AnOv

erv
iewofEnv
ironmentalChall
engesStif
li
ngSust
ainabl
eLi
vel
ihoodi
nRur
al
Niger
ia
Ol
uwakemi Abi
olaAdejumoandOl ufemi
AdeyemiOwoade
Depar
tmentofAgr
icul
tur
alEducat
ion,
TheCol
l
egeofEducat
ionLanl
ate,
OyoSt
ate,
Niger
ia
Cor
respondence:
E-mai
l
:femi
owoade2020@y com Te
ahoo. l
:08056229609

Abst
ract
,

Gener alconsensusi st hatNi ger iaenv ironmenti sbei ngdegr adedbutt hei mpl ications
oft hisont hel iveli
hoodofmaj or i
tyoft hepopul acewhoi nhabi tedt her uralar easi s
usuallyignor edast heyar et hev oi celess,asv oicesar eonlyr aisedwhent r
agedyst ruck
i
n maj orci ties.Thr ough r ev i
ew ofl iteratures t hi s paperi dentified env ir
onment al
problemst hreat eningsust ai nabl er urall i
velihoodi nNi geriat oincl udedef orest ation,
deser t
ifi
cation,dr ought ,env ironment alpol lutionandcl i
mat echange.Thesepr obl ems
arosef rom nat uralandhuman- madet hreat sanddi rectandi ndirectconsequencesof
socio-economi cdev elopment .Thi spaperar guedt hatl i
steningt ot hev oicesoft her ural
poori sessent i
ali nt hef i
ghtt or educepov ertyandr esour ce-scar cityi nducedconf l
icts.
Ast hepr ogresswhat evertheNi ger i
anat ionhasmadesof arhasl argel ybeenachi eved
att he det r
imentoft he r uralpoor .Itwas r ei
ter ated thatcompl ete evaluat i
on of
env i
ronment aldegr adat i
onshoul dconsi dert her olesmar ginalizationofr uralpoor ,
pov ert
yandunsust ainabl eagr i
culturalpr act i
cespl ay edi nunder mi ningachi ev ementof
effecti
ve env ironment alpr otection and managementi nr ur alNi geria.The paper
concludedt hatpol i
ciest hatwi llbr i
dgei ncreasi nggapbet weenr ur alandur banar eas,
poorandt her ichwi llgoal ongwayi nensur i
ngsust ai nabili
tyofnat uralenv i
ronment .
Key wor ds:pov erty ,mar ginalisation,env i
ronment al-sensitive,bi odiversity,nat ural

env
ironment
I
ntr
oduct
ion

Ni
ger
iaoccupi
esauni
quegeogr
aphi
cposi
ti
oni
nAf
ri
caandt
hev
ari
abi
l
ityi
ncl
i
mat
eand

geogr
aphi
cfeat
uresendowsherwi
thoneoft
her
ichestbi
odi
ver
sit
yint
hecont
inent
.It
s

di
ver
sit
yofnat
uralecosy
stemsst
ret
chesf
rom t
henor
tht
othesout
h,andal
ongt
he

east
ernbor
derwi
thCamer
oon,
amont
anev
eget
ati
on.Thef
acti
sthatf
rom t
heNor
tht
o

t
heSout
hNi
ger
iai
sbl
essedandendowedwi
thenor
mousnat
uralr
esour
cesanddi
ver
se

ecosy
stem.

To t
hemaj
ori
tyoft
hepopul
acewho i
nhabi
ted t
her
uralar
easofNi
ger
ia,nat
ural

env
ironmentser
vesast
hemaj
orsuppl
yoff
ood,wat
er,f
uel
,medi
cinalpl
ant
sanda

v
eri
tabl
esour
ceofi
ncome.Butt
odaynat
uralandhuman-
madet
hreat
s,soci
o-cul
tur
al

pr
obl
emsaswel
lasdi
rectandi
ndi
rectconsequencesofsoci
o-economi
cdev
elopment
,

par
ti
cul
arl
y def
orest
ati
on,unsust
ainabl
e agr
icul
tur
alpr
act
ices,i
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ion,oi
l

expl
orat
ion,mi
ningandur
bani
sat
ion,hav
econt
ri
but
edt
otheer
osi
onofbi
odi
ver
sit
yat

al
ll
evel
sandf
urt
heri
mpov
eri
shest
hei
ndi
genouspeopl
ewhoi
nhabi
tedt
her
ural
areas.

Tot
hispeopl
eopeni
ngupofpr
evi
ousl
ypr
ist
ineecosy
stemshav
einf
ri
ngedont
hei
rri
ght

t
ogoodqual
i
tyl
i
feandenv
ironmentast
her
esul
tantenv
ironment
aldegr
adat
ionl
eav
es

del
eter
ious ef
fect
s on t
hem and t
he ecosy
stem causi
ng al
ter
ati
on ofhabi
tat
s,

bi
odi
ver
sit
yloss,
pol
l
uti
onandl
ossofl
i
vel
i
hood.

Meanwhi
l
e,amaj
orcauseofmostsust
ainabi
l
ityi
ssuesi
sov
erpopul
ati
oni
nduced

humanact
ivi
ti
es,(
Boy
ce,1994)
.Asuncont
rol
l
abl
eincr
easei
nhumanpopul
ati
onput

pr
essur
eont
henat
uralenv
ironmentanddeci
mat
enat
uralr
esour
cesbase.Wi
thNi
ger
ia
popul
ati
onpr
oject
edt
obeov
er400mi
l
li
onby2050andgr
owi
ngatt
her
ateof2.
58%,

wi
th52% oft
hispopul
ati
onl
i
vingi
nur
banar
eas(
Wor
ldomet
er,2020)
,andi
ncr
easi
ng

r
ural
pov
ert
y,Ni
ger
iaenv
ironmenti
sser
iousl
ythr
eat
ened(
NBSAP,
2006)
.

Thepot
ent
ialef
fect
soft
hissi
tuat
ionar
edi
sast
rous,asi
t’
smaki
ngenv
ironmentbe

underi
ncr
easi
ngt
hreatf
rom nat
uraldi
sast
ersandr
esour
cescar
cit
yinduced-
conf
li
cts

duet
oincr
easi
ngst
ruggl
eforspace,
ener
gy,
andmat
eri
als.Asmor
epeopl
emeanmor
e

i
nfr
ast
ruct
ureandconsumpt
ionoff
ood,
wat
er,
fuelandmor
eemi
ssi
onsofgr
eenhouse

gasesandwast
e,r
esul
ti
ngi
nov
erf
armi
ng,def
orest
ati
on,pol
l
uti
on,eut
rophi
cat
ionand

gl
obalwar
ming.Ont
hesepr
emi
ses,
thi
spaperr
evi
ewedmaj
orenv
ironment
alpr
obl
ems

i
nNi
ger
iaandi
tsi
mpl
i
cat
ionsf
ort
hei
ndi
gentwhodependsont
hesust
ainabi
l
ityof

nat
uralenv
ironmentf
orsur
viv
al.Theconnect
ionsbet
weenenv
ironment
alsust
ainabi
l
ity

andsust
ainabl
erur
all
i
vel
i
hoodwer
eal
soexami
ned.

Ni
ger
iaEnv
ironment
alChal
lengesandI
mpl
icat
ionsonSust
ainabl
eRur
alLi
vel
ihood

Ext
entandI
mpl
icat
ionofDef
orest
ati
ononSust
ainabl
eRur
alLi
vel
ihood

For
est
sar
eessent
ialf
orhumansur
viv
alandwel
l
-bei
ngast
heypr
ovi
deuswi
thf
ood,

oxy
gen,
wat
er,
fuelwood,
medi
cinalpl
ant
s,shel
ter
,recr
eat
ion,
andspi
ri
tualsust
enance.

Mor
ethan1.
6bi
l
li
onpeopl
egl
obal
l
ydependt
ovar
yingdegr
eesonf
orest
sfort
hei
r

l
i
vel
i
hoods,andappr
oxi
mat
ely300mi
l
li
ondependonf
orest
sdi
rect
lyf
ort
hei
rsur
viv
al,

i
ncl
udi
ngabout60mi
l
li
onpeopl
eofi
ndi
genousandt
ri
balgr
oups,whoar
eal
most

whol
l
y dependenton f
orest
sfort
hei
rbasi
c needs (
CBD,2009)
.Howev
er,t
he

bi
odi
ver
sit
yoff
orest
s—t
hev
ari
etyofgenes,
speci
es,
andf
orestecosy
stems—under
pins

t
hesegoodsandser
vices,andi
sthebasi
sforl
ong-
ter
mfor
estheal
thandst
abi
l
ity
.
Ther
efor
e,pr
omot
ingway
stousef
orestbi
odi
ver
sit
yinasust
ainabl
eway
,andwi
thcl
ear

soci
alandeconomi
cbenef
it
sfort
hepoor
,ist
hewayt
ogot
omakef
orestt
ocont
inue

suppor
tli
fenowandi
nthef
utur
e.

CBD(
2009)r
epor
tedt
hatf
orest
shar
bourt
wot
hir
dsofal
lter
rest
ri
alani
malandpl
ant

speci
es,andt
heyar
ethesour
cef
orov
er5,
000commer
cial
l
y-t
radedpr
oduct
s,r
angi
ng

f
rom phar
maceut
ical
stot
imberandcl
othi
ng.I
nNi
ger
iaf
orest
rycont
ri
but
esabout3%

oft
heGDPandaccount
sforahi
ghpr
opor
ti
onofdomest
icener
gy,f
oodandmedi
cinal

suppl
yoft
her
uralpopul
ati
on.I
nthi
sregar
d,about150i
ndi
genouswoodypl
ant
shav
e

beeni
dent
if
iedaspr
oduci
ngf
oodf
orhumanandl
i
vest
ockwhi
l
eal
otofot
herpl
ant
sar
e

bei
ngusedf
ormedi
cinalpur
posest
ocur
evar
iousdi
seases(
Olagunj
u,2015)
.Fort
hese

r
easons,
for
est
spl
aymaj
orr
olei
nther
uraleconomyt
hrought
hehar
vest
ing,
mar
ket
ing

and ut
il
izat
ion oft
imberand Non-
TimberFor
estPr
oduct
s(NTFPs)
.Unf
ort
unat
ely
,

ov
erexpl
oit
ati
on and want
on dest
ruct
ion f
orsoci
o-economi
cpur
poseshav
eled t
o

gr
adual
disappear
anceoft
hesei
mpor
tantf
unct
ionspr
ovi
dedbyt
hef
orest
.

Gener
all
y,def
orest
ati
oni
saconsequenceofov
er-
expl
oit
ati
onofnat
uralf
orestf
or

space,
ener
gy,
andmat
eri
als,
andhasoccur
redsi
ncet
hedawnofci
vi
li
sat
ionbutr
epor
ts

f
rom v
ari
ouspar
tsoft
hewor
ldi
ndi
cat
edt
hati
tisnowont
hei
ncr
easeduet
oincr
eased

soci
o-economi
cact
ivi
ti
es.I
nNi
ger
iat
hemai
ncausesofdef
orest
ati
onar
epopul
ati
on

gr
owt
handexpansi
onofeconomi
cact
ivi
ti
essuchasl
oggi
ngort
imberexpl
oit
ati
on,

f
armi
ng,oi
lexpl
orat
ion,i
ndust
ri
ali
sat
ion ur
bani
sat
ion,and bush bur
ning,f
ir
ewood

col
l
ect
ion,
char
coal
product
ion,
over
grazi
ngandi
nfr
ast
ruct
uresdev
elopment
.

Def
orest
ati
onhasl
edt
oacut
eshor
tage/
scar
cit
yofusef
ulpr
oduct
ssuchasi
ndust
ri
al

t
imber
,fuelwood,medi
cinalpl
ant
s,wat
er,aswel
lasl
ossofbi
odi
ver
sit
ywhi
chaf
fect
genet
icdi
ver
sit
yofbot
hfl
oraandf
aunaf
orcont
inuousi
mpr
ovementofcr
opand

ani
malspeci
esnecessar
yforf
oodsecur
it
y.Agai
n,def
orest
ati
oni
ssy
nony
mouswi
th

t
hedest
ruct
ionofwi
l
dli
fehabi
tat
s(achi
efsour
ceofani
mal
prot
einandi
ncomef
orr
ural

poor
),andt
hus,
ithasdr
ast
ical
l
yreducedwi
l
dani
mal
popul
ati
ons,
thei
rpr
oduct
ivi
ty,
and

speci
esdi
ver
sit
y,whi
l
erar
especi
esar
ebei
ngt
hreat
enedwi
thext
inct
ion.Def
orest
ati
on

exposet
hesoi
ltoaccel
erat
eder
osi
onandr
unof
fwhi
chgi
vesr
iset
ofl
ashf
loodsand

t
he dev
elopmentofext
ensi
ve gul
l
ies i
nvar
ious par
ts oft
he count
ry,wi
tht
he

Sout
h–Eastbei
ngt
hehar
desthi
t.Al
so,i
nthesav
annahar
eas,t
her
educedi
nfi
l
trat
ion

r
atesassoci
atedwi
thdef
orest
ati
onadv
ersel
yaf
fectgr
oundwat
err
echar
geandst
orage.

Thi
s,hav
etur
nedsomef
ormer
lyper
enni
alr
iver
sint
oseasonalorephemer
ast
reams

wi
tht
he r
uralpoorwho depends on t
hese r
iver
s and st
reamsf
ordomest
ic and

commer
cialusest
hewor
sthi
t.Fort
hisr
easonr
uralwomenandchi
l
drennow spent

mor
eti
mesear
chi
ngf
orwat
erf
ort
hei
rfami
l
ies’especi
all
yatt
hepeakofdr
yseason

(
Okunl
olaandOwoade,
2016)
.

Gl
obalwar
ming r
esul
ti
ng i
n changes i
n cl
i
mat
ic condi
ti
ons has been t
raced t
o

cont
inuousdi
sappear
anceoft
hef
orestv
eget
ati
on.Thi
sundeni
abl
yaf
fectsust
ainabl
e

l
i
vel
i
hoodofr
uralpoor
.Aspr
oduct
ion-
agr
icul
tur
eandf
ishi
ng,whi
chi
sameansof

l
i
vel
i
hoodofr
uralpopul
ace,i
sregar
dedasa‘
maj
orv
ict
im’orf
ir
stcasual
tyofcl
i
mat
e

change(
OwoadeandOni
fade,2019)
.Thesi
tuat
ioni
smaki
nghungerandmal
nut
ri
ti
on

i
nev
itabl
e.

The f
orestr
esour
ces ofNi
ger
ia ar
e underi
mmense human pr
essur
e,and maj
or

cont
ri
but
oryf
act
orst
o massi
ve def
orest
ati
on and de-
veget
ati
on ar
e exponent
ial

i
ncr
easei
npopul
ati
onaccompani
edbyi
ntensi
fi
edi
ndust
ri
alact
ivi
ti
esandt
heal
most
t
otaldependenceofov
er90percentofr
uralpopul
ati
oni
nNi
ger
iaont
hef
orest

r
esour
cesf
orl
i
vel
i
hoodandeconomi
csur
viv
al(
NBSAP,2006)
.Itwasr
epor
tedt
hat

about96per
centoft
heor
igi
nal20per
centf
orestcov
erhasbeencl
ear
edandonl
y2

per
centofwhatr
emai
nsi
sundi
stur
bed(
Ony
eanusiandOt
egbey
e,2012)
.Thi
shas

r
esul
tedi
nmassi
vel
ossoft
hev
eryr
ichanddi
ver
sef
orestf
lor
aandf
auna,i
ncl
udi
ng

i
ndi
genoust
reespeci
es.Thei
mpl
i
cat
ionofal
lthese, i
sthatt
her
emai
ningf
orest

r
esour
cesi
nNi
ger
iawi
l
lli
kel
ydi
sappearsoonestt
hanexpect
edi
fthecur
rentr
ateof

f
orestdepl
eti
oncont
inuesunabat
edandnecessar
yact
ionst
akent
oext
endt
heext
ent

off
orestweal
th.Andt
hispor
tendsgr
iev
ousdangerf
ort
her
uralpopul
acewhohas

f
eweral
ter
nat
ivesf
orsur
viv
alandsust
ainabl
eli
vel
i
hood.

Ext
entandI
mpl
icat
ionofDr
oughtandDeser
ti
fi
cat
iononSust
ainabl
eRur
alLi
vel
ihood

Deser
ti
fi
cat
ionanddr
oughthav
ebecomeamaj
ordev
elopment
alandenv
ironment
al

pr
obl
em i
nmanypar
tsofNi
ger
ia,par
ti
cul
arl
yint
her
egi
onnor
thofl
ati
tude100N,as

l
argepar
tsoft
hesav
annaar
ebei
ngr
avagedbyman-
induceddeser
ti
fi
cat
ion,causi
ng

ecosy
stem i
mpov
eri
shmentandbi
odi
ver
sit
yloss.I
twasest
imat
edt
hatbet
ween50and

75per
centofnor
th-
eastandnor
th-
westst
atesar
ebei
ngaf
fect
edbydeser
ti
fi
cat
ionand

sev
eredr
yspel
l
s(Ol
agunj
u,2015)
.Onaf
inalanal
ysi
s,i
tisest
imat
edt
hatt
hecount
ryi
s

cur
rent
lyl
oosi
ng351,
000hect
aresofi
tsl
andmasst
odeser
t-
li
kecondi
ti
onsannual
l
y,

andsuchcondi
ti
onsar
eest
imat
edt
obeadv
anci
ngsout
hwar
dsatt
her
ateofabout

0.
6km pery
ear(
Fol
aji
,2007)
.

Gener
all
y,deser
ti
fi
cat
ionanddr
oughtar
eassoci
atedwi
thr
educt
ioni
nthecapaci
tyof

t
hel
andt
oper
for
m basi
cfunct
ionst
hataf
fect
sit
seconomi
cval
ueneededbyhuman.

Dr
oughtanddeser
ti
fi
cat
ionpr
ocessesi
ntegr
atecl
i
mat
icel
ement
swi
thhumanact
ivi
ti
es
i
ntr
ansf
ormi
ngpr
oduct
ivel
and,
int
oanecol
ogi
cali
mpov
eri
shedar
eagener
all
yref
erst
o

asdeser
t.Dr
oughtanddeser
ti
fi
cat
ioncausedegr
adat
ionofonceaf
ert
il
elandt
hrough

l
ongt
erm changesi
nthesoi
l
,cl
i
mat
eandbi
ota,whi
chr
esul
tsi
ndeser
t-
li
kecondi
ti
ons.

Ol
agunj
u(2015)i
dent
if
ied cl
i
mat
icv
ari
abi
l
ityand ant
hropogeni
cact
ivi
ti
essuch as

def
orest
ati
on,ext
ensi
ve cul
ti
vat
ion,ov
ergr
azi
ng,cul
ti
vat
ion ofmar
ginall
and,bush

bur
ning,
fuelwoodext
ract
ion,
faul
tyi
rr
igat
ionsy
stem andur
bani
zat
ionasmaj
orcauses

ofdeser
ti
fi
cat
ioni
nNi
ger
ia.

Ef
fect
sofper
sist
entdr
ought
smayr
esul
tinf
ail
ureofcr
opsanddeat
hli
vest
ock,whi
ch

mayev
ent
ual
l
ybr
ingaboutf
ami
neandf
urt
heri
mpov
eri
sht
her
uralpoorwhomaj
orl
y

depend on f
armi
ng and ot
herr
elat
ed act
ivi
ti
esf
orsust
enance.Al
so,dr
oughtand

deser
ti
fi
cat
ion-
induced changes i
n popul
ati
on dy
nami
cs may i
ncl
ude i
ncr
eased

mi
grat
ionf
rom r
uralar
easi
ntot
heur
bancent
ers,r
esour
cedepl
etedi
nto‘
per
cei
ved’

r
esour
ceabundancear
eas(
Amzat
,2013)
.Aspeopl
ehav
etol
eav
ethear
east
heygr
ew

upandabandont
hei
rhomesast
hei
rmeansofl
i
vel
i
hoodi
sbei
nger
odedandt
her
ear
e

f
eweral
ter
nat
ives.Thi
sleadst
ogr
eat
erpr
essur
eont
heexi
sti
ngur
bani
nfr
ast
ruct
ure,

andsubsequentsoci
alconf
li
ctsi
ntheaf
fect
edar
easasbei
ngpr
esent
lywi
tnessedi
n

t
heescal
ati
onoff
armer
s-her
dsmenconf
li
ctsal
lov
ert
hecount
ry.

Ext
entandI
mpl
icat
ionofPol
lut
iononSust
ainabl
eRur
alLi
vel
ihood

Pol
l
uti
oni
stheactofi
ntr
oduci
nghar
mfulorunpl
easantsubst
ancest
hatmaket
he

env
ironmentdi
rt
yornol
ongerpur
e(Jande,2005)
.EnehandAgbazue(
2011)obser
ved

t
hatenv
ironment
alpol
l
uti
oni
nNi
ger
iai
smuchgr
eat
eri
nmagni
tudet
odayt
hani
n

pr
evi
ousdecades.Thi
sisasa r
esul
toft
he hi
gh r
ate ofpopul
ati
on gr
owt
h and

ur
bani
zat
ion,i
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ion and oi
l expl
orat
ion,moder
nizat
ion of agr
icul
tur
e,
especi
all
yint
hegr
owi
nguseofagr
ochemi
cal
s,mechani
sat
ionandf
ossi
lfuel
,the

i
ntr
oduct
ionofnewt
echnol
ogi
esandconsumerpr
oduct
s,andt
hei
nef
fect
ivenessoft
he

i
nst
it
uti
onal
,l
ogi
sti
calandpol
i
cyar
rangement
sputi
npl
aceov
ert
hey
ear
stot
ackl
ethe

menace(
Nwokor
oandChi
ma,
2017)
.

Gl
obal
l
y,man-
madepol
l
utant
sar
isi
ngf
rom combust
ion,
indust
ri
ali
zat
ion,
const
ruct
ion

wor
kofv
ari
ouski
nd,
mini
ng,
agr
icul
tur
eandwar
far
ear
eincr
easi
ngl
ysi
gni
fi
canti
nthe

ai
rpol
l
uti
on,
andhav
enegat
iveef
fectonman’
ssur
viv
ali
ntheenv
ironmentt
hroughi
ts

i
nfl
uenceonheal
th,
foodsecur
it
y,wat
ersuppl
yandl
i
vel
i
hood(
Nwaf
or,
2006)
.The

pr
esenceofoneormor
econt
ami
nant
sint
heat
mospher
ecausedpneumoni
a,

whoopi
ngcough,
measl
es,
car
cinogeni
cit
y,pul
monar
ytuber
cul
osi
sandcer
ebr
ospi
nal

meni
ngi
ti
s(NwachukwuandUgwuany
i,2010)
.

Gl
obal
l
y,oneoft
hel
eadi
ngsour
cesofai
rpol
l
uti
oni
smot
orv
ehi
cleemi
ssi
ons(
Van

LoonandDuf
fy,2000)
.Al
soofi
mpor
tancei
sagr
icul
tur
alai
rpol
l
uti
onwhi
chcomes

f
rom cont
empor
arypr
act
ices,whi
ch i
ncl
ude bush bur
ning as wel
las spr
ayi
ng of

pest
ici
desandher
bici
des(
Eneh,2011b)
.Theseact
ivi
ti
esr
aisedcar
bondi
oxi
del
eveli
n

t
heat
mospher
e.Whi
l
elong-
ter
mri
singl
evel
sofat
mospher
iccar
bondi
oxi
dehast
he

pot
ent
ialt
ocausecl
i
mat
echangeandsl
i
ght
,butcr
it
ical
,incr
easesi
ntheaci
dit
yof

oceanwat
er,wi
thpossi
bleadv
erseef
fectonmar
ineecosy
stems(
Shar
ma,2002)
.Thi
s

af
fect
sthe means ofl
i
vel
i
hood ofi
ndi
gentwho depends on t
his ecosy
stem f
or

sust
enance.

I
nNi
ger
ia,gasf
lar
ingi
sadanger
ousact
ivi
ty,asgaspol
l
utant
scont
ainov
er250t
oxi
ns

t
hatar
ehar
mful
,poi
sonousand unf
ri
endl
ytot
henat
uralecosy
stemsand human

habi
tat
s( mietal
Rai .,2013)
.Gasf
lar
ingmani
fest
edi
nthef
ormsofgasl
eakages
di
rect
lyi
ntot
heat
mospher
ecausi
ngf
ir
einci
dent
sandheat
ingupt
heat
mospher
icai
r.

Thi
sunwhol
esomeact
ivi
tydest
roy
sfl
oraandf
aunal
i
vingi
ntheaf
fect
edar
easand

communi
ti
es,
anddest
roy
edt
hemeansofl
i
vel
i
hoodofi
ndi
genouspeopl
ewhodepends

ont
heseecosy
stemsf
orsust
enance(
Zabbey
,2004)
.Theat
mospher
iccont
ami
nant
s

associ
atedwi
thgasf
lar
ingaci
dif
ythesoi
l
,depl
eti
ngsoi
lnut
ri
entandt
henut
ri
ti
onal

v
alueofcr
opwi
thi
nsuchv
ici
nit
yisr
educed(
Etuonov
be,2009)
.Thi
ssi
tuat
ionr
ender
ed

f
arml
andsusel
ess,
product
ionofcr
opsandf
ishi
ngi
naf
fect
edar
easi
mpossi
ble.

Wat
erpol
l
uti
on,
thi
sisanot
heri
mpor
tantpol
l
uti
ont
hataf
fect
sthequal
i
tyofwat
er

av
ail
abl
eforhuman,
ani
mal
sandpl
ant
s.Wat
erpol
l
uti
oncausesappr
oxi
mat
ely14,
000

deat
hsperday
,most
lyduet
ocont
ami
nat
ionofdr
inki
ngwat
erbyunt
reat
edsewagei
n

dev
elopi
ngcount
ri
es(
Kal
l
man,
2008)
.Ef
e(2006)i
dent
if
iedcont
ami
nant
sthatmake

wat
erunsui
tabl
eincl
udesal
ts,
suspendedsol
i
ds,
chl
ori
de,
nit
rat
e,ar
seni
c,heav
ymet
als,

pat
hogeni
cor
gani
sms,
andawi
dev
ari
etyofor
gani
cchemi
cal
sincl
udi
ngpest
ici
des,

pet
rol
eum compounds,
andsol
vent
s.Wat
erhy
aci
nthi
sani
nvaderonwat
erbyal
ter
ing

t
hequal
i
tyofwat
er( asetal
Tobi .,
2019)
.Thedi
ssol
vedoxy
genr
equi
redbyl
i
ving

or
gani
smsi
sreducedi
nar
easwi
thwat
erhy
aci
nth(
CDBW,
2017)
.

Si
ncewat
eri
sessent
ialf
orsust
aini
ngl
i
fe,r
uralwomenandchi
l
drenbor
ethebr
untof

f
indi
ngwat
er.Thet
imecostf
orwat
ercol
l
ect
ionhasbeenest
imat
edat40bi
l
li
onhour
s

pery
eari
nsub-
Sahar
anAf
ri
ca( on etal
Lent .,2005)
.Thebur
denoff
etchi
ngwat
er

af
fect
spar
ti
cipat
ionofgi
rl
sandwomeni
nschool
,empl
oymentandot
heri
ncome

gener
ati
ngact
ivi
ti Loweetal
es( .,2019)
.Tr
avel
l
ingl
ongdi
stancef
orwat
eri
ncr
eases

t
hei
nci
denceofr
apeandabduct
ionofgi
rl
s,whi
l
elackofadequat
eaccesst
osaf
e

wat
erandsani
tat
ioncausesmat
ernalandchi
l
dmor
tal
i
ty(
Eneh,2011a)
.Wat
erpol
l
uted
wi
thoi
lspi
l
lageal
soaf
fect
saquat
icani
mal
smeantf
orhumanconsumpt
ion,asf
ish

cont
ami
nat
edbyoi
lcausessi
cknessamongt
hepeopl
eandf
urt
hereconomi
crui
nas

f
ish st
ocks decl
i
ne (
Etuonov
be,2009)
.Thi
s af
fect
ed t
he sur
viv
alofr
uralf
ishi
ng

communi
tywhoi
nhabi
tedt
hecoast
alar
easanddependsonf
ishi
ngf
orf
oodand

i
ncome.

Ext
entandI
mpl
icat
ionofCl
imat
echangeonSust
ainabl
eRur
alLi
vel
ihood

Gener
alconsensusi
sthatconsi
der
abl
echangeshav
etakenpl
acei
nthecomposi
ti
onof

at
mospher
icgasesduet
onat
uralpr
ocessesandhumanact
ivi
ti
es,suchasi
ncr
easi
ng

ener
gyconsumpt
ion,i
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ion,i
ntensi
veagr
icul
tur
alpr
act
ices,def
orest
ati
on,

ur
banandr
uraldev
elopmentamongot
her
s.Thesechangeshav
eledt
ori
sei
ngl
obal

t
emper
atur
e and hi
gh spat
ialand t
empor
alv
ari
abi
l
ity(
Uni
ted Nat
ion Fr
amewor
k

Conv
ent
iononCl
i
mat
eChange(
UNFCCC)
,1992)
.

Bel
l
o(2010)i
dent
if
iedr
isei
ntemper
atur
eanddr
oughtasev
idencesofcl
i
mat
echange.

Ot
herev
idencesi
ncl
ude:i
ncr
easei
nannualr
ainf
alldur
ingwetseasonr
esul
ti
ngi
n

f
loodi
ng;
shor
terr
ainyseasonandl
ongerdr
yseason;
incr
easi
ngcasesofdr
yspel
l
sand

dr
ought
;unpr
edi
ctabi
l
ityofr
ainf
all
;changei
nthedi
str
ibut
ionofr
ainf
alli
nwetseason;

excessi
ve dr
yness dur
ing dr
yseason and;i
ncr
easi
ng t
emper
atur
ein wetand dr
y

seasons l
i
kewi
se t
he har
mat
tan per
iod (
Audu et al
.,2013)
. The dev
ast
ati
on

accompany
ing suchext
remesweat
herev
ent
shasmai
nlyi
mpact
ed on agr
icul
tur
e,

ecosy
stem,wat
err
esour
cesandgener
alenv
ironment
.Theef
fectal
soi
ncl
udesf
ier
cer

weat
her
,incr
easedf
requencyandi
ntensi
tyofst
orms,f
loods,hur
ri
canes,dr
ought
s,

i
ncr
eased f
requency of f
ir
es,pov
ert
y,mal
nut
ri
ti
on and ser
ies of heal
th and

soci
oeconomi
cconsequences(
Ezeetal
.,
2012)
.
I
nNi
ger
ia,cl
i
mat
echangehasi
mpl
i
cat
ionsei
therdi
rect
lyori
ndi
rect
lyonagr
icul
tur
ein

numberofway
sasagr
icul
tur
eisst
il
lbei
ngmaj
orl
ypr
act
icedbyt
hedi
ctat
eofweat
her
.

Speci
fi
cal
l
y,i
nci
dences ofcl
i
mat
e change on agr
icul
tur
eincl
ude changes i
n soi
l

moi
stur
e,soi
lqual
i
ty,cr
opr
esi
l
ience,t
imi
ng/
lengt
hofgr
owi
ngseasons,y
iel
dofcr
ops

and ani
mal
s,at
mospher
ict
emper
atur
es,weed i
nsur
gence,f
loodi
ng,unpr
ecedent
ed

dr
ought
s,seal
evelr
isesandmanymor
e(OzorandNnaj
i
,2011)
.Al
lthesecombi
ned

t
oget
hert
oaf
fectf
armer
spr
oduct
ivi
ty,
foodsecur
it
yandsust
ainabi
l
ityandl
i
vel
i
hoodof

smal
lhol
derr
uralf
armer
swho dependssol
elyon f
armi
ng and r
elat
ed economi
c

act
ivi
ti
esassour
ceofi
ncome.

Mashi(
2020)poi
ntedoutt
hatpr
oject
edi
mpactofcl
i
mat
echangeonagr
icul
tur
aly
iel
ds

bet
ween2003andt
he2080sr
eveal
sthatNi
ger
ial
i
esbet
ween-
5and-
15percent

expect
edpr
oduct
ionl
evel
.Theaut
horal
sopoi
ntedoutobser
vedchangesi
nrai
nfal
l

di
str
ibut
ionpat
ter
nsi
nNi
ger
iaf
rom 1951-2012asshowni
nther
ainf
allanomal
ychar
t

wi
thcor
respondi
ngper
iodsofoccur
renceofext
remer
ainf
all
event
sdr
oughtandf
loods.

Al
ltheseexpr
essed gr
aveconcer
nthatNi
ger
iai
sst
rongl
ypr
edi
sposed t
o sev
ere

negat
ivei
mpact
sofcl
i
mat
echangeduet
oit
sfr
agi
l
eeconomy
,weakr
esi
l
ienceandl
ow

adapt
ivecapaci
tyasmuchoft
heeconomyi
sdependentoncl
i
mat
e-sensi
ti
ver
esour
ces

andeconomi
cact
ivi
ti
es(
OwoadeandOni
fade,
2019)
.

Wi
th Ni
ger
ian agr
icul
tur
e bei
ng maj
orl
yrai
nfed,f
ood pr
oduct
ion sy
stem wi
l
lbe

adv
ersel
yaf
fect
edbyt
hev
ari
abi
l
ityi
nti
mingandamountofr
ainf
all
,fr
equentout
breaks

ofcr
oppest
sanddi
seasesandheatst
ress.Most
lyaf
fect
edar
ewomenandmenl
i
ving

i
nrur
alar
easdependi
ngonagr
icul
tur
e-basedl
i
vel
i
hoodsy
stemst
hatwer
eal
ready

v
ulner
abl
e,par
ti
cul
arl
ythoset
hatt
ypi
cal
l
yfaceenv
ironment
alshocksandhadf
ew
al
ter
nat
ivesf
acesubst
ant
iali
mpact
s(OwoadeandOni
fade,2019)
.Fort
heser
easons,

cl
i
mat
echangeposessi
gni
fi
cantt
hreat
sto agr
icul
tur
alpr
oduct
ion and t
rade,and

consequent
lyi
ncr
easest
her
isksofmal
nut
ri
ti
onandext
remehungerespeci
all
yforr
ural

peopl
e.

NexusofEnv
ironment
alSust
ainabi
li
tyandSust
ainabl
eRur
alLi
vel
ihood

Ni
ger
ia’
srur
aldwel
l
ersconst
it
ute53% oft
hecount
ry’
stot
alpopul
ati
on(
Wor
ldBank,

2015)
,andt
hebul
kofNi
ger
ia’
snat
uralr
esour
ces,
foodandf
ibr
esuppl
ycomef
rom t
he

r
uralar
eas,whi
chhasl
ongcont
ri
but
edsi
gni
fi
cant
lyt
othecount
ry’
sGr
ossDomest
ic

Pr
oduct(
GDP)
.Unf
ort
unat
ely
,despi
tet
he abundance ofr
esour
ces,pov
ert
yisa

commonphenomenoni
nNi
ger
ia’
srur
alar
eas,asmostr
uralhousehol
dsf
allbel
owt
he

USD 1.
90/
daypov
ert
yli
neandov
er70per
centdef
inedas“
ver
ypoor
,”basedona

measur
eofdai
l
ypercapi
taexpendi
tur
es(
Wor
ldFi
sh,2018)
.Succi
nct
ly,Ni
ger
iar
ural

ar
eashav
epecul
i
arf
eat
uresofl
ow i
ncome,l
ow pr
oduct
ivi
ty,and hi
gh degr
ee of

unempl
oyment
,hi
ghpopul
ati
onr
ate,poort
echnol
ogi
calgr
owt
h,l
ow i
nfr
ast
ruct
ures,

hi
ghi
l
li
ter
acyr
ateandmal
nut
ri
ti
on(
Nwankwo&Okeke,
2017)
.

Al
though,r
uralar
easr
elat
etogeogr
aphi
call
ocat
ionswher
eindust
ryandi
nfr
ast
ruct
ure

ar
e notdev
eloped and f
armi
ng and r
elat
ed economi
c act
ivi
ti
esar
ethe domi
nant

occupat
ionbuti
tinhabi
tedmaj
ori
tyoft
hepoorandmar
ginal
i
zed(
Madel
ey,2008)
.A

st
agger
ing 75 percentoft
hewor
ld poorwho l
i
vei
nrur
alar
easdepend on t
he

env
ironment
al-
sensi
ti
ver
esour
cesf
orpr
ovi
sionofbasi
cneeds(
fuel
,shel
ter
,wat
er,

medi
cineand f
ood)and sur
viv
al(
Conv
ent
ion on Bi
ologi
calDi
ver
sit
y(CBD)
,2009)
.

I
nter
est
ingl
y,pol
i
cies and r
esour
ces cont
inue t
o be bi
ased i
nfav
ourofur
ban
dev
elopmentwi
thdet
ri
ment
alef
fect
sforbot
hrur
aland ur
banpopul
ati
ons.These

si
tuat
ionsmaket
hepoorst
ateofmostr
ural
economi
esv
erydev
ast
ati
ngandpat
het
ic.

Ni
ger
iahast
hreemai
necol
ogi
cal
zones:
sav
anna,
tropi
cal
for
est
s,andcoast
alwet
lands.

Theseenv
ironment
alr
egi
onsgr
eat
lyaf
fectt
hecul
tur
esoft
hei
ndi
genouspeopl
ewho

l
i
vet
her
eint
ermsofoccupat
ionandmodeofl
i
fe(
Aki
nwal
e,2010)
.Fori
nst
ance,open

gr
assl
andsoft
hesav
annamakecer
ealf
armi
ngandher
dingawayofl
i
fef
ort
he

nomadi
cHausa-
Ful
anif
oundi
nthenor
th( oetal
Fabusor .,2007)
.Whi
l
ethet
ropi
cal

f
orest
sint
hesout
hpr
ovi
deoppor
tuni
ti
esofsust
ainabl
eli
vel
i
hoodt
hroughagr
icul
tur
e

andexpl
oit
ati
onofnumer
ousf
orestr
esour
cesandwet
landt
hatext
endsal
ongt
he

coastofsout
her
nNi
ger
iaf
ort
hesedent
aryi
ndi
genouspeopl
efoundi
nther
uralar
eas

ofsout
her
nNi
ger
ia.I
nnutshel
l
,thei
ndi
genouspeopl
ear
epr
oduct
soft
heenv
ironment

whi
l
ethei
runder
standi
ngoft
heenv
ironmentaf
fect
sthei
rsust
enance(
Aki
nwal
e,2010)
.

I
n spi
te ofNi
ger
ia’
s oi
lresour
ces,agr
icul
tur
eremai
ns t
he base oft
he count
ry’
s

economy
,and80per
centoft
her
uralhousehol
dswor
kingpopul
ati
onengagei
nfar
ming

andot
herr
elat
edact
ivi
ti
esast
hei
rpr
imar
yincomeact
ivi
t Adedokunetal
y( .,2005)
.

Todayi
ncr
easi
ngadopt
ionofmechani
zat
ion,
agr
ochemi
cal
s,i
mpr
ovedcr
opandani
mal

husbandr
ybysmal
lhol
derr
uralf
armer
shav
ehadmanyposi
ti
veef
fect
sont
hei
rwel
l
-

bei
ngandr
educedmanyr
isksi
nfar
ming,butt
her
ehav
eal
sobeensi
gni
fi
cantcost
s.

Pr
omi
nent among t
hese ar
e t
opsoi
l depl
eti
on, gr
oundwat
er cont
ami
nat
ion,

eut
rophi
cat
ion, i
ncr
eased pr
oduct
ion of gr
eenhouse gases,

deser
ti
fi
cat
ion/
def
orest
ati
on,i
ncr
easedf
loodi
ng,t
hedecl
i
neoff
ami
l
yfar
ms,cont
inued

negl
ectoft
hel
i
vingandwor
kingcondi
ti
onsf
orf
arml
abour
ers,i
ncr
easi
ngcost
sof

pr
oduct
ion,and t
he di
sint
egr
ati
on of economi
c and soci
alcondi
ti
ons i
nrur
al
communi
ti Adedokun etal
es ( .,2005)These si
tuat
ions f
urt
herdegr
aded nat
ural

env
ironmentanddest
abi
l
izedsust
ainabl
eli
vel
i
hoodi
nmostr
uralcommuni
ti
es.Maki
ng

i
ndi
genous peopl
eleav
ethe env
ironmentt
hey gr
ew up i
n because pot
ent
ialf
or

sust
ainabl
eli
vel
i
hoodar
efastdi
sappear
ing.

I
nthemai
nti
me,l
argescal
eenv
ironment
aldegr
adat
ioni
slar
gel
yar
uralphenomenon

butmanyofi
tsdr
iver
scanbet
racedt
otheconsumpt
iondemandofswel
l
ingur
ban

popul
ati
on.Nwokor
oandChi
ma(
2017)posi
tedt
hatr
uralpov
ert
yandmar
ginal
i
sat
ion

i
ncr
easet
hedepl
eti
onofenv
ironment
alr
esour
cesasr
ural
dwel
l
ersst
ruggl
i
ngt
osur
viv
e

cannotaf
for
dtopr
act
iceef
fi
cientr
esour
ceconser
vat
ionandut
il
isat
ionmet
hodsi
nthei
r

dai
l
ysur
viv
alst
rat
egi
es.Thus,env
ironment
alsust
ainabi
l
ityander
adi
cat
ionofex
treme

pov
ert
yar
eint
imat
elyconnect
ed,andr
equi
reacoor
dinat
edr
esponse,ast
her
ear
e

r
elat
ionshi
ps bet
ween nat
uralenv
ironmentand r
urall
i
vel
i
hood on one hand and

env
ironment
al degr
adat
ion and r
ural pov
ert
y on t
he ot
her
. Ther
efor
e,pr
oper

under
standi
ngoft
hei
ndi
genouspeopl
eint
eract
ionswi
tht
hei
renv
ironmentwi
l
lgoa

l
ongwayi
npr
off
eri
ngl
ast
ingsol
uti
ont
oenv
ironment
aldegr
adat
ionandt
hisi
ncl
ude

pr
otect
ingt
hei
rmeansofl
i
vel
i
hood.

Ther
efor
e,compl
eteev
aluat
ionofenv
ironment
aldegr
adat
ionshoul
dconsi
dert
her
oles

ot
herf
act
ors such as pov
ert
y,popul
ati
on i
ncr
ease,mar
ginal
i
zat
ion ofr
uralpoor
,

i
ncr
easi
ng gap bet
ween poorand r
ich,r
uraland ur
ban ar
eas,nat
uraland bui
l
t

env
ironmentand i
nef
fi
cientr
esour
ce use i
n agr
icul
tur
e hav
e pl
ayed i
nli
mit
ing

achi
evementofef
fect
iveenv
ironment
alpr
otect
ionandmanagementi
npov
ert
ypr
one

communi
ti
es.Speci
fi
cal
l
y,needsofv
ulner
abl
ewho dependssol
elyon t
henat
ural

env
ironmentf
orsur
viv
alshoul
d be t
aken i
nto consi
der
ati
ons,ef
for
ts shoul
d be
concent
rat
edatt
aki
ngt
hepoori
nhabi
ti
ngt
her
uralar
easoutofsubsi
stenceandbr
idge

t
hei
ncr
easi
nggapbet
weent
hem andur
bancommuni
ti
es.

Concl
usi
on

Rur
alhousehol
dsunsust
ainabl
eagr
icul
tur
alpr
act
icesandf
urt
herexpl
orat
ionoft
he

nat
uralenv
ironment
,whi
cht
heyconsi
der
edasf
reegi
ftofnat
ure,t
oekeoutl
i
vingand

hel
pthemsel
vesoutf
urt
heri
mpov
eri
shest
hem anddegr
adednat
uralenv
ironment
.As

peopl
ethatar
e poorcan nei
theri
mbi
be v
alue ofr
espectnoradoptr
esponsi
ble

env
ironment
albehav
iouri
nthei
rst
ruggl
eforsur
viv
al.

Tot
hisef
fect
,thi
spaperr
eit
erat
edf
ormul
ati
onandpur
sueofpol
i
ciest
hatwi
l
lsuppor
t

andencour
ager
uraldwel
l
erst
ogetoutofsubsi
stence,pr
act
icesust
ainabl
eli
vel
i
hood

andr
educer
uralpov
ert
ywi
l
lhel
ptor
educepr
essur
eonnat
uralenv
ironment
,st
em r
ural
-

ur
ban dr
if
ts and ensur
e env
ironment
alconser
vat
ion and sust
ainabi
l
ity
.Al
though,

pr
omot
ing env
ironment
alr
esponsi
ble behav
iorand v
alue ofr
espectmaypr
omot
e

har
moni
ousr
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenhumanandnat
urebutt
opeopl
est
ruggl
i
ngt
osur
viv
e

i
tisj
ustr
het
ori
c.Thepapert
henposi
tedt
hatf
ormul
ati
onandi
mpl
ement
ati
onof

pol
i
ciest
hatwoul
dsuppor
taggr
essi
ver
urali
nfr
ast
ruct
uredev
elopment
,landr
efor
ms

andr
ecogni
zi
ngi
ndi
genouspeopl
e’
sresour
cecont
rolr
ight
,andaddi
ngl
andv
aluet
axes

woul
daddr
essi
nequal
i
tyandbui
l
dthet
rustofr
uralpooratsuppor
ti
nggov
ernment

pol
i
cies ai
m at conser
vat
ion and sust
ainabl
e management of Ni
ger
ia nat
ural

env
ironment
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