A.

REVERSIBLE PROCESS (Ideal process) – is one when

a substance undergoes a change of state it can
return to its original state.
B. IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS (Actual process) – is one
when a substance undergoes a change of state
which could no longer return to its original state
due to:
• Friction
• Difference in pressure and
temperature between the system and
surroundings
Polytropic process - a thermodynamic process that obeys
the relation:
PVⁿ = C
where:
P - absolute pressure
V – volume
n - is the polytropic index
C - constant.

The polytropic process equation can describe

multiple expansion and compression processes which
include heat transfer.
1. PVT RELATIONS Combined gas law

2. CHANGE OF INTERNAL ∆ U = mcv ∆ T

ENERGY
3. CHANGE OF ENTHALPY ∆ H = mcp ∆ T

4. HEAT Q = mc ∆ T

5. NON-FLOW WORK 𝑊𝑛𝑓 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = P ( 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

𝑊𝑠𝑓 = න −𝑉𝑑𝑃
6. STEADY FLOW WORK
= −𝑉(𝑃2−𝑃1 )
7. ENTROPY ∆𝑆 = න 𝑑𝑄/𝑇

Some formulas are going to change depending on every process.

1. ISOBARIC PROCESS Pressure is constant
PVⁿ = C where n = 0
PV0 = C (P = C)
2. ISOMETRIC PROCESS Volume is constant
PVⁿ = C where n = ∞
PV∞ = C (V = C)
3. ISOTHERMAL PROCESS Temperature is constant
PVⁿ = C where n = 1
PV1 = C (T = C)
EXAMPLE: Water is boiling in a pot over a burner. In this
case, heat is being exchanged between the burner
and pot, but the pressure stays constant.
1. PVT RELATIONS 𝑉1 𝑇1 Charles’
=
𝑉2 𝑇2 Law
2. CHANGE OF INTERNAL
∆ U = mcv ∆ T
ENERGY
3. CHANGE OF ENTHALPY ∆ H = mcp ∆ T
4. HEAT Q = mcp ∆ T Q=∆H
5. NON-FLOW WORK Wnf = P ( 𝑉2 - 𝑉1) න 𝑃𝑑𝑉
6. STEADY FLOW WORK Wsf = 0 𝑃1 = 𝑃2
7. ENTROPY 𝑇2
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑙𝑛 න 𝑑𝑄/𝑇
𝑇1
EXAMPLE: Helium gas sealed up in a container and there is an
object (like a piston) pushing down the container (exerting
pressure). But gas molecules is neither entering nor exiting
out of the system.
1. PVT RELATIONS 𝑃1 𝑇1 Gay-Lussac’s
=
𝑃2 𝑇2 Law
2. CHANGE OF INTERNAL
∆ U = mcv ∆ T
ENERGY
3. CHANGE OF ENTHALPY ∆ H = mcp ∆ T
4. HEAT Q = mcv ∆ T Q=∆U
5. NON-FLOW WORK Wnf = 0 𝑉1 = 𝑉2
6. STEADY FLOW WORK 𝑊𝑠𝑓 = −𝑉(𝑃2−𝑃1 ) න −𝑉𝑑𝑃
7. ENTROPY 𝑇2
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑙𝑛 න 𝑑𝑄/𝑇
𝑇1
EXAMPLE: Gas molecules are sealed up in a container but an
object on top of the container (such as a piston) pushes
down on the container in a very slow fashion that there is
not enough to change its temperature.
1. PVT RELATIONS 𝑃1 𝑃2
= Boyle’s Law
𝑉2 𝑉1
2. CHANGE OF INTERNAL
∆U=0 𝑇1 = 𝑇2
ENERGY
3. CHANGE OF ENTHALPY ∆H=0 𝑇1 = 𝑇2
4. HEAT Q = Wnf Q= ∆U + Wnf
5. NON-FLOW WORK W𝑛𝑓 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛
𝑉2
𝑃𝑉 = 𝐶
𝑉1
6. STEADY FLOW WORK 𝑉1
W𝑠𝑓 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛 𝑊𝑠𝑓 = −𝑊𝑛𝑓
7. ENTROPY 𝑉2
𝑄
∆𝑆 = න 𝑑𝑄/𝑇
𝑇
 ISOBARIC ISOMETRIC ISOTHERMAL
(P=C) (V=C) (T=C)
n 0 ∞ 1
𝑉1 𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑃2
PVT = = =
𝑉2 𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑇2 𝑉2 𝑉1

∆U mcv ∆ T mcv ∆ T ∆ U = 0 (∆ T=0)

∆H mcp ∆ T mcp ∆ T ∆ H = 0 (∆ T=0)

Q=∆ U Q=∆ H
Q Q = Wnf
Q=mcv ∆ T Q=mcp ∆ T
𝑉2
Wnf P ( 𝑉2 - 𝑉1) 0 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛
𝑉1
𝑉1
Wsf 0 −𝑉(𝑃2−𝑃1 ) − 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛
𝑉2
𝑇2 𝑇2 𝑄
∆S 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑙𝑛 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑙𝑛
1. A reversible, nonflow, constant volume
process decreases the internal energy by
316.5 kJ for 2.268 kgm of a gas for which
R=430 J/kgm-K and k=1.35. For the process,
determine (a) the work, (b) the heat, and (c)
the change of entropy if the initial
temperature is 204.4℃.
1. A reversible, nonflow, constant volume process decreases the
internal energy by 316.5 kJ for 2.268 kgm of a gas for which
R=430 J/kgm-K and k=1.35. For the process, determine (a)
the work, (b) the heat, and (c) the change of entropy if the
initial temperature is 204.4℃.
𝐽
GIVEN: ∆𝑈 = −316.5kJ 𝑅 = 430
𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝐾
𝑚 = 2.268𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑘 = 1.35
REQUIRED: 𝑊𝑛𝑓, 𝑄, ∆𝑆 if 𝑡1 = 204.4℃
SOLUTION:
WE KNOW THAT THE VALUE OF WORK
(a) 𝑊𝑛𝑓 = P ( 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) = 0 NONFLOW DURING ISOMETRIC PROCESS IS ZERO
 WE KNOW THAT HEAT IS JUST EQUAL TO THE CHANGE IN
(b) 𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊𝑛𝑓 INTERNAL ENERGY WHEN VOLUME IS CONSTANT IF
THERE’S NO OTHER FACTORS.

𝑄 = ∆𝑈 = −316.5kJ

(c)∆𝑆 @ 𝑇1 =204.4+273=477.4K DON’T FORGET TO CONVERT TEMPERATURES

TO THEIR ABSOLUTE VALUES

𝑇2 WE NEED TO GET THE FINAL TEMPERATURE FIRST (BY USING ∆𝑈

∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣𝑙𝑛
𝑇1 FORMULA) BEFORE WE CAN SOLVE FOR THE CHANGE IN ENTROPY

∆𝑈
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣∆𝑇 ∆𝑇 = HERE WE NEED TO GET CV FIRST
𝑚𝑐𝑣
𝑘𝐽
𝑅 0.430 𝑘𝐽
𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝐾 WE CONVERTED R FROM JOULE TO
𝑐𝑣 = = = 1.2286
𝑘−1 1.35 − 1 𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝐾 KILO JOULE.
 ∆𝑈
∆𝑇 = 𝑇2 −𝑇1 = NOW WE CAN GET THE FINAL TEMPERATURE VALUE
𝑚𝑐𝑣
∆𝑈 −316.5kJ
𝑇2 = + 𝑇1 = + 477.4K
𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑘𝐽
2.268𝑘𝑔𝑚 1.2286
𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝐾

𝑇2 = 363.82𝐾

𝑇2 𝑘𝐽 363.82𝐾
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣𝑙𝑛 = 2.268𝑘𝑔𝑚 1.2286 ln
𝑇1 𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝐾 477.4K

𝑘𝐽
∆𝑆 = −0.7571
𝐾
2. Consider that 1 lbm of air has a decrease of internal
energy of 20.58 Btu while its Fahrenheit temperature is
reduced to one third of the initial temperature during a
reversible nonflow constant pressure process.
Determine (a)the initial and final temperatures, (b) Q,
(c) W, and (d) ∆S. Use air’s cv=0.1714 Btu/lbm-˚F and
cp=0.24 Btu/lbm-˚F
2. Consider that 1 lbm of air has a decrease of internal energy of 20.58
Btu while its Fahrenheit temperature is reduced to one third of the
initial temperature during a reversible nonflow constant pressure
process. Determine (a)the initial and final temperatures, (b) Q, (c) W,
and (d) ∆S. Use air’s cv=0.1714 Btu/lbm-˚F and cp=0.24 Btu/lbm-˚F
𝐵𝑇𝑈
GIVEN: 𝑚 = 1 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑐𝑣 = 0.1714
𝑙𝑏𝑚 −℉
𝐵𝑇𝑈
∆𝑈 = −20.58 BTU 𝑐𝑝 = 0.24
𝑙𝑏𝑚 −℉
1
𝑡2 = 𝑡1
3
REQUIRED: 𝑡1 &𝑡2 , 𝑊𝑛𝑓, 𝑄, ∆𝑆
SOLUTION: REMEMBER:CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE
∆𝑈
(a)By using ∆𝑈=mcv ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 = OF FAHRENHEIT IS EQUAL OF THAT
𝑚𝑐𝑣 RANKINE.
 ∆𝑈 −20.58 BTU
∆𝑡 = = = −120.07℉
𝑚𝑐𝑣 1 𝑙𝑏 0.1714 𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑚 − ℉

1
∆𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 , but 𝑡2 = 𝑡1
3

1
∆𝑡 = 𝑡1 − 𝑡1 = −120.07℉
3
𝑡1 = 180.11℉ BY SUBSTITUTING 𝑡1 WE CAN NOW GET 𝑡2

𝑡2 = 60.04℉

(b) 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝∆𝑇 ; ∆𝑡 = ∆𝑇

𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑄 = 1 𝑙𝑏𝑚 0.24 −120.07℉ = −28.82 𝐵𝑇𝑈
𝑙𝑏𝑚 − ℉
(c) 𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊𝑛𝑓

𝑊𝑛𝑓 = 𝑄 − ∆𝑈 = −28.82 𝐵𝑇𝑈 + 20.58 BTU

𝑊𝑛𝑓 = −8.24 𝐵𝑇𝑈

𝑇2
(d) ∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝𝑙𝑛
𝑇1

𝐵𝑇𝑈 180.11℉+460 HERE, WE MUST CONVERT

= 1 𝑙𝑏𝑚 0.24 𝑙𝑛 THE TEMPERATURES INTO
𝑙𝑏𝑚 −℉ 60.04℉+460
THEIR ABSOLUTE VALUES

𝐵𝑇𝑈 𝐵𝑇𝑈
∆𝑆 = −0.0499 𝑜𝑟
°𝑅 ℉
3. During a reversible process there are abstracted 317
kJ/s from 1.134 kg/s of a certain gas while the
temperature remains constant at 26.7°C. For this gas,
cp = 2.232 and cv= 1.713 kJ/kg-K. The initial pressure is
586 kPaa. For both nonflow and steady flow (∆P = 0, ∆K
= 0) processes, determine (a) 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , and 𝑃2 (b) W
and Q, (c) ∆S and ∆H
3. During a reversible process there are abstracted 317 kJ/s from 1.134
kg/s of a certain gas while the temperature remains constant at
26.7°C. For this gas, cp = 2.232 and cv= 1.713 kJ/kg-K. The initial
pressure is 586 kPaa. For both nonflow and steady flow (∆P = 0, ∆K =
0) processes, determine (a) 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , and 𝑃2 (b) W, (c) ∆S and ∆H
GIVEN: 𝑄 = −317𝑘𝐽 (𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑)
𝑘𝐽
𝑚ሶ = 1.134𝑘𝑔𝑚 /𝑠 𝑐𝑣 = 1.713
𝑘𝑔𝑚 −𝐾
𝑘𝐽
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 = 26.7 + 273 = 299.7𝐾 𝑐𝑝 = 2.232 𝑘𝑔
𝑚 −𝐾

𝑃1 = 586 𝑘𝑃𝑎𝑎

REQUIRED: (a) 𝑉1ሶ , 𝑉ሶ2 , and 𝑃2 (b) W, (c) ∆S and ∆H

 SOLUTION: (a) 𝑉1ሶ , 𝑉ሶ2 , and 𝑃2 FIRST, WE WILL USE THE GENERAL GAS EQUATION
and GET THE VALUE OF GAS CONSTANT (R)

𝑃1 𝑉1ሶ = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑅 = 𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑣 = 2.232 − 1.713 = 0.519
𝑘𝑔𝑚 −𝐾 𝑘𝑔𝑚 −𝐾

CHANGE kPaa to kN/ 𝑚2 and kJ to kNm

1.134𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑚
𝑚𝑅𝑇1 0.519 (299.7𝐾) 𝑚3
𝑠 𝑘𝑔𝑚 − 𝐾
𝑉1ሶ = = = 0.301
𝑃1 𝑘𝑁 𝑠
586 2
𝑚
TO SOLVE FOR 𝑉ሶ2 WE WILL USE THE FORMULA FOR Wnf and WE KNOW THAT DURING
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS WORK NONFLOW IS JUST EQUAL TO HEAT.
𝑉ሶ2
𝑄 = 𝑊𝑛𝑓 = 𝑃1 𝑉1ሶ ln
𝑉1ሶ
𝑉ሶ
𝑊𝑛𝑓
𝑃1 𝑉1ሶ
𝑙𝑛 2ሶ
𝑉1
𝑉ሶ2
𝑒 =𝑒 = APPLY LOGARITHMIC RULES OR JUST SHIFT SOLVE
𝑉1ሶ
 −317𝑘𝑁∙𝑚
𝑊𝑛𝑓 𝑚3
𝑚3 𝑘𝑁
586 2 0.301 𝑠 𝑚3
𝑉ሶ2 = 𝑉1ሶ ∙ 𝑒 𝑃1𝑉1ሶ = 0.301 𝑒 𝑚 = 0.0499
𝑠 𝑠
NOW WE CAN GET THE FINAL PRESSURE BY USING THE GENERAL GAS EQUATION AGAIN

𝑃2 𝑉ሶ2 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇2

1.134𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑚
𝑚𝑅𝑇2 0.519 (299.7𝐾)
𝑠 𝑘𝑔𝑚 − 𝐾
𝑃2 = = = 3534.81 𝑘𝑃𝑎𝑎
ሶ𝑉2 𝑚3
0.0499 𝑠

SO NOT ONLY WORK NON-FLOW AND HEAT ARE

(b) 𝑄 = 𝑊𝑛𝑓 = 𝑊𝑠𝑓 = −317 𝑘𝐽 EQUAL BUT ALSO WORK STEADY FLOW DURING
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
 𝑄 −317 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
(c) ∆𝑆 = = = −1.0577
𝑇 299.7𝐾 𝐾

(d) ∆𝐻 ⇒?
CHANGE IN ENTHALPY IS ZERO DURING
∆𝐻 = 0 ISOTHERMAL PROCESS (T=C)