DEVELOPMENTTHEORY

BY:THERESI
AO.AMBARI
TA
BI
LINGUALCHEMI
STRYEDUCATI
ON
STATEUNI
VERSI
TYOFMEDAN
MEDAN
2019
PREFACE

ThanktoAl
mightyGodwhohasgivenHisbl
esstot
hewrit
erforfi
nishi
ngt
heSt
udent
Devel
opmentpaperassi
gnmentent
it
led“
Devel
opmentTheor
ies”
.
Thispapercontai
nsmanykindsofdevel
opmenttheor
ies,examples,andevaluat
ions.
Theauthorisfull
yawar
ethatinwri
ti
ngthi
spaperisst
illf
arfrom perf
ecti
on,ther
efore
theauthor
sexpectconstr
ucti
vecr
it
ici
sm andsuggest
ionsforperfecti
oninthefutur
e.
Hopef
ull
y,t
hispaperwi
ll
beuseful
foral
lofusandthewri
terasacompi
l
erandf
ort
he
r
eadertoapol
ogizei
fsomet
hinggoeswrong.Thankyou.

Medan,
Sept
ember3t
h,2019

Aut
hor
TABLEOFCONTENTS
PREFACE
TABLEOFCONTENTS
CHAPTERII
NTRODUCTI
ON
1.
1Backgr
ound
1.
2Pr
obl
em For
mul
ati
on
CHAPTERI
IDI
SCUSSI
ON
2.
1Theor
iesofPsy
choanal
ysi
s
2.
2Cogni
ti
veTheor
y
2.
3Behav
ior
ism andSoci
alCogni
ti
veTheor
y
2.
4Ecol
ogi
cal
Syst
emsTheor
y
2.
5Ecl
ect
icTheor
eti
cal
Ori
ent
ati
on
CHAPTERI
IICLOSI
NG
3.
1Concl
usi
ons
BI
BLI
OGRAPHY
CHAPTERI

I
NTRODUCTI
ON
1.
1Backgr
ound
Dev elopmentt heoryisat heor yt hatfocusesonchangesanddev elopment
ofphy sical (biological)struct ures, humanbehav i
orsandment al functions
i
nv ariousst agesofl i
fe,from concept iont oneardeat h.St udying
dev elopmentt heor i
esi snotonl yusef ulforpar entsandt eacher si n
prov idingser vicesandeducat i
ont ochi l
drenaccor dingtot hei
rst ageof
dev elopment ,butal soisusef ul i
nunder standi ngour selvesbymeansof
biologi cal appr oaches, theenv ironmentandt heat mospher eand
i
nt eract ions.Dev el
opmentt heor ywi l
l providei nsightandunder st andingof
thehi st oryofourownl i
fej our ney( asi nfants, chi l
dren,adolescent s,adults
orol dage) .Mor eover,dev elopmentt heor yisal sov eryusef ulforpol i
cy
maki ngi nf ormul ati
ngpr ogramsandassi stancef orchi l
drenand
adol escent s.Al ongwi tht hedev elopmentofat empor arysocietymar ked
byv er yr apidchangesi nv ari
ousdi mensi onsofi ndivi
dual l
ife,dev elopment
theor yi sincr easinglybei ngf eltbysoci ety.Soci etyisincreasinglyawar e
thati ndi vi
dual s( chi
ldren, adol escent s,andev enadul ts)liv
ingi nt hemoder n
eraar eindi f
ficultti
mes.Faci ngi ndivi
dual swhoar ei nsuchdi fficulttimes,
clearlyr equi resanunder standi ngofdev elopment altheor y.
1.
2Pr
obl
em For
mul
ati
on
 Whatar
etheki
ndoft
heor
iesaboutdev
elopment
?
 Whatar
ethest
ageofdev
elopment
?
 Howabouthumanper
sonal
i
tyatev
eryage?
CHAPTERI
I

DI
SCUSSI
ON
2.
1Theor
iesofPsy
choanal
ysi
s
Accordingtot hetheoryofpsychoanal yti
c( psychoanal y
tictheor
y),t
hepr ocessof
devel
opmentmai nlytakesplaceunconsci ouslyorunconsci ousl
y(outsideof
consciousness)andi sstrongl
ycol oredbyemot ions.Psy choanalyt
ictheorist
s
emphasi zethatbehav i
orisonlyachar acterist
icont hesur f
ace.Af ullunderstandi
ngof
devel
opmentcanonl ybeachi evedt hroughananal ysisofthesymbol i
cmeani ngsof
behaviorandexami ningdeepert houghts( Bornstein,2003).Psychoanal yt
ictheori
sts
al
soemphasi zethatearlyexperi
enceswi t
hpar entshav eabr oadinfl
uenceon
devel
opment .
1.Fr
eudTheor
y
Freud(1856-1939)devel
opedhispsychoanal
yti
ctheorybasedonhi sexperi
encei n
deali
ngwi t
ht hementall
ivesofhi
spatient
s.Asadoct orspeci
ali
zinginneurology,
Freudspentmostoft hetimeFreudmov edtoLondontoescapet heanti
-JewishNazi
regi
me.hi sli
f ei
nVienna.Neartheendofhiscareer
,Freudmov edtoLondont oescape
theanti
-JewishNazi r
egime.
AccordingtoFr eud,soull
i
fehast hreel
evelsofconsciousness,namel yconscious,
preconscious,andunconsci ous.Unti
l1920s,t
heori
esaboutpsy chiatri
cconfli
ctonly
i
nv ol
vedthet hreeelements.In1923Freudintr
oducedt hr
eest r
uct uralmodels,namely
dasEs, dasIch, anddasUeberIch.Thisnewst ruct
uredoesnotr eplaceoldstruct
ure,
butcompl etesthement alpi
ctureespeci
all
yinfuncti
onandi tspur pose( Awi
sol,2005:
17)
Freudarguesthatpersonal
ityi
sasy stem consi
sti
ngfr
om 3elements,
namelydasEs,
dasIch,anddasUeberI ch(i
nEnglishexpressedastheId,
theEgo,andtheSuperEgo)
,
whicheachhasor i
gin,aspect,
functi
on,pri
ncipl
eofoperat
ion,
andtheequipment.
Whati
sthei
d?
Theidisthepr i
miti
veandi nst
inct
ivecomponentofper sonal
it
y.I
tconsistsofal
lthe
i
nheri
ted( i
.e.
,bi
ologi
cal)component sofpersonal
it
ypresentatbi
rth,i
ncludi
ngthesex
(l
i
fe)insti
nct–Er os(whichcontai
nst hel
ibi
do),andtheaggressi
ve(death)i
nsti
nct-
Thanatos.

Thei
dist
heimpulsi
ve(
andunconscious)par
tofourpsychewhichrespondsdi
rect
ly
andi
mmediat
elyt
obasi
curges,needs,anddesi
res.Theper
sonali
tyofthenewborn
chi
l
disal
li
dandonl
ylat
erdoesi
tdev
elopanegoandsuper
-ego.
Theidremainsinfanti
l
einit
sfunct
ionthroughoutaper sonsli
feanddoesnotchange
wit
ht i
meorexper i
ence,asi
tisnotintouchwiththeext er
nalworl
d.Thei
disnot
aff
ectedbyreali
ty,l
ogicort
heeverydayworld,
asi toperateswit
hint
heunconsci
ous
partofthemind.
Theidoperatesonthepleasur
eprinci
ple(
Freud,1920)whi chi
stheideat
hatevery
wishf
ul i
mpulseshoul
dbesat i
sfi
edimmediat el
y,r
egardlessoft
heconsequences.
Whent heidachi
evesit
sdemands, weexperiencepleasurewheniti
sdeniedwe
exper
ience‘unpl
easur
e’ortensi
on.
Theidengagesinpri
maryprocessthi
nking,whi
chispr
imi
ti
ve,i
ll
ogical,
irr
ati
onal
,and
fant
asyori
ented.Thi
sfor
m ofprocessthinki
nghasnocomprehensionofobject
ive
real
i
ty,
andisselfi
shandwishfuli
nnature.
Whati
stheego?
Theegoi s'
thatpartoftheidwhichhasbeenmodi f
iedbyt hedirecti
nfl
uenceoft
he
external
wor l
d.Theegodev el
opstomediatebetweent heunreal
isti
cidandtheext
ernal
realworl
d.Itist
hedecision-
makingcomponentofper sonali
ty.I
deall
y,t
heegoworksby
reason,whereastheidi
schaot i
candunreasonabl
e.
Theegooper atesaccor
dingtothereal
i
typri
ncipl
e,worki
ngoutr eali
sticwaysof
sati
sfy
ingtheid’sdemands,oft
encompr omi
singorpostponingsat i
sfact
iontoavoi
d
negati
veconsequencesofsociety
.Theegoconsiderssocial
r eal
it
iesandnor ms,
eti
quett
eandr ulesi
ndecidi
nghowt obehave.
.
Liketheid,
theegoseekspleasur
e( i
.e.
,tensi
onreduct
ion)andav oidspain,butunli
ke
theid,t
heegoi sconcer
nedwithdevisi
ngar eal
i
sti
cstrategytoobtainpleasure.Theego
hasnoconceptofr i
ghtorwrong;somethingisgoodsimplyifitachiev
esi t
sendof
sati
sfyi
ngwi t
houtcausi
ngharmtoi t
selforthei
d.
Oft
entheegoisweakrel
ati
vetotheheadst
rongid,
andthebestt
heegocandoisst
ay
on,poi
nti
ngt
heidinther
ightdi
rect
ionandclai
mingsomecredi
tatt
heendasift
he
act
ionwerei
tsown.
I
ft heegofail
sinitsat
tempttousethereal
ityprincipl
e,andanxietyi
sexperi
enced,
unconsci
ousdef ensemechanismsareempl oyed, t
ohelpwar doffunpl
easantfeel
i
ngs
(i
.e.,
anxi
ety)ormakegoodt hi
ngsfeelbett
erfort heindi
vidual
.

Theegoengagesinsecondaryprocessthi
nki
ng,whichisrati
onal,
reali
sti
c,and
ori
entat
edtowardspr
oblem-solv
ing.Ifapl
anofacti
ondoesnotwor k,t
henitisthought
thr
oughagainunti
lasol
uti
oni sfound.Thi
sisknownasr eal
ityt
estingandenablesthe
persontocont
rolt
hei
rimpulsesanddemonst r
ateself
-contr
ol,v
iamast er
yoftheego.
Whati
sthesuper
ego?
Thesuper egoincor
poratesthevaluesandmoral
sofsoci
etywhi
char
elear
nedfr
om
one'sparentsandothers.I
tdevelopsaroundt
heageof3–5duringt
hephall
i
cstageof
psychosexualdevel
opment .
Thesuperego'sfunct
ionistocontr
olt
heid'
simpulses,especi
all
ythosewhichsociet
y
for
bids,
suchassexandaggr essi
on.I
tal
sohasthef uncti
onofpersuadi
ngtheegot o
tur
nt omoral
isti
cgoalsrathert
hansimpl
yreal
ist
iconesandt ostri
veforperf
ect
ion.
Thesuper egoconsi stsoftwosy st
ems: Theconscienceandt heideal sel
f.The
consciencecanpuni shtheegothroughcausingfeeli
ngsofgui l
t.Forexampl e,i
ftheego
givesintot heid'sdemands, t
hesuperegomaymaket hepersonf eelbadt hroughguil
t.
Thei dealself(
orego- i
deal)i
sani magi
nar ypi
ctur
eofhowy ououghtt obe, and
represent
scar eeraspirati
ons,howtotreatotherpeople,andhowt obehav easa
memberofsoci ety
.
Behavi
orwhi
chf al
lsshor
tofthei
dealsel
fmaybepunishedbyt
hesuper
egothr
ough
gui
lt
.Thesuper-
egocanal sor
ewardusthr
ought
heidealsel
fwhenwebehav
e‘proper
ly’
bymakingusfeelproud.
I
faper son’
sideal sel
fist
oohighastandard,t
henwhatev
ertheper
sondoeswil
l
r
epresentfail
ure.Theidealsel
fandconsci
encearelar
gel
ydeter
minedi
nchil
dhood
f
rom parentalvaluesandhowy ouwerebroughtup.

Def
enseMechani
sms
Defensemechani
smsar epsychol
ogicalst
rategi
esthatar
eunconsci
ousl
yusedt o
pr
otectapersonfr
om anxi
etyari
singfrom unaccept
ablet
hought
sorfeel
ings.Ther
ear
e
alargenumberofdef
ensemechani sms:
Repr
essi
on
Repr essi
onisanunconsci ousdefensemechani sm empl oy edbyt heegot okeep
dist
ur bi
ngorthreat
eni ngthoughtsf r
om becomi ngconsci ous.Thought sthatareoften
repressedarethoset hatwoul dresul
tinfeeli
ngsofgui ltfr
om t hesuperego.Thisi
snota
verysuccessfuldefensei nthelongterm si
ncei tinvolv
esf or cingdist
urbi
ngwi shes,
i
deasormemor i
esintot heunconscious,wher e,alt
houghhi dden,theywillcr
eate
anxiety.Repr
essedmemor iesmayappeart hroughsubconsci ousmeansandi nalt
ered
forms, suchasdreamsorsl i
psofthetongue( '
Freudianslips').
Forexample,i
ntheoedi
puscomplex,
aggr
essi
vethought
saboutt
hesamesexpar
ent
s
arerepr
essedandpusheddownintot
heunconsci
ous.
Pr
oject
ion
Pr
ojecti
onisapsychol
ogi
caldefensemechani
sm pr
oposedbyAnnaFreudinwhichan
i
ndi
v i
dualat
tri
but
esunwantedthought
s,f
eeli
ngsandmotiv
esontoanotherper
son.
Forexample,t
hought
smostcommonl yproj
ect
edont oanotheraretheonesthatwould
causeguil
tsuchasaggressi
veandsexual f
ant
asiesorthoughts.Fori
nstance,you
mighthatesomeone,butyoursuper
egotell
syouthatsuchhatredisunacceptable.You
can'sol
ve't
heprobl
em bybeliev
ingthatt
heyhateyou.
Di
spl
acement
Displacementi st heredirect
ionofanimpul se(
usuall
yaggression)ontoapower l
ess
substitut
et arget.Thetargetcanbeaper sonoranobjectt
hatcanser v
easasy mboli
c
substitut
e.Di splacementoccur swhent heIdwantstodosomet hingofwhi
chtheSuper
egodoesnotper mit
.TheEgot husfi
ndssomeot herwayofr eleasingt
hepsychic
energyoft heI d.Thust hereisat r
ansf
erofenergyfrom ar
epr essedobject
-cat
hexist
oa
mor eaccept ableobject.
Forexampl
e,someonewhof eel
suncomf
ort
abl
ewiththeirsexualdesi
reforareal
personmaysubsti
tut
eafet
ish.Someonewhoisf
rustrat
edbyhi sorhersuperi
orsmay
gohomeandki ckt
hedog,beatupafami
lymember,orengageincross-bur
nings.
Subl
imat
ion
Subli
mationissi
mil
artodi
splacement,buttakesplacewhenwemanaget odisplaceour
unacceptabl
eemoti
onsint
obehav i
orswhichar econstr
uct
iveandsoci
all
yacceptable,
rat
herthandestr
uct
iveact
ivi
ti
es.Subl
imationisoneofAnnaFr eud'
sor
igi
naldefense
mechanisms.
Forexample,manygr eatart
ist
sandmusi ci
anshavehadunhappyli
vesandhav
eused
themedium ofartofmusi ctoexpresst
hemselves.Spor
tisanot
herexampl
eofput
ti
ng
ouremotions(e.
g.,aggressi
on)int
osomet hi
ngconstr
uct
ive.
Deni
al
Deni ali
sadef ensemechani sm pr
oposedbyAnnaFr eudwhi chinvolvesarefusalto
acceptr eali
ty,
thusblockingext
ernaleventsfrom awar eness.Ifasi tuati
onisjusttoo
mucht ohandle, t
hepersonmayr espondbyr efusingtoper ceiveitorbydeny ingthati
t
exist.Asy oumi ghti
magine,thi
sisapr i
mitiveanddanger ousdef ense-noone
disregardsreali
tyandget sawaywithitforlong!Itcanoper atebyi t
selfor,
mor e
commonl y,i
ncombi nati
onwi t
hother,moresubt lemechani smst hatsupportit.
Forexample,
ahusbandmayrefuset
orecogni
seobvioussignsofhiswi
fe’
sinf
idel
i
ty.A
studentmayref
uset
orecogni
sethei
robvi
ouslackofpreparednessf
oranexam!
Regr
essi
on
Regressi
onisadefensemechanism pr
oposedbyAnnaFreudwher
ebythetheego
rev
ertstoanear
li
erstageofdevelopmentusual
l
yinr
esponsetost
ressf
ulsi
tuat
ions.
Regr
essi
onf
unct
ionsasfor
m ofretr
eat,
enabl
i
ngaper
sont
opsy
chol
ogi
cal
l
ygobacki
n
ti
metoaper
iodwhenthepersonfel
tsaf
er.
Forexampl e,
whenwear etroubledorfr
ightened,
ourbehav
ior
softenbecomemor e
chil
dishorpri
miti
ve.Achil
dmaybegi nt
osuckt heirt
humbagai
norwett hebedwhen
theyneedtospendsomet imei nthehospital
.Teenager
smaygiggleuncont
rol
labl
y
wheni nt
roducedi
ntoasocialsituat
ioni
nv olv
ingt
heopposi
tesex.
Rat
ional
izat
ion
Rati
onali
zat
ionisadefensemechanism proposedbyAnnaFr eudinvolvi
ngacogniti
ve
di
stort
ionof"t
hefact
s"tomakeanev entoranimpulselesst hr
eatening.Wedoi tof
ten
enoughonaf ai
rl
yconsciousl
evelwhenwepr ovi
deourselveswithexcuses.Butf or
manypeople,wit
hsensiti
veegos,makingexcusescomessoeasyt hattheyneverar
e
tr
ulyawareofit
.Inotherwords,manyofusar equit
epr eparedtobelieveourli
es.
Whenaper sonfi
ndsasituati
ondif
fi
cul
ttoaccept
,theywil
lmakeupal ogi
calr
eason
whyithashappened.Forexample,
apersonmayexplainanat
ural
disasteras'
God's
wi
ll
'
.
React
ionFor
mat
ion
Reacti
onfor mati
onisapsy chologicaldefensemechanism inwhichaper songoes
beyonddeni al
andbehav esi ntheopposi tewayt owhichheorshet hi
nksorf eel
s.
Consciousbehav i
orsareadopt edt oov er
compensat efortheanxi
etyaper sonfeels
regar
dingtheirsoci
all
yunaccept ableunconsciousthoughtsoremot i
ons.Usually
,a
react
ionformationismar kedbyexagger atedbehavior
,suchasshowi nessand
compulsiveness.
Forexample,
Freudcl
aimedthatmenwhoar epr
ejudiceagainsthomosexual
sare
makingadefenseagai
nstthei
rownhomosexualfeel
ingsbyadopt i
ngaharshant
i-
homosexualatt
it
udewhichhel
psconvi
ncethem oftheirhet
erosexual
i
ty.
Freud(1905)bel
iev
edthatl
i
fewasbui
ltr
oundt ensi
onandpleasure.Fr
eudalsobeli
eved
thatal
ltensi
onwasduet ot
hebui
l
d-upofli
bido(sexual
ener
gy )andthatal
lpleasur
e
camef rom i
tsdi
schar
ge.

I
ndescr i
binghumanpersonal
it
ydevelopmentaspsychosexual
Freudmeantt
oconv
ey
thatwhatdevel
opsist
hewayi nwhichsexualener
gyoftheidaccumulat
esandi
s
dischar
gedaswemat ur
ebi ol
ogical
l
y.
Or
alSt
age(
Bir
tht
o1y
ear
)
I
nthef i
rstst
ageofper sonal
i
tydevelopment
,theli
bidoi
scenter
edinababy'
smouth.It
get
smuchsat i
sfact
ionfrom put
ti
ngallsor
tsofthi
ngsinitsmoutht
osati
sfyt
heli
bido,
andthusitsi
ddemands.Whi chatthisst
ageinli
feareoral
,ormout
hori
entat
ed,
such
assucki
ng,
bit
ing,
andbr
east
feedi
ng.
Freudsaidoralsti
mul at
ioncoul
dleadtoanoralf
ixati
oninlaterli
fe.Weseeor al
personali
ti
esallaroundussuchassmoker s,
nail
-bi
ters,f
inger-
chewer s,
andthumb
suckers.Oralpersonali
ti
esengageinsuchoral
behav ior
s,part
icular
lywhenunder
stress.
AnalSt
age(
1to3y
ear
s)
Thelibidonowbecomesf ocusedontheanus,andthechi
l
dderi
vesgreatpl
easur
ef r
om
defecating.Thechil
disnowf ul
l
yawarethatt
heyareapersoni
nthei
rownr i
ghtand
thattheirwishescanbri
ngt hem i
ntoconf
li
ctwit
hthedemandsoftheoutsi
deworld(i
.e.
,
thei
regohasdev el
oped).
Freudbelievedthatthi
stypeofconf l
i
cttendst ocomet oaheadi npottytrai
ning,i
n
whi chadult
simposer est
ricti
onsonwhenandwher et hechildcandefecate.Thenat ur
e
oft hi
sfir
stconfli
ctwit
haut hori
tycandeterminethechild'
sfuturer
elati
onshipwi t
hall
formsofaut hori
ty.Ear
lyorharshpottytrai
ningcanleadt othechil
dbecomi ngananal -
retenti
vepersonali
tywhohat esmess, i
sobsessivel
ytidy,punctualandrespectfulof
authorit
y.Theycanbest ubbor nandtight-
fi
stedwit
ht heircashandpossessions.
Phal
li
cSt
age(
3to6y
ear
s)
Sensi
ti
vi
tynowbecomesconcent
rat
edi
nthegeni
tal
sandmast
urbat
ion(
inbot
hsexes)
becomesanewsourceofpl
easur
e.
Thechil
dbecomesawar eofanatomical
sexdif
ferences,
whi chset
sinmoti
onthe
confl
i
ctbetweeneroti
catt
ract
ion,r
esent
ment,r
ivalr
y,j
ealousyandfearwhi
chFreud
cal
ledtheOedipuscompl
ex( i
nboys)andtheEl
ectracompl ex(i
ngir
ls)
.
Oedi
pusCompl
ex
Thi
sisoneofFr eud'smostcontrover
sial i
deasandonet hatmanypeopl erej
ectoutr
ight
.
Thenameoft heOedi puscomplexderi
v esfrom t
heGr eekmy t
hwher eOedipus,ayoung
man,kil
lshisf
atherandmar ri
eshismot her.Upondiscoveri
ngthis,hepokeshiseyes
outandbecomesbl ind.ThisOedipal
ist hegeneri
c(i.
e.,gener
al)termforbothOedipus
andElectr
acompl exes.
Theli
tt
leboythensetsouttoresol
vethi
sproblem byimit
ati
ng,copyi
ngandjoi
ningin
masculi
nedad-ty
pebehavior
s.Thisiscal
ledident
ifi
cati
on,andishowthethr
ee-to-
fi
ve
yearol
dboyresolveshi
sOedipuscomplex.
El
ect
raCompl
ex
Forgirl
s,t
heOedi
pusorEl
ectracomplexisl
essthansat
isf
actory
.Brief
ly,
thegi
rl
desir
esthefat
her
,butr
eal
izesthatshedoesnothaveapenis.Thisl
eadstothe
devel
opmentofpeni
senvyandt hewisht
obeaboy .
Thegir
lresolvesthisbyr epressi
ngherdesi
ref
orherf
atherandsubst
it
uti
ngthewi
sh
forapeniswiththewi shf orababy.Thegir
lbl
ameshermot herf
orher'
cast
rat
edst
ate,
'
andthi
scr eat
esgr eattension.
Lat
encySt
age(
6year
stopuber
ty)
Nof urtherpsychosexualdevelopmenttakesplacedur
ingthisstage(latentmeans
hidden).Thel ibi
doisdor mant.Fr
eudthoughtthatmostsexual i
mpul sesarerepr
essed
duringt helat
entstage,andsexualenergycanbesublimated(re:defensemechanisms)
towar dsschool work,hobbi
es,andfri
endships.Muchoft hechil
d'sener gyi
schannel
ed
i
nt odev el
opingnewski ll
sandacquiri
ngnewknowl edge,andplaybecomesl ar
gel
y
conf i
nedt ootherchil
drenofthesamegender .
Geni
talSt
age(
puber
tyt
oadul
t)
Thisisthelastst
ageofFreud'spsychosexualt
heoryofpersonal
it
ydev elopmentand
beginsinpuberty
.Itisati
meofadol escentsexual
experimentat
ion,
t hesuccessful
resolut
ionofwhichissett
li
ngdowni nalov i
ngone-
to-onerel
ati
onshi
pwi thanot
her
personinour20's.Sexual
insti
nctisdi
rectedtohet
erosexualpl
easure,rathert
hanself
-
pleasureli
keduri
ngthephalli
cstage.
ForFreud,thepr
operoutl
etoft
hesexual
insti
ncti
nadul
tswasthroughhet
erosexual
i
ntercourse.Fi
xati
onandconfl
i
ctmaypreventthi
swi
ththeconsequencet
hatsexual
perv
ersionsmaydev el
op.
Forexample,
fixat
ionattheoralst
agemayresul
tinaper
songaini
ngsexual
pleasur
e
pri
maril
yfr
om kissingandoralsex,
rat
hert
hansexual
int
ercour
se.

Cr
it
icalEval
uat
ion
I
sFr eudianpsychologysuppor
tedbyev i
dence?Fr eud'stheoryisgoodatexpl aini
ngbut
notatpredicti
ngbehav i
or(whi
chi soneofthegoal sofsci ence).Forthi
sreason,Freud'
s
theoryi
sunf al
sif
iable-i
tcanneitherbeprovedtrueorr efuted.Forexampl e,
thelibi
dois
diff
icul
ttotestandmeasur eobjecti
vel
y.Overal
l
,Fr eud'
st heoryishighlyunscient
ifi
c.
Fr
eudmayalsohaveshownresear
chbiasi
nhisi
nterpr
etat
ions-hemayhaveonlypai
d
at
tent
iont
oinf
ormati
onwhichsuppor
tedhi
stheor
ies,andi
gnoredinf
ormat
ionand
ot
herexpl
anat
ionst
hatdi
dnotfitt
hem.

2.Er
iksonTheor
y
Eriksonmai nt
ainedthatpersonal
i
tydevel
opsinapredeter
mi nedorderthr
ougheight
stagesofpsy chosocialdevel
opment,
from i
nfancyt
oadulthood.Duringeachstage,
the
per sonexperi
encesapsy chosoci
alcr
isi
swhichcouldhaveaposi t
iveornegati
ve
out
comef orpersonal
i
tydevel
opment.ForEri
kson(1958,1963)
,thesecri
sesareofa
psy
chosocialnatur
ebecausetheyi
nvol
vepsychologi
calneedsoftheindi
vidual
(i.
e.,
psy
cho)confli
cti
ngwiththeneedsofsoci
ety(i
.e.
,soci
al)
.
Accordingtothetheory
,successf
ulcompleti
onofeachstager
esult
si naheal
thy
personali
tyandtheacquisi
ti
onofbasicv
irtues.Basi
cvi
rt
uesarecharact
eri
sti
c
str
engthswhi chtheegocanusetoresol
vesubsequentcri
ses
Fail
uretosuccessf
ull
ycompleteastagecanr esul
tinareducedabi
l
ityt
ocomplet
e
furt
herstagesandther
efor
eamor eunhealthypersonal
it
yandsenseofsel
f.These
stages,
howev er
,canberesol
vedsuccessfull
yatalatert
ime.
Tr
ustv
s.Mi
str
ust
Trustv
s.mistr
usti
sthefirststageinEr
ikErikson'
stheor
yofpsychosoci
aldevel
opment.
Thisst
agebeginsatbi
rthcont i
nuestoapproximatel
y18monthsofage.Duringthi
s
st
age,thei
nfanti
suncertainabouttheworldinwhichtheyl
i
ve,andlookstowardsthei
r
pri
marycar
egiverf
orstabil
ityandconsi
stencyofcare
Ifthecaretheinf
antrecei vesisconsi st
ent,pr
edi
ctableandr eli
abl e,theywil
ldevelopa
senseoft r
ustwhichwi llcarrywitht hem t
ootherrel
ati
onshi ps,andt heywillbeabl eto
feelsecureevenwhent hreatened.Ifthecarehasbeeni nconsistent ,
unpredict
ableand
unreli
able,t
hentheinfantmaydev elopasenseofmi str
ust,suspi cion,andanxiety.In
thi
ssi t
uati
ontheinfantwi llnothav econfi
denceinthewor ldaroundt hem orintheir
abili
ti
estoinfl
uenceev ents.

Aut
onomyv
s.ShameandDoubt
Autonomyv er
susshameanddoubti st
hesecondst ageofEri
kErikson'
sstagesof
psychosoci
aldevel
opment .Thi
sstageoccur
sbet weentheagesof18mont hsto
approximat
ely3years.Accordi
ngtoEri
kson,chi
ldrenatthi
sstagearefocusedon
developi
ngasenseofper sonalcont
rol
overphysicalski
l
lsandasenseofi ndependence.
Successinthi
sstagewil
ll
eadtot
hev i
r t
ueofwil
l.I
fchi
ldreni
nthi
sstagear
e
encouragedandsuppor
tedint
hei
rincreasedi
ndependence,t
heybecomemore
confi
dentandsecurei
nthei
rownabili
tytosur
viv
einthewor l
d.
I
fchil
drenarecrit
ici
zed,ov
er l
ycontroll
ed,ornotgiv
ent heopport
unit
ytoasser
t
themsel
ves,theybegintofeeli
nadequat eint
heirabil
it
ytosurvi
ve,andmaythen
becomeov er
lydependentuponot hers,l
ackself-
esteem,andfeelasenseofshameor
doubti
ntheirabil
iti
es.
I
nit
iat
ivev
s.Gui
lt
I
nit
iat
ivev
ersusguil
tisthet
hirdst
ageofEri
kEri
kson'
stheor
yofpsychosoci
al
devel
opment.Dur
ingtheini
ti
ati
vever
susgui
ltst
age,chi
l
drenasser
tthemsel
vesmor
e
f
requent
ly.
Thesearepar t
icul
arl
yli
vel
y,r
api
d-dev
elopi
ngyear
sinachil
d’sl
if
e.Accor
dingt
oBee
(1992),i
tisa“timeofvi
gorofact
ionandofbehavi
orst
hattheparent
smayseeas
aggressi
ve."
Duri
ngthi
speri
odthepri
maryfeatureinv
olvesthechil
dregularl
yinter
actingwi
thot
her
chi
ldr
enatschool
.Cent
ralt
othisstageisplay,asitpr
ovideschil
drenwi t
hthe
opport
uni
tyt
oexplor
ethei
rint
erpersonalski
ll
st hr
oughinit
iat
ingactiv
iti
es.
I
ndust
ryv
s.I
nfer
ior
it
y
Eri
kson'
sfourt
hpsychosoci
alcr
isi
s,i
nvol
vi
ngi
ndustr
y(compet
ence)v
s.i
nfer
ior
it
y
occursdur
ingchi
l
dhoodbetweentheagesoff
iveandtwel
ve.
Childr
enareatthest
agewher etheywil
lbel
ear
ningt
or eadandwri
te,
todosums,todo
thi
ngsont hei
rown.Teachersbegint
otakeani
mportantrol
eint
hechild’
sli
feast
hey
teachthechil
dspeci
fi
cskil
ls.
I
tisatthisstagethatthechil
d’
speergr oupwi l
lgai
ngr eat
ersi
gni
fi
canceandwill
becomeamaj orsourceofthechild’
sself
-esteem.Thechildnowfeel
stheneedtowin
approvalbydemonstrati
ngspeci f
iccompetenciesthatareval
uedbysoci
etyandbegi
n
todevelopasenseofpr idei
nt hei
raccomplishments.
I
dent
it
yvs.Rol
eConf
usi
on
Thefi
fthstageofErikEr
ikson'stheoryofpsychosocialdevel
opmenti si
denti
tyvs.r
ole
conf
usion,anditoccur
sdur i
ngadol escence,f
rom about12-18y ear
s.Duri
ngthi
sstage,
adol
escentssearchforasenseofsel fandpersonal
identi
ty,t
hroughanintense
expl
orati
onofpersonalvalues,bel
iefs,andgoals.
Duri
ngadolescence,t
hetr
ansiti
onfr
om chil
dhoodtoadul
thoodismosti mport
ant
.
Chi
ldrenarebecomingmoreindependent
,andbegintol
ookatthefutureint
ermsof
car
eer,rel
ati
onshi
ps,fami
l
ies,housi
ng,et
c.Theindi
vi
dualwantstobelongtoasociet
y
andfi
tin.
Theadolescentmi
ndisessenti
all
yamindormor at
ori
um, apsychosoci
alst
age
betweenchil
dhoodandadult
hood,andbetweenthemorali
tyl
earnedbythechi
l
d,and
theethi
cstobedevel
opedbyt headul
t(Er
ikson,
1963,p.245)
Thisi
samaj orstageofdev el
opmentwherethechildhastolearntherol
eshewi l
l
occupyasanadul t
.Iti
sdur i
ngthi
sstagethattheadol
escentwillr
e-examinehisi
dent
it
y
andtrytofi
ndoutexactlywhoheorshei s.Eri
ksonsuggeststhattwoidenti
ti
esare
i
nvolved:t
hesexualandt heoccupat
ional
.
I
nti
macyv
s.I
sol
ati
on
I
nti
macyv
ersusi
sol
ati
oni
sthesi
xthst
ageofEr
ikEr
ikson'
stheor
yofpsy
chosoci
al
development.Thi
sst
agetakespl
acedur
ingy
oungadul
thoodbet
weent
heagesof
approximat
ely18to40yr
s.
Duri
ngt hi
speriod,themajorconf
li
ctcenter
sonfor
mingint
imat
e,l
ovi
ngrelat
ionshi
ps
wit
hot herpeople.Webegintoshareoursel
vesmorei
nti
matel
ywit
hothers.Weexplor
e
rel
ati
onshipsleadingtowardl
onger-
ter
m commitment
swi t
hsomeoneotherthana
famil
ymember .
Successful
complet
ionofthi
sst
agecanr
esulti
nhappyr
elat
ionshi
psandasenseof
commi t
ment ,
saf
ety
, andcar
ewi
thi
narel
ati
onshi
p.
Avoi
dinginti
macy,
fear
ingcommit
mentandr elat
ionshipscanleadtoisol
ati
on,
l
onel
iness,andsometi
mesdepr
ession.Successinthisstagewil
lleadtothevi
rt
ueof
l
ove.
Gener
ati
vi
tyv
s.St
agnat
ion
Generati
vi
tyver
susstagnat
ioni
sthesevent
hofei
ghtstagesofEr
ikEri
kson'
stheor
yof
psychosoci
aldevel
opment.Thi
sstaget
akespl
aceduri
ngduringmiddl
eadul
thood
(ages40to65y r
s).
Generat
ivi
tyr
efersto"makingyourmar
k"ont
hewor
ldt
hroughcr
eat
ingornur
tur
ing
t
hingsthatwi
lloutl
astanindiv
idual
.
Peopl
eexperi
enceaneedtocr
eateornur
tur
ethingsthatwil
loutl
astt
hem,
oft
enhav
ing
menteesorcr
eati
ngposi
ti
vechangest
hatwil
lbenefi
totherpeopl
e.
EgoI
ntegr
it
yvs.Despai
r
Egointegr
it
yversusdespai
ristheeighthandf
inal
stageofEri
kEri
kson’
sst
agetheor
y
ofpsychosoci
aldevel
opment.Thisstagebegi
nsatapproxi
matel
yage65andendsat
deat
h.
I
tisduri
ngthi
sti
methatwecontempl
ateouraccompli
shment
sandcandev
elop
i
ntegr
it
yifweseeour
selv
esasleadi
ngasuccessful
li
fe.
Eri
ksondescr i
bedegoint
egri
tyas“t
heaccept
anceofone’
soneandonlyl
if
ecycl
eas
somethingthathadtobe"(1950,
p.268)andl
ateras“
asenseofcoher
enceand
wholeness"(1982,
p.65).

Cr
it
icalEval
uat
ion
Byext
endingthenoti
onofpersonal
it
ydevel
opmentacr
osstheli
fespan,Er
iksonout
li
nes
amorereali
sti
cperspect
iveofper
sonal
i
tydevel
opment(McAdams, 2001)
.
BasedonEr
ikson’
sideas,
psychol
ogyhasreconcept
uali
zedthewaythel
aterperi
odsof
l
if
earevi
ewed.Middleandlat
eadult
hoodarenolongerviewedasi
rr
elev
ant,becauseof
Er
ikson,
theyar
enowconsi
der
edact
iveandsi
gni
fi
cantt
imesofper
sonal
growt
h.
Erikson’st
heoryhasgoodfaceval
idi
ty.Manypeoplefi
ndthatt
heycanrel
atetohi
s
theoriesaboutvar
iousst
agesoftheli
fecycl
ethroughthei
rownexper
iences.
Howev er,Er
iksonisrathervagueaboutthecausesofdevelopment.Whatkindsof
exper
iencesmustpeopl ehavetosuccessful
l
yresolvevar
iouspsychosocialconf
li
cts
andmov efrom onestagetoanother?Thetheorydoesnothaveauni v
ersalmechanism
forcr
isisresolut
ion.
I
ndeed,Er
ikson(1964)acknowl edgeshistheoryi
smor eadescripti
veov er
viewof
humansocialandemot i
onal developmentthatdoesnotadequatelyexplai
nhoworwhy
thi
sdevel
opmentoccur s.Forexampl e,Eri
ksondoesnotexpli
cit
lyexplai
nhowt he
outcomeofonepsy chosocialstageinf
luencespersonal
i
tyatalaterstage.

2.
2Cogni
ti
veTheor
y
Cogni
ti
vetheoryisatheoryt
hatsay
sthatl
ear
ningi
saprocessofchangei
nper
cept
ion
andunder
standingthatcanbemeasur
edandobser
ved.
1.Pi
aget
'sTheor
yofCogni
ti
veDev
elopment
Pi
aget
'sTheor
yDi
ff
ersFr
om Ot
her
sInSev
eral
Way
s:
▪I
tisconcer
nedwi
thchi
l
dren,
rat
hert
hanal
ll
ear
ner
s.
▪Itfocusesondevel
opment,r
atherthanl
ear
ningperse,
soi
tdoesnotaddr
essl
ear
ning
ofinformati
onorspeci
fi
cbehavior
s.
▪Itpr
oposesdiscr
etestagesofdevel
opment
,markedbyqual
itati
vedif
ferences,
rather
thanagradual
increaseinnumberandcompl
exi
tyofbehavi
ors,concepts,i
deas,et
c.

Ther
eAr
eThr
eeBasi
cComponent
sToPi
aget
'sCogni
ti
veTheor
y:
Schemas(
bui
l
dingbl
ocksofknowl
edge)
.
Adaptati
onprocessest
hatenabl
ethet
ransi
ti
onf
rom onest
aget
oanot
her(
equi
l
ibr
ium,
assi
mi l
ati
on,
andaccommodat i
on)
.
St
agesofCogni
ti
veDev
elopment
:
sensor
imot
or,
preoper
ati
onal
,concr
eteoper
ati
onal
,for
mal
oper
ati
onal
.

Pi
agetpr
oposedf
ourst
agesofcogni
ti
vedev
elopmentwhi
chr
efl
ectt
hei
ncr
easi
ng
sophi
sti
cat
ionofchi
l
dren'
sthought
:
Sensor
imot
orSt
age(
Bir
th-
2yr
s)
Themainachiev
ementdur i
ngthi
sstagei
sObjectPer
manence-knowingthatanobj
ect
st
il
lexi
sts,
evenifi
tishidden.
Itr
equi
rest
heabil
it
ytofor
m amentalr
epresentat
ion(
i.
e.,
aschema)oftheobject
.
Pr
eoper
ati
onalSt
age(
2-7y
ear
s)
Dur
ingthisstage,youngchil
drencanthi
nkaboutt hi
ngssymboli
cal
ly
.Thisi st
heabil
i
ty
t
omakeonet hing-awor doranobject-standforsomethingot
hert
hanitself
.Thi
nking
i
sstil
legocentri
c,andtheinf
anthasdiff
icult
ytaki
ngtheviewpoi
ntofot
her s.
Concr
eteOper
ati
onalSt
age(
7-11y
ear
s)
Piagetconsi
deredtheconcr
etestageamajort
urningpointi
nthechil
d'
scogni
tiv
e
developmentbecauseitmarkst
hebeginni
ngoflogical
oroperat
ionalt
hought
.
Thismeanst
hechil
dcanworkthi
ngsouti
nter
nal
l
yint
hei
rhead(
rat
hert
hanphy
sical
l
y
tr
ythi
ngsouti
nthereal
worl
d).
Chil
drencanconservenumber(
age6),
mass(age7)
,andwei
ght(
age9).Conserv
ati
on
i
stheunder st
andingt
hatsomet
hingst
ayst
hesameinquant
it
yev
enthoughits
appearancechanges.
For
malOper
ati
onalSt
age(
11y
ear
sandov
er)
Theformaloperat
ional
stagebegi
nsatappr
oximat
elyageelev
enandlastsint
o
adul
thood.Duri
ngthist
ime,peopl
edevel
optheabi
li
tytot
hinkaboutabst
ractconcept
s,
andl
ogicall
ytesthypot
heses.

2.Sosi
o-cul
tur
alCogni
ti
veTheor
ybyVy
got
sky
Vy
got
sky
'st
heor
ydi
ff
ersf
rom t
hatofPi
ageti
nanumberofi
mpor
tantway
s:
1:
Vygot
skypl
acesmor
eemphasi
soncul
tur
eaf
fect
ingcogni
ti
vedev
elopment
.
2:Vygotskyplacesconsi
der
abl
ymor
eemphasi
sonsoci
alf
act
orscont
ri
but
ingt
o
cogni
tiv
edev elopment.
3:Vygot
skypl
acesmor
e(anddi
ff
erent
)emphasi
sont
her
oleofl
anguagei
ncogni
ti
ve
devel
opment.
4:
Accor
dingt
oVy
got
skyadul
tsar
eani
mpor
tantsour
ceofcogni
ti
vedev
elopment
.

Li
kePi
aget
,Vy
got
skycl
aimedt
hati
nfant
sar
ebor
nwi
tht
hebasi
cmat
eri
als/
abi
l
iti
esf
or
i
ntel
l
ect
ual
dev
elopment-Pi
agetf
ocusesonmot
orr
efl
exesandsensor
yabi
l
iti
es.

LevVy
got
skyr
efer
sto'
el
ement
aryment
alf
unct
ions'
–
oAt
tent
ion
oSensat
ion
oPer
cept
ion
oMemor
y
Event
uall
y,t
hroughi
nter
acti
onwithi
nthesoci
ocul
tur
al env
ironment,t
heseare
devel
opedintomoresophi
sti
cat
edandeffect
ivementalprocesses/
str
ategi
eswhi
chhe
ref
erstoas'hi
ghermental
funct
ions.
'
Forexample,memoryinyoungchildr
enthisislimit
edbybiologicalf
actors.However,
cul
turedet
erminest
het y
peofmemor ystrategywedev el
op.E.g.,i
nourcul t
ure,we
l
earnnote-
taki
ngtoaidmemor y,butinpre-l
i
t er
atesoci
eti
es,otherstr
ategiesmustbe
devel
oped,suchast
y i
ngknotsinast r
ingtor emember,orcarryi
ngpebbles,orrepet
it
ion
ofthenamesofancestorsunt
ill
argenumber scanberepeated.
Vy
gotskyref
erstotoolsofint
ell
ectual
adaptat
ion-theseal
lowchil
drent
ouset hebasi
c
ment
alfunct
ionsmor eeff
ecti
vely/
adapti
vel
y,andthesearecul
tur
all
ydeter
mined(e.g.
,
memorymnemoni cs,mindmaps) .
Vygotsky,therefore,seescogni
ti
vefunctions,eventhosecarri
edoutalone,asaffect
ed
bythebeliefs,values,andtool
sofintel
lectualadaptat
ionofthecult
ureinwhi cha
persondev elopsandt heref
oresoci
o-cult
ur al
l
ydetermined.Thetool
sofi nt
ellect
ual
adaptati
on, t
herefore,varyf
rom cul
turetoculture-asinthememor yexampl e.

3.I
nfor
mat
ionPr
ocessi
ngTheor
y
Cogni
ti
vepsychol
ogyseest
heindi
vi
dualasapr
ocessorofi
nfor
mati
on,
inmuchthe
samewaythatacomputert
akesini
nfor
mati
onandfoll
owsaprogr
am t
oproducean
out
put.
Comput
er-Mi
ndAnal
ogy
Thedevelopmentofthecomputerinthe1950sand1960shadani mport
antinf
luence
onpsychologyandwas,inpart
,responsibl
eforthecogni
ti
veapproachbecomingthe
dominantapproachi
nmoder npsychology(taki
ngoverfr
om behavi
ori
sm).
Thecomputergav
ecognit
ivepsychol
ogist
sametaphor,
oranalogy,towhichtheycoul
d
comparehumanmentalprocessi
ng.Theuseoft
hecomputerasat oolforthi
nkinghow
thehumanmindhandl
esinformati
onisknownasthecomputeranalogy.
Essent
ial
l
y,acomputercodes(i
.e.,changes)i
nfor
mat i
on,
stor
esi
nfor
mation,
uses
i
nformati
on,andpr
oducesanout put(ret
ri
evesinf
o).Thei
deaofi
nfor
mationprocessi
ng
wasadoptedbycognit
ivepsy
chologistsasamodel ofhowhumanthoughtworks.
I
nfor
mat
ionPr
ocessi
ng&At
tent
ion
Whenwear eselect
ivel
yat
tendi
ngtooneact
ivi
ty,
wet endtoignoreothersti
mulati
on,
al
thoughouratt
enti
oncanbedistr
act
edbysomet hi
ngelse,l
i
ket hetelephoner
ingi
ngor
someoneusingourname.
Psy chol
ogistsareint
erestedinwhatmakesusat tendtoonethi
ngratherthananother
(selecti
veattent
ion);
whywesomet i
messwi tchourat t
enti
ontosomet hi
ngt hatwas
prev i
ouslyunatt
ended(e.g.CocktailPartySyndrome),andhowmanyt hi
ngswecan
attendtoatt hesamet i
me( attent
ionalcapacity)
.Onewayofconcept ual
izingatt
enti
on
i
st ot hi
nkofhumansasi nformati
onpr ocessorswhocanonl yprocessalimitedamount
ofinformationatat i
mewi thoutbecomi ngov er
loaded.
Br
oadbentandot
hersint
he1950'sadopt
edamodel oft
hebrai
nasal i
mitedcapaci
ty
i
nfor
mationpr
ocessi
ngsyst
em,throughwhi
chext
ernali
nputi
stransmi
tted.
Infor
mati
onprocessingmodel
sconsi
stofaser
iesofstages,orboxes,whichr
epr
esent
stagesofpr
ocessing.Ar
rowsi
ndi
catethef
lowofinf
ormationfrom onestaget
othe
next.
I
nputpr
ocessesar
econcer
nedwi
tht
heanal
ysi
soft
hest
imul
i
.
Stor
ageprocessescoverev
eryt
hingthathappenst
ost
imul
ii
nter
nal
l
yint
hebr
ainand
canincl
udecodingandmanipul
ationofthesti
muli
.
Out
putpr
ocessesar
eresponsi
blef
orpr
epar
inganappr
opr
iat
eresponset
oast
imul
us.

Cr
it
icalEval
uat
ion
1.Thei
nfor
mat
ionpr
ocessi
ngmodel
sassumeser
ial
processi
ngofst
imul
usi
nput
s.
Ser
ialprocessi
ngef
fect
ivel
ymeansonepr
ocesshast
obecompl
etedbef
oret
henext
st
arts.
Par
all
elpr
ocessi
ngassumessomeoral
lpr
ocessesi
nvol
vedi
nacogni
ti
vet
ask(
s)occur
att
hesamet i
me.
2.Theanal
ogybet
weenhumancogni
ti
onandcomput
erf
unct
ioni
ngadopt
edbyt
he
i
nformat
ionpr
ocessi
ngappr
oachi
sli
mited.
3.Theev i
dencefort
hetheori
es/
modelsofatt
enti
onwhichcomeundertheinf
ormat
ion
processi
ngapproachisl
argel
ybasedonexperi
mentsundercont
rol
l
ed,sci
enti
fi
c
condit
ions.
4.TheModelsproposedbyBr oadbentandTrei
smanar e'bott
om-up'or‘
sti
mulusdr
iven’
modelsofattent
ion.Althoughiti
sagreedthatsti
mulusdriveninf
ormati
onincogni
ti
on
i
simpor t
ant,
whatt heindivi
dualbri
ngstothetaskinter
msofexpect at
ions/
past
exper
iencesarealsoimpor t
ant.

2.
3Behav
ior
ism andSoci
alCogni
ti
veTheor
y
Behavior
ism focusesonhowaper son'senvironmentandsurroundingswi
ll
bringabout
changesintheirbehavi
or.Soci
alcogniti
vetheorydi
ffer
sfrom thisbybei
nga
perspect
ivethattri
estohelpusunderstandwhataper sonlearns,andhowtheyare
taki
ngcontrolofwhattheydointhepr ocess.
1.Behav
ior
ism Ski
nner
Ski
nnerisregardedasthefatherofOper antCondit
ioning,
buthi sworkwasbasedon
Thorndi
ke’s(1898)lawofeff
ect.Accordingtothisprinci
ple,behavi
orthati
sfol
lowedby
pl
easantconsequencesisli
kelytober epeated,andbehav i
orfoll
owedbyunpleasant
consequencesislessli
kel
ytober epeated.
Ski
nneri
dent
if
iedt
hreet
ypesofr
esponses,
oroper
ant
,thatcanf
oll
owbehav
ior
.
•Neut
raloperant
s:r
esponsesfr
om t
heenvi
ronmentt
hatnei
theri
ncr
easenordecr
ease
thepr
obabil
it
yofabehaviorbei
ngr
epeat
ed.
•Reinf
orcer
s:Responsesfr
om theenvi
ronmentthati
ncr
easetheprobabil
i
tyofa
behavi
orbeingrepeat
ed.Rei
nforcer
scanbeeit
herposit
iveornegat
ive.
•Puni
shers:
Responsesfrom t
heenvir
onmentthatdecr
easet
hel
i
kel
i
hoodofabehav
ior
bei
ngrepeated.Puni
shmentweakensbehav
ior
.
Looki
ngatSkinner
'scl
assi
cstudiesonpigeons’/r
at'
sbehav
iorwecani
dent
if
ysomeof
themajorassumpt
ionsofthebehavi
ori
stapproach.
•Psy
chol
ogyshoul
dbeseenasascience,t
obestudiedinasci
ent
ifi
cmanner.Ski
nner'
s
st
udyofbehav
iori
nrat
swasconductedundercar
eful
lycont
rol
l
edlabor
ator
ycondit
ions.
•Behavi
orism ispri
mari
l
yconcer nedwithobservabl
ebehavi
or,
asopposedtointer
nal
eventsl
ikethinki
ngandemot i
on.NotethatSkinnerdi
dnotsaythatt
herat
slearnedto
pressaleverbecauset
heywant edfood.Heinsteadconcent
rat
edondescri
bingthe
easil
yobservedbehavi
orthattheratsacqui
red.
•Themaj ori
nfl
uenceonhumanbehav iori
slear
ningfr
om ourenv
ironment
.Int
he
Skinnerst
udy,becausefoodfol
lowedapar t
icul
arbehavi
ort
heratslear
nedtor
epeat
thatbehavi
or,
e.g.,oper
antcondit
ioni
ng.
•Thereisl
it
tl
edifferencebet
weent
helearni
ngthatt
akesplaceinhumansandthati
n
otherani
mals.Thereforer
esear
ch(
e.g.
,oper
antcondit
ioni
ng)canbecarr
iedouton
ani
mals(Rat
s/Pigeons)aswel
lasonhumans.Ski
nnerproposedthatt
hewayhumans
l
earnbehavi
ori
smucht hesameasthewayt
her at
slear
nedtopressalever
.

2.Soci
alCogni
ti
veTheor
y
Socialcogniti
vetheoryisalearningt heorydevelopedbyt herenownedSt anf
ord
psychologyprofessorAlbertBandur a.Thet heoryprovi
desaf rameworkf or
understandinghowpeopl eactivelyshapeandar eshapedbyt heirenvi
ronment.I
n
part
icular,
thetheorydetail
sthepr ocessesofobser vat
ionall
earningandmodel i
ng,
and
theinfl
uenceofsel f
-eff
icacyont hepr oductionofbehav i
or.
In1977,Bandurai
ntroducedSocialLearni
ngTheory,whichfurt
herr
efinedhisideason
observ
ational
lear
ningandmodel ing.Thenin1986,Bandurarenamedhi st
heor ySoci
al
Cognit
iveTheoryi
nor dertoputgreateremphasisonthecogniti
vecomponent sof
observ
ational
lear
ningandt hewaybehav i
or,cogni
ti
on,andtheenvir
onmenti nter
actto
shapepeople.
Obser
vat
ionalLear
ning
Amaj orcomponentofsocialcogniti
vetheoryisobservat
ionall
earni
ng.Bandura’sideas
aboutlearni
ngstoodi
ncont r
asttot hoseofbehaviori
stsli
keB.F.Ski
nner.Accordingto
Skinner,
lear
ningcoul
donlybeachi evedbyt aki
ngindi
vidualact
ion.However,Bandura
clai
medt hatobser
vat
ionall
earning,thr
oughwhi chpeopleobserveandimitat
emodel s
theyencounteri
nthei
renvi
ronment ,enablespeopletoacquirei
nformati
onmuchmor e
quickl
y.
Obser
vat
ional
lear
ningoccur
sthr
oughasequenceoff
ourpr
ocesses:
Att
enti
onalprocessesaccountf
orthei
nfor
mati
onthati
ssel
ectedf
orobser
vati
oninthe
envi
ronment.Peoplemightsel
ectt
oobserver
eal
-l
i
femodelsormodel
stheyencount
er
vi
amedi a.
Retent
ionprocessesi
nvol
veremember i
ngtheobser
vedi
nfor
mat
ionsoi
tcanbe
successf
ull
yrecall
edandreconst
ruct
edlat
er.
Producti
onprocessesreconstructthememor i
esoftheobservat
ionssowhatwas
l
earnedcanbeappl i
edi
nappr opriat
esi
tuati
ons.I
nmanycases, thi
sdoesn’
tmeanthe
observerwi
l
lreplicat
etheobser vedact
ionexactl
y,butt
hattheywill
modif
ythebehav
ior
toproduceav ar
iati
onthatfi
tsthecontext.
Motiv
ationalprocessesdet erminewhetherornotanobservedbehaviori
sperformed
basedonwhet herthatbehav i
orwasobservedtoresul
tindesiredoradverseoutcomes
fort
hemodel .Ifanobser vedbehav i
orwasr ewar
ded,t
heobser verwi
llbemor e
motiv
atedt oreproduceitlater.However,
ifabehavi
orwaspuni shedinsomeway ,t
he
observ
erwoul dbel essmot ivatedt
oreproduceit
.Thus,social
cognit
ivetheor
ycaut i
ons
t
hatpeopl
edon’
tper
for
m ev
erybehav
iort
heyl
ear
nthr
oughmodel
i
ng.
Sel
f-
Eff
icacy
Inadditi
ontot heinfor
mat i
onmodel scanconv eydur i
ngobser vat
ional
learning,
model
s
canalsoincreaseordecr easetheobserver’
sbeliefintheirself
-ef
fi
cacytoenact
observedbehav i
orsandbr ingaboutdesir
edout comesf rom thosebehaviors.When
peopleseeot hersli
kethem succeed,theyalsobelievetheycanbecapabl eof
succeeding.Thus, model
sar easourceofmot i
vati
onandi nspi
rati
on.

2.
4Ecol
ogi
calSy
stemsTheor
y
Ecol
ogi
calsy
stemst
heor
ypr
ovi
desoneapproachtoansweri
ngthi
squest
ion.The
ecol
ogi
cal
systemst
heor
ywasdev
elopedbyUrieBr
onfenbr
enner.
Bronf enbr ennerbel i
evedt hataperson'
sdev el
opmentwasaf fectedbyeverythingin
theirsur r
oundi ngenv i
ronment .Hediv
idedtheperson'senvi
ronmentintofiv
edi ff
erent
l
ev els:themi crosystem, t
hemesosy stem,theexosy st
em,themacr osyst
em, andthe
chronosy stem.I nthislesson,y ouwi
lll
earnaboutthesediff
erentenvir
onment all
evels
bymeet ingf i
v e-year
-oldAl exandexamini
ngt hei
nfluencesinhisli
fe.
Mi
crosy
stem
Wewi llbegi nwiththefi
rstlevelofBronfenbrenner '
stheory
: t
hemi cr
osy stem.The
mi crosy stem i sthesyst
em cl osesttotheper sonandt heonei nwhi chtheyhav edi
rect
cont act.Someexampl eswoul dbehome, school ,daycar
e,orwor k.Ami crosystem
typicallyincl udesfamily
, peers,orcaregi
vers.Relati
onshipsinami crosystem arebi-
directional .Inotherwords, yourreacti
onstot hepeopl ei
ny ourmi crosystem wi l
laff
ect
howt heyt r eatyouinreturn.Thisisthemosti nf
luenti
all
eveloftheecol ogi calsyst
ems
theor y.
Mesosy
stem
Thenextlevelofecological
systemst heoryi
st hemesosystem.Themesosy stem
consi
stsoftheinter
act i
onsbetweent hediff
erentpart
sofaper son'
smi cr
osy stem.The
mesosystem iswher eaperson'sindi
vidualmicrosy
stemsdonotf unct
ionindependently,
butareint
erconnectedandasser tinf
luenceupononeanot her
.Theseinteracti
onshav e
anindi
rectimpactont heindiv
idual.
Exosy
stem
Theexosy stem isthenextlevel
wewi l
lexamine.Theexosy stem r
eferst
oaset ti
ngthat
doesnotinv olv
et hepersonasanact i
vepart
ici
pant,
butst i
llaff
ectsthem.Thisincl
udes
decisi
onst hathavebear i
ngontheperson,butinwhichtheyhav enoparti
cipat
ioninthe
decisi
on-makingpr ocess.Anexamplewouldbeachi ldbeingaf f
ectedbyaparent
receiv
ingapr omot i
onatwor korlosi
ngthei
rjob.
Macr
osy
stem
Themacrosyst
em isthelargestandmostdi st
antcoll
ecti
onofpeopleandplacestothe
chi
ldr
enthatst
il
lhavesignifi
cantinf
luencesonthem.Thisecologi
calsy
stem is
composedofthechil
dren’scult
uralpatter
nsandvalues,speci
fi
cal
lyt
heirdominant
bel
ief
sandideas,aswellaspoliti
calandeconomicsy st
ems.
Forexample,
chi
ldr
eninwar-
tornareaswil
lexper
ienceadi
ff
erentki
ndofdev
elopment
thanchi
ldr
eninpeacef
ulenv
ironments.
Chr
onosy
stem
TheBr onfenbrennert
heorysuggeststhatthechr
onosyst
em addstheusef
uldi
mensi on
ofti
me, whichdemonst ratest
heinfl
uenceofbothchangeandconstancyi
nthe
chi
ldren’
senv ironment
s.Thechronosy st
em mayincl
udeachangeinfamil
ystruct
ure,
address,parents’empl
oy mentst
atus,aswellasimmensesociet
ychangessuchas
economi ccyclesandwar s.
Bystudyingt
hevari
ousecologi
calsy
stems,Bronfenbrenner’
sEcologi
calSyst
ems
Theoryisabl
etodemonstratet
hediver
sit
yofi nt
err
elatedinf
luencesonchi
ldr
en’
s
devel
opment.Awarenessofthecont
extsthatchil
drenareincansensit
izeusto
var
iati
onsinthewaychil
drenmayactindiff
erentsett
ings.

2.
5Ecl
ect
icTheor
eti
calOr
ient
ati
on
Eclecti
ctheoret
ical ori
ent
ationdoesnotf ol
lowanyt heoreti
calapproach,
butchooses
andusesaspect st hatareconsideredthebestofeacht heory.Throughthisview,none
ofthetheori
esexpl ainedinthischaptercanfull
yexplai
nt heenti
recompl exi
tyof
adolescentdevelopment .Eacht heor
ycontributesmeaningful
lytoourunderstandingof
adolescentdevelopment ,butnoonecanpr ov i
deacompl et
edescripti
onand
explanati
on.
CHAPTERI
II

CLOSI
NG
3.
1Concl
usi
ons
Accor dingt othet heoryofpsy choanal y
sist hest ruct ureoft hehumanper sonal i
ty
consi stsoft hreest ruct uresnamel yi d,egoandsuperego.Teenager s'li
vesar ef i
ll
ed
withcal m andconf l
ict.Teenager st ryt osuppr esst het ensi onexper iencedbyr educing
theconf l
ictintotheunconsci ousmi nd.Ev enseemi ngl yt r
ivialbehav i
orsar eact ual
lyan
i
mpor tantaspectwhent heunconsci ousf orcebehi ndt hebehav i
ori sexpr essed.The
defensemechani sm i sanunconsci ousmet hodf ordi stor t
ingr eali
ty ,whichi susedby
theegot opr otecti tselff r
om anxi etycausedbyconf li
ct sbet weent het hreeper sonality
structures.Thepr oblemsexper iencedbyi ndividual sst em f rom ear lyexper i
encesof
childhood.Accor dingt oFr eud, ev eryhumanwi l
l exper ience5st agesofpsy chosexual
dev elopmenti nhi sl if
e, namel yt heOr alStage, theAnal Stage, theFal i
kStage, theLat ent
Stageandt heGeni t
al St age.Accor dingt oEr i
ksont hemai nmot i
vat ionofhumansi s
soci aldif
ferentf r
om Fr eudwhost at edt hemai nmot ivationofhumansi ssexual .
Humansdev elopt hroughoutt hei rlifet hroughei ghtst agesofdev elopment .Theei ght
stagesofdev elopment , accordi ngt oEr i
kson, areI ntegr ityv ersusDi sappoi nt
ment ,
Awakeni ngv s.Stagnat ion, I
ntimacyv ersusConf idence, Ident i
tyver susConf usionof
Ident i
ty,Dil
igencev ersusI nferiority, Init
iati
onv ersusRsaGui lt
,Aut onomyv ersusShame
andDoubtandTr ustv er susUnbel ief.
Cogni tivetheor yemphasi zesconsci oust hought s;t het hreecogni t
iv et heor iesar ethe
theoriest hatPi agetputf or war d, thesoci al cultur al cogni tivet heor yputf orwar dby
Vygot skyandt hei nf ormat ionpr ocessi ngt heor y.Pi agetdi videst hest agesofcogni ti
v e
developmenti nto4st agesnamel ySensor yst age, Pr eoper ational st age, Concr ete
Oper ational st age, andFor mal Oper at ional stage.Vi got skyemphasi zeshowcul tur
eand
social interact iondi rectcogni tivedev elopment .Wher easi nf ormat ionpr ocessi ngtheory
emphasi zeshowi ndi vi
dual smani pulat e,moni toranddev elopst rat egiesf ort he
i
nformat ionf ound.Yout hdev elopi nf ormat ioncapaci ty;wi tht hist heygai ngr eater
knowl edgeandski llst opr ocesscompl exBehav i
or ism Theor y( Ski nner )st atest hat
developmenti sl ear nedandst rongl yi nf l
uencedbyt heenv i
ronment ;meani ngt hatthe
environmenthasaconsi der ablei nfluenceoni ndi vidual dev elopment .Thi st heor ystates
thatthei ndi vidual atbi rt
hhasbr oughtsomet hingt hati saher edi tyofbot hpar ents.
Bandur a,theor iginat orofsoci al cogni ti
v et heor y, stat est hatbehav ior,env ir
onmentand
cogni t
ionar ei mpor tantfact orsi ndev el opment .Ecol ogical cont ext ual theor y
emphasi zest hei mpor t
anceofenv i
ronment alinfluencesondev el opmentt hroughf ive
environment al sy stemst hatr angef r om di recti nteract i
onwi thbr oadsoci o-cultural
agent s.Br of enBr enner ,theor i
gi natoroft hist heor y ,arguest hatt hef ivesy stemsar e
themi crosy stem, themesosy st em, theecosy st em, themacr osy stem, andt he
chronosy stem.Ofal ltheor iesaboutdev elopment , noneoft hem canexpl ainhuman
devel
opmentcompl
etel
yandcomprehensi
vel
y.Thati
swhya"
Ecl
ect
ive"appr
oachi
s
neededi
nstudyi
nghumandevel
opment.
BI
BLI
OGRAPHY
ht
tps:
//www.
simpl
ypsy
chol
ogy
.or
g
ht
tps:
//www.
thought
co.
com/
soci
al-
cogni
ti
ve-
theor
y-4174567
htt
ps:
//st
udy
.com/academy/l
esson/br
onf
enbr
enner
s-ecol
ogi
cal
-sy
stems-
theor
y-of
-
devel
opment
-def
ini
ti
on-exampl
es.ht
ml
ht
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