Lesson

What is Philosophy?
1
More than 2500 years ago a sage in South Asia named Gautama Buddha declared that “Life is
suffering.” This is the first of his Four Noble Truths. And indeed if you look at your life you will see
that it is a series of challenges that you have to overcome if you want to survive. It feels like you are
competing in a race in which you are required to successfully jump hurdles in order to win. And each
challenge in life is really a question or a bunch of questions that you have to answer. If you are not
feeling well for example you might ask, Why am I feeling this way (cause)? How can I overcome it
(process)? How it will affect my life and the people around me (consequence)?

Philosophy, our subject matter for this course, is really all about questions and answers. And
since by now you already asked and answered hundreds of questions your life experienced already
prepared you to take our philosophical journey starting now.

What’s New

Imagine that a vaccine for Covid -19 is already available and therefore the
community quarantine was lifted throughout the Philippines. Freedom at last! You
decided to travel the country. However during one of your travel adventures you
come upon an unfamiliar area and therefore as much as you hate to admit it you
have to accept the truth: you are lost.

Obviously the very first question you want to answer is the question Where am I?
However to answer this question another question needs answering: How can I
discover it? or How do I know it? Should you ask a stranger for directions?

Should you consult Google Map? Should you look for clues on road signs and
street names? Answering these questions are important because knowledge is not
automatic. There is a method in knowing something including knowing your present location.

When you answer the first two questions

successfully you will discover your location.
You are no longer lost. Still you need to
answer one remaining question: What should
Where am I? I do? Should you walk, take a bus, wait for
How do I know it? someone to fetch you? You need to take one of
What should I do? these actions to arrive successfully at
your
destination.

You might not realize this but you are

already doing philosophy when you are answering these three questions:

-Where am I?
-How do I know it?
-What should I do?
The reason is that these three questions are the primary questions of philosophy.
Let us now turn our attention to philosophy.

I. The Nature and Functions of Philosophy

DEFINITION OF PHILOSOPHY

Traditionally philosophy is defined as love of wisdom because it came from two Greek words
philos (love) and Sophia (wisdom). You might find it strange to connect love to philosophy. You might
think of philosophy as a purely intellectual discipline which has nothing to do with love. You might
believe love is romance, poetry, intense passion in which you are willing to lay down your life. But you
will see that philosophy can also be pursued passionately. In fact some people like Socrates died for
truth. It is this centrality of love to philosophy that we call people who engages in
philosophy as philosophers (lovers of wisdom).

ORIGIN OF PHILOSOPHY

Greece is the birthplace of philosophy in the West. To be more precise it is

the ancient Greek city of Miletus in the Western coast of what is now Turkey that
gave birth to philosophy. It is in this city that the first philosopher in the West,
Thales, lived. Thales is the Father of Philosophy in the Western civilization. He lived between 624 and
546 BCE a contemporary of the Lydian king Croesus and the statesman Solon (Stumpf and
Fieser,2008).

What made Thales a philosopher is his desire to know the ultimate stuff that makes up the
different things we perceived. You THALES when we look at the world we encounter different things:
people, trees, clouds, mountains, rivers, etc. Now Thales believed that despite the different things we
encounter there is one underlying stuff or substance in which everything is composed. He believes that
there is One in the Many. Thales was the first individual who tried to reduce the multiplicity in to a
unity (Jones,1969).

But his explanation of natural phenomena is devoid of gods and goddesses of the old religion of
Greece. It is completely rational. It represents a departure from the mythological religion of Greece.
Thales approach highlights the difference between religion and philosophy. Religion rests on faith
while philosophy rests on reason.

PHILOSOPHICAL ACTIVITY

Thales greatest contribution to philosophy is not his identification of water as the ultimate stuff of
the universe. His greatest contribution is the problem he posed “What is the ultimate stuff of the
universe?” and his approach in solving that problem. Studying Thales makes us realize that
philosophical activity is characterized by three things:

First in terms of scope philosophy involves the widest generalizations (Rand, 1982). While people
concern themselves with shoes and clothes, the latest gossip about their favorite celebrities, their
crushes, philosophers concern themselves with big issues pertaining to the truth, , the good, the just,
the beautiful, and the existence of practically all things. While scientists concern themselves with
scientific knowledge, historians with knowledge of the past, economists with knowledge of supply and
demand, philosophers concern themselves with the nature of knowledge as such (which embraces all
types of knowledge previously mentioned and more).

Second philosophy is all about fundamentals. A fundamental is the root cause that explains almost
everything in a given context. To understand this imagine that knowledge is like a building with levels.
Now the higher level depends on the lower levels (Peikoff, 1991). If somehow the lower level crumbles
then all the higher levels that rest upon it will collapse. A fundamental is like the lower floor that
supports everything above it. That kind of support is exactly what philosophy provides. If somehow
philosophical ideas like consciousness and existence disappear then knowledge of any kind will not
make any sense because there will be nothing to know (existence) and no one to know (consciousness).

Third philosophy is driven by the desire to integrate things in to a one coherent whole. As the
celebrated philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel said “The true is the Whole (Peikoff, 1991).” If
you notice Thales wants to reduce the multiplicity of things into a single stuff. He desires to find the
One in the many.

BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

Since philosophy’s concern is vast, we have to divide it into different branches. Each branch will
focus on a specific area of philosophy. To understand the branches of philosophy let us return to the
three central philosophical questions we explored earlier.

First the question, Where am I? By the time we reached adulthood we believe we know the answer
to this question. In fact we believed that the answer is obvious that we don’t bother to look closely at
the question itself. Where am I? Well let’s say I’m in Manila. You don’t need philosophy to answer that
one. But if you ask a series of where questions (Where is Manila? Where is the Philippines? etc.) which
at first seems childish you eventually end up with the universe. And here we have to stop asking the
where question (Where is the universe is an absurd question. The universe does not exist in a place).
What kind of place is the universe? Is it governed by laws? If so what laws? The study of the universe
as a whole is the province of metaphysics. Metaphysics is further subdivided into ontology which
studies existence as such and philosophical anthropology which deals with the fundamental and
essential characteristics of human nature (Gotthelf and Salmieri, 2015).
The second question, How do I know it? concerns the nature of human knowledge and the way to
obtain it. How do we obtain knowledge? Do we obtain knowledge by revelation, intuition, instinct or
reason? Can we achieve certainty or are we doomed to suffer perpetual doubt? Is knowledge based on
the things we perceive or from something else? This is the concern of epistemology which can be
defined as the “branch of philosophy that studies the nature and means of human knowledge.” We
need epistemology to guide us in knowing since we make mistakes from time to time.
 The first two branches of philosophy, metaphysics and epistemology, are called cognitive branches.
These branches provide a description of being (existence) and knowing. They are the foundations of
understanding any philosophical system.

The next three branches of philosophy (ethics, politics and aesthetics) can be classified as the
normative branches of philosophy because they are concerned with the standard of the good. If the
cognitive branches are concerned with what “is” the normative branches are concerned with what
“ought” to be.

The most basic normative branch of philosophy is ethics or morality (I used this two concepts
interchangeably). It is concerned with the last of the three questions central to philosophy: What
should I do? Ethics can be regarded as the technology of philosophy (I owe this analogy to the
philosopher Ayn Rand) because it tells us how human beings ought to function as a human being. But
in order to describe how human beings ought to act we must first know what a human being is. These
last is provided by metaphysics and epistemology. (This is especially true of philosophical
anthropology a sub-branch of metaphysics which studies the metaphysical nature of man (see
discussion above). Metaphysics and epistemology are the foundations of ethics.

What then is ethics or morality? According to Ayn Rand ethics or morality is a branch of
philosophy that provides a human being with a “code of values to guide man’s choices and actions -
the choices and actions that determine the course of his life (Rand, 1964).” It is concerned with the
values man ought to pursue, the interrelationships of those values and the means to obtain them
(virtue).

The last two normative branches of philosophy, politics and aesthetics, are derived from ethics.
Ethics is concerned with the good for human being as a human being. If we apply ethics in a social
context then it becomes politics. The concern therefore of ethics is broader than politics. It studies the
“good” for human beings in any setting (whether society is present or not). An individual who is alone
in an island still has to follow ethical principles if he wishes to survive (Peikoff, 1991).

So what then is politics? Again following Rand’s definition politics is a branch of philosophy
“which defines the principles of a proper social system.” According to Rand “proper” means proper for
human beings which presupposes that one knows what a human being is. Since knowledge about
human being is provided by the cognitive branches of philosophy, the foundation of politics ultimately
rests on metaphysics and epistemology.

The last of the normative branch, aesthetics studies the nature of art. It is concerned with the
nature and the objective judgement of beauty.
II. Philosophical Tools and Processes

Philosophy as a science is also a systematized body of knowledge but unlike other sciences which
employs observation and experimentation to prove their theories, philosophy uses reason to arrive at a
certain knowledge or truth. At the onset
Greek philosophers gave us a hint on how to use our intellect to
understand realities around us. The tools that they frequently utilized
are the following:

1. Philosophical Questions. Philosophy was born because of ignorance. If

one is ignorant, he asks questions and if he keeps on questioning the
more knowledge he acquires. Once a person stops questioning, he
cease to become a philosopher. In our daily struggles, one needs to
ask questions simple, serious and deep questions that we have to
grapple with. A philosopher is like a child who has an inquisitive
mind who never stops asking questions and finding answers.
SOCRATES

Socrates went further not just asking questions for himself but
poses questions to people which is the beginning of series of questions
and responses from participants. This philosophical questioning can be best described from an excerpt
from Plato’s apology of Socrates below:

“…But let us examine each one of the parts of this charge. Now he asserts that I do injustice by
corrupting the young. But I, men of Athens, assert that Meletus does injustice, in that he jest in a
serious matter, easily bringing human beings into trial, pretending to be serious and concerned about
things for which he never cared at all. That this is so, I will try to display to you as well. Now come
here, Meletus, tell; do you not regard it as most important how the youth will be the best possible?”
(Plato’s apology of Socrates, 24C)
 His method is called dialectics. The Socratic Method, also known as method of elenchus, elenctic
method, or Socratic debate, is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals,
based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and
underlying presuppositions. (Google.com/search) Aristotle said that it was the preSocratic philosopher
Zeno of Elea who invented dialectic, of which the dialogues of Plato are the examples of the Socratic
dialectical method. According to Kant, however, the ancient Greeks used the word "dialectic" to
signify the logic of false appearance or semblance. Dialectics is a term used to describe a method of
philosophical argument that involves some sort of contradictory process between opposing sides. As a
dialectical method, it is a discourse between two or more people holding different points of view about
a subject but wishing to establish the truth through reasoned arguments.

18th century philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel expounded dialectics which later
influenced Karl Marx, the father of communism.

2. Logical Reasoning. In philosophy reasoning is the process of thinking about something in

a logical way in order to form a conclusion or judgement. It has been the method institutionalized by
the triumvirate Greek philosophers specially Aristotle. Philosophy is about answering questions.
Reasoning is the method we use in doing philosophy. However, although it is necessary for any
competent engagement with philosophy, it is not the end all and be all of philosophy. All branches of
philosophy employ reasoning in explaining their arguments. For example the concept of right or wrong
which is the domain of Ethics based their arguments in human reason alone in contrast with theology
which is dependent from the Bible as the source of its moral teachings. Reasoning however is the
domain of one branch of philosophy which is Epistemology. One type of logical reasoning is the
deductive reasoning:

Example: Premise 1: All human beings are mortal

Premise 2: But the President of the Philippines is a human being

Conclusion: Therefore, the President of the Philippines is mortal.

Here we are taught to arrive at a certain truth or knowledge in a logical process. In contrast, Inductive
reasoning begins with a particular to universal argument.

Example: Premise: Student A, B, C, D, E, F….. are wearing School ID.

Conclusion: Therefore, All students are wearing ID

The above examples show the logical process wherein by reasoning one arrives at a certain truth or
knowledge. Logic starts with the origin of ideas, terms, propositions or premises, syllogism, etc. These
terms are the basic structure of argument. Unfortunately, this branch of philosophy is equivalent to
one-subject requirement in any course in the tertiary level.

III. Philosophical Reflection

In the midst of our present crisis, the COVID-19 pandemic, consistently, the government kept on
reminding us the ‘essentials’ of things and concerns that are necessary during the quarantine period
whether under ECQ, GCQ, or MECQ. In our case, we changed our competencies and emphasized the
most essential ones. This is the essence of philosophy. It tries to separate the essences of things
versus accidentals and necessary versus contingent. It is concern of what is the substance and
ultimate causes of things.

When we venture into philosophizing we see the greater perspective of all things and see the
ultimate purpose or reasons for our existence. Most of us are so engross with individual trees and we
miss the whole forest as the saying goes. We are always predispose to attend to the details of the
problem rather than look at the situation as a whole. This is true in our understanding of the objects,
events, realities and situations around us. Reflection is the process that would aide in understanding
the holistic point of view of what is going on around us.

Reflection is an activity that requires a person to examine his or her thoughts, feelings and
actions and learn from experience. (Abella, 2016). . Philosophers always search for the essence of
things and the ultimate reasons for our existence.
Its trajectory is to see the bigger picture about everything. This process is called philosophical
reflection. According to Gabriel Marcel, philosophical reflection is the act of giving time to think about
the meaning and purpose of life. He mentioned two types, namely: Primary Reflection- which is the
ability to think logically. The ability of the mind to construct and evaluate arguments. It examines its
object by abstraction, by analytically breaking it down into its constituent parts. It is concerned with
definitions, essences and technical solutions to problems. The second type is Secondary reflection.
According to Marcel this type of reflection enables us to look deeper into our experiences and see the
bigger picture of reality. It integrates the fragmented and compartmentalized experience into a whole.
It is the idea that various systems (e.g. physical, biological, social) should be viewed as wholes, not
merely as a collection of parts. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holism In effect we see the broader
perspective of life.

Reflection is not exclusive for philosophy in fact it is employed in any endeavour, research or
disciplines. In research it is called methodological approach. Moral theology employs the STOP sign
as guidepost of moral decision making. S= Search out the facts. It is necessary that all means should
be exhausted to better understand the issue. T=Think, reflect and analyse the facts, its negative or
positive effects, advantages or disadvantages. O= How it affects Others. We should always consider
others in every decision that we make. Every action that we take has always a social dimension. It
affects ourselves, others and community where we belong. Lastly P= stands for Pray. We are human
beings with limitations. If our best effort are not enough, then there is no way but look up for divine or
God for enlightenment and guidance. Praying is a unique tool of theology which is in the realm of faith
but philosophy’s reasoning helps in undergoing a theological reflection as St. Anselm said, “its faith
seeking understanding.” St. Thomas Aquinas, one of the great theologian of the church quoted in latin
the relationship between philosophy and theology; ‘philosophia ancilla theologiae’ or philosophy is the
handmaid of theology the former is there to serve theology. Reason is also important in theology not
just faith. Whether in philosophy, sociology or other sciences, reflection is very useful in
understanding our daily experiences to broaden our perspective of life.

In order to reflect philosophically we need to use a framework. A framework is a conceptual map

consisting of our views and beliefs which affects the way we view the world (Abella 2016). The
framework were going to used is called AQAL. It is an acronym that stands for All Quadrants All Levels
first formulated by an American philosopher/psychologist Ken Wilber. Wilber first introduced AQAL to
the world in his book Sex, Ecology, Spirituality.

According to Wilber everything can be analysed using a vertical line.

The line above divides space into two sides: left and right. The left side represents the interior,
subjective, aspect of everything. The right side represents the exterior, objective, aspect of everything.
The interior (or “loob” in Filipino) if applied to human beings, includes one’s values, dreams, ideas,
emotions, beliefs. It basically consists of one’s inner life. It cannot be seen or measured but can be
experienced directly. The exterior side of everything are the things that we can see, measure and
touch. They include the physical objects around us including our own bodies.

A simple example of this inside/outside distinction is when a person smiles at you. You see the
big smile so it is the exterior aspect of an event. But at the same time there is a subjective meaning
behind that smile: let’s say the person is happy. This is the interior, subjective, aspect of the event. So
you see two strands are interwoven behind any human event: the objective and the subjective, the
interior and the exterior.

Another basic distinction was introduced by Ken Wilber using a horizontal line that divides space
into above and below:

Above the line represents what is singular, individual, one. The space below represents what is
plural, collective, many. For example you are an individual but you belong in a family, community,
class (all instances of the collective).

An interesting thing happen when we combine the two lines.

We created what Wilber calls the quadrants. According to Wilber quadrants are “the inside and
outside of the individual and collective (Wilber 2006).”
 There are many ways to describe the quadrants. We can use the simple location of each of the
quadrant. So the interior of the individual is the upper left quadrant (UL), the exterior of the individual
is the upper right quadrant (UR), the interior of the collective is the lower left quadrant (LL) and the
exterior of the collective is the lower right quadrant (LR).

We can also use pronouns to label the quadrants as shown below:

Quadrants expressed in language

But what we are interested is when we apply this to human beings. The inside of the individual
becomes the mind, the outside of the individual becomes the body, the inside of the collective becomes
culture and the outside of the collective becomes society.

Quadrants as applied to human beings

Now when we reflect on the nature of any concrete issue like poverty, corruption, prostitution,
global warming we can just put the issue at the center of the quadrant and analyzed its mental,
physical, cultural and social components. This is looking at an issue from an all quadrant, multiple
and holistic perspective.

Multiple Perspectives
 Let’s take for example the issue of poverty. How do we reflect on the issue using the AQAL
framework? Well we know that poverty has a psychological aspect (UL quadrant) to it. It affects the
way we think, feel and even what we value. But it does not stop there. Poverty also affects bodies (UR
quadrant). It affects our nutrition, our medication and immune system. Some children have stunted
growth due to poverty. And who could deny that poverty also affects the culture such as arts, religion
and even the way we dress. Religious feast such as the procession of the Black Nazarene is in part
motivated by poverty. And of course it is obvious that poverty has an economic, political and even
technological components (all parts of the social LR quadrant).

Self- pity Malnutrition

POVERTY

Collective aspiration for

a better life
Inflation