a ductless gland that transport its secretions via the bloodstream to the target organs
where they exert their effect. Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas is an endocrine gland that secretes the
hormones insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream.

Q: Explain how insulin decreases blood glucose concentration.

A:

1) Insulin increases the rate of glucose uptake by making cells more permeable to glucose

2) Insulin stimulates liver and muscle cells to convert excess glucose to glycogen for storage

3) Presence of insulin increases the oxidation of glucose during tissue respiration

Q: Explain why a lack of insulin secretion may cause glucose to be present in urine.

A: Lack of insulin secretion causes blood glucose level to be very high. Glucose cannot be fully reabsorbed during
selective reabsorption in the nephron in the kidneys. Urine will contain glucose.

Q: Explain how adrenaline is secreted.

A: An increase in stress levels/sudden excitement activates sensory neurones in the hypothalamus. Adrenal
gland is stimulated to produce adrenaline. Adrenaline is carried in blood to target organs. Target organs have a
response to the short term effect of adrenaline.

Q: State the differences between endocrine and hormone control.

15: Cell Division

Q: Explain the need for meiosis

A:

1) Helps to produce haploid gametes

2) Helps to bring about genetic variation

3) Helps organisms better adapt and survive in the environment

4) When haploid male and female gametes fuse, the diploid number of chromosomes is restored in the nucleus

Q: Explain how meiosis gives rise to genetic variation.

A:

1) Crossing over of homologous chromosomes at prophase I

2) Independent assortment of homologous chromosomes at metaphase I

3) Fertilisation is random

Q: State the differences between mitosis and meiosis.

A:

Mitosis
Daughter cells are genetically identical to parent cell
Involves 1 nuclear division to produce 2 diploid cells
Function: growth and repair of organisms
Occurs in all cells
No homologous chromosomes
No crossing over of sister chromatids
Daughter cells have the same number of
chromosomes as parent cells
Meiosis
Daughter cells are genetically dissimilar from parent
cell
Involves 2 nuclear divisions to produce 4 haploid cells
Function: produce gametes for sexual reproduction
Occurs only in reproductive organs
Homologous chromosomes pair up
Crossing over of sister chromatids at Prophase I
Daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes
as the parent cell
16: Reproduction in Humans

Q: Describe what happens if fertilisation does not occur.

A: The egg breaks down and secretion of progesterone stops. Uterine lining breaks down. Uterine lining is
discharged together with blood through the vagina. Menstrual cycle repeats.
17: Reproduction in Plants
18: Heredity

Q: Explain why observed ratios differ from expected ratios when there are smaller numbers of progeny.

A: Smaller sample size will lead to inaccurate observed ratios. Observed ratio becomes closer to expected ratio
when sample size increases. Based on chances and probability, actual number of offspring will not match
expected number precisely.
19: Molecular Genetics

Q: Outline the relationship between DNA, genes and chromosome.

A:

DNA is a molecule made up of 2 polynucleotide chains wound around each other in a double helix structure.

Gene is a unit of inheritance on a small segment of DNA and is made up of a sequence of nucleotides that
control the production of one specific polypeptide.

Chromosome is a thread like structure of highly coiled DNA that is only visible during cell division and contains
genetic information in the form of genes.

Q: Describe the process of transferring human insulin genes.

A:

1. Human insulin gene is isolated by adding a restriction enzyme, producing sticky ends

2. The same enzyme is used to cut the bacterial plasmid, producing sticky ends complementary to that of the
insulin gene

3. DNA fragments containing human insulin gene and bacterial plasmid are mixed together. Human insulin gene
will bind to the bacterial plasmid by complementary base pairing between their sticky ends forming a
recombinant plasmid.

4. Add enzyme DNA ligase to seal human insulin gene to the plasmid

5. Mix the recombinant plasmid with bacteria and heat or electric shock the cells

6. Transgenic bacteria are placed in large scale fermenters with optimum conditions for growth and
reproduction

7. At the end of fermentation, human insulin gene is extracted and purified before use

Q: Describe the structure of DNA.

A: DNA molecule is a long polymer. It has a double helix structure. It is made up of 2 anti-parallel strands. The
basic unit of DNA is a nucleotide. Nucleotide is made up of deoxyribose sugar, phosphate group and nitrogen
containing bases. The 2 anti-parallel strands are joined together by nitrogen containing bases, which are paired
together by complementary base pairing. Adenine pairs with thymine. Cytosine pairs with guanine.
Complementary bases are joined together by hydrogen bonds.

Q: Describe what is meant by a transgenic organism.

A: It refers to when a gene from another organism is transferred into an organism through genetic engineering.
The organism is able to produce polypeptides that are controlled by this gene. Thus, the transgenic organism has
altered genetic composition and different characteristics of traits.

Q: With reference to structures in a cell, describe the sequence of events that lead to the production of proteins
in a cell.

A: The nucleus contains the gene which codes for the production of protein. Transcription of genes occur in the
nucleus producing messenger ribonucleic acids (mRNAs). mRNA leaves the molecule via the nuclear pore.
Ribosomes will carry out translation in the cytoplasm to synthesise polypeptide chains that will fold into proteins
20: Organisms and their environment

Q: Why are most food chains no longer than 4 trophic levels?

A: Since 90% of energy is lost due to heat loss during respiration, dead animals, uneaten body parts and
excretory products, only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next. Shorter food chains
mean that more energy is transferred to organisms at higher trophic levels because less energy is lost. Thus,
organisms at higher trophic levels will have enough energy to survive. Shorter food chains are more energy
efficient than longer food chains.

Q: How does having short food chains solve food shortage for an increasing world population?

A: Short food chains are more energy efficient than long food chains because less energy is lost so more energy
is transferred. When humans eat crops, lesser energy is lost as compared to crops eaten by animals which are
eaten by humans. So when humans eat crops, more energy is obtained by humans. Thus they will eat less food
and this means more food for the increasing world population.

Q: Explain how discharging untreated sewage into water bodies affects the ecosystem.

A: Untreated sewage discharged into water bodies contains bacteria. The organic wastes present in the sewage
is a good source of food for the bacteria. Bacteria grow and multiply rapidly, using up oxygen in the process.
Other organisms, including fish die due to the lack oxygen. When all the oxygen has been completely used up,
anaerobic bacteria continue breaking down the organic wastes, releasing bad smelling gases such as hydrogen
sulfide and ammonia.

Q: Describe how the excessive use of fertilisers leads to eutrophication and its effects on marine life.

A: Excess fertilisers are washed into a water body. Nutrients in the fertiliser increases the growth of algae and
water plants in the water body. Algae cover the surface of the water preventing light from passing through.
Submerged plants die due to the lack of sunlight as they cannot photosynthesise. Bacteria grow rapidly and use
up dissolved oxygen as they decompose the dead plants. Other organisms die due to the lack of oxygen.

Q: In bioaccumulation, explain why the last predator have the most chemical in them.

A: Along the food chain, each organism has to consume more organisms from the lower trophic level to survive
due to energy loss. Therefore, more chemicals will accumulate in the body of the organisms along the food chain
and will be the highest at the top predator.

Q: Explain how eutrophication of rivers affect carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere,

A: Dissolved CO2 is rapidly used up by algae during photosynthesis, causing CO2 level to decrease at first.
Submerged algae and marine life die due to the lack of CO2 caused by eutrophication, and decompose releasing
CO2 into the atmosphere, causing CO2 levels to rise.
Q: State the reasons for conservation of natural environments.

(Singapore Misses Masticating Ecuadorian Food Products)

A:

- Scientific value

- Maintenance of a balanced Ecosystem

- Maintenance of biodiversity

- Economic importance

- Food source

- Preservation of natural scenery and wildlife

Q: Suggest why the ocean gives out less carbon than it receives.

A:

1. Dissolved carbon dioxide is absorbed and used by phytoplankton and algae during photosynthesis

2. When organisms carry out aerobic respiration, carbon dioxide is released into the ocean

3. When organisms die, they decompose, releasing carbon dioxide into ocean, which settle to bottom of seabed

4. Overtime they form carbon compounds known as fossil fuels

5. When other marine organisms carry out aerobic respiration, carbon dioxide produced is absorbed by aquatic
plants for photosynthesis, hence the ocean is a carbon sink, so ocean gives out less carbon than it receives