SUBJECT: GOVERNMENT.

CLASS: SS 3
SCHEME OF WORK FIRST TERM

WEEK TOPIC
THEME: POLITICAL CRISES AND MILITARY RULE IN NIGERIA
1. Revision of last year’s work
2. Major Political Crisis in Nigeria: (a) Political Crisis – (i) Kano riot of 1953, (ii) Eastern
Regions Constitution 1953, (iii) Census crises 1962/63. (iv) Action Group crisis in
Western Region 1962, 1967 – 70. (b) Electoral crises: (i) Federal Election 1964.
(ii) Western Nigeria Election of 1965 (iii) General Election 1979. (iv) Executive versus
Legislative crises 1981 in Kaduna State. (v) General Election of 1983. (vi) General
Election of 1993.
3. Military Rule in Nigeria: (a) Military Rule: (i) 1966 – 1975, (ii) 1975 – 1979, (iii) 1983 –
1985, (iv) 1985 – 1993, (v) 1993 – 1999. (b) Features (c) Causes (d) Consequences (e)
Structure.
4. Conflict Resolution and Management: (a) Conflicts – meaning, types, causes, and
consequences. (b) Conflict Resolution.Peace Education: (a) Meaning of Peace, (b)
Mechanism for promoting peace.
THEME:NIGERIA AND THE WORLD
5. The Inter-dependence of Nations and Globalization: (a) Inter-dependence of nations.
(2) Community of nations. (c) Purpose of interaction. (d) Nigeria’s interaction; (i)
Economic (ii) Political (iii) Social-Cultural. (d) Merits and demerits.
6. Nigeria’s Foreign Policy:(a) Meaning of foreign policy (b) Factors affecting Nigeria’s
Foreign Policy. (c) Aims and objectives of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy. (d) Nigeria’s Foreign
Police since independence. (e) Non-Alignment. (f) Nigeria and non-alignment.
7. International Organizations:(a) International Organizations: (i) United Nations – (UN),
(ii) African Union – (AU), (iii) Economic Community of West African States - (ECOWAS),
(iv) Commonwealth of Nations – (former British Colonies, Dominions and United
Kingdom), (v) United Nations Development Project - (UNDP), (vi) Food and Agricultural
Organization – (FAO), (vii) United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural
Organization – (UNESCO), (viii) World Health Organization – (WHO), (ix)
UNICEF), (b) Origin (c) Aims and Objectives (d) Achievements. (for each of the
organizations).
8. Millennium Development Goals (MDG): (a) Meaning of MDG (b) To achieve MDG by
2015 – (i) Eradicate extreme poverty & hunger. (ii) Achieve Universal Primary Education.
(iii) Promote gender equality and empower women. (iv) Reduce Child mortality. (v)
Improve maternal health. (vi) Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria. (vii) Ensure environmental
sustainability. New Economic Partnership for Economic Development (NEPAD): (a)
Meaning (b) Aims and objectives.
9. e-government: (a) Meaning: use of computers or ICT in government business or
activities. (b) Areas: Nigerian Immigration service, Nigerian Customs Services, Federal
Inland Revenue Service (FIRS), JAMB, WAEC, NECO. (c) Other uses: website, e-mail,
network of offices. (d) Advantages and disadvantages.
10. Leadership and Followership: (a) Leadership (b) Follower-ship (c) Qualities. (d) Roles
of politics and government.
11. Revision
12. Mock WAEC/NECO SSCE.
WEEK 1: Revision of last year’s work

WEEK 2 DATE:_______________

TOPIC: Major Political Crisis in Nigeria

CONTENT: (a) Political Crisis – (i) Kano riot of 1953, (ii) Eastern Regions Constitution 1953,

(iii) Census crises 1962/63. (iv) Action Group crisis in Western Region 1962, 1967 –
70.

(b) Electoral crises: (i) Federal Election 1964. (ii) Western Nigeria Election of 1965 (iii)
General Election 1979. (iv) Executive versus Legislative crises 1981 in Kaduna State.
(v) General Election of 1983. (vi) General Election of 1993.

Sub Topic 1: (1) Kano Riot of 1953 (ii) Eastern Region Constitution 1953 (iii) Census
Crises 1962/63 (iv) Action Group Crises in Western Region 1962,1967-70

KANO RIOT OF 1953

Causes of the crises

1) A member of the action group in the federal house of representative in 1953, Chief
Anthony Enahoro moved a motion on the floor of the house that Nigeria should attain
self governance by 1956. The Northern people congress opposed the motion on the
ground that the motion should be changed to as soon as practicable this stand was
opposed by the AG and the NCNC.
2) The northern delegates were booed and humiliated on the streets of lagos while
returning to their areas after the motion.
3) In anticipation that the proposed amendment would succeed because of the numerical
strength of th NCNC in the house , members of the NCNC and the AG walked out of the
house.
4) Due to the fact that the AG was not comfortable with the views expressed by the NPC,
the AG sent a delegation to the north on the need for the motion of self government to
be adopted
5) Another cause of the riot was the planned secession of the northerners if their demands
were not met
6) The northerners were against the Igbos for their dominance of the economic activities in
the northern part of Nigeria.
7) The southern leaders accused the southerners of trying to extend colonial rule .

Riot broke out on the streets of Kano between May 16 th-19th in which 36 people lost their lives
and about 241 people were wounded.

Implications or Effect of the Riot

1) The Riot worsened the bitter relationship between the Northern and southern
leaders as they accused one another of sabotage.
2) The riot also showed that only a federal system of government, where each region
can develop at their own pace is the only means of holding the country together.
 3) The British government discovered that the regions cannot work together as a unit.
Therefore Macpherson constitution was reviewed and replaced with Lyttelton
constitution.
4) It gave birth to London constitution conference of 1953/54.
5) It led to a walking alliance between the AG and the NCNC. Known as the united
progressive Grand Alliance.
6) The crises led to 8 point demand by the NPC to the colonial government before they
could return to the house of Representative. The 8 point demands are:
i) there should be no central legislative body for the country
ii) the northern region should be given complete legislative and executive powers on
all matters except defence, external affairs and customs.
iii) there should be a central agency which should be responsible for some specific
matters that affects the
iv) the central agency should be located in Lagos
v) the agency should be established by the British government
vi) each region should have a separate public services
vii) all revenue collected bu the regional governments shall be for their own use.
Viii) the services of the railways, post and telegraph and air services should be an
under regional affair.

Eastern Region Constitution Crisis of 1953

In its meeting held at Enugu on the night of January 28, 1953, the NCNC parliamentary
committee requested all its nine regional ministers to resign so that the Regional Executive
could be reshuffled. At this meeting all nine regional ministers did sign and address their
resignation notices to the Lieutenant-General. But six hours later, six of the ministers who
apparently learnt that their names were not included in the new list, sent letters to the Lt.
Governor withdrawing their resignation notices. Later, the same morning, the notices of the
resignation of all the nine regional ministers were brought to the Lt. Gov. But it became
apparent that the withdrawals were received before the notices of resignation were actually
handed in.

The NCNC charged that, since these six ministers had under their hand actually resigned their
seats even though they withdrew those resignations later, the Governor had no constitutional
right to allow them to remain in office. Besides, the party maintained that these ministers had
lost the confidence of the party on whose platform they had accepted office and therefore were
not properly qualified to continue to serve on the Regional Executive Council. The minister, on
the other hand, contended that they had been its majority into an ‘opposition’ and defeated
every bill that was brought up for debate in the House. And for the three months that this
constitutional controversy linger, the Eastern regional government was virtually paralyzed. The
situation was only saved by the Lt. Governor resorting to Reserve Powers to decree an
appropriation for the running of government services. It was not, however, until May 6, 1953,
that the Eastern House of Assembly was dissolved by an Amendment decree of Royal
Instrument. Subsequently, the NCNC was, after a general election, overwhelmingly returned to
power with the Eastern regional government this time headed by the NCNC national President,
Dr. Nnamdi Azikwe.
This is the government controlled by members of the Armed Forces. This could only be
achieved through force known as coup de tat. A coup de tat is a violent change of government
by the Armed Forces to remove the existing government. Military rule became prevalent after
independence in those countries that experienced it.

Census Crises of 1962/63

One of the crises that threatened to tear Nigeria apart was the census crises of 1962 to
1963.after the 1952/53 census, 312 seats in the House of Representatives were allocated,
giving the north 174 seats, East 73 seats, West 62 seat and Lagos 3 seats. Thus the North
controlled a majority in the house with the number of seats greater than that of the south
combined the east and west felt uncomfortable in the arrangement and believed the north was
not so populous and that allocation on reliable population figures would redress the situation.
The census of May 1962 was then considered a solution. The result of the census showed the
population of both the East and West increasing over the 1952/53 figures by about 70 percent
each while the North increased by only 30 percent. The results were regarded to be largely
unreliable. This led to their cancellation after the federal parliament failed to sit for three days.

Another census was conducted in November 1963 and when the results were released in
February 1964, the North had 29.8 million, the East 12.4 million and the West (including the
Mid-West) 12.8 million. The Northern and Western Region leaders accepted the figures as
correct. However, the government of Eastern and Mid-Western Region as well as many
educated Southerners rejected the result, some by violent protests. The Prime Minister, Sir.
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa declared the results as satisfactory. The Eastern Region government
contested the results at the Supreme Court, asking for its nullification, an action which was
dismissed, leaving the 1963 census figures the reference points for some three decades
afterwards.

Action Group Crisis in Western Region 1962

Chief Obafemi Awolowo left the premiership of the Western Region in 1959, to contest federal
elections to the House of Representative, hoping he would become Prime Minister if his party
won the election. Chief S.L. Akintola then became premier. The Action Group however lost the
federal election and Awolowo became opposition leader while remaining as party chairman with
Akintola as his deputy. Later, there was a personality clash between the two leaders.

Cases of Action Group Crisis of 1962/63

1. There was personality clash between the two principal actors, Chief Obafemi
Awolowo, the party leader and the opposition leader in the Federal House of
Representatives and Chief S.L Akintola who was the deputy leader and the
Premier of the Western Region.
2. There was differences in ideology and tactis pursued by the two leaders. Akintola
suggested the the formation of national government with the NPC but Awolowo
refused.
3. There was also the fear expressed by Awolowo that Akintola planned to supplant
him as the party leader.
4. Awolowo wanted to be consulted before any major decision affecting the people
of the Western Region is taken which Akintola objected to.
 5. Awolowo also accused Akintola of making a secret deal with Tafawa Balewa so
that Akintola will support Balewa to become the president when Nigeria became
a republic.
6. Their disagreement reached a breaking point in Feb. 1962 during the Jos
convention of the party. S. L. Akintola and Ayo Rosiji who was then the General
Secretary walked out of the convention when it was clear they would be expelled
from the party with their supporters.
7. Majority of the party members supported the expulsion motion and a vote of no
confidence was passed on him.

Effects of the Crisis

1. The Action Group (AG) was factionalized into two groups with Awolowo on one side and
Akintola on the other side.
2. The Governor of the Western Region, Sir Adesoji Aderemi heeded the call to remove
Chief S.L Akintola as the premier of western region.
3. Akintola’s removal was declared null and void by the Supreme Court.
4. Chief Akintola was reinstated as the premier of Western region in 1963 and on
returning to power, he formed a new party knows as the United Progressive Party (UPP).
5. Sir Adesoji Aderemi was dismissed as the Governor of the Western Region by the
Federal Government.
6. Following the breakdown of law and order, the Federal Government declared a state of
emergency in the Western Region and appointed Dr. Majekodunmi as the administrator
of the region.
7. Sam Ikoku was appointed as the new secretary of the Action Group to replace Ayo Rosiji
while Alhaji D.S Adegbenro succeeded S.L . Akintola as the premier of the Western
region.
8. A commission of enquiry was set up by the federal government headed by Dr. G.B
Coker and it was discovered that party members embezzled government funds.
9. The crisis led to the trial of Chief Obafemi Awolowo and some of his close associates for
treasonable felony, for which reason they were eventually jailed.
10. The crisis was one of the remote causes of the breakdown of law and order in the
Western Region.

EVALUATION

1. Vividly explain Kano Riot of 1953

2. Discuss census crisis of 1962/63.

Sub-Topic 2: Electoral Crisis: Electoral crises: (i) Federal Election 1964. (ii) Western
Nigeria Election of 1965 (iii) General Election 1979.

Electoral Crisis in Nigeria.

Electoral fraud and crisis has always been a mile stone for Nigeria to cross. Since voting
commenced in the country in 1923, there has never been one form of electoral crisis or the
other due to alleged rigging and intimidations. Below is the summary of electoral crisis in
Nigeria.
Federal Elections of 1964;
Consequent upon December 1959 elections, the Northern People Congress (NPC) had 148 seats
in the house of representatives, the NCNC (dominant in the East) had 89 while the AG (strong
in the West) had 75. With this development, the Northern Peoples Congress controlled a
majority in the house. In July 1964, the year another five-yearly election was due, with the
Northern seats more than those of the three southern regions combined; the southern based
parties discovered they had to capture seats in the North to be able to control a majority in
government at the federal level.

The political parties then merges to formed gigantic mega alliances, with the NCNC, what was
left of AG, and the Northern Progressive Front (NPF) made up of NEPU and the United Middle
Belt Congress (UMBC) joined together to form the United Progressive Grand Alliance (UPGA)
under the leadership of Dr. M.I. Okpara on June 3, 1964.
On August 20, 1964, the NPC, NNDP, the Mid-Western Democratic Front (MDF), the Niger
Delta Congress, (NDC) and the dynamic party formed the Nigerian National Alliance, (NNA)
under the leadership of the premier of northern region, Sir Ahmed Bello.

One of the major causes of the crisis that accompanied the 1964 election was the very short
time for preparation towards elections. Early in December 1964, the Prime Minister, Tafawa
Balewa, advised the president, Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe to dissolve parliament towards election that
would held on 30 December. Thus the Federal Electoral Commission could not prepare an
authentic voters’ list, for there wasn’t enough time for display and correction of voters’ list.
Under this condition, the electioneering campaign commenced all sorts of crude and obnoxious
methods were employed as campaign strategies. Irregular methods of nominating candidates
for the election were alleged when the federal electoral commission declared the nomination of
candidates’ open. At the close of norminations, 66 candidates for NNA and 15 for UPGA were
declared unopposed.

The UPGA leaders considered that there were irregularities in the results, and sents a protest
letter to the president, threatening a boycott if the anomalies remained uncorrected. The
Federal Electoral Commission Chairman, Eyo Esua admitted the irregularities in a broadcast,
promising to effect corrections. President Azikiwe requested that the prime minister postpone
the elections, but the prime minister refused which made the UPGA leaders ask their members
to boycott the 30 December 1964 elections. When the election started on December 30th 1964
as scheduled the UPGA boycotted it. While voting did not take place in the eastern region,
polling took place in the northern and western regions, in some parts of mid-western region
and only in one ward in Lagos. When the votes were counted, the NNA won a comfortable
margin of seats.

Dr. Azikiwe on 4th of January 1965, in the interest of peace and national unity, invited Sir
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa as re-elected prime minister to form a new government. This was
formed, mainly with NNA members, a few NCNC, but no AG members.

Consequences of the 1964 Federal Elections Crisis in Nigeria

1. The outcome of the election brought constitutional crisis to the country, as the
president refuse to invite any of the candidates to form the government at the centre.
2. The crisis led to loss of confidence in the government, as the leaders were not elected
into power by the voters.
3. UPGA refuse to participate in the electoral process in Lagos, Eastern region and part of
the Western region, because of the perceived irregularities which the electoral
 commission carried out by declaring many NNA candidates unopposed, while its
candidate were denied nomination papers.
4. The crisis worsened the mistrust between the various ethnic groups in the country, as
they accused one another of attempting to capture power through undemocratic
processes.
5. The NNA formed the government with a faction of the UPGA.
6. The crisis led to riots and arson in the Western Region, and this was one of the reasons
adduced for the military coup of 1966.
7. The military were able to rule the country for thirteen years, thus undermining the
growth of democracy.

Causes of the Crisis

1. There were discriminations in the provision and acceptance of nomination papers

against the UPGA.
2. With the UPGA unable to submit nomination papers in many instances, some fifteen
NNDP candidates were declared returned unopposed. The UPGA protested to the
governor, Sir Odeleye Fadahunsi with no result.
3. Elections went on in October with massive malpractices like burning and disappearance
of ballot boxes, seizing of ballot papers, unfair counting, thuggery and fighting.
4. Towards the end of counting of votes, conflicting results were announced.
5. The confusion heightened with Adegbenro declaring himself premier of the region and
Akintola officially sworn in as premier-two premiers emerging in the same region.
6. Adegbenro and his supporters were arrested and detained. This did not go down well
with UPGA members. Thus, there were protests, arson, murder and general break down
of law and order.
7. Some people, mostly students, called on the prime minister to declare a state of
emergency as a result of the decline of NNDP and the UPGA to allow peace to reign
which he declined to do.

Implication of the Crisis

1. The riot went on unabated till Major Kaduna Nzeogwu took over power in January
1966, during which process the Western Region premier, S.L Akintola, was killed.
2. Personality clashes between Awolowo and Akintola were allowed to degenerate into a
situation that almost tore the West apart.
3. People were denied their electoral rights and discouraged from participation in political
activities.
4. It paved the way for military takeover of governance in Nigeria.

Western Nigeria Elections of 1965

An election had been held into the Western Nigeria house of assembly in 1960, making another
election due in 1965 according to the 1960 constitution. By, 1965, however, there were three
contesting parties-the AG, NCNC, and NNDP. The then premier, S.L Akintola, was the NNDP
leader, a party formed in 1963 after the 1962-63 AG crises. The new party had won most of the
seats allocated to the West in the 1964 federal election boycotted by the AG under UPGA
alliance. Thus the NNDP was a force to reckon with at the time.
Elections took place on October 11 1965 in a tensed atmosphere was characterized by many
electoral malpractices such as smuggling of ballot papers into ballot boxes, burning opponent
ballot boxes and unfair counting of votes. At the end of election and counting of votes, it was
announced that NNDP won 88 out of the 98 seats contested. In a counter-reaction, Alhaji
Adegbenro summoned a press conference at Ibadan in the house of jailed chief Awolowo in
which he announced that UPGA won 68 out the 98 seats. He pronounced himself the premier
of the region and appointed eight ministers of his cabinet. With two different governments in
the same region, the stage was therefore set for a serious political crisis. At last, chief Akintola
was sworn in as the premier of the region while adegbenro was arrested. As a result of all
these, heavens were let loose for violent demonstrations, chaos, and complete breakdown of
law and order in the western region. It was reported that about 1000 people lost their lives and
about 5,000 houses burnt down while the newly sworn-in premier took to his clean heels and
went into hiding. The political situation in the region gave-rise to the famous “operation wet e”
which could not be quelled continued until the January 15, 1966 coup d’etat that put it to the
stop.

Causes of the Crisis

1. There were discriminations in the provision and acceptance of nomination papers

against the UPGA. While the NNDP announced its 94 candidates a day to close of
norminations, the UPGA could still not get papers for its candidate.
2. With the UPGA unable to submit nomination papers in many instances, some fifteen
NNDP candidates were declared returned unopposed.
3. The electionwent on with massive malpractices like burning and disappearance of ballot
boxes, seizing of ballot papers, unfair counting, etc.
4. Towards the end of counting votes, conflicting results were announced.
5. The confusion heightened with Adegbenro declaring himself premier of the region and
Akintola officially sworn in as premier-two premier emerging in the same region.

General Elections of 1979

The 1979 general elections were unique because they took place under the newly introduced
presidential system of government. The elections that ushered in Nigeria’s second republic after
13 solid years of military interregnum were aimed mainly at electing the first executive
president, governors, and other functionaries. Prior to the elections, the Federal Electoral
Commission (FEDECO) headed by chief Michael Ani had registered five political parties out of
about 52 political associations that emerged when the ban on political activities were lifted. The
registered political parties were,
1. National party of Nigeria (NPN)
2. Unity party of Nigeria (UPN)
3. Nigeria people’s party (NPP)
4. Great Nigerian people’s party (GNPP)
5. People’s redemption party (PRP)
Five different elections took place between July 7 and August 18, 1979 on different five
Saturdays for the senate July 7, House of Representatives July 14, state assemblies July 21,
governorship July 28 and presidential August 11, 1979. The elections were mar by various
forms of rigging, smuggling and other electoral violence. Perhaps the most controversial
elections were the presidential elections. The controversy arose as a result of the fact that none
of the candidates was able to win 25% in two-thirds of the states of the federations, the two
highest scorers should be made to go for a second election. Alhaji Shehu Shagari (of the NPN)
who was eventually declared the winner won 25% of the votes cast in 12 states of the
federation. The mathematical riddle that arose was what should be 2/3 of 19? The NPN
formular of 12 2/3 was accepted by FEDECO and Alhaji Shehu Shagari was declared the
winner. Chief Awolowo (of the UPN) who came second took the matter to the presidential
elections tribunal headed By Justice B.O. Kazeem and later to the Supreme Court presided
over by the then chief justice of the federation, Justice Atanda Williams and all declared that
the election of Alhaji Shehu Shagari was in order. The case generated great public debate and
discontent, involved scores of lawyers, and the eventual result based on mathematical
calculation created a lot of acrimony between the NPN and UPN (and their supporters) in the
fedral legislature and beyond.

EVALUATION

1. Outline five consequences of the 1964 federal elections crisis in Nigeria

2. Highlight five causes of Western Nigeria Elections crisis of 1965

Sub-Topic 3: Executive versus Legislative crises 1981 in Kaduna State, General Election
of 1983, General Election of 1993.

Executive versus Legislative Crisis of 1981kaduna State

After the 1979 election into Kaduna State House of Assembly, the NPN won 68 out of 99 seats;
PRP won 12; GNPP 10; NPP 6 and UPN 3 seats. The most challenging aspect of this crisis was
the governorship election which the People’s Redemption Party won through Alhaji Balarabe
Musa.

What led to the Kaduna Crisis?

Balarabe Musa on assumption of as the governor of Kaduna state effected great changes in the
state administration geared towards the betterment of the lot of poor, much to the disapproval
of the rich conservatives of the state. He abolished community tax and cattle tax and also
abolished the emirate councils, transferring their duties to a council of chiefs constituting of
chiefs and ordinary citizens, thus widening participation in decision making. In order to use
the instrument of a committee to address complaint over land ownership and compensations
there from, he stopped the processing and issuance of certificates of occupancy concerning
lands within the state. He promoted the establishment of industries by setting aside 2 million
naira annually for each local government. He dissolved all boards of state companies and
constituted new ones with members from all levels of the society. He submitted names of his
nominee commissioners for the approval of the state house of assembly with the whole list
turned down each time. The Kaduna high court rejected his plea that the court compels the
house to approve his list, after which he decided to run his government without
commissioners.

On 7th of May 1981, the house made its first move of impeachment of the governor
when 69 of them signed a motion declaring Musa guilty of ‘gross misconduct,’ listing 10
offences against him. The motion for impeachment was made again on 21 May 1981 and
approved. None of the motions filed in court by Balarabe Musa to stop the impeachment
succeeded.

On 7th of June the house appointed a seven-man panel to investigate the charges
against him. The panel invited him, an invitation which he declined especially because he was
given three days only to prepare
 On 23rd June, the investigating panel submitted its report, and by a vote of 69 out of
99, Balarede Musa was removed as governor of Kaduna state.

General Elections of 1983

The general elections of 1983 in Nigeria were of historical importance to the country. In the
first place, unlike the 1979 elections that was conducted under the watchful eyes of the
military, the 1983 elections were the first to be organized and held solely by the civilians after
the 13 years of military rule. It was the 1983 elections that ushered in the military once again
into our political system. Before the elections were held, the FEDECO chaired by justice Ovie
Whisky registered one more political party; the Nigerian Advance Party (NAP) formed by Lagos
lawyer Mr. Tunji Braithwaite, thereby making the parties to be six in all. All the five political
parties that contested the 1979 elections did not make changes in the candidates fielded for
the 1983 elections.
The ruling NPN government reversed the 1979 order of elections, putting the presidential
election first in 1983, then followed by gubernatorial, senatorial, House of Representatives, and
states’ houses of assembly. Many opposing politicians and others opposed this arrangement

The NPN presidential candidate, Alhaji Shehu Shagari was declared as the winner in the face of
allegations of rigging. The most controversial of all the elections was the gubernatorial election
in which NPN was said to have won in 10 states. The large scale rigging that characterized the
elections sparked of violent rioting, arson, hooliganism, looting, etc, especially in Ondo and Oyo
states. Though the Supreme Court reversed the Ondo state gubernatorial election results in
favour of UPN, what happened when NPN candidate was declared the winner was reminiscent
of the 1965 western regional election episode. The NPN much vaunted land slide victory was
replaced with “military-slide” coup d’etat on December 31, 1983.

The 1993 General Elections

Following the long stay of the military in Nigerian politics, two major political parties were
introduced by the then military ‘president’ General Ibrahim Babaginda (rtd). They were
1. National Republican Convention. (NRC) and
2. Social Democratic Party. (SDP)
Elections were conducted at all levels and what seems and came to be Nigerian first true
credible election hit the walls when General Babaginda(rtd) annulled the results of the elections
widely believed to have been won by late chief M.K.O Abiola. Violent demonstrations and
unrest ensure and the nation was in dilemma. After much pressure and consultations, General
Babaginda (rtd) resigns from office and handed power to an interim national government
headed by Chief Ernest Shonekon, a move the “general’ claimed he only ‘step aside’. The new
administration only live for two months as it was swept out of office by what history books call
‘palace coup’ on November 17, 1993 by late general Sani Abacha. Though no recorded cases of
electoral fraud was visible in the 1993 general elections, the aftermath and cancellations of the
elections results to series of crisis, lost of lives and properties.

EVALUATION

1. Discuss vividly executive versus legislative crises 1981 in Kaduna State.

2. Explain general election of 1993 crisis.

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. Highlight five causes of Kano riot.

2. Outline six implication of the Kano riot
3. Discuss eastern region constitution crisis of 1953
4. State five causes of Action Group crisis in western region of Nigeria in 1962
5. Provide five causes of the 1964 federal elections crisis in Nigeria

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Objective Test

Essay Test

Reading Assignment: Read electoral crises in Nigeria in The New Analytical Study of
Government for SSS class pages 294-314

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT: Read military rule in Nigeria in your e-learning note.

WEEK: 3 DATE:_______________

SUBJECT: GOVERNMENT

CLASS: SS 3

TOPIC: Military Rule in Nigeria:

CONTENT: (a) Military Rule: (i) 1966 – 1975, (ii) 1975 – 1979, (iii) 1983 – 1985, (iv) 1985 –
1993, (v)1993 – 1999.

(b) Features

(c) Causes

(d) Consequences

(e) Structure.

SUB-TOPIC 1: Military Rule in Nigeria Between 1966-1999

MILITARY RULE BETEEN 1966 – 1975.

GENERAL J.T.U. AGUIYI-IRONSI (January – July 1966)

General J.T.U Aguiyi-Ironsi (16th January- 29th July 1966)

The political crisis in post-colonial Nigeria precipitated into a breakdown of law and order in
some of the country's provinces. The inability of Prime Minister Tafawa Balewa to quell the
situation incited the military to terminate civilian rule in a bloody coup d'etat on 14 January
1966. The revolutionary soldiers, led by Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu, an Igbo from
Okpanam near Asaba, present day Delta state, eradicated the uppermost echelon of politicians
from the Northern and Western provinces. Though Ironsi, an Igbo, was originally slated for
assassination, he was able to out manoeuvre the rebellious soldiers in Lagos, the Federal
Capital Territory. Ironsi then rose from the ashes of the First Republic to become the country's
first military Head of State by compelling Acting President Nwafor Orizu to officially surrender
power to him.

On assumption of office he immediately promulgated a decree whereby the offices of the

President, the Prime Minister as well as the Parliament were all suspended. Furthermore
General Ironsi suspended the constitution and appointed Military Governors for the regions; Lt.
Col Hassan Usman Katsina for the North, Lt. Col Francis Fajuyi for the West, Lt. Col David
Akpode Ejoor for the Mid-West and Lt. Col. Chukwuemeka Odumegu Ojukwu for the East.
However, the Chief Justice, the judicial system, the Civil Service, the Nigeria Police Force as
well as Special Constabulary force were to continue their normal functions. The expection Local
Government and Native Authority Police which fell under the direct control of the Inspector
General of Police.

General Ironsi also formed a nine man Supreme Military Council consisting of the four
Military Governors, the Heads of the Navy, Air Force and Police and the Attorney General of the
federation executive council was established. Both bodies were to assist General Irons in
running the government

Ironsi inherited a Nigeria deeply fractured by its ethnic and religious cleavages. The fact that
none of the high-profile victims of the 1966 coup were of Igbo extraction, and also that the
main beneficiaries of the coup were Igbo, led the Northern part of the country to believe that it
was an Igbo conspiracy. Though Ironsi moved swiftly to dispel this notion by courting the
aggrieved ethnic groups through political appointments and patronage, his failure to punish
the coup plotters and the promulgation of "Decree No. 34"—which abrogated the country's
federal structure in exchange for a unitary one— crystallized this conspiracy theory.

During his short regime Aguiyi-Ironsi promulgated lots of decrees among them the Emergency
Decree known as the Constitution Suspension and Amendment Decree No.1 suspending the
Constitution even though he left intact those sections of the constitution that dealt with
fundamental human rights, freedom of expression and conscience. Also the Circulation of
Newspaper Decree No.2 which removed the restriction to press freedom put in place by the
preceding civilian administration. The Decree no.2 was to serve "as a kind gesture to the
press.." to safeguard himself when he went on later to promulgate the Defamatory and
Offensive Decree No.44 of 1966 which made it an "offense to display or pass on pictorial
representation, sing songs, or play instruments the words of which are likely to provoke any
section of the country." Also the controversial Unification Decree No. 34 which aimed to unify
Nigeria into a unitary state. Even though this decree was abolished when Aguiyi-Ironsi was
deposed and killed, the decree was to affect the Nigerian foreign policy decision making system
in a significant way: the abolition of "independence" of the regions in foreign policy. Until then
the Nigerian regional governments could make their own foreign relation policies independent
of the federal government. This decree removed Nigeria's many contradictory tunes on foreign
policy and various "mini-embassies" abroad were closed down.

On July 29, 1966, Ironsi spent the night at the Government House Ibadan as part of a nation-
wide tour. His host, Lieutenant Colonel Adekunle Fajuyi, Military Governor of Western Nigeria,
alerted him to a possible mutiny within the army. Ironsi desperately tried to contact his Army
Chief of Staff, Yakubu Gowon, but he was unreachable. In the early hours of the morning, the
Government House, Ibadan, was surrounded by soldiers led by Theophilus Danjuma. Danjuma
arrested Ironsi and questioned him about his alleged complicity in the coup, which saw the
demise of the Sardauna of Sokoto, Ahmadu Bello. Although some have argued that Fajuyi was
not a target in this counter-coup, Theophilus Danjuma, William Walbe and others have gone
on record to say that they probably wanted him "for questioning" as much as they did his boss,
Aguiyi-Ironsi. Fajuyi was seen as a so-called progressive, who had supported the Nzeogwu coup
in January of that year. The bullet-riddled bodies of Ironsi and Fajuyi were later found in a
nearby forest, and Yakubu Gowon became the new Military Head of State.

It is pertinent to mention some of the acheivement in General Ironsi's administration.

i. The inauguration of the working party on Technical, Commercial and Vocational Education
and Training in Lagos.

ii The inauguration of the National Orientation Committee.

iii. The inauguration of the working party on Statutory Corporations, State owned companies
and related organizations in Nigeria.

iv. The unification of the public and civil Services.

v. The European Economic Community (EEC) agreement.

vi. The Unitary Government Decree.

MILITARY REGIME BETWEEN JULY 1966- JULY 1975 

Gen. Yakubu Gowon

Lieutenant Colonel (later General) Yakubu Gowon, General Ironsi's Chief of Army Staff became
the Head of State and the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces on the overthrow of
General Ironsi's Government and became the head of state after the coup. His first act was to
reinstate the federal system, along with the four regions and their allotted functions. But
relations between the federal government and the Eastern Region, led by military governor
Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, were very strained. In addition to the elimination
of many Igbo officers during the July coup, a massive pogrom against Igbos occurred in the
Northern Region. In September Colonel Gowon summoned an ad hoc constitutional conference
to deliberate on the country's political future. Most regional delegates to the conference, with
the exception of those from the mid-west, recommended a confederal system to replace the
federal system. The delegates from the Eastern Region insisted that any region wishing to
secede from the federation should be allowed to do so. The conference was ended abruptly by
increased killings of Igbos in the north and the heightening of tensions between the federal
government and the Eastern Region. A summit of military leaders at Aburi, Ghana, in January
1967 attempted to resolve the disagreements and recommended the establishment of a base
confederation of regions. The Aburi Agreement became a source of contention.

In anticipation of eastern secession, Gowon moved quickly to weaken the support base of the
region by decreeing the creation of twelve new states to replace the four regions. Six of these
states contained minority groups that had demanded state creation since the 1950s. Gowon
rightly calculated that the eastern minorities would not actively support the Igbos, given the
prospect of having their own states if the secession effort were defeated. Many of the federal
troops who fought the civil war, known as the Biafran War, to bring the Eastern Region back to
the federation, were members of minority groups.

The war lasted thirty months and ended in January 1970. In accepting Biafra' unconditional
cease-fire, Gowon declared that there would be no victor and no vanquished. In this spirit, the
years afterward were declared to be a period of rehabilitation, reconstruction, and
reconciliation. The oil-price boom, which began as a result of the high price of crude oil (the
country's major revenue earner) in the world market in 1973, increased the federal
government's ability to undertake these tasks.

The postwar Gowon government issued a nine-point transition program that was to culminate
in the handing over of power to a civilian government on October 1, 1976. The agenda of the
transition included the reorganization of the armed forces, the completion of the establishment
of the twelve states announced in 1967, a census, a new constitution, and elections.

Gowon initiated several nation-building policies, the most notable of which was the National
Youth Service Corps (NYSC), a community service institution that required one year of service
by each Nigerian immediately after graduation from university or other institution of higher
learning. Each member of the corps had to serve in a state other than his or her home state.

The Gowon years also saw the oil boom and a buoyant economy. The federal government was
encouraged to take on some responsibilities formally allocated to the states, especially in the
area of education. It embarked on major infrastructural projects to transfer control of the
economy from foreigners to Nigerians. The Nigerian Entreprises Promotion decree of 1972,
which was expanded in 1977, stipulated that only Nigerians could participate in certain
categories of business. In those in which foreign involvement was permitted, controlling shares
had to be owned by Nigerians.

The structure of government under Gowon was basically unitarian. At the apex of government
was the all-military Supreme Military Council (SMC), which was the lawmaking body for the
entire federation. Its decrees could not be challenged in any law court. Most members of the
SMC under Gowon were state governors. There was also a Federal Executive Council composed
of military and civilian commissioners. The states also had commissioners appointed by the
governor. The states were practically reduced to administrative units of the federal government,
which in several domains made uniform laws for the country. This basic structure of military
federalism has, with amendments, remained the same during all military governments in the
country.

It is pertinent to mention some of the events that took place in General Yakubu administration.

i. The extensive expansion and exploitation of Nigeria's mineral resources culminating

in the "Oil Boom" which in no small measure changed the economy, the taste and
living standards of many Nigerians

ii. The reluctance of the Governor of the Eastern Region, Lt-Col. Chukwuemeka
Odumegwu Ojukwu, to accept Lt.-Col. Yakubu Gowon as head of the Army and of
the Federal Government.
iii. The release from prison of Chief Awolowo on August 3, 1966.
iv. The restoration on August 31, 1966 of the Federal System of Government to the
country.
v. General disturbances in the country in October 1966 leading to the withdrawal into
their homeland of most people of Eastern origin from other parts of the Federation
vi. Various unsuccessful peace moves towards reconciliation in the country which had
now split into two factions, namely, the East and the rest of the Federal Republic.
One such move was the meeting of the military leaders at Aburi, outside Accra,
Ghana on the 4th and 5th January, 1967.
vii. The creation on May 27, 1967 of twelve states each headed by a Military Governor
out of the former four regions.
viii. The unilateral declaration by Lt. Col. Odumegwu Ojukwu on May 30th 1967 of an
independent "Republic of Biafra" encompassing the entire former Eastern Region.
ix. The beginning, on 6th July, 1967 of what the Federal Government regarded as a
police action to stop the succession of the Eastern Region.
x. The declaration on August 9, 1967 of full-scale war on "Biafra" after its forces had
invaded and captured the Mid-West State.
 xi. The collapse of "Biafra" on January 14, 1970 and its reunion with the Federal
Republic of Nigeria after the escape out of the country of Lt. Co. Ojukwu and his
dismissal from the Nigeria Army.
xii. The period of reconciliation and reconstruction following the cessation of hostilities.
xiii. The introduction of various forms of bursaries, scholarships and Students Loan
Scheme in the 1970's, thereby making education accessible to many more people.
xiv. The announcement of salaries and wages review throughout the Federation to
improve the lot of the ordinary people.
xv. The setting up of the first Armed Robbery and Firearms Tribunal in Lagos in
January
1970.

THE MOHAMMED-OBASANJO MILITARY REGIME (1975 - 1979)

General Gowon was overthrown in a palace coup in July 1975 and succeeded by General
Murtala Muhammad, who was in turn assassinated in an abortive coup on February 13, 1976.
He was replaced by Olusegun Obasanjo, formerly his second in command. General Obasanjo
basically continued the policies and plans of the Muhammad regime.

Murtala Muhammad, a Hausa from the north (Kano State), ruled for only seven months. Within
that short period, he endeared himself to most Nigerians because of his strong leadership and
the radical reforms he introduced in domestic and foreign policies. He "purged" the public-
service ministries, universities, parastatals, and other government agencies at the federal and
state levels of individuals accused of being corrupt, indolent, or inefficient. He set up a panel
headed by Justice Ayo Irikefe to advise on the creation of more states. Its report led to the
creation of seven additional states in 1976. Murtala Muhammad also set up a panel under
Justice Akintola Aguda to consider whether a new federal capital should be created because of
the congestion in Lagos. The panel recommended Abuja in the southern part of the former
Northern Region as the site of a new capital. In economic matters, Murtala Muhammad
introduced the "low-profile" policy, a radical departure from the ostentation of the Gowon era.

Although he retained the framework of military federalism, Murtala Muhammad removed state
governors from membership in the SMC and created a new body in which they were included at
the center, the National Council of States. Because this body was chaired by the head of state
and subordinate to the SMC, its creation underscored the subordinate position of the state
governments. This arrangement enabled the head of state to exert greater control over the state
governors than had been the case under Gowon. In the area of foreign policy, Murtala
Muhammad pursued a vigorous policy that placed Africa at the center and that involved active
support for liberation movements in the continent.

Of all Murtala Muhammad's actions, however, the one that had the most lasting consequences
was a program of transition to civilian rule that he initiated before his death. The program was
carried through as planned by his successor, Obasanjo. The stages of the transition agenda
included the creation of more states, the reform of the local government system, the making of
a new constitution, the formation of parties and, finally, the election of a new government. The
transition process was to culminate in the handing over of power to civilians on October 1,
1979.
Car in which Murtala Muhammed was assassinated.

In February 1976, Murtala Muhammad was killed in an unsuccessful coup led by Colonel
Bukar Dimka and officers from the middle belt; the coup appeared to be an attempt by middle-
belt officers to bring back Gowon from his self-imposed exile and reinstate him as head of
state. Obasanjo, a Yoruba and southerner, became head of state. Although unfavorably
compared with Murtala Muhammad initially, he succeeded in many areas of his administration
where the more intransigent Murtala Muhammad might have failed. Obasanjo became an
adept political ruler, determined not to exacerbate north-south and Muslim-Christian schisms
in the country.

In addition to its methodical conduct of all the stages of the transition to civilian government in
1979, the Obasanjo government initiated numerous reforms in public life. Attempts were made
to introduce greater probity in the activities of civil servants and other public officials. The
main vehicle for this process was the establishment of public complaints commissions in all
states of the federation and in the capital. Despite the publicizing of particular cases of abuse
of office and corruption, little progress was made in stopping the spread of this cancer in the
society and economy.

The Obasanjo administration expanded the economic indigenization program started under
Gowon. It also used the Land Use Decree of 1978 to rationalize the country's haphazard
tenurial systems, to reduce the crippling land speculation and curb the frequent litigation over
individual and communal property rights. It was hoped that these reforms would facilitate the
acquisition of land for modern agricultural purposes. In similar vein, the Obasanjo regime
launched Operation Feed the Nation to counter the rapid rise in food exports. None of these
efforts was successful, but the programs indicated the kind of strategies that Nigeria would
have to adopt to alter its economic imbalances.

In view of the complex process of transition to civilian rule and the many reforms introduced in
the four years of the Muhammad/Obasanjo governments, those regimes seemed in retrospect
to have tried to do too much too soon. In the final year he was in power, Obasanjo introduced
many austerity measures and insisted on a "low profile" for all government officials. He was
aware that Nigeria, despite its oil wealth, was still largely an underdeveloped country and its
business persons mainly agents or intermediaries for foreign businesses. Following nation-wide
elections in 1979, on multi-party basis, the new state and national legislatures met in October
1979, and returned Nigeria to civilian rule under President Shehu Shagari. The hand-over to
civilian rule was one of the political successes of the Mohammed - Obasanjo Administration.

The major acheivement of Mohammed - Obasanjo Regime

The Administration's economic basis rested on the Third National Development Plan (1975 -
1980) earlier launched by General Gowon in March 1975, and subsequently modified by the
Murtala-Obasanjo Administration. The Plan sought to achieve annual real growth rate of 9.6
per cent, and provided for expansion of agriculture, heavy and petrochemical industries,
infrastructure, housing and education.

Agricultural policies and programmes to boost declining food production included the
Accelerated Food Production Programme begun in 1974; various World Bank-assisted
Agricultural Development Projects (ADP) begun in the mid 1970s; River Basin Development
Authority Schemes and the Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) begun by General Obasanjo in
1976. Others were an Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme particularly to smallscale farmers,
the promulgation of a Land Use Decree in 1978 which nationalised all land, and the
establishment of new Commodity Boards.

Poor execution of these programmes, a relatively high population growth rate (3 per cent per
annum compared with 2 per cent for food), and the premium placed on petroleum exports
seriously detracted from the agricultural effort and output. Not only did traditional agricultural
exports like palm produce, cotton, groundnut and cocoa decline, but also Nigeria's food imports
steadily rose; including imports of palm produce, which Nigeria had been a major world
producer and exporter until the late 1960s.

Major industrial and infrastructure developments included steel development, notably at

Aladja, Oshogbo and Ajaokuta; new oil refineries built at Warri and Kaduna in 1978 and 1980,
respectively, and new port and airport complexes, notably the Murtala Mohammed
International Airport in Ikeja, which was opened in April, 1979. Although increasingly
contributing to the GDP, industrialisation generally focused on import-substitution and
assembly, using mostly foreign technical and managerial expertise despite Government's
Indigenisation Policy.

Impressive developments occurred in education and culture. Between 1976 and 1978, the
Federal Government introduced Universal Free Primary Education (UPE), assumed
responsibility for all the nation's universities, and established a Joint Admissions and
Matriculation Board (JAMB) which conducted its first university admissions in 1978 for the
1978/79 Session. The Federal Government also promulgated a new National Policy on
Education known as the "6-3-3-4" designed to promote scientific, technical and vocational
education and self-employment.

GENERAL MUHAMADU BUHARI MILITARY REGIME (1983-1985)

General Muhamadu Buhari

The second military era was preceded by a civilian regime, the Shagari Administration, whose
advent in October 1979 was welcomed by most Nigerians, despite inter-party recriminations
over the presidential elections.

Nevertheless, the euphoria was short-lived, for by mid-1982 much of the economic, social and
political turbulence that characterised the First Republic had returned. These included intra
and inter-party rivalry, bitterness and conflict, evident in the formation, first of an National
Party of Nigeria (NPN), Nigerian Peoples' Party Alliance (NPP), and later on of a Unity Party of
Nigeria (UPN) and NPP alliance. These culminated in large-scale bitterness, violence and
vandalism that characterised the national elections of 1983.

Besides, the Nigerian economy had so deteriorated that food and other imports, including
traditional staples like palm oil and rice already high. All this was in spite of an expensive
Green Revolution Programme sponsored by government. To salvage the economy, the
government imposed stringent austerity measures and contemplated a IMF loan from the
International Monetary Fund (IMF).

Rancorous preparations for the 1983 elections,rising agitation for more states particularly by
the majority ethnic groups previously opposed to state creation, and an alleged coup plot
sponsored by a disgruntled Borno businessman, Alhaji Z. B.Mandara, increased the air of
political uncertainty.Other social ills included corruption, unemployment, high cost of living,
rising incidence of armed robbery, and violent ethnic and religious riots and disturbances in
Kano, Maiduguri and Modakeke. The military struck again in December, 1983.

The Buhari Regime, 1984 - 1985: The military regime headed by Major-General Buhari
consisted of senior military officers such as Brigadier Tunde Idiagbon, Brigadier 1. B.
Babangida and Major General Domkat Bali - all of the Supreme Military Council. The
Administration's many decrees, military tribunals and emphasis on discipline soon won for it
the characterisation as "the first true military dictatorship, albeit benevolent" that Nigeria ever
experienced. As in 1966, the military take-over had considerable initial public support,
particularly following revelations of abysmal corruption by public officers, many of whom were
arrested and detained.

The regime set about recovering ill-gotten wealth from politicians and other public officers
through special military tribunals that it set up. It also sought to cleanse the nation's aegean
stables of corruption and immorality by instituting a "War Against lndiscipline''(WAI) campaign
to fight laziness, lateness, disorderliness, hoarding and examination malpractices and to
inculcate habits of cleanliness, order, patriotism and nationalism in the citizenry. To a
considerable extent these aims were realised. Hence, "WAI" became an important legacy of the
Buhari Administration. Nevertheless, the various new decrees carrying long prison terms or
the death penalty for "miscellaneous offenses" or"economic sabotage," including examination
malpractice, counterfeiting and drug and currency trafficking, met with criticism in some
quarters as being too drastic.

Attempts to revamp the nation's economy met with serious constraints, particularly dwindling
revenue from oil and tremendous burden of re-paying the nation's mounting internal and
external debts. Government's economic recovery measures included a currency change early in
1984 which involved prolonged border closure, wage freeze, cut-back on government spending,
and other "tough medicine."

Although purposeful, these measures achieved only moderate success. In October, 1984,
General Buhari himself declared that the government was"to all intents and purposes
bankrupt." However, apparently conceding to public opinion, Buhari steadfastly refused to
obtain an IMF loan which would entail devaluation of the naira.

The stringent economic measures applied bythe government led to large-scale retrenchment of
public servants; students' unrest in tertiary institutions against the re-introduction of fees and
withdrawal of food subsidy; and increased unemployment. Gradually, the Buhari
Administration appeared to wear an in human and insensitive face.The last straw in the
regime's worsening human rights record was the passage of Decree No. 4. This sought to
ensure that journalists reported "truthfully" and that public officers were not maligned by the
press. However, the decree was widely seen as government's attempt to muzzle the press. The
conviction and imprisonment of two journalists of The Guardian, Nduka Irabor and Tunde
Thompson, and the imposition of a N50,000 fine on The Guardian's publishers under this
Decree, increased fears of government's intention to gag the Press. The activities of the Nigeria
Police and the Nigeria Security Organisation (NSO) in harassing radical intellectuals and other
opponents or critics of the Government, side by side with the numerous harsh decrees carrying
severe penalties, doomed the Buhari regime. It was overthrown on August 27, 1985 in a
military coup.

The Buhari administration identified indiscipline as the bane of the nation's ills and therefore
decided to fight it in all its ramifications. Hence the pre-occupation of the regime was the
launching of the different phases of the War Against Indiscipline (WAI) which has become a
household word in may Nigerian homes. There were five phases of WAI, namely :-

i. Queuing (March 20, 1984)

ii. Work Ethics (May 1, 1984)

iii. Nationalism and Patriotism (August 21, 1984)

iv. Anti-Corruption and Economic Sabotage (May 14, 1985)

v. Environmental Sanitation (July 29, 1985). 

Other major highlights of the regime include :-

1. The suspension of the 1979 Constitution in January 1984.

2. The dissolution of political parties and ban on political activities in January 1984.

3. The freezing of accounts of political parties and corrupt ex-political office holders in the
Second Republic in 1984.

4. The trimming down of the country's Civil service labour force in 1984.

5. The change of colour of the nation's currency notes (except the fifty kobo note) in April 1984
to stop currency trafficking. The exercise rendered almost half of the estimated N6 billion in
circulation worthless at the expiration of the change.

6. The deportation of illegal aliens on the 14th of April, 1984 and 9th of August, 1985
respectively.

7. The clamp down on economic saboteurs with the legal backing of the Miscellaneous Offences
Decree No. 20 of 1984.

8. The launching of the Expanded Immunization Programme (EPI) in May, 1984.

9. The initiation of counter trade in Petroleum products in May, 1984.

10. The wrestling of a major concession from OPEC in 1984 to increase Nigeria's oil production
quota from 1.3 million barrels to 1.45 million barrels per day.

11. The adoption of stricter austerity measures in 1984 and 1985 to further revamp the
economy which include:

i. The closure of the Nigerian borders in January 1984 to stem smuggling.

ii. The setting up of taskforce to check bunkering as a result of expert's estimation of a loss of
one million Naira a day under the civilian government.

iii. The slashing of the basic travelling allowance (BTA) from N 500 to N 100 per annum in
1984.

iv. The introduction of N 100 airport special levy for travellers going outside Africa.

v. The reduction of the home remittance for foreigners to 25 per cent in 1984.

vi. The abolition of the Approved Users Scheme, the General Concessionary Rates of Duty and
the Compulsory Advance Deposit Scheme.

vii. The introduction of a new Customs Tariff, which reduced the range of import duties from
between zero and 500 per cent to between 5 per cent and 200 per cent.
viii. The granting of import duty exemption to only twenty items including agricultural
implements, air craft, fuels, lubricants, educational films, technical assistance materials etc.

ix The introduction of the Advanced Import Duty Payment Scheme.

x. The imposition of a levy on dormant companies.

xi. The promulgation of the Finance Decrees to amend the Income Tax Act of 1969.

xii. The halving of civil servants' leave entitlement in January, 1985.

12. The trial and conviction of ex-politicians who illegally enriched themselves or their political
parties.

13 In 1984, Nigeria's recognition of the Sahara Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) on November
11, 1984.

14. The encouragement of substitution of imported raw materials with local raw materials to
boost the growth of industries.

15. The encouragement of self sufficiency in agricultural food production.

16. The promulgation of series of decrees aimed at revamping the economy and inculcating
discipline. The most controversial being the Public Officers (Protection Against False
Accusation) Decree No 4 and the Miscellaneous Offences Decree No. 20 of 1984.

17. The rescheduling of the nations's short term trade debts valued at over =N=5 billion and
the subsequent issuance of promissory notes to the uninsured creditors.

18. The procurement of new Air Buses by Nigeria Airways in 1985 to boost air transportation.

19. The victory of Nigeria's Under-17 Team (the Golden Eagles) at the Kodak World Cup Soccer
Competition in China in August, 1985.

GENERAL IBRAHIM BADAMASI BABANGIDA MILITARY REGIME (1985-1993)

General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida

He was born in August. 1941 in Minna. Niger State and enlisted into the Nigerian Army in
1962. Promoted Lieutenant in 1963 and Captain in 1968 when he became Commander of the
44 infantry Battalion He was moved to the Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna in 1970 as an
Instructor and Commander 4 Reconnaissance Regiment and Army Armoured Corps in 1975.
He rose to the rank of Brigadier-General in 1979 and with the military take-over of government
in 1983 became Chief of Army Staff and member of the Supreme Military Council (SMC).

Babangida, of Gwari origins and a middle belt Muslim, was Nigeria's sixth military ruler and,
as of 1990, the most powerful. Compared with Buhari, Babangida was a some what more
methodical ruler, and his style was different. Whereas Buhari was stern and resolute,
Babangida was deft and tactical. Babangida was reported to have taken part in all coups in
Nigeria, which may explain his confident handling of national affairs. He was, however,
unpredictable.

Although Babangida came to power as a champion of human rights, his record in this area
deteriorated over time. He gradually released most of the politicians incarcerated by Buhari.
Yet, he often hounded opposition interest groups, especially those of labor and students, and
detained many radical and anti-establishment persons for various offenses. The infamous
Decree Number 2 remained in force in 1990 to facilitate these oppressive acts. It immediately
repealed Decree No. 4 on newspaper censorship, and freed all detained journalists. It also
curtailed some of the powers and excesses of the NSO, which it replaced with a new body, the
State Security Service (SSS). It set a date, 1990, for Nigeria's return to civilian rule (which was
later changed to 1992); and it made the first step in this journey by creating the Political
Bureau in January1986. The Bureau subsequently organised a nation-wide debate on the form
of, and the transition to, civilian government.The Transition Programme, formally inaugurated
in July 1987, was drawn mostly from the recommendations of the Political Bureau. The
programme was to be completed by the end of 1992 when an elected civilian government would
take over from the military.

Several notable developments intended to steer the transition on course occurred late in 1987.
They were: the establishment of the Mass Mobilisation for Economic Recovery, Self Reliance
and Social Justice (MAMSER) in August 1987; the creation of two additional States, Akwa lbom
and Katsina, on September 23, 1987 intended to further enhance Nigeria's Federal System;
and the setting up of Constitution Review Committee (CRC) and the National Electoral
Commission (NEC) in September 1987. In December 1987, Local Government elections were
held on non-party basis.

Further milestones in the Transition Programme were reached in the next several years.They
included the submission of a report and Draft Constitution by the CRC in March 1988; the
party election and party nomination of the Constituent Assembly which subsequently met in
Abuja and, in April 1989, submitted a Report and a Draft constitution. Soon afterwards, the
AFRC lifted the five-years ban on political activities. Several burning issues featured in the
political and constitutional debates throughout 1988 and 1989. They were the idea of rotatory
presidency and attempts to introduce a Federal Sharia Appeal Court into the Constitution.The
AFRC, however, intervened in the end to maintain the status quo in the case of the Sharia
controversy.

Following the lifting of the ban on politics, approximately forty political organisations were
founded throughout the country. Of these, NEC recommended thirteen to the AFRC for
registration.But even these were subsequently disqualified and dissolved by the AFRC as
unsuitable. The AFRC then proceeded to establish two new political parties for the nation, viz:
the Social Democratic Party(SDP), and the National Republican Convention(NRC), on the
principle that one was "a little to the left," and the other was "a little to the right," to maintain
an ideological balance. The two parties were to be national in outlook and organisation, and
politicians imbued with the high ethos which government sought to instill in the people.
Accordingly, some categories of persons were banned for life or for specific periods from
participating in the unfolding politics, for reasons which included previous criminal records,
and their currently occupying sensitive public positions. The heightened political activities,
however, received a severe jolt on April 22, 1990 when an army Major, Gideon Okar, and some
soldiers attempted a military coup d'etat which was quickly crushed. Undaunted, the two
political parties held their conventions during the following month. In December 1990, Local
Government elections followed. State Assembly and (Governorship elections followed in
December 1991 and, in January 1992, the elected civilian governors of Nigeria's then thirty
states were sworn in. Thus, Nigeria became governed in the form of a diarchy a situation
suggested earlier on in 1972 by Nigeria's elder Statesman, Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe.

The Presidential election, intended to finally usher in the Third Republic, was scheduled for
December 5, 1992. It was, however, preceded by political events that were no less significant or
portentous. Decree No. 53 of 1992, for example, stripped the National Assembly of most of the
powers granted it by the 1989 constitution, including the power to legislate or discuss and
pass revenue bills. Then late in October 1992, the AFRC cancelled the presidential primaries
held by the two parties in the previous month on grounds of gross election malpractices. The
23 presidential aspirants who had contested in the primaries were also disqualified and
banned from further political participation. Those banned included Chief Olu Falae and Major-
General Shehu Musa Yar'Adua (rtd) of the SDP, and Mallam Adamu Ciroma and Alhaji Umaru
Shinkafi of the NRC, all front runners in the presidential primaries.

A review of the electoral process and regulations instituted by the AFRC led to the emergence of
250 presidential aspirants by February 1993, including new political stalwarts, like Chief
M.K.O.Abiola, Alhaji Ali-Monguno, General Yakubu Gowon (rtd), Chief Odumegwu Ojukwu and
Alhaji BabaGana Kingibe. The final Presidential Elections, including the main election
scheduled for June 12,1993, were to be conducted under the so-called "Option A4" System.
The terminal date for military rule was also fixed for August 27, 1993.

The election that eventually took place on June 12, 1993 and the victory supposedly won
overwhelmingly by Chief M.K.O. Abiola was annulled and from then on, Nigeria's political
stability and unity suffered severe blows that became very hard to contain. In its immediate
effect, the annulment intensified public out cry and pressure for Babangida to relinnuish
power which he reluctantly did on August 26, 1993 by "stepping aside" and handing over tothe
Interim National Government chosen by him and headed by Chief E. Shonekan.

The condition of acute political uncertainty went side by side with grave economic decline.
The.bases of economic policy were the Fifth National Development Plan (1986 - 1990), and the
Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) offered as an alternative to IMF Loan. SAP sought to
achieve sustained self-reliant growth and to end high budget and balance of payments deficits.
It also aimed to reduce dependence on imports and oil, reduce nonproductive public sector
investments, and stimulate private sector activity through "privatisation and
commercialisation" of State Corporations and Parastatals, initiated by Decree 25 of 1988. The
measures to achieve these objectives included devaluation of the naira and attracting foreign
investment by liberalising existing indigenisation policies. As in previous reforms, these efforts
were daunted by the general air of political instability and uncertainty, corruption, dwindling
oil revenue, a backward agricultural sector, a high inflation rate reckoned at eighty per cent in
July 1993, and excruciating external debt estimated at $27 billion by October 1993.

Excepting some activation of primary produclion and exports, especially of cocoa, the
consequences of the nation's economic course and, by implication, of SAP, were dire and
ramifying. Among them were mass poverty, misery and general social malaise partly epitomised
by anti-poverty protests, riots and strikes across the country; acute food shortages; collapse of
infrastructure and of businesses, including banks; abandoned capital projects; inability of
government to pay workers' salaries for months; and rising crime rate particularly of drug
trafficking, armed robbery, and" (alias "419") for which Nigeria and Nigerians became notorious
internationally and were shunned by many foreign investors and businessmen as high risks.
According to a prevailing parlance, SAP had sapped life out of Nigeria and most Nigerians.

And, rather than alleviate these conditions, other aspects of government's domestic and foreign
policies tended to exacerbate them. This was true of the return of the Babangida regime to the
policy of repressing the Press, its critics, human rights spokesmen and organisations and
radical intellectuals. At the foreign policy level was Nigeria's military intervention in Liberia and
Sierra Leone through the ECOMOG (ECOWAS Monitoring Group). Although purposeful, those
interventions further drained Nigeria's wealth. Moreover, by setting up the puny ING,
Babangida laid the basis for the future rise of Nigeria's most monstrous dictator, General Sani
Abacha.

THE SANI ABACHA MILITARY REGIME, (1993-1998)

Abacha, Sani

Abacha, was the military president of Nigeria between 1993 and 1998. Born in Kano, in
northern Nigeria, Abacha graduated from the Nigerian Military Training College in Zaria in
1963. He became a captain in the army in 1967. Abacha was instrumental in the 1985 military
coup that brought General Ibrahim Babangida to power, and he remained valuable to
Babangida throughout his presidency. Babangida appointed Abacha minister of defense in
1990.

After annulling the results of democratic presidential election in which wealthy publisher
Moshood Abiola was the apparent winner, Babangida transferred power to a transitional
government in August 1993. Abacha overthrew the transitional administration in November
and installed himself as head of state. He abolished all state and local governments and the
national legislature, banned all political parties, and replaced many civilian officials with
military commanders. He named an 11-member Provisional Ruling Council, consisting mainly
of generals and police officials, which would oversee a 32-member Federal Executive Council.
The executive council included prominent civilians and some pro-democracy activists and was
created to head government ministries.
What followed under Abacha were five years of unbridled dictatorship, economic
mismanagement, gross human rights abuses and virtually a negation of government. Aiming
from the outset to perpetuate his rule, Abacha first dissolved all the elected State and Federal
Legislatures and sacked the governors. In January 1994 Abacha presented a budget that
abandoned market reforms instituted in 1986, making it impossible to negotiate for aid from
the International Monetary Fund (IMF). In the face of increasing foreign debt, low industrial
output, and harsh autocratic rule, resentment against the military government grew steadily.
In response, Abacha announced details of his political transition program, but when the
constitutional conference held in May 1994 was widely boycotted by pro-democracy groups,
Abacha had the police issue a strong statement affirming that non-governmental political
activity was illegal. In June Abiola proclaimed himself president and was arrested for treason.
Civil unrest intensified, particularly in Lagos, and oil workers declared a strike in support of
Abiola's release. The strike crippled Nigeria's leading industry, but Abacha clung to power, and
the strike ended in September. He then re-enacted the tortuous and wasteful process of
transition to civil rule including the formation of new political parties, the fashioning of a new
constitution (1995), election of new Local Government Councils, State and Federal Legislatures
and Governors and, finally, the unprecedented, forced adoption of himself as the sole
presidential candidate by the five government approved political parties.

On the foreign scene, the Abacha regime virtually isolated Nigeria from her traditional friends,
especially in North America, Europe and Australia. Some of these countries clamped sanctions
on Nigeria much to her economic hurt. Abacha's sudden death of heart attack in June 1998,
seen by many Nigerians as an "act of divine intervention," and the death of Abiola shortly
thereafter, effectively helped to pave the way for a return to civil rule

GENERAL ABDULSALAMI ABUBAKAR MILITARY REGIME (1998-1999)

Under Abacha's successor, General Abdulsalami Abubakar, Nigerians, now thoroughly tired of,
and disillusioned with, the endless transition that the Babangida and Abacha regimes had
foisted on them, co-operated to return the country speedily to civilian rule. General Abdulsalam
Abubakar was appointed by the Provisional Ruling Council as Head of State on the 12th of
June 1998.

On coming to power. General Abubakar took urgent steps to diffuse the tension which had
characterised the later years of General Abacha's rule. These steps included improving the
human rights records of the country through the release of prominent political prisoners and
some convicted of coup-plotting. The steps also included the reconciliation of the country with
the international community, and the promise to return the country to democratic rule on May
29, 1999

In order to facilitate the return to democratic rule, General Abubakar established the
Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) to register political parties and organise
elections that would usher in a democratic dispensation.

In October 1998, the Independent National Electoral Commission provisionally registered nine
political associations to contest the December 1998 LGA elections. Within a year, new political
parties were formed, a Constitution (1999) was promulgated. At the conclusion of the exercise
only the following political Associations were registered as political parties, these are the
Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) the All Peoples Party (APP) and the Alliance for Democracy
(AD). Elections conducted under the platform of these parties include the Govemorship and
State Houses of Assembly elections in January 1999. The National Assembly and Presidential
elections were held in February 1999 after which Retired General Olusegun Obasanjo was
declared winner of the presidential election. He is expected to assume power by May 29, 1999.
Thus, on May 29, 1999, Nigeria returned, once more, to full democratic governance.
EVALUATION

1. Explain military rule between 1966 to 1985

2. Discuss military rule between 1985 to 1999

Sub-Topic 2: Features and Causes of Military Rule in Nigeria

Features of Military Rule in Nigeria.

i. The suspension and modification of some section of constitution to be in line with

the military rule.
ii. Dictatorial form of government.
iii. A highly centralized system of government
iv. Rule with decrees.
v. Absence of all forms of opposition.
vi. Fusion of the legislative and the executive arms of government.
vii. Inclusion of civilians in the administration .
viii. The use of coercion in the implementation of policies.
ix. Absence of elections.
x. Closure of the country borders, seas and airports when military first come to power.
xi. Imposition of dusk to dawn curfew whenever the military take over power in a
country.

Causes of Military Rule in Nigeria or Reasons for Military Intervention in Nigeria Politics.

Since Nigeria became independent on October 1, 1960 till date, she had have five successful
military coup and avalanche of unsuccessful ones. Military came to power as a result of the
following:

i. Tribal loyalty: This is a problem facing Nigeria as a nation. Tribal loyalty

takes precedence over loyalty to the central government.
ii. Regional differences: Differences among the regions were so acute as to
precipitate crises leading to direct assumption of power.
iii. Regional/State Based political Parties: Political parties of the First Republic
were all regional political parties. In fact, no one of them commanded a
nation-wide support. For example, NPC was for the North, NCNC was for the
East and AG was for the West.
iv. Politicalization of the Army: The army or military of the first Republic
maintained her status quo and thereafter became politicalized.
Appointments and promotions were based on tribal and political sentiments,
not on seniority or merits.
v. Dispute over Census Result: Another reason for military involvement in
politics in Nigeria was because of the 1962 and 1963 census result.
vi. General Election Crises of 1964: the election was held in 1964 but the result
was seriously disputed. There was alleged massive rigging in the election.
Nigeria was on the verge of anarchy and reign of terror and so the military
has to come in to forestall such/peace
 vii. The Action Group crises of 1962: The crises came as a result of serious
conflict within the party and differences of opinion and personality clash
between Obafemi Awolowo, the party leader and his deputy, Cief S.L. Afolabi.
viii. Western Nigeria Election Crises of 1965: this was another election crisis that
drew the attention of the military into the political process.
ix. Allegation of Corruption, Nepotism, Sectionalism: This led to the military
intervention in Nigeria. Many were involved in spending the nation’s wealth
with reckless abandon. Many politicians were so rich that they were making
a public display of their wealth. Nepotism and sectionalism played major
roles in appointments, promotion, etc.
x. Absence of Honest and Reliable Leadership: This had eluded the country
even since independence. Many of the rulers were dishonest and not reliable.

EVALUATION

1. Highlight five features of military rule in Nigeria.

2. State five causes of military rule in Nigeria.

Sub-Topic 3: The Consequences and Structure of Military Rule

Consequences of Military Rule

1. Keeping the country together: the first major effect of military rule in Nigeria was the
keeping of the country together as one geographical entity. The thirty-month fratricidal
war, fought by soldiers in Nigeria was aimed at keeping the country together.
2. Maintenance of Peace: Since the end of the civil war, the reign of the military in
Nigeria has been that of peace and unity, which has created fertile ground for national
development, rather than dissipation of energy on political rivalry, vain propaganda and
fanning of embers of tribalism as was the case during the dancing days of politics in the
first and second republics.
3. Creation of States: Nigeria was divided into twelve states on May 27, 1967 and 19
states on February 3, 1976 by Gowon and Muritala administrations respectively. These
states have contributed immensely to bringing the government and development nearer
the people.
4. Corruption: The military boys that come to power in order to correct the civilians of
their corrupt practices also indulge in the same act. They amass wealth no wonder all
retired army officers seem to be wealth
5. The Civil War: The civil war which took place in Nigeria between 1967-1970 in which
millions of Nigerians and property worth millions of naira were destroyed can be
attributed to the military. That war could have been averted if the military had
displayed good diplomacy and sound political maturity.
6. Violation Of Fundamental Human Rights: The military administrations in Nigeria no
matter how humane, indulge in denying the citizen their fundamental human rights.
People are detained with impunity without trial.

The Structure of the Military Government in Nigeria

 1. The Head of State/President: The head of state sometimes called the president is also
the commander-in-chief of the Nigeria armed forces. As the head of state he presides
over the meeting of the Armed Forces Ruling Council (AFRC), the Council of States and
the Council of the Ministers. It is his duty to appoint and dismiss ministers,
Ambassadors, High Commissioners, Chief Justice, Judges of the Supreme Court, High
Court Judges etc. All subject to the approval by the AFRC.
2. Supreme Military Council (SMC): AFRC, SMC with the new nomenclature of the Armed
Forces Ruling Council is the highest legislative organ of the military government in
Nigeria. It is composed of the Head of State/President who is the the chairman, the
Chief of General Staff, the Chief of Defence Staff and Chairman Joint Chief of Staff, the
Heads of the Army, Navy, and the Air Force popularly called the Service Chiefs, the
Inspector General of Police, Justice Minister, Secretary of the Federal Military
Government and the High Ranking Military Officers.
3. The Council of States: This organ advises the Head of State/President on important
national issues. It is made up of the Head of State/President as the chairman, the Chief
of General Staff, former Heads of State and all State Military Governors.
4. National Council of Ministers: This is the organ that implements the decisions and
policies made by the AFRC. It is headed by the Head of State/President and assisted by
the Chief of General Staff with all Federal ministers as members.
5. The State Military Governor: A State military governor is the Chief Executive and the
Head of State military government and the representative of the Head of State/President
in the state. He is responsible to the Head of the Federal Military Government and the
Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. The governor performs both the executive and
legislative functions. He is the Chairman of the State Executive Council. He appoints
the State Commissioners and other state officials.
6. The State Executive Council: This organ is responsible for the formulation and
execution of the state military government’s decisions and policies, maintenance of law
and order in the state. It is headed by the military governor with the Commander of
Army unit in the state, the state Commissioner of Police, the Secretary to the state
military government, state commissioners, etc as members.

EVALUATION

1. Explain five consequences of military rule in Nigeria.

2. Explain the structure of military rule in Nigeria.

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. Discuss General Aguyi Ironsi military regime.

2. Explain General Murtala and Obasanjo military regime.
3. Explain six causes of the first military intervention in politics.
4. Highlight the military structure in Nigeria.
5. State five consequences of military rule in Nigeria.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Objective Test
 1. Which of the following military regimes in Nigeria played a prominent role in the
libration of colonized African States? (a) Aguyi Ironsi (b) Murtala/Obasanjo (c)
Muhammadu Buhari (d) Ibrahim Babangida
2. Immediately after the civil war, Gowon’s regime embarked on (a) rejuvenation,
resettlement, and reconstruction (b) reconciliation, rehabilitation, and
reconstruction (c) rebuilding, rejuvenation and rehabilitation (d) reconciliation,
rehabilitation and repression.
3. The first military coup d’etat in West Africa was stage in (a) The Gambia (b) Niger
(c) Nigeria (d) Togo.
4. A coup d’etat is regarded as (a) a source of political legitimacy (b) a manipulation
of the constitution (c) a constitutional way of changing the government (d) an
unconstitutional way of changing the government.
5. The military intervenes in West African politics mainly because (a) politicians
play the game accordingly (b) law and order are maintained (c) they are better
rulers (d) of election malpractices.

Essay Test

1. Give six reasons for the reluctance of military regimes to hand over power
to civilian administrations.
2. Discuss the Nigerian civil war.

Reading Assignment: Read military rule in The New Analytical Study of Government for SSS
class pages 316-337

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT: Read conflict resolution and management in your e-learning

note.

WEEK: 4 DATE:_______________

SUBJECT: GOVERNMENT

CLASS: SS 3

TOPIC: Conflict Resolution and Management:

CONTENT: (a) Conflicts – meaning, types, causes, and consequences.

(b) Conflict Resolution.
Peace Education:
(a) Meaning of Peace.
(b) Mechanism for promoting peace.
SUB-TOPIC 1: Conflicts-meaning, types and causes

Conflict is the breakdown of harmonious relationship, arising from clash of interest. Conflict
can also be defined as a misunderstanding or disagreement between two or more people.
Conflict therefore could be seen as the absence of peace. Conflict can arise between couples,
work peers, offices, social clubs, communities, countries, and political governments.
Understanding the basic types of conflicts that may occur in your daily environment can help
you avoid disagreements or learn the best way to deal with them.

Types of conflicts

1. Non-violent or peaceful conflict: This is disagreement or conflict that does not involve
the use of force; but sometimes, it is based on certain rules and regulations; for
instance, when a group of workers and their employers disagrees over salaries, a trade
dispute is said to exist between the workers and management; also during sports
competitions. This type of conflict also exists in the form of competitions, e.g. school
debate, peaceful demonstration by students of higher institutions of learning etc.
2. Violent conflict: A conflict is said to be violent when it is not settled peacefully, but
with force and usually it leads to war, e.g. the 1967 civil war in Nigeria. In violent
conflict, properties are destroyed and people are displaced, injured or killed in certain
instances.

3. Relationships: Conflicts with friends or family members are often caused by

miscommunication, disagreements on behavior or negative emotions.
4. Interests: Conflicts of interest are described as a disagreement or type of competition
where the needs of one are ignored over the needs of the other. Such conflicts of interest
may be defined, as those involving psychological needs over resources such as time or
money or those in which there are disagreements over the way problems are addressed.
5. Values: Conflicts in values are often seen between individuals raised in different
cultural or religious backgrounds who have differing opinions over right and wrong.
Conflicts often arise when one person tries to enforce his own set of values on another.
6. Leadership: Leadership and managerial styles differ among individuals, which may
cause conflict in the work environment. Various factors determine leadership styles and
may include personality, expectations and whether or not that leader encourages
feedback and opinions of others or is more autocratic or directive in style.
7. Personality: Clashing personalities may create conflicts at school, home and work.
Perception and emotions play a large role in whether or not you may like or dislike
someone's personality.
8. Style: A person's method of completing tasks or goals may lead to conflict in any
scenario. You can be laid-back, while your partner is eager to get something done,
which can create conflict. Or, your team member may be task-oriented, while you're
more creative.
9. Ethics: Ethical conflict can be defined as external factors influencing a decision,
something. For example, breaching confidentiality is considered unethical in the
medical field. A nurse who knows something private about a sick patient may feel an
ethical conflict about revealing that knowledge to someone else, even when that
information may be used to aid or save that patient.
 CAUSES OF CONFLICT
Conflict could be caused in the following ways:
1. Selfishness: Selfishness often goes with cheating. This will normally generate
conflict because the person cheated will negatively react to claim what belongs to him.
2. Resources: when individuals or group compete for resources such as money,
materials etc. usually, it result to conflict.
3. Lack of co-operation: when people fail to work together as a team, it eventually
leads to disagreement, misunderstanding and division
4. Territory: when people or groups of people are competing over a particular boundary
to their land, it brings about conflict.
5. Lack of religious tolerance: conflict arises where religious groups cannot tolerate
one another. Argue and fight over which religion is the best with the tendency to impose
a particular religion on everybody, this has created so much conflict in Nigeria.
6. Value based conflict: This in other word could be seen as conflict involving values;
it is based on what a person believes in. individuals may be involve in conflict over
values, defending their position strongly. Such values includes; transparency, honesty,
fairness, equity etc.
7. Communication gap: When needed information is not supplied at the right time or
received through wrong channels, conflict may arise.
8. Bad leadership: when leaders are greedy, selfish and insensitive to people’s plight
and suffering. The people eventually will revolt through violent protest to show their
displeasure. As a matter of fact, it has been the reason for many students’ riot in
Nigeria particularly during the military regime.
9. Laziness and inefficiency: If laziness and inefficiency are noticed in some people in
a group, the deligent and hardworking once will begins to protest, especially when they
receive the same pay package and also when the lazy ones receives promotion or
recognition than the hardworking once.
10. Criminal activities: Criminal acts such as fraud, kidnapping, rape, immorality,
murder etc. will definitely cause serious conflict in the society.
11. Conflicts also can arise in groups, association and between groups as a result of
difference in opinion
12. The absence of mutual trust and understanding among people brings about conflict
13. Conflict also arise when someone or people neglect their roles or duties.
Evaluation:
1. State six causes of conflict.
2. Discuss on four causes of conflict

SUB-TOPIC 2: Consequences of conflict conflict resolution

The following are consequences of conflict
1. Conflict leads to war and anarchy
2. Conflict result in breakdown of law and order, thereby encourages chaos in the
society
3. Conflict leads to decrease in productivity and economic depression
4. Conflict also leads to inefficiency and laziness
5. Conflict leads to division and separation
6. It also leads to emotional and mental disturbance
7. It brings about unhealthy political rivalry
8. It result in disunity
 9. Conflict retard development and progress
10. It can lead to riot and loss of lives and property
11. Conflict often leads to confusion, insecurity, anxiety and unhappiness
12. Conflict brings about lack of peace and harmony
13. Conflict makes it difficult for people to achieve a common objective
14. Conflict brings about disaffection and hatred among members of the same group or
association.
CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Conflict Resolution refers to any process or collection of processes established to resolve
disputes without trial or violence.
Conflict can be resolves in the following ways:
1. Dialogue or negotiation: This has to do with the two parties involve in the conflict
coming together, using dialogue to facilitate the settlement. This negotiation could be
made through the representatives of both parties. At the end, a consensus is reached.
2. Compromise: Here both parties give on the matter that brings about conflict, strike a
balance, hence the matter will end up with “no victory, no vanquish” i.e no winner or
loser.
3. Medition: Here a third party act as a peacemaker between the two opposite to bring
about peace. For instance conflicts between two countries are usually mediated by the
United Nation Organization (UNO). Besides, African Union (AU) mediates in conflict
between members. The mediator will talk to the parties and appeal to their conscience
for resolution

The U.N Army on mediation

4. Litigation /through the law court: This method is usually used as the final resort,
when all other method of resolution had fail; then the two parties will resort to settle
their differences in the law court.
 Here both parties will employ lawyers who will present their case in the court; thereafter
the final judgment will be given by the judge
5. Through families or village heads: Conflicts or misunderstanding within family is
usually settled by the family head. Where it involves two or more families, the village head
eventually will be the one to resolve the conflict
6. Avoidance: When a party recognizes that conflict exist it may react by withdrawing or
suppressing the conflict.
EVALUATION
1. Outline five consequences of conflicts.
2. Discuss five ways by which conflicts can be resolved in our society.

PEACE EDUCATION

Meaning of Peace

Peace is a state of harmony characterized by the lack of violence, conflict behaviors and the
freedom from fear of violence. Commonly understood as the absence of hostility, peace also
suggests the existence of healthy or newly healed interpersonal or international relationships,
prosperity in matters of social or economic welfare, the establishment of equality, and a
working political order that serves the true interests of all.

MECHANISM FOR PROMOTING PEACE

The following are the ways peace can be promoted in our society.
1. Tolerance: People must learn to bear with others in their shortcomings. This is to say
that they must learn to understand their behaviours, needs or customs and try to keep
calm when they are provoked or annoyed; refused to be drawn into any fight, disorder
or conflict, just to ensure peace.
2. Social justice: Irrespective of one’s ethnic group, social or economic background; in
meting out justice, there must be equity. Treat people the way you would like to be
treated. When there is justice and fair play in a society, peace can be achieved and
sustained.
3. Human right: Everybody have equal right to justice, equity and fair play, therefore
every ones right must be respected notwithstanding the social status, ethnic origin or
tribe.
EVALUATION

1. Explain the word peace.

2. State the mechanism that can be applied to promote peace.

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. What is a conflict?
2. Outline five types of conflicts.
3. Highlight five causes of conflicts.
4. Discuss how conflicts can be resolved.
5. What is peace?

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Objective Test

1. Which of the following is not an acceptable way of resolving international conflict? (a)
Diplomacy (b) Propaganda (c) Non military use of force (d) Nuclear war.
2. How can one tolerate others? (a) By retaliation (b) By overlooking their short comings (c)
By reporting them to an educator (d) By fighting.
3. One of the following is not a way of promoting peace
(a) Human right (b) Anti-social justice (c) tolerance (d) war
Essay Test

1. With the problem of Boko Haram in Nigeria, profer five ways by which this conflict can be
resolved.

2. How can we promote peace in our community?

Reading Assignment:

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT: Read the inter-dependence of Nations and Globalization

SUBJECT:GOVERNMENT
WEEK 5 DATE:……………………

TOPIC: NIGERIA AND THE WORLD – The Inter-dependence of Nations and

Globalization:
CONTENT: (a) Inter-dependence of nations. (b) Community of nations. (c) Purpose of
interaction. (d) Nigeria’s interaction; (i) Economic (ii) Political (iii) Social-Cultural. (d)
Merits and demerits.

(a) SUB – TOPIC 1: Community of Nations.

Nigeria as a member of global international community cannot operate successfully
without relating with the rest of the world. This is born out of the fact that no
country of the world can exist in isolation of the rest and no nation can produce all
their needs or desire. Therefore interaction is necessary phenomenon because of the
mutual benefits from such exercise. For this purpose like other countries of the
world, Nigeria established Embassies, High Commissions and Consulates abroad to
protect the interests of the country in other countries just as other countries have
theirs in Nigeria.

A 1989 publication by the Federal Military Government, Four Years of the Babangida
Administration, summarized the priority issues of Nigerian foreign policy: the abolition of
apartheid in South Africa; the enhancement of Nigeria's relations with member countries of the
European Economic Community (EEC), the United States, the Soviet Union, and with other
major industrialized countries to increase the flow of foreign investments and capital into
Nigeria; and continued support for international organizations, such as the Economic
Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the Organization of African Unity (OAU), and the
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). Relations with other African states constituted the cornerstone
of Nigerian foreign policy.

The Ministry of External Affairs was directly responsible for foreign policy formulation and
implementation. Because matters were usually left in the hands of the minister and his
officials, foreign policy positions could change radically from one minister to another,
depending on the minister's orientation. In addition to the minister's immediate staff, there was
a small foreign policy elite comprising other top government officials, interest group leaders,
academicians, top military officers, religious leaders, and journalists. This elite exerted indirect
influence through communiqués and press releases, as well as direct pressure on the
government. In 1986 a conference--to which every stratum of this elite was invited--was held to
review Nigeria's foreign policy and recommend broad policy frameworks for the 1990s and
beyond.

Several factors conditioned Nigeria's foreign policy positions. First, the ethnic and religious mix
of the country required cautious positions on some issues, such as policy toward Israel. Nigeria
found it difficult to restore diplomatic ties with Israel and had not done so as of 1990 because
of Muslim opposition and sympathy with the rest of the Arab Muslim world. Second, Nigeria's
legacy as an ex-British colony, combined with its energy-producing role in the global economy,
predisposed Nigeria to be pro-Western on most issues despite the desire to maintain a
nonaligned status to avoid neocolonialism. In 1990 this pro-Western posture was reinforced by
Nigeria's "economic diplomacy," which involved negotiating trade concessions, attracting
foreign investors, and rescheduling debt repayment to Western creditors (see The Debt
Overhang , ch. 3). Third, the country's membership in and commitment to several international
organizations, such as the United Nations and bodies mentioned earlier, also affected foreign
policy positions. Fourth, and most important, as the most populous country in Africa and the
entire black world, Nigeria perceived itself as the "giant" of Africa and the potential leader of the
black race. Thus, Nigerian external relations have emphasized African issues, which have
become the avowed cornerstone of foreign policy.

These factors have caused certain issues to dominate Nigerian foreign policy across various
governments, but each government has had distinctive priorities and style. During the 1950s
and early 1960s, foreign policy aimed at proper behavior in the international system, and
British authorities played a major role in Nigerian foreign relations. Consequently, the Balewa
government stressed world peace, respected sovereign equality, and maintained nonalignment
based on friendship with any country that took a reciprocal position. After the fall of the First
Republic, critics asserted that the government had been too proWestern and not strong enough
on decolonization or integration, and that the low profile had been embarrassing. Nonetheless,
Gowon continued to keep a low profile by operating within the consensus of the OAU and by
following routes of quiet diplomacy.

The civil war marked a distinct break in Nigerian foreign policy. The actions of various
countries and international bodies during the war increased awareness of the alignments
within Africa and appreciation of the positive role that the OAU could play in African affairs.
Whereas white-dominated African countries had supported Biafra, the OAU sided with the
federation by voting for unity. The OAU stance proved helpful for Nigerian diplomacy. Nigeria
first turned to the Soviet Union for support after the West refused to provide arms to the
federation, and after the war, a less pro-Western stance was maintained. At the same time,
Africa remained Nigeria's top priority. In the mid- to late 1970s, attention focused on the
liberation of southern Africa, on the integration of ECOWAS, and on the need for complete
economic independence throughout Africa. These goals were included in the 1979 constitution:
promotion of African unity; political, economic, social, and cultural liberation of Africa;
international cooperation; and elimination of racial discrimination.

COMMUNITY OF NATIONS

Since independence, with Jaja Wachuku as the first Minister of Foreign Affairs and
Commonwealth Relations, later called External Affairs, Nigerian foreign policy has been
characterized by a focus on Africa as a Regional power and by attachment to several
fundamental principles: African unity and independence; Capability to exercise hegemonic
influence in the region: peaceful settlement of disputes; nonalignment and non-intentional
interference in the internal affairs of other nations; and regional economic cooperation and
development. In carrying out these principles, Nigeria participates in the Organization of
African Unity (OAU) now known as the African Union, the Economic Community of West
African States (ECOWAS), the Non-Aligned Movement, the Commonwealth,and the United
Nations.

Nigeria and the Liberation of Africa

Upon gaining independence, Nigeria quickly committed itself to the liberation struggles going
on in the Southern Africa sub-region. Though Nigeria never sent an expeditionary force in that
struggle, it offered more than rhetoric to the African National Congress (ANC) by taking a
committed tough line with regard to the racist regime and their incursions in southern Africa.

Similarly, in 1975, war broke out in Angola after the country gained independence from
Portugal, Nigeria, a member of the English Commonwealth of Nations, mobilized its diplomatic
influence in Africa in support of the MPLA. That support tipped the balance in their favor,
which led to OAU recognition of the MPLA.

Nigeria extended diplomatic support to another Marxist cause, Sam Nujoma's SWAPO
movement in Namibia, to stall the apartheid South African installed puppet government in
Namibia. In 1977, the new General Olusegun Obasanjo's military regime made a donation of
$20 million to the Zimbabwean liberation movement. Nigeria also sent military equipment to
Mozambique to help the new independent country suppress the South African backed
RENAMO guerrillas. Although officially denied by the Nigerian government, Nigeria is known to
have also provided secret military training at the Kaduna first mechanized army division and
provided other material support to Joshua Nkomo and Robert Mugabe's guerrilla forces during
the Rhodesian Bush War(Renamed Zimbabwe in 1979) of independence against white minority
rule of Prime Minister Ian Douglas Smith which was armed and financed by the regime in
South Africa.

Although her economy and technology could not have supported it, Nigeria announced to a
bewildered international community that she was launching a nuclear program of "unlimited
scope" of her own. To demonstrate her seriousness against multi-national companies in Nigeria
that violated the economic/trade embargo on the South African regime, the local operations of
Barclays Bank was nationalized after that bank ignored the strong protests by Nigeria urging it
not to buy the South African government bond.

Nigeria also nationalized the British Petroleum (BP) for supplying oil to South Africa. In
1982,the Alhaji Shehu Shagari government urged the visiting Pontiff Pope John Paul II to grant
audience to the leaders of Southern Africa guerrilla organisations Oliver Tambo of the ANC and
Sam Nujoma of SWAPO. In December 1983, the new Major General Muhammadu Buhari
regime announced that Nigeria could no longer afford an activist anti-colonial role in Africa.

NIGERIA AND WEST AFRICA

In pursuing the goal of regional economic cooperation and development, Nigeria helped create
ECOWAS, which seeks to harmonize trade and investment practices for its 16 West African
member countries and ultimately to achieve a full customs union. Nigeria also has taken the
lead in articulating the views of developing nations on the need for modification of the existing
international economic order.
Nigeria has played a central role in the ECOWAS efforts to end the civil war in Liberia and
contributed the bulk of the ECOWAS peacekeeping forces sent there in 1990. Nigeria also has
provided the bulk of troops for ECOMOG forces in Sierra Leone.

Nigeria has enjoyed generally good relations with its immediate neighbors.

NIGERIA AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Nigeria is a member of the following international organizations: United Nations and several of
its special and related agencies, Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC),
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Organization of African Unity (OAU) -
now African Union [AU], Organization of African Trade Union Unity (OATUU), Commonwealth,
Nonaligned Movement, several other West African bodies. The Babangida regime joined the
Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC, now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation),
though President Obasanjo has indicated he might reconsider Nigeria's membership.
Comments are being made for Nigeria to establish more bilateral relations.

AFRICA

Angola

Angolan-Nigerian relations are primarily based on their roles as oil exporting nations. Both are
members of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, the African Union and
other multilateral organizations.

Cameroon

A longstanding border dispute with Cameroon over the potentially oil-rich Bakassi Peninsula
has been resolved by a 2002 decision by the International Court of Justice which granted
Cameroon ownership of the region and the 2006 signing of the Greentree Agreement which led
to the withdrawal of Nigerian troops from Bakassi in 2008 and complete administrative control
being taken over by Cameroon in August 2013. Nigeria released about 150 Cameroonian
prisoners of war in late 1998. For more information, see Cameroon-Nigeria relations.

Chad

Nigeria's 1983 economic austerity campaign produced strains with neighboring states,
including Chad. Nigeria expelled several hundred thousand foreign workers, mostly from its oil
industry, which faced drastic cuts as a result of declining world oil prices. At least 30,000 of
those expelled were Chadians. Despite these strains, however, Nigerians had assisted in the
halting process of achieving stability in Chad, and both nations reaffirmed their intention to
maintain close ties.

Ghana

Ghana Nigerian relations have been both bitter and sweet. In 1969 numerous Nigerians were
deported from Ghana. Relations in the 70's were good. Ghana-Nigeria relations began on a sour
note in the early period of PNDC rule. Tension rose immediately after the PNDC deposed
Limann in 1981. In protest, Nigeria refused to continue much-needed oil supplies to Ghana. At
the time, Ghana owed Nigeria about US$150 million for crude oil supplies and depended on
Nigeria for about 90 percent of its petroleum needs. Nigeria's expulsion of more than 1 million
Ghanaian immigrants in early 1983, when Ghana was facing severe drought and economic
problems, and of another 300,000 in early 1985 on short notice, further strained relations
between the two countries. In April 1988, a joint commission for cooperation was established
between Ghana and Nigeria. A bloodless coup in August 1985 had brought Major General
Ibrahim Babangida to power in Nigeria, and Rawlings took advantage of the change of
administration to pay an official visit. The two leaders discussed a wide range of issues
focusing on peace and prosperity within West Africa, bilateral trade, and the transition to
democracy in both countries. In early January 1989, Babangida reciprocated with an official
visit to Ghana, which the PNDC hailed as a watershed in Ghana-Nigeria relations.

Subsequent setbacks that Babangida initiated in the democratic transition process in Nigeria
clearly disappointed Accra. Nonetheless, the political crisis that followed Babangida's
annulment of the results of the June 1993 Nigerian presidential election and Babangida's
resignation from the army and presidency two months later did not significantly alter the
existing close relations between Ghana and Nigeria, two of the most important members of
ECOWAS and the Commonwealth of Nations. After the takeover in November 1993 by General
Sani Abacha as the new Nigerian head of state, Ghana and Nigeria continued to consult on
economic, political, and security issues affecting the two countries and West Africa as a whole.
Between early August 1994 when Rawlings became ECOWAS chairman and the end of the
following October, the Ghanaian president visited Nigeria three times to discuss the peace
process in Liberia and measures to restore democracy in that country.

However, Nigeria and Ghana have a close relationship, and they collaborate on various issues.

Libya

Nigeria recalled its ambassador, Isa Aliyu Mohammed, to Libya on 18 March 2010. The recall
was in responses to a suggestion by Libyan leader, Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, that Nigeria
should separate into a Muslim northern state and a Christian southern state. Gaddaffi had
made the suggestion in light of recent violence between the rival religions in Nigeria which had
resulted in hundreds of deaths. In addition Gaddaffi had praised the Partition of India, which
resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people, as the kind of model that Nigeria
should follow.

The Nigerian foreign ministry stated that it was recalling Mohammed for "urgent negotiations"
due to the "irresponsible utterances of Colonel Gaddafi".The Nigerian National Assembly has
requested that the government ask the United Nations to prohibit Gaddaffi from calling for the
division of Nigeria. The National Assembly also passed a motion urging the government to order
an African Union investigation into whether Libya was attempting to destabilise the country
through "infiltrators".

Niger

Nigeria maintains close relations with the Republic of Niger, in part because both nations share
a large Hausa minority on each side of their 1500 km border. Hausa language and cultural ties
are strong, but there is little interest in a pan-Hausa state. The two nations formed the Nigeria-
Niger Joint Commission for Cooperation (NNJC), established in March, 1971 with its
Permanent Secretariat in Niamey, Niger.

ASIA:
 Bangladesh

Nigeria and Bangladesh established diplomatic relations in 1972, following the Bangladeshi
war of independence from Pakistan. Both nations are members of the OIC and the Developing 8
Countries, and are identified as Next Eleven economies. Nigeria has a high commission in the
Bangladeshi capital Dhaka.

India

The bilateral relations between the Republic of India and the Federal Republic of Nigeria have
considerably expanded in recent years with both nations building strategic and commercial
ties. Nigeria supplies 20% of India's crude oil needs and is India's largest trading partner in
Africa.

Israel

Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1960. Between 1973 and 1992, diplomatic
relations were severed. Since September 1992, bilateral relations are better. Since April 1993,
Israel has an embassy in Abuja and Nigeria has an embassy in Tel Aviv.

Pakistan

Defence attachés from Pakistan and Russia visit the communications tent at the Nigerian Air
Force Base, Abuja, Nigeria, on July 21, 2008, during Africa Endeavor 2008.

Pakistan has a High Commission in Abuja and Nigeria has an embassy in Islamabad, as well
as a Consulate-General in Karachi. The two states have maintained a close relationship, a
relationship which is described by the Nigerian Defence Minister as "friendly" and like a "family
tie"

People's Republic of China.

Nigeria and the People's Republic of China established formal diplomatic relations on February
10, 1971. Relations between the two nations grew closer as a result of the international
isolation and Western condemnation of Nigeria's military regimes (1970s-1998). Nigeria has
since become an important source of oil and petroleum for China's rapidly-growing economy
and Nigeria is looking to China for help in achieving high economic growth; China has provided
extensive economic, military and political support. In 2004 and again in 2006, Chinese
President Hu Jintao made state visits to Nigeria and addressed a joint session of the National
Assembly of Nigeria. Both nations signed a memorandum of understanding on establishing a
strategic partnership. China has supported Nigeria's bid for a seat in the U.N. Security Council.

Turkey 

Nigeria has an embassy in Ankara. Turkey has an embassy in Abuja. Both countries are full
members of the D–8.

Rest of the World Formal Relations Between Nigeria and Barbados started in 1970-04-24.
Nigeria is accredited to Barbados from its Embassy in Port of Spain, (Trinidad and
Tobago).

Currently the Barbadian Government does not have foreign accreditation for Nigeria,
however the Nigerian Government has said that it was highly desirous of Barbados
establishing an embassy directly to Nigeria.

In 2006 the Governor Otunba Gbenga Daniel of the Nigerian state of Ogun announced that
Barbadians would be given free land if they wished to move to Nigeria. Nigeria has pushed for
more investment from Barbadian companies and investors and the in 2008 for the
establishment of direct flights between both nations.

Brazil

Bilateral relations between Nigeria and Brazil focus primarily upon trade and culture, the
largest country in Latin America by size, and the largest country in Africa by population are
remotely bordered across from one another by the Atlantic Ocean. Brazil and Nigeria for
centuries, have enjoyed a warmly friendly, and strong relationship on the bases of culture
(seeing as many Afro-Brazilians trace their ancestry to Nigeria,) and commercial trade.

Canada: Date started: 1960

 Canada has a high commission in Abuja and a deputy high commission on Lagos.
 Nigeria has a high commission in Ottawa.
 Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
 Canadian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Trade about relations with
Nigeria

Greece

Nigeria has an embassy in Athens. Greece established a diplomatic mission in Nigeria in 1970,
and today has an embassy in Abuja and a consulate in Lagos. Trade between the two countries
is imbalanced, with imports from Greece to Nigeria exceeding exports. Greek-owned tankers
have an important role in shipping Nigerian oil and natural gas, its main exports. Recently a
Greek tanker was involved a dispute over crude oil smuggling. There is a small Greek business
community in Lagos.

Russia

Russia has an embassy in Lagos and a representative office in Abuja, and Nigeria has an
embassy in Moscow.

United Kingdom

Nigeria, formerly a colony, gained independence from Britain in 1960. Since the independence,
Nigeria has maintained favourable relations with the UK.

United States

After the June 12, 1993, Nigerian presidential election was annulled, and in light of human
rights abuses and the failure to embark on a meaningful democratic transition, the United
States imposed numerous sanctions on Nigeria. These sanctions included the imposition of
Section 212(f) of the Immigration and Nationality Act to refuse entry into the United States of
senior government officials and others who formulated, implemented, or benefited from policies
impeding Nigeria's transition to democracy; suspension of all military assistance; and a ban on
the sale and repair of military goods and refinery services to Nigeria. The U.S. Ambassador was
recalled for consultations for four months after the execution of the Ogoni Nine on November
10, 1995.

After a period of increasingly strained relations, the death of General Abacha in June 1998 and
his replacement by General Abubakar opened a new phase of improved bilateral relations. As
the transition to democracy progressed, the removal of visa restrictions, increased high-level
visits of U.S. officials, discussions of future assistance, and the granting of a Vital National
Interest Certification on counter-narcotics, effective in March 1999, paved the way for re-
establishment of closer ties between the United States and Nigeria, as a key partner in the
region and the continent. Since the inauguration of the democratically elected Obasanjo
government, the bilateral relationship has continued to improve, and cooperation on many
important foreign policy goals, such as regional peacekeeping, has been good.

The government has lent strong diplomatic support to the U.S. Government counter-terrorism
efforts in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks. The Government of Nigeria, in its
official statements, has both condemned the terrorist attacks as well as supported military
action against the Taliban and Al-Qaeda. Nigeria also has played a leading role in forging an
anti-terrorism consensus among states in Sub-Saharan Africa.

As a member of the International Criminal Court Nigeria signed a Bilateral Immunity

Agreement of protection for the US military (as covered under Article 98). A comprehensive
passage is updated.

International Disputes

Delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to
border incidents in the past, has been completed and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad,
Niger, and Nigeria; dispute with Cameroon over land and maritime boundaries around the
Bakasi Peninsula is currently before the ICJ; maritime boundary dispute with Equatorial
Guinea because of disputed jurisdiction over oil-rich areas in the Gulf of Guinea.

SUB – TOPIC 2: PURPOSE OF INTERACTION

Nations of the world interact as a result of the following reasons:

i. Economic Reasons: No nation is self sufficient economically, they therefore interact

with others in other to get those economic resources they cannot get from their
country. The resources of the world that are inequitably distributed are
redistributed through economic interactions among nations of the world. Other
factors that make economic interaction among nations of the world imperative
include: difference in climatic conditions, differences in skills and technical know-
how, differences in the level of industrialization, quality and quantity of labour force,
differences in the cost of production, the need to expand market,
ii. Political Reasons: The need for security is one of the reasons why nations of the
world interact politically. Nations of the world come together to form association and
organizations that in order not to protect their territorial integrity and domination
by other countries but also protect human race from destruction. It was the above
 reasons that led to the formation of the League of Nations, North Atlantic Treaty
organastions Warsaw Pact, United Nations African Union, Non-Align Movement, etc.
iii. Socio - Cultural Reasons: Socio-cultural interaction among nations are aim at
fostering friendliness among one another. Exchange of cultural interactions,
entertainment, etc. these interactions can take place through sports and games like
the Olympic Games, World Cup Competition, European Championship, West
African Football Union (WAFU), etc. It can also take the form of staging musical and
cultural festivals like the Festival of Arts and Culture (FESTAC) and musical shows
by foreign musicians.

MERITS OF NIGERIAN INTER-DEPENDENCE AND GLOBALIZATION

i. Interaction between countries of the world have led to the establishment of political
Organisations, Unions, Association and Blocs as well as Embassies or High
Commission.
ii. Friendly Relationship: Countries of the world become friendly when they relate and
war situations will be prevented and they will be able to pursue beneficial interests.
iii. Technical Assistance: countries can benefit technical and scientific assistance from
one another when they interact.
iv. Reduction of Hostilities: Hostilities in the world are reduced to the barest minimum
through interaction and this will promote world peace.
v. Widens Market: Interaction will increase volume of trade and buying and selling of
good s and services will increase.
vi. Exchange of Culture: Socio-Cultural interaction among the nations of the world lead
to exchange of cultural artifacts and across fertilization.
vii. Increase Value of national Currency: States that relate will exchange their
currencies and with those of other states and the value of such currencies will
increase and be known worldwide.
viii. Promotion of Tourism: Interaction will encourage tourism in that people will visit
tourist centres in other lands. This will promote friendly relationship and promote
national economy.
ix. Civilization/ Modernization: Countries will benefit from one another better by
learning new things from other countries, especially the advanced countries of the
world.

DISADVANTAGES OF INTERACTIONS AMONG NATIONS OF THE WORLD.

i. Cultural/Social problems: through interactions in sports, cultural concerts, etc,

social problems such as immoral acts, promiscuity, indecent dressing, prostitution,
etc could be exported into some countries.
ii. Interference of state: Developed nations can still interfere in the domestic affars of
less developed nations because of the economic benefits the less developed
countries are deriving from the developed nations.
iii. Neo-colonialism: Interactions among states, economically, politically, etc can lead to
neo-colonialism and this can make nonsense of the hard-won independence of these
developing states from their erstwhile colonial masters.
iv. Inferior or Poorly Produced Goods: Interactions among states can lead to some
developed countries making some of the third world countries dumping ground their
inferior, fairly used or poorly produced goods.
 v. Control of States: political and economic interactions associated with the
membership of some of the organizations, e.g. UNO, I.M.F. etc can bring about
control of the sovereign of less powerful states, as most of these organizations are
controlled by big powers.

WEEK 6 DATE

SUBJECT: GOVERNMENT

TOPIC: NIGERIAN FOREIGN POLICY

CONTENT

1. Meaning of Foreign policy

2. Factors affecting Nigerians foreign policy
3. Aims and objectives of Nigerians foreign policy
4. Nigerian foreign policy since independence
5. Non-alignment
6. Nigeria and non-alignment

SUBTOPIC 1: MEANING OF FOREIGN POLICY

Foreign policy refers to the strategy and tactics employed by a state in conducting her
relationship with other states while pursuing her national interest.

It can also be referred to as a set of objectives which a government seeks to achieve through its
relations with governments of other countries and international organizations.

SUB TOPIC 2: FACTORS AFFECTING NIGERIA’S FOREIGN POLICY

1. History: Nigeria has a strong link with Britain and some western European powers due to
her colonial experience.
2. Geographical location: the location of Nigeria in west Africa determines her relationship with
other countries.
3. Population: Nigeria is a diverse country with large population. This affects her foreign policy.
4. National interest: security of lives, territorial integrity and socio-economic developments are
part of Nigeria National interest influence her foreign policy.
5. National resources: Nigeria has one of the largest concentrations of natural resources in the
world. This greatly influences her foreign policy.
6. Public opinion: The general views of the people of Nigeria are often considered in her foreign
policy objectives.
7. Military strength: Nigeria has relative military capabilities in Africa. This has been used to
influence her foreign policy.
8. Membership of Nigeria in international organisation e.g AU, ECOWAS etc.
9. International laws, conventions and treaties.
 10. The type of government in power can affect Nigerian foreign policy.

SUBTOPIC 3

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF NIGERIANS FOREIGN POLICY

1. The promotion of unity and solidarity among African states. For example, sponsoring
many resolutions which led to the collapse of apartheid in south Africa.
2. The termination of racial, colonial and neo-colonial influences in Africa, e.g providing
financial and military aid to the liberation movement in Africa.
3. Encouraging economic co-operation and self-reliance among Africa state.
4. Setting inter-state disputes and conflicts in Africa e.g setting disputes between Algeria
and Morocco, Togo and Ghana etc.
5. Creating of pan-africa defence force in order to make Africa self-reliance in military
matters.
6. Establishing diplomatic and friendly relations with all AU member states.
7. Provision of technical and manpower assistance to fellow African states
8. Room-Alignment to any power bloc.
9. Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of other states.
10. Respect for international laws and treaty obligations.

SUB TOPIC 4

NIGERIA’S FOREIGN POLICY SINCE INDEPENDENCE

1. Adoption of non-aligned policies with the power blocs – east or west

2. The belief in resolving inter – state disputes peacefully
3. Co-operating and entering into friendly relationship countries that respect her sovereignty.
4. The belief in the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of other states. And
according respect to the territorial integrity of other states in Africa.
5. Seeing Africa as the centre – piece of Nigeria’s foreign policy.
6. Ensuring a free social and politically stable Africa, which would provide the right
environment for Nigeria to embark on self-reliant economic development.

SUBTOPIC 5

NON-ALIGNMENT

Non-alignment means the refusal of some countries mainly former colonies to take side with
the ideological rivalries or cold war taking place between the world super powers and power
blocs. i.e the socialist and the capitalist blocs.

Such countries wanted to remain active participants in international affairs without allegiance
to any power bloc.

The movement was founded in 1961 in Belgrade, Yugoslevia by twenty five countries. The
founding fathers included Jawaharal Nehru of India, Josip Tito of Yugoslavia, Kwame
Nkrumah of Ghana and Gemel Abdel Nasser of Egypt.
SUBTOPIC 6

NIGERIA AND NON-ALIGNMENT

Initially, Nigeria did not show kin interest to the policy of non-alignment. She was rather
relating more with the capitalist west than the socialist east. After independence in 1960,
Nigeria decided to join the common wealth of nations under the leadership of Great Britain.
Based on this we can see that Nigeria was neither neutral nor non-aligned. To confirm this,
Nigeria was absent at the founding of the organisation. The signing of the Angola-Nigeria
defence pact also showed Nigeria alignment with Britain and her European allies. By
1962/63 the attitude of Nigeria changed with the signing of the organisation of African Unity
(OAU) charter in 1963 which declared the policy of non-alignment and appealed to OAU
member states to attend the second meeting of the non-align movement taking place in Cairo,
Egypt in 1964. Since then the country’s foreign policy has taken a new dimension, and
Nigeria has surrender to the policy of non-alignment politically. Economically the country still
depends on western economic institutions for management and financing.

EVALUATION

1. What is non-alignment
2. State five factors affecting Nigeria’s foreign policy
3. Mention five aims and objectives of Nigeria’s foreign policy
4. Explain the features of Nigeria’s foreign policy since independence
5. Define non-alignment
6. Explain the posture of Nigeria and non-alignment

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. Identify any six factors affecting Nigeria’s foreign policy

2. Highlight any four major objectives of the foreign policy of any one west African country.
3. Outline three reasons for adoption of Africa as the centre – piece of Nigeria’s foreign policy
4. Outline five major features of Nigeria’s foreign policy since independence
5. Give reasons to show that Nigeria is a non-aligned nation.

READING ASSIGNMENT: Read round up government by Ibiyemi Oyenenye et al. Pages 243 –
251

PRE –READING ASSIGNMENT: Read about international organisation such as UNO, ECOWAS

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

OBJECTIVE TEST

1. Which of the following factors influences a country’s foreign policy (a) size of the country’s
civil service (b) overall national interest of the country (c) capacity of the police force (d)
type of traditional rulers in the country.
2. Which of the following best describes the foreign policy of west African countries during
the cold war? (a) support for western bloc (b) support for eastern bloc (c) non-alignment
with any power bloc (d) Allegience to Nazi government
 3. Which of the following does not influence the foreign policy of a country (a) historical and
cultural matters (b) ideological factors (c) economic factors (d) intra-party conflicts
4. The major defect of foreign policy in west Africa is (a) public opinion and pressure groups
(b) military power (c) good economy (d) poor leadership
5. The foreign policy of a country is influenced by all the following factors except (a) size of
the country (b) leadership style (c) educational system (d) economic system
6. The principle of non-alignment means that a country (a) is neutral in international trade (b)
does not belong to any world organisation (c) does not belong to any of the power blocs.
(d) has no diplomatic mission abroad

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Define foreign policy

2. Identify any four factors affecting Nigeria’s foreign policy

Highlight three main objectives of the foreign policy of any west African country

WEEK 7 DATE………………………

TOPIC: INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION

CONTENT

a. International organisations
i. United Nations (UN)
ii. African Union (AU)
iii. Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
iv. Common Wealth of Nations (former British colonies, dominions and United
Kingdom)
v. United Nations Development Project (UNDP)
vi. Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO)
vii. United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
viii. World Health Organisation (WHO)
ix. UNICEF

(b) Origin (c) Aims and objectives (d) Achievements for each of the organisation

SUB TOPIC 1: INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS

International organizations are organisation set up to cater for the interest of independent
nations. They provide services needed by different members of the organisation e.g UNO,
ECOWAS, AU etc.

i. UNITED NATIONS (UN) - ORIGINS

After the First World War (1914 – 1918), the participants in the war through their experience
establish on international organisation called the League of Nations in 1919 to ensure that
there will not be only other outbreak of war, promote world peace and security. It
headquarters was at General intermediately, there was another outbreak of war in the world
and that was the Second World War (1939 – 1945). This shows the inefficiency of the League
of Nations and the need to establish another organisation. This desire led to the
establishment of United Nations Organisation UNO in 1945 to replace the League of Nations.

The major founding countries were four namely: Britain, USA, China. The following for the
establishment of UNO; the London conference declaration of 1941, the Atlantic charter of
1942, the Moscow conference of 1943.

Ch The draft of UNO was prepared by the founding held at dumbartion oaks near
Washington in 1944. A meeting of fifty nations was held the following year, 1945 in Sari-
Francsico, America where the draft was discussed modified and finally the meeting ended
with the signing of the Atlantic charter which gave birth to the United Nations Organisation.
The headquarters of the organisation is in New York, USA.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVE OF UN

1. To maintain international peace and security. All member states must therefore settle
their international disputes in such a way that it will not endanger world peace and
security.
2. To encourage countries to have respect for fundamental human rights and freedom for all
people without discrimination on race, sex, religion or language.
3. To encourage friendly relations among member states base on the principle of mutual
respect, equal rights and self determination of people.
4. To encourage member states to co-operate in the areas of social, economic humanitarian
and cultural needs of its people.
5. To respect the sovereignty of member states
6. To remove and prevent causes of war.
7. To accelerate the independence of trust territories.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF UNO

1. The organisation has succeeded in preventing the outbreak of third world war.
2. It played a great role in ending apartheid and colonialism in Africa.
3. It had encouraged the respect for fundamental human rights through the 1948 universal
human right declaration.
4. It has increased the standard of living of people in the developing countries through the
activities of its specialized agencies like FAO, WHO, etc.
5. The organisation provides aid through its specialized agencies e.g. social, economic,
cultural etc. To member states, specially developing.
6. It assist the economic developments of member states through financial assistance which
the international monetary fund and world bank give to the countries whose economics
are depressed or stagnating.
7. The organisation is involved in the solving of refuges problems in different parts of the
world.
8. It gives smaller countries the opportunity to say their minds on issues concerning them or
their region and on international matters.

SUB TOPIC 2

AFRICAN UNION: ORIGIN

African Union was established to replace organisation of African Unity. On July 9, 2002,
African heads of state in Urban South Africa launched the African Union (AU) to work the end
of OAU after 39 years of existence.

All is the brain child of Libyan leader Moammar Gadhafi who first proposed it as a full blown
‘United states of Africa’ the constitutive act establishing UA was signed at an OAU summit
held in Lome, Togo in 2002 and came into effect in 2001 following it formed proclamation at
an extra-ordinary OAU summit in Libya.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF AU

i. To achieve African Unity and solidarity.

ii. To end the senseless wars and conflicts causing unnecessary hardship and pains to
Africans
iii. To defend the sovereignty of member state.
iv. To promote international co-operation
v. To promote social, political and economic development in Africa.
vi. To advance the development of science and technology
vii. To promote good health through co-operation with international bodies.
viii. To promote and raise the standard of living and economic well-being of the people of
Africa.

ACHIEVEMENT OF AU

SUBTOPIC 3

ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS)

The organisation established at May 28, 1975. It was founded through the initiatives of two
African leaders – General Yakubu Gowon of Nigeria and Gnasingbe Eyadema of Togo. The
headquarters of the organisation is in Abuja, Nigeria. It is a sub regional economization
ECOWAS is made up of 15 countries with the withdrawal of Mauritania some of the countries
are as follows: Nigeria, Benin Republic, Cape Verde, Gambia, Ghana, Mali, Guinea Bissau
etc.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF ECOWAS

1. To promote co-operation and development in all field of industry, transport, energy

agriculture etc.
2. To eliminate customs duties and other charges in respect of the importation and
exportation of goods between member countries,
3. To abolish administrative restrictions on trade among member states.
4. To remove obstacles to free movement of people, services and capital among member
states.
5. To harmonize agricultural policies and promote common projects in marketing research
and agro industrial enterprises.
6. To establish a common fun for c-operation, compensation and development
7. To harmonise monetary policies of members states through integrating the economic and
industrial policies.
8. To establish a common tariff against non-member states.
 9. To harmonise the economic and industrial policies of member state and eliminate
disparity in the level of development of member state.

ACHIEVEMENT OF ECOWAS

1. Removal of obstacles placed on all goods and services within the sub-region headquarters
of the organisation is in London.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF COMMON WEALTH

1. To co-operate and find solutions to problems confronting member states in the area of
education, trade, finance etc.
2. To promote friendly relations among member states.
3. To respect and protect the territorial investing and sovereignty of member state.
4. To contribute to the economic development of member states by offering financial
manpower and technical assistance.
5. To promote sporting activities to encourage the spirit of friendship and co-operation.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF COMMON WEALTH OF NATION

1. TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BENEFITS: member states enjoy scientific and technical
benefits through exchange of technical experts between developed and developing
countries.
2. FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE: Common wealth offers loans and grants to poor countries
among member states in order to develop their own economies.
3. It provides employment so citizens of member state.
4. It contributed to the dismantling of apartheid in South Africa.

Despite the size of the organisation it maintained good relationship among member states.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF AU

Achievement of AU

i. Since its formation in 1963, it has been able to promote unity among members and
has brought African states together to discuss common or continental issues. From
the outset , it united the Cassablanca and Brazzaville blocs.
ii. The AU has been able to eradicate all forms of colonialism in Africa. Through the
activities of the liberation Committee, Mozambique, Namibia, Angola, Zimbabwe
were all freed from the yoke of colonialism.
iii. Through the commission of mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration, border disputes
have been settled among members. Examples are disputes between Morocco and
Algeria, Guinea and Senegal, Somalia and Ethiopia and between Uganda and
Tanzania.
iv. The AU (formerly OAU)has succeeded in dismantling apartheid particularly in
South Africa through its open condemnation of apartheid in international
organization.
v. In conjunction with the Economic Commission of Africa which is a United Nations
agency, the AU has realized economic and social development in Africa. A major
example is the Lagos Plan of Action, a blueprint for the establishment by 2000 A.D.
 of an African market. A trans-continental road link which is in progress about being
completed.
vi. The African Development Bank (ADB) has been financing projects and giving loans
to members to carry out developmental projects for rapid development.
vii. With the formation of UA, Africa has been able to use the body to speak with a voice
at international organizations, especially at the UNO.
viii. The AU has contributed to the to the observation of human rights in Africa through
the adoption of African Charter on Human Rights.
ix. It has encourages the formation of regional economic groupings of African states,
e.g. ECOWAS and SADCC.

EVALUATION:

1. Enumerate six achievements of AU.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION

World Organization (WHO): ORIGIN:

The WHO is one of the specialized agencies of UN . It came into existence in 1948 with
headquarters in Geneva and regional offices all over the world.

AIMS AND OJECTIVES OF WHO

1. To create an interface between the developed and developing nations when

pertaining to health issues.

2. To patronize and support health programs in developing nations.

3. To periodically formulate health policies that are readily endorsed by

nations.

4. To coordinate and oversee the procurement of health services.

5.To immerse in disease inspection and analysis.

6. To involve itself in promoting health and also to impart health education.

7. To collaborate with governments and administrations all over the world to

endorse health promotional programs.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF WHO

1. fight against and successful eradication of the world’s most deadly communicable diseases.
Eg malaria, tuberculosis etc.
2. It promotes and funds programs to prevent the occurrence of such diseases through
vaccination and also to treat through ground-breaking medicines.
3. The WHO patronizes the distribution of secure drugs and medication throughout the world
to fight against the outbreak of such communicable diseases
4. It also initiates a variant of health campaigns like propagating against the consumption of
tobacco through smoking and other means.
5. is promoting the consumption of vegetarian foods such as vegetables and fruits.
6. WHO experts are currently engaged in researching on a permanent vaccine against
Influenza, which is a very common chronic illness.
7. WHO is also funding programs in member states so that they independently address the
grievances associated within the nation and conduct extensive research on such subjects
territorially.

UNITED NATION DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

ORIGIN:

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is the United Nations' global
development network. It advocates for change and connects countries to knowledge, experience
and resources to help people build a better life. UNDP operates in 177 countries, working with
nations on their own solutions to global and national development challenges. As they develop
local capacity, they draw on the people of UNDP and its wide range of partners.The
organization was founded in 1965 with it headquarters in New York. UNDP is funded by
voluntary contributions from member nations

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES UNDP:

1. To provide expert advice, training, and grant support to developing countries, with
increasing emphasis on assistance to the least developed countries.
2. 2. To accomplish the MDGs and encourage global development,

3. To ensure poverty reduction, HIV/AIDS, democratic governance, energy and environment,

social development, and crisis prevention and recovery.

4. To encourage the protection of human rights and the empowerment of women in all of its
programmes.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF UNITED NATION DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

1.Democratic governance: UNDP supports national democratic transitions by providing

policy advice and technical support.

2.It improves institutional and individual capacity within countries. It embarks on educating
populations about and advocating for democratic reforms.

3. promoting negotiation and dialogue, and sharing successful experiences from other
countries and location..
4. UNDP also supports existing democratic institutions by increasing dialogue, enhancing
national debate, and facilitating consensus on national governance programmes.

5.Poverty reduction: UNDP helps countries develop strategies to combat poverty by

expanding access to economic opportunities and resources.

FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION (FAO):ORIGIN

The idea of an international organization for food and agriculture emerged in the late 19th and
early 20th century. In May–June 1905, an international conference was held in Rome, Italy,
which lead to the creation of the International Institute of Agriculture.Later in 1943, the United
States President Franklin D. Roosevelt called a United Nations Conference on Food and
Agriculture. Representatives from forty four governments gathered at The Homestead Resort in
Hot Springs, Virginia from 18 May to 3 June. They committed themselves to founding a
permanent organization for food and agriculture, which happened in Quebec City, Canada on
October 16, 1945 with the conclusion of the Constitution of the Food and Agriculture
Organization.[4] The First Session of the FAO Conference was held in the Chateau Frontenac at
Quebec, Canada, from 16 October to 1 November 1945. The FAO was established in 1945 and
the headquarters of the organization is in Rome.

OBJECTIVES OF FAO

1. To preserve natural resources such as valleys, lakes and forests.

2. To coordinate government and other agencies activities all over the world.
3. To offer technical and scientific advice on soil erosion, use of fertilizer, food
storage and preservation.
4. To send disaster relief materials, including food, to affected areas.
5. To research into lost agricultural products with a view to reintroducing them.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF FAO:

1. During the 1990s, FAO took a leading role in the promotion of integrated pest
management for rice production in Asia.
2. Raising awareness about the problem of hunger mobilizes energy to find a solution
3. It improves the standard of living of the people of the world through food aid to
member nations.
4. Provision of fund to small scale farmers.
5. It has contributed to combating hunger in the world through various programmes.
 UNITED NATION CHILDREN’S EMERGENCY FUND ORIGIN

By resolution UN/GA/57 (I) of 11 December 1946, the United Nations General Assembly
established the United Nations International Children's Fund Emergency Fund (UNICEF),
following the decision of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA)
on termination of its activities in August 1946 to apply its residual assets to a fund to provide
relief for the suffering children in war-devastated Europe. By resolution 417 (V) of 1 December
1950, the General Assembly decided to shift the main emphasis of the Fund toward
programmes of long-range benefit to children of the developing countries. By resolution 802
(VIII) of 6 October 1953, it unanimously voted to continue the Fund for an indefinite period.
The official name was shortened to United Nations Children’s Fund but the well-known
acronym UNICEF was retained.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF UNICEF:

1. To nurture and care for children.
2. to work with others to overcome the obstacles that poverty, violence, disease and
discrimination place in a child’s path.
3. TO advocate for measures to give children the best start in life.
4. To promote girls’ education – ensuring that they complete primary education as a
minimum .
5. To ensure that children are immunized against common childhood diseases, and are
well nourished, because it is wrong for a child to suffer or die from a preventable
illness.
6. to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS among young people because it is right to keep
them from harm and enable them to protect others.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF UNICEF
i. UNICEF work for the survival, protection and development of Nigerian children
ii. UNICEF and WHO carried out their first leprosy project in Nigeria. Thanks to a new
drug, the treatment of the disease had greatly improved and thousands of children
were spared its disfiguring effects.
iii. As reports revealed widespread malnutrition among African children, UNICEF
started providing skimmed milk to underfed children.
iv. UNICEF also focused on the education of mothers as another strategy to combat
malnutrition.
v. UNICEF provided support for textbook production and continued its programme for
health and nutrition education in schools.
vi. UNICEF also supported training of health staff in the field of nutrition.

UNITED NATION EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION-ORIGIN

UNESCO was founded in November 1945 as a specialized UN agency (under Articles 104, 105
of the UN Charter, agreed a few months earlier), and is guided by its Constitution. UNESCO
currently has 192 member states and 6 associate members. UN membership automatically
confers the right to membership of UNESCO.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF UNESCO

 i. To contribute to peace and security by promoting international collaboration through
education, science, and culture in order to further universal respect for justice.

ii. UNESCO’s aim is "to contribute to the building of peace, the eradication of poverty,
sustainable development and intercultural dialogue through education, the sciences,
culture, communication and information.
iii. Attaining quality education for all and lifelong learning, addressing emerging social
and ethical challenges.
iv. Fostering cultural diversity, a culture of peace and building inclusive knowledge
societies through information and communication"

ACHIEVEMENTS OF UNESCO:
i. UNESCO promotes co-operation in the field of science, education and culture among
members of the UN.
ii. It advocates equal rights especially concerning educational opportunities.
iii. It carries out exchange programmes in research and education.

EVALUATION:
1. Describe the origin of United Nation.
2. Mention four major objectives of UNO.
3. State five achievements of UNO.
4. Explain the origin of the following organization

GENERAL EVALUATION:
1. Explain the origin of United nation.
2. State four major objectives of UNO.
3. outline five achievements of UNO.
4. Discuss the origin of the following organization the following organization
UNESCO, UNICEF, WHO.
5. Highlight 3 achievements of ECOWAS.

READING ASSIGNMENT: Read Round-Up Government by Ibiyemi etal

Chapter 17 pages256- 273.

PRE- READING ASSIGNMENT: Read about millennium development goals.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT (OBJECTIVE TEST)

1. The head of commonwealth of nations is the
A. Prime minister.(B) High commissioner (C) British foreign secretary
(D) British monarch.
2. The objective of ECOWAS is to
A. Promote economic development among member states.
 B. Achieve African unity.
C. Establish political unification of West Africa.
D. Eradicate all forms of racism in West Africa.
3.A representative of one country in another within the Commonwealth country is
called
A. high commissioner (B) attaché (C) foreign minister (D) consul.
4. Which of the following country participated in the signing of UN charter in
1945
(A) Ethiopia (B) Tunisia (C) Ghana (D) India

WEEK 8 DATE ………………………

TOPIC: MILLENIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MDGs) AND NEW ECONOMIC PARTNERSHIP

FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT (NEPAD)

CONTENT

A. (i). Meaning of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). (ii)Towards achieving

Millennium Development Goals in 2015.
B. New Economic Partnership for Economic Development (NEPAD): (i) Meaning (ii) Aims
and Objectives.

SUB-TOPIC 1: MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MDGs).

i. MEANING OF MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MDGS).

In September 2000, leaders from 189 nations of the World agreed on a vision for the
future: a world with less poverty, hunger and disease, greater survival prospects for
mothers and their infants, better educated children, equal opportunity for women
and a healthier environment, a world in which developed and developing countries
of the world worked in partnership for the betterment of all.
The aim of the MDGs is to encourage development by improving social and
economic conditions in the World’s poorest countries. They derived this initiative
from earlier development targets and were officially established following the
millennium summit in 2000, where all World leaders present adopted United
Notions Millennium Declaration.

ii. Aims and Objectives of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger.

Recent economic growth, particularly in agriculture, has markedly reduced the proportion of
underweight children, from 35.7 per cent in 1990 to 23.1 per cent in 2008.
However, growth has not generated enough jobs and its effect on poverty is not yet clear (the
most recent data is from 2004). The available data and the current policy environment suggest
that the target will be difficult to meet.
Growth needs to be more equitable and broad-based. Developing agriculture and creating jobs
will require the public sector to create an enabling environment for business, including
building critical infrastructure, making regulatory services transparent and providing
sustainable access to enterprise finance. Social protection and poverty eradication programmes
need to be scaled-up and better coordinated.

GOAL 2
Achieve Universal Primary Education
In a major step forward, nearly nine out of ten children, 88.8 per cent, are now enrolled in
school. Nevertheless, regional differences are stark. State primary completion rates range from
2 per cent to 99 per cent. In particular, progress needs to be accelerated in the north of the
country if the target is to be met.
Low completion rates reflect poor learning environments and point to the urgent need to raise
teaching standards. The rapid improvement in youth literacy, from 64.1 per cent to 80 per cent
between 2000 and 2008, appears to have reached a plateau.
The Universal Basic Education Scheme is a promising initiative that needs to be reformed and
strengthened. The Federal Teachers' Scheme and in-service training by the National Teachers'
Institute have begun to address the urgent need to improve the quality of teaching. To
accelerate progress and reduce regional disparities, these initiatives need to be rapidly
expanded and improved.

GOAL 3
Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women
A gradual improvement in the proportion of girls enrolled in primary school, though
noteworthy, is not yet enough to meet the target. There are still fewer girls than boys in school.
There are signs of backsliding in the number of girls in tertiary education.
Measures to encourage girls to attend school, particularly by addressing cultural barriers in
the north of the country, and to provide the economic incentives for boys to attend school in
the south-east, are urgently required.
Although few women currently hold political office, the new policy framework is encouraging.
However, gradual gains in parliamentary representation for women need to be greatly expanded
in forthcoming elections.
Confronting regional variations in the determinants of gender inequality requires policies based
on an understanding of the underlying socioeconomic, social and cultural factors. State and
local government efforts will thus be critical to the achievement of this goal.

GOAL 4
Reduce Child Mortality
Progress in reducing child mortality has been rapid. With sustained effort and improvement in
related and lagging sectors, such as water and sanitation, there is a strong possibility of
achieving Goal 4 by 2015.
Under-five mortality has fallen by over a fifth in five years, from 201 deaths per 1,000 live
births in 2003, to 157 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2008.
In the same period, the infant mortality rate fell even faster, from 100 to 75 deaths per 1,000
live births.
Recent interventions – including Integrated Management of Childhood Illnesses – that reflect
the underlying causes of child deaths, have contributed to these successes.
However, these need to be rapidly expanded and accelerated if Nigeria is to achieve Goal 4.
Access to primary health care needs to be improved by more investment in infrastructure,
human resources, equipment and consumables, and better management. Implementation
arrangements must target local needs, which vary hugely from community to community and
state to state. Routine immunization is unsatisfactory but can be rapidly improved by building
on the successes of the near-eradication of polio.

GOAL 5
Improve Maternal Health

Recent progress towards this Goal is promising and, if the latest improvements can be
sustained at the same rate, Nigeria will reach the target by 2015.
Maternal mortality fell by 32 per cent, from 800 deaths per 100,000 live births in 2003 (at the
time one of the highest maternal mortality rates in the world) to 545 deaths per 100,000 live
births in 2008.
However, the proportion of births attended by a skilled health worker has remained low and
threatens to hold back further progress.
Government commitment is not in doubt. An innovative Midwives Service Scheme is expected
to contribute substantially to ongoing shortfalls but its impact has yet to be reflected in the
data. If the scheme is expanded in proportion to the national gap in the number of midwives,
this will further accelerate progress.
In addition, more mothers will be covered by antenatal care as access to quality primary
healthcare improves and incentives attract health workers to rural areas, indicating that
Nigeria will turn progress to date on this goal into a MDG success story.

GOAL 6
Combat HIV-AIDS, Malaria and Other Diseases
Nigeria has had striking success in almost eradicating polio, reducing the number of cases by
98 per cent between 2009 and 2010.
Another marked success was the fall in the prevalence of HIV among pregnant young women
aged 15-24 from 5.8 per cent in 2001 to 4.2 per cent in 2008. Thus, nationally, Nigeria has
already achieved this target. However, some states still have high prevalence rates that require
urgent policy attention. Successes have been buoyed by better awareness and use of
contraceptives.
There has been a sharp decrease in malaria prevalence rates. Nationwide distribution of 72
million long-lasting insecticide-treated bed nets, although only in its initial stages, protected
twice as many children (10.9 per cent) in 2009, compared to 2008 (5.5 per cent).
Similar progress has been made with tuberculosis. With sustained attention, tuberculosis is
expected to be a limited public health burden by 2015.
To consolidate and extend progress on Goal 6, challenges that need to be addressed include
improving knowledge and awareness of HIV/AIDS, improving access to antiretroviral therapies,
and effective implementation of the national strategic frameworks for HIV/AIDS, malaria and
tuberculosis control.

GOAL 7
Ensure Environmental Sustainability
Nigeria’s natural resources, some of its most valuable national assets, are still seriously
threatened. For example, between 2000 and 2010 the area of forest shrank by a third, from
14.4 per cent to 9.9 per cent of the land area.
Similarly, access to safe water and sanitation is a serious challenge for Nigeria. Little progress
was made up to 2005 but improvements since then have brought the proportion of the
population accessing safe water to 58.9 per cent and the proportion accessing improved
sanitation to 51.6 per cent.
The major challenge lies in translating substantial public investments in water into effective
access. This requires more involvement by communities to identify local needs, and better
planning to deliver holistic and sustainable solutions. In sanitation, efforts are falling short of
the target. Rural-urban migration will add to the pressure on sanitation infrastructure
throughout the country. It is doubtful that town planning authorities have made adequate
preparations for sustainable housing and sanitation.
There is an urgent need for managerial, technical and financial resources to deal with these
challenges to be established at state and local government levels. Given the risks of over-
exploitation of groundwater in the North and the influx of saline water in the South, innovative
solutions are required across the country

GOAL 8
Develop a Global Partnership for Development
Debt relief negotiated by Nigeria in 2005 provided new opportunities for investment in the
social sector. Debt servicing fell from 15.2 per cent of exports in 2005 to 0.5 per cent in 2008.
To build on these positive developments there is a need to take action to forestall a relapse into
unsustainable levels of debt that could prevent the country from achieving the MDGs.
The outlook for the broader partnership for development is not as bright. Trade agreements
continue to be inequitable and constrain exports and economic growth. Development
assistance has grown although, when debt relief is excluded, it is still very low on a per capita
basis.
Improving the quality of human and capital resources available is critical to attracting the
foreign direct investment that is needed to contribute to development.
As a result of the deregulation of the telecommunications sector in 2001, the proportion of the
population with access to mobile telephones increased from 2 per cent to 42 per cent between
2000 and 2008. However, this has yet to bridge the digital divide and only 15.8 per cent of the
population currently has access to the internet.

EVALUATION:

1. Explain Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

2. Mention any five of the goals.

SUB-TOPIC 2: NEW ECONOMIC PARTNERSHIP FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT (NEPAD):

(I) MEANING (II) AIMS AND OBJECTIVES.

i. MEANING OF NEPAD.

It is a holistic, comprehensive and integrated strategic framework for the socio-economic

development of Africa. The NEPAD DOCUMENT provides the vision for Africa, a statement
of the problems facing the continent and a Programme of Action to resolve these problems
in order to reach the objectives.

The New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) is the vision and strategic
framework adopted by African leaders to address poverty and underdevelopment
throughout the African continent. Its broad approach was initially agreed at the 36th Heads
of State and Government Assembly of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) held in
Algeria, in 2000. The meeting asked Algeria, Egypt, Nigeria, Senegal and South Africa to
develop an integrated socio-economic framework for Africa. Subsequently, the 37th Summit
of the OAU held in Lusaka, Zambia in July 2001 formally endorsed NEPAD as the
framework for the continent's development. In January 2010, the 14th African Union (AU)
Summit strengthened the NEPAD programme by endorsing its integration into the AU.
The Secretary-General established the Office of the Special Adviser on Africa (OSAA) to increase
international support for NEPAD, to coordinate UN system efforts in support of NEPAD and to
report annually to the General Assembly on progress in the implementation of international
support for NEPAD.

WHO INITIATED NEPAD?

President T Mbeki of South Africa
President A Bouteflika of Algeria
President O Obasanjo of Nigeria
President Abdoulaye Wade of Senegal
President Mohammed Hosni Mubarak of Egypt .These five Presidents (or their personal
representatives) also form the Steering Committee of NEPAD.

STRUCTURE OF NEPAD.

The HSGIC to which the NEPAD secretariat reports comprises three states for each region of
the African Union, with former President Obasanjo (Nigeria) as elected chair, and Presidents
Bouteflika (Algeria) and Wade (Senegal) as deputy chairmen. The HSGIC meets several times a
year and reports to the AU Assembly of Heads of State and Government.

There is also a steering committee, comprising 20 AU member states, to oversee projects and
program development.

The NEPAD Secretariat is based in Midrand, South Africa. The first CEO was Wiseman
Nkuhlu of South Africa (2001–2005), and the second Mozambican Firmino Mucavele (2005–
2008). On April 1, 2009, Ibrahim Hassane Mayaki accepted the position as the 3rd CEO.

The NEPAD Secretariat is not responsible for the implementation of development programs
itself, but works with the African Regional Economic Communities -- the building blocks of the
African Union. The role of the NEPAD Secretariat is one of coordination and resource
mobilisation.

Many individual African states have also established national NEPAD structures responsible
for liaison with the continental initiatives on economic reform and development programs.

ii. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF NEPAD.

The main objective of NEPAD is to eradicate poverty in Africa and to place African countries,
both individually and collectively, on a path of sustainable growth and development, to thus
halt the marginalisation of Africa in the globalisation process.

The eight priority areas of NEPAD are: political, economic and corporate governance;
agriculture; infrastructure; education; health; science and technology; market access and
tourism; and environment.

During the first few years of its existence, the main task of the NEPAD Secretariat and key
supporters was the popularization of NEPAD’s key principles, as well as the development of
action plans for each of the sectional priorities. NEPAD also worked to develop partnerships
with international development finance institutions—including the World Bank, G8, European
Commission, UNECA and others—and with the private sector.
After this initial phase, more concrete programs were developed, including:

 The Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), aimed at

assisting the launching of a 'green revolution' in Africa, based on a belief in the key role
of agriculture in development.
 The NEPAD Science and Technology programme, including an emphasis on research in
areas such as water science and energy.
 The "e-schools programme", adopted by the HSGIC in 2003 as an initiative to equip all
600,000 primary and secondary schools in Africa with IT equipment and internet access
within 10 years, in partnership with several large IT companies. See NEPAD E-School
program
 The launch of a Pan African Infrastructure Development Fund (PAIDF) by the Public
Investment Corporation of South Africa, to finance high priority cross-border
infrastructure projects.
 Capacity building for continental institutions, working with the African Capacity
Building Foundation, the Southern Africa Trust, UNECA, the African Development
Bank, and other development partners. One of NEPAD's priorities has been to
strengthen the capacity of and linkages among the Regional Economic Communities.
 NEPAD was involved with the Timbuktu Manuscripts Project although it is not entirely
clear to what extent.

EVALUATION:

1. What is the full meaning of NEPAD?

2. List four pioneer founders of NEPAD.

GENERAL EVALUATION:

1. State the main objective of NEPAD.

2. What are the other objectives of NEPAD?
3. Explain Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
4. Mention any five of the goals.

5. List any five member countries of NEPAD.

WEEKEND ASSSIGNMENT:

1. NEPAD means (a) New Economic Partnership for Economic Development (b) National
Partnership for Economic Demand (c) Nigerian Economic Planning and Essential
Development (d) New Economic Planning for European Development
2. Which of the following is not part of Millennium Development Goals? (a) Reduction of
mortality rate (b) Improvement on maternal health (c) Combat HIV/AIDS and malaria
(d) Arrange for re-union of divorced couples
3. Which of the following Head of States is not a foundation member of NEPAD? (a)
President T Mbeki of South Africa (b) President A Bouteflika of Algeria
(c) President Barak Obama of USA (d) President Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria
4. The NEPAD Secretariat is based in ….. (a) Abuja, Nigeria (b) Midrand, South Africa (c)
Accra, Ghana (d) Lome, Togo
5. The first CEO was ….. (a) Kwame Nkruma of Ghana (b) Nuhu Ribadu of Nigeria (c)
Wiseman Nkuhlu of South Africa (d) Okonjo Eweala of Nigeria
6. The vision for the Millennium Development Goals came into being in year (a) 1999 (b)
2002 (c) 2000 (d) 2015
 7. The target of the realization of the Millennium Development Goals is (a) 2001 (b) 2040
(c) 2015 (d) 2020

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT: Read the New Analytical Study of Government for Senior
Secondary Schools by Sola Adu (2012) Emadet Publications, Ibadan. Pages 384 – 386.

PRE – READING ASSIGNMENT: Read about the e – government before next class.

WEEKEND ACTIVITY: Find out the full meaning of the following abbreviations.
i. MDGs
ii. NEPAD
iii. CAADP
iv. CEO

WEEK 9 DATE:……………………

TOPIC: E-Government.

CONTENT
(a) Meaning: Use of computers or ICT in government business or Activities.
(b) Areas: Nigerian Immigration Service, Nigerian Custom Services, Federal Inland Revenue
Service (FIRS), JAMB, WAEC, NECO.
(c) Other Uses: website, e-mail, network of offices.
(d) Advantages and disadvantages.

SUB - TOPIC 1: Meaning: Use of Computers or ICT in Government Business or Activities.

E-Government refers to the use of information technology by government agencies

(such as relations with citizens, business and other arms of government). Traditionally,
the interactions between a citizen or business and a government agent took place in a
government office. With emerging information and communication technologies, it is
possible to locate service centre close to the clients. It can thus be said that e-
government is a tool to achieve better governance.

Project Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazards (Project NOAH) This is a

responsive program for disaster prevention and mitigation providing a 6-hour lead-time
warning to vulnerable communities against impending floods. The project makes use of
radar, Doppler, and other sensing technologies to map out rainfall, and other geo-
hazards such as landslides. The project's use of Internet technologies, social media, and
its collaboration with the country's top mobile phone service providers maximizes the
potentials of ICT for crisis management, disaster preparedness, mitigation and
response.

 eSerbisyo These are government online websites that cater to general the general
public for information, government forms, government services and weather.
 eBayad This is an electronic payment gateway for government agencies using various
internet payment options like credit cards and mobile wallets to enable Filipinos to pay
online for requested government services taken from eSerbisyo.

Uses of Information and Communication Technology.

 i. It can be used to store vital information about the members of staff of
government establishment.
ii. It can be used to store vital information about government activities instead
of carrying files about.
iii. Workers in government establishments can be educated through the ICT.
iv. It can be used to check necessary messages from time to time e.g. e-mail.
v. It will enable all citizens, enterprises and organizations to carry out their
businesses with government more easily, and at lowest cost.
vi. It is used for demonstration and presentation of materials and important
information of ideas between the various offices concerned e.g. internet,
network of offices, for interaction and collaboration.

ICTs are crucially important for sustainable development in developing countries. For the last
two decades most developed countries have witnessed significant changes that can be traced to
ICTs. These multi-dimensional changes have been observed in almost all aspects of life:
economics, education, communication, and travel. In a technology-driven society, getting
information quickly is important for both sender and receiver. ICTs have made it possible to
quickly find and distribute information. Many initiatives have taken at the international level to
support Africa's efforts to develop a communication infrastructure and these efforts are
designed to enable African countries, including Nigeria, to find faster ways to achieve durable
and sustainable development.

 Of the technological changes that have influenced our lives in recent years, information
technology (IT) has had the greatest impact. This will continue at least until the end of
the first half of the century, when other major technological breakthroughs in the area
of new materials, biotechnology, or energy, may provide entirely new ways of living.
 An information society is one that makes the best possible use of ICTs. It is a society in
which the quality of life, as well as prospects for social change and economic
development, depend increasingly upon information and its exploitation. In such a
society, living standards, patterns of work and leisure, the education system, and
marketplace are all influenced by advances in information and knowledge. This is
evidenced by an increasing array of information-intensive products and services.
 The information society is a way for human capacity to be expanded, built up,
nourished, and liberated by giving people access to tools and technologies, with the
education and training to use them effectively. There is a unique opportunity to connect
and assist those living in the poorest and most isolated regions of the world.
Informatization of society is a major hurdle that most nations, especially developing
countries, are encountering. The information society or information age is a
phenomenon that began after 1950, which brings challenges as we seek to integrate
and expand the universe of print and multimedia sources. The two terms are often used
to describe a cybernetic society in which there is a great dependence on the use of
computers and data transmission linkages to generate and transmit information.
 The African Information Society (AISI) document (2005) argues that Africa should build,
by the year 2010, an information society in which every man, woman, child, village,
public and private sector office has secured access to the use of computers and
telecommunications media. The objective is to provide every African with the possibility
of using the communication and data processing services available everywhere else, just

Other Offices Where Information And Communication Technology Can Be Used.

 Nigerian Immigration Service (NIS): It can be used to store monitor the issuance of the
Nigerian passports as well as movement of people in and out of the country.
 Nigerian Customs Service (NCS): it can be used to store information about the movement
of goods and services entering and leaving Nigeria.
 Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN): the establishment can use it to assess tariffs
and print bills for customers.
 Federal Inland Revenue Service (FRIS): It is useful in the assessment of tax as well as
getting necessary data of tax records as well as checking wrong assessment of tax.
 JAMB, WAEC, NECO:- It is useful for teachers and students to check necessary
information about these examination bodies. Students can use the ICT to check their
results.
 It can also be used in the Civil Service including teaching service. When necessary
information on members of staff can be stored, checked and updated from time to time. It
can also be used to teach students in the school through e-learning.

ICTs for Informing Citizens

 One of the identified agents through which the world will constantly experience change
is technology. In the business of trying to make information available in the right form
to the right user both at the personal and organizational levels, and at the right time,
the bid to cope with great flood of information has led to the need for a more
sophisticated way of handling information faster and better.
 Information technology is "the use of man made tools for the collection, generation,
communication, recording, re-management and exploitation of information. It includes
those applications and commodities, by which information is transferred, recorded,
edited, stored, manipulated or disseminated". Information technology is a revolution
which has penetrated almost all fields of human activity, thus transforming economic
and social life. UNDP (2001) asserts that even if sustainable economic growth facilitates
the creation and diffusion of useful innovations, technology is not only the result of
growth but can be used to support growth and development. ICTs are credited with the
ability to transform, and deep and significant changes are expected from their
widespread use in Africa. From this stand point Africans can take maximum advantage
of the new technologies even if major challenges remain. These challenges include
adapting ICTs to local conditions and uses in developing countries, and allowing each
country understand those innovations and adjust them to their own development
needs.
 Therefore, development in Nigeria depends on the country's capacity to create wealth to
significantly reduce poverty and to raise its capacity to create wealth at a sustainable
level. In June 1996, the United Nations Commission on Science and Technology
Development (UNCSTD) in collaboration with IDRC proposed five development
indicators that focused on the improvement of the quality of life: education, health,
income, governance, and technology. If we consider these five as key indicators of
development for Nigeria, ICTs can be socially beneficial only if they contribute to poverty
eradication (higher income), improved health and education, better use and more
equitable sharing of resources, and raising participation in the decision-making
processes (and in this regard, access to information is crucial).
 ICTs have been the basis for human existence from time immemorial and this has
driven man to continuously seek ways to improve the processing of information and
communicating such information to one another irrespective of distance and on a real-
time basis. Surviving in the information age depends on access to national and global
information networks. ICTs are the bedrock for the survival and development of any
nation in a rapidly changing global environment, and it challenges us to devise
initiatives to address a host of issues such as reliable infrastructure, skilled human
resources, open government, and other essential issues of capacity building.
 At the heart of technology lie two main or branches of technology: computing and
telecommunication. The technologies covered are the computer system,
Internet/electronic mail (e-mail), mobile phone, and fax machine.

(a) Computers

i. Computers were originally used by scientists for calculating numbers, and

have gradually become useful in offices and industries. In recent times,
simplified models that can be used by almost everybody have become
common in schools and homes for accomplishing many varied tasks and
applications.
ii. The uses that computers are now commonly put to include writing letters,
and reports, printing books, newspapers, and magazines, drawing pictures
and diagrams, doing statistics, mathematics and handling financial records,
controlling traffic lights, flying aeroplanes, making and playing music and
video, sending messages anywhere in the world.
(b) Internet
The Internet is a global collection of many types of computers and computer networks
that are linked together. It is increasingly becoming the solution to many information,
problems, information exchange, and marketing. The Internet is a mixture of many
services with the two most commonly used being electronic mail (e-mail for short) and
the World Wide Web (www). It plays a significant role in education, health, political
processes, agriculture, economy, businesses and newsgroups. With Internet
connectivity, one can do business all over the world without physical contact with the
buyer or the need for a business intermediary.
(c) E-mail
Electronic mail (e-mail) is the exchange of text messages and computer files transmitted
via communications networks such as the Internet. The e-mail system is the equivalent
of postal mailing services, with the biggest difference being the time and cost involved.
And not only written data, but all sorts of information in the form of video, audio, or
photographs, can be sent via e-mail. E-mail as an increasing popular method of
communication, especially in the workplace.
(d) Mobile Phones
Mobile phones are telephone systems that can move or be moved easily and quickly
from place to place. Mobile phones were once the tool of rich and busy executives who
could afford both the luxury. Mobile phones are now the ICT that is reshaping and
revolutionizing the communications globally. Its impact on the economic activities of
nations, businesses, and small entrepreneurs is phenomenal. The availability of this
new technology has been reshaping the material basis of the society as well as bringing
about a profound restructuring of economic, political, and cultural relations among
states. Nigeria is not an exception.
(e) Importance of information cannot be overemphasized. People need information to
plan and carry out their decisions. More than 90 percent of Africa's population could
greatly benefit from information on better choice of food, safe water and basic
nutrition, child care, family planning, immunization, prevention and control of
endemic diseases. The combination of modern communication devices could play
significant roles in the collection and dissemination of global information. Mobile
telephony usage by individuals enables them to communicate with loved ones,
clients and business associates. For large businesses, it is a means of providing a
service that leads to an increase in profits. For governments, revenues are gained
through taxes and duties. As a tool for sustainable livelihoods, mobile telephones
provide employment for many who could have been idle.
(f) Fax machine
 Telefacsimile systems permit the transaction of images (photos, printed images, maps,
drawings) and their reproduction on paper at a remote receiver. Facsimile (fax) is not a
new service; however, advances in digital imaging technology and microelectronics have
caused a sharp drop in prices with a significant increase in capacities "Long distance
copying" might be an appropriate nickname for this telecommunication process. Any
document, whether it is handwritten, contains pictures, diagrams, graphs, charts or
typed text can be transmitted at a great speed for relatively low cost. The fax system is
widely available; most organizations have at least one fax machine.

Advantages of e-Government.
a. Information Exchange: The information target of internet has always been
communication. Now we can exchange information in a fraction of second
with a person who is sitting at the other part of the world.
b. Services: many services are now provided on the internet such as on-line
banking, job seeking, hotel reservation , flight booking as well as guidance
services on arrays of topics engulfing every aspects of life.
c. Security: Securities when all entries are made as part of an integrated
systems and fraud becomes difficult to perpetrate. There are inbuilt security
codes on the internet that can prevent fraud.
d. Storage space: computer has a very large storage space to store information.
Every piece of information stored within the computer memory is encoded.
Therefore, there is no need to carry files from one office to the other.
e. Reliability: Computer operations are reliable, consistent and will not act in
any erratic way. It does the job faithfully without deviating.
f. E-commerce: Business transactions can be carried out from one office to the
other. Services can be made available at our doorstep at anytime.
g. New Ideas: Government functionaries can learn new ideas that can make
government business effective and it also saves cost and time sometimes.

DISADVANTAGES OF E-GOVERNMENT.
i. Expensive: the cost of computer equipments, connection of telephone services
can be high.
ii. Lack of control: There is no control on the quality of information available on the
internet, therefore some information may not be accurate or might be highly
offensive.
iii. No security: Many schools, colleges, businesses, computer network and some
vital information about the government or organizations may be exposed to the
outside world.
iv. Viruses: There is also the possibility of downloading computer viruses that can
harm data held in a computer for network and in the process some vital
information may be lost in the process.
v. Fraud: this is done by feeding the computer with wrong information in order to
take undue advantage especially relating to financial matters.
vi. Awareness: Many offices are yet to be informed on the operation of e-
government because much government lacked effective training and orientation
of the system.

WEEK 10 DATE: …………………

TOPIC: LEADERSHIP AND FOLLOWERSHIP.

CONTENT: (a) Leadership: Meaning and Qualities.

(b) Followership: Meaning and Qualities.
(c) Roles of Politics and Government.
SUB – TOPIC 1: LEADERSHIP: Meaning and Qualities.

Meaning of Leadership: Leadership is essentially the converse of followership.

Leadership is defined as the art of influencing and directing people in such a way that will win
their obedience, confidence, respect, and loyal cooperation in achieving a common objective.

A leader is a person who guides and directs other people in order to achieve a given task.
Leadership implies the ability to guide or influence people in a proper direction. Leadership is
position a leader occupies to lead and guide other people to a desired goal. You cannot be a
leader, and ask other people to follow you, unless you know how to follow, too.

This statement implies that leadership position is not exclusive but somebody that is a leader
still has somebody ahead that he is following. The leader must also act as a follower towards
his or her superiors. There is always a level ordinate to a leader. Even the President is a
follower; he is a follower of the will of the people of the United States. This is, in fact, the basis
for the chain of command. Leaders receive feedback from their subordinates, or followers, and
relay this information to the next-higher authority. Theoretically, this chain may continue
indefinitely. Cooperation between the leader and his or her subordinate is crucial, or the chain
will not function effectively. Therefore, a leader is concurrently a follower.

One of the most basic human instincts, a quality that every person is born with, is the act of
imitating another person. Children often imitate behaviors as seen from their parents, friends,
or the media. These influences determine the character that this particular child develops. As
time progresses, imitation gives way to reasoning, opening the door for this person to start
influencing others. The contrast between followership and leadership is analogous to this; once
an individual is established as a follower, he or she can become a leader.

A cadet leader may have responsibilities such as a command position, a teaching position, or a
representative position (cadet advisory council, for example). These leaders have the necessary
experience, skill, and motivation to bear responsibilities that a follower might not be capable of
handling. The qualities that have been developed through a cadet’s career must be maintained,
as well. As mentioned previously, a follower imitates the behavior imposed upon him or her by
his or her leader. The leader must act properly as a role model for the follower, evincing self-
discipline, motivation, and responsibility to teach the correct procedure or behavior to the
follower.

The differences between leadership and followership, then, are a process of learning and the
time needed to gain experience in assigned responsibilities. Once a follower has demonstrated
mastery of self-discipline, motivation, responsibility, and other important traits, he or she has
the competence to become a successful leader and pass this wisdom on to future generations.

Leadership Qualities.

A leader is said to be good and efficient when he/she has been assessed and these
following qualities are found through his/her character.
i. A leader must be disciplined. He must do what is right always.
 ii. He must live and lead by example so that his followers can emulate his good deeds.
iii. He must be wise and knowledgeable. He must know what to do per time when
faced with challenges.
iv. He must be friendly with the people around him so that he can carry them along in
the decision making.
v. He must be punctual at work or at any position he may find himself. This is the
hallmark of a good leader.
vi. He must be honest. He must be known for truth and stand by truth no matter the
situation or whoever is involved.
vii. He must not be corrupt. He should be accountable to the people that he is serving
and be of exemplary character.

EVALUATION:

1. Differentiate between a leader and leadership.

2. What is different between a follower and followership?
3. List and explain six qualities of a good leader and follower.

4. Outline five consequences of bad leadership followership to the society.

SUB-TOPIC 2: FOLLOWERSHIP: Meaning and Qualities.

Meaning of Followership.

Followership refers to a role held by certain individuals in an organization, team, or

group. Specifically, it is the capacity of an individual to actively follow a leader.
Followership is the reciprocal social process of leadership. The study of followership is
integral to a better understanding of leadership, as the success and failure of groups,
organizations, and teams is not only dependent on how well a leader can lead, but also
on how well the followers can follow. Specifically, followers play an active role in
organization, group, and team successes and failures. Effective followers are individuals
who are considered to be enthusiastic, intelligent, ambitious, and self-reliant.

On the other hand, a follower is a person who follows the instruction of a leader.
Followership is the willingness to accept the established and communicated vision of a leader
by the citizens of a state. A call to leadership is a call to serve, while a follower must do the
bidding of his leader to the extent that it does not run ‘ultra-vires’ (acting beyond the limit of
power) the constitution.

Followership is defined as the act or instance of accepting the guidance and command of
someone who leads or guides. In the Civil Air Patrol, a younger, inexperienced cadet is a prime
example of a follower. Having little knowledge about the program, the cadet is unable to neither
make important decisions affecting a group of people nor teach others by example. The cadet is
only able to accept the lessons and duties imposed upon him by his ordinates. The follower will
imitate the leader’s behavior and actions, gaining self-discipline, motivation, ideas, and
responsibility from those

EVALUATION

1.Who is a follower?

2. What are the expected qualities of a follower?

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between a leader and leadership.
2. What is different between a follower and followership?
3. List and explain six qualities expected of a leader and follower.
4. Outline five consequences of bad leadership followership to the society.
5. Explain the relationships between leadership and followership

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. …… is the willingness to accept the established and communicated vision of a leader by

the citizens of a state. (a) Leader (b) Follower (c) Followership (d) Leadership

2. A follower is expected to be (a) recalcitrant (b) indolent (c) trustworthy (d) disrespectful

3. Leadership position should be seen as a call to (a) serve (b) embezzle (c) enjoy (d)
oppress
4. A leader should lead by (a) force (b) coercion (c) example (d) sight
5. In leadership and followership, running ‘ultra-vires’ means (a) being proud (b) to run
beyond the constitution (c) to disrespect leadership (d) cooperative attitudes between
leadership and followership

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT (ESSAY TEST)

1. What are the qualities of a leader?

2. Cite some example of the kind of relationships that should be between leadership and
followership.

READING ASSIGNMENT: Read and revise your e-learning notes in preparation for terminal
examination.
 PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT: Read and revise your e-learning notes in preparation for
terminal examination.