DI

STANCELEARNINGCENTREAHMADUBELLO
UNI
VERSI
TYZARIA,NI
GERI
A.

I
NDI
VIDUALASSI
GNMENTTOBESUBMI
TTED

BY

HAMZAAI
SHASHI
TTU
U19DLNS20703

Pr
ogr
ammeTi
tl
e:Bachel
ori
nNur
singSci
ence(
BNSc)

CourseCode&Cour
seTi
tl
e:EDPS302Dev
elopment
al
Psy
chology

TUTOR:MRSMAI
MUNATABDULLAHI
 MODULE2
STUDYSECTI
ON1&2.
Summar
y
Psychologists,gui
dancecounsel
orsandeducat or
shav egivenvar
iousdefi
nit
ionsof
adolescencef rom t
imetotimeintermsofphy si
cal,
ment al
,soci
alandemot i
onal
mat ur
it
y.Adol escenceperi
odisveryi
nfantstageintheli
feofanyindi
vi
dual.Attenti
on
mustbepai datthisperi
odbecauseoftheissuesandpr obl
emsassociatedwitht hi
s
stageoflif
e.

a)Adolescenceisaper i
odoft ransi
ti
onfrom chil
dhoodt oadulthoodt hatis
accompaniedwi t
hphy si
cal,social
,andment aldevelopment. Thisstageofdev el
opment
vari
esinlengthfr
om f ami l
ytof amil
y;fr
om onesoci o-economi cleveltoanother,
and
fr
om cultur
et ocul
ture.Itincludestheperiodofment al
,emot i
onalandsoci almatur
it
y,
l
egal maturi
tyaswellasphy sicalmatur
ity
.Somepsy chologists mai ntai
nedthat
chronol
ogicall
yadolescencel iesroughl
ybet weenagesof12and18y ears.

b)Adolescent
sar
echar
act
eri
zedwi
thphy
sical
,ment
al,
soci
alandemot
ional
devel
opment .

c)Developmentalt
asksofchildhood,adolescenthoodandadul thoodrefertothose
probl
emst hati
ndivi
dualstypi
call
yfaceatt hesestagesoftheirli
fe’
sdevelopment,t
he
successorfail
urewilll
eadanindivi
dualtohishappinessorunhappi nessinthesociet
y.
Thedevelopmentaltasksgeneral
lyrel
ati
ont ophysical,
emotional,andment al
devel
opment sinaddit
iontosex-r
oletypi
ngandsex- r
oleexpectati
onsofbot hboysand
gir
ls.

d)Thepr oblem ofadolescentsari

sesf r
om unsuccessf ulaccomplishmentsoflater
tasksi nthesociety.Apartfrom t
hepr oblemsofmat ur
ati
oni nter
msofear lyandlate
mat urers.Mat ur
ingearli
erthanage-mat esconst i
tut
eapr oblem t
hataffect
stheir
physical appearanceeitherposi
ti
velyornegat i
v el
ywhichmayser veasembar r
assment
tobot hsexes.Theconsequenceofear ly-and-
latematurer’
sv iewofphy si
cal,soci
al
andgener alappearancecanbenot iced.

e)Somedev el
opmental
psy
chologi
stsli
keFr
eud,Pi
agetandEr
icksonemphasi
zedt
he
adol
escent
’ssoci
alandemoti
onaldevel
opment
;cogni
ti
veandpsycho-
soci
al
dev
elopment
.

STUDYSECTI
ON3
Summar
y
Adult
hoodi sassociatedwithagingintermsofbi ologicalandsocial
changesacrossthe
l
ifespan.Biol
ogicalagingrefer
st ochangesi nt
hest ructureandfuncti
oni
ngofthe
humanor ganism thr
ought i
me.Whi lesocialagi
ngr eferstochangesinanindi
vi
dual’s
assumptionandr eli
nquishmentofrolesthrought i
me.

Adultimpliesgrowntofull
sizeandst
rengthormat
ured.Today,
legal
l
y,adult
hoodhas
reachedatt heageofeighteenort
wenty-
onewhenanindivi
dualhast
herighttov
otei
n
thepolit
icaldi
spensat
ion.

a.Adul
thoodi
sthel
ongestper
iodoft
hel
i
fespan.

b.Thesubdiv i
sionsofAdulthoodareear
lyadul
thood:
ear
lyadul
thood
(approxi
mat ely40 year
s) ;middl
e adult
hood ormiddle age(approxi
matel
y
40toappr oximatel
y60y ears)
;andlat
eadult
hoodorOl
dage( appr
oximatel
y65
yearstodeat h).

c.Theearly,
middl
eandlateadult
hoodexper
iencedcert
ainpredi
ctabl
ephy
sical
,
physi
ologi
cal
,psychol
ogi
cal,
social
andvocati
onalchanges.

d. Thedevel
opmental
t asksoftheseperi
odsaremeanttoassistthem adj
ustto
tasksrel
atedt
osocial,phy
sical
,mental
,vocat
ional
,phy
siologi
calchangesthat
occurduri
ngtheear
lyadulthood,middl
eadult
hoodandlateryears.

e. Devel
opmentalt
askdur
ingtheearl
yadul
thoodi
ncl
ude;
gett
ingstar
tedinan
occupati
on,
select
ingamate,l
earni
ngtol
ivewit
hamarri
agepart
neretc.

f
. Middleadult
hooddev elopmentalt
askincl
ude;achievi
ngadultciv
icandsoci
al
responsi
bil
it
y,assi
sti
ngt eenagechil
drent
obecomer esponsi
bleandhappy
adult
s,devel
opingadultlei
sure-t
imeactiv
iti
es;andrelat
ingoneselft
oone’
s
spouseasaper son,etc.

g.Thedev
elopment
alt
asksofol
dagear
e;adj
ust
ingt
odecr
easi
ngphy
sical
 strengt
handhealt
h,adj
ust
ingt
oret
ir
ementandr educedi
ncome,adj
ust
ingt
o
deathofspouse,
establ
i
shi
nganexpli
citaf
fi
li
ati
onwithmembersofone’
sage
group,etc.

h. Themet hodsofadjustment swillassi

stthem totackl
etheirhazardsespecial
l
y
physical
,biol
ogi
cal,
psy chologicalandphy si
ologi
calhazards.Aspeoplemov ed
from ear
lyadult
hoodt omi ddleageandt hent ooldage,therear
eusual decl
inein
physical
,physi
ologi
calandpsy chologi
calaspectsofhumandev el
opment .

STUDYSECTI
ON4
Summar
y
Oldagei st hecl
osi
ngperiodintheli
fespan.Agesixtyi
susuall
yconsideredthedivi
ding
l
inebet weenmi ddl
eandol dage.Chronol
ogicalagei
sapoorcr i
teri
atouseinmar ki
ng
offthebegi nni
ngofoldagebecauset her
earesuchmar keddif
ferencesamong
i
ndividualsintheageandbet t
eragi
ngact ual
lybegi
ns.Becauseofbetterl
ivi
ng
conditi
onsheal t
hcare,mostmenandwoment odaydonotshowt hement aland
physicalsignsofagi
ngunt i
learl
yseventi
es.

1.Charact
eri
sti
csofol
dagearefarmor
elikel
ytoleadtopooradj
ust
mentt
hantogood
andtounhappi
nessrat
hert
hantohappi
ness.Thatiswhyoldagei
sevenmoredr
eaded
thanmiddl
eage.

i
.Oldagei saperi
odofdecl i
ne-decl
inecomespartl
yfrom physi
calandpart
lyfr
om
psychologi
cal
factor
s.Thereischangeinbodycel
lsduet otheagi
ngprocess.
Unfavorabl
eatt
it
udetowar dsoneselfandli
fei
ngeneralcanleadtodecl
ineorbecome
depressedanddisor
ganized.Moti
vationpl
aysaveryi
mpor t
antrol
eindecli
ne.

i
i.Thereareindi
vi
dualdif
ferencesintheeff
ectsofaging.Peopleagedif
fer
ent
ly
becausetheyhavediff
erentheredit
aryendowment,di
f f
erentsoci
oeconomicand
educati
onalbackgr
oundsanddi f
fer
entpatter
nsofli
vi
ng.Thegener al
rulei
sphysi
cal
agingprecedesmentalaging.

i
ii
.Oldageisj
udgedbydi
ff
erentcri
teri
a-agei sj
udgedinter
msofphy si
cal
appear
ance
andacti
vi
ti
es.Onewhohaswhitehairisl
abeledasold.Ther
ear emanywhotr
ytocover
upthei
ragi
ngsymptomstocreatei
llusi
onthattheyarenotyetold.

i
v.Ther
ear
emanyst
ereot
ypesofol
dpeopl
e-l
eti
tbet
hef
olkl
ore,
themedi
a,poet
ry,
fi
cti
on,jokesordif
fer
entf
ormsofhumororsci
entif
icstudi
es,all
portraytheagedas
thosewhoar ewornoutphysi
cal
l
yandmentall
y,unproduct
ive,
accident-prone,har
dto
l
ive,daysofuseful
nessar
eover,
shoul
dbepushedasi detomakewayf oryounger
people.

v.Pooradjustmentischaracter
isti
cofoldage-Becauseoft heunfavorabl
esocial
atti
tudestowardstheelderl
ythatareref
lect
edinthewayt hesocialgrouptreatt
hem,i
t
i
snotsur pri
singthatmanyelderlypeopl
edev el
opunfavorabl
eself-
concepts.These
tendtobeexpr essedi
nmal adjusti
ngbehavi
orofdif
ferentdegreeofsev er
it
y .

2.Physi
calandcogni
ti
veChangesi
nOldAge:Agingi
scharact
eri
zedbyphy
siol
ogical
changesthatl
eadtoprogr
essi
vest
ruct
ural
andfunct
ional
decrement
sinal
lti
ssuesand
organs.

3.Personal
it
yDev el
opmentinOldAge:Theolderadultl
ooksbackatli
fe,
v i
ewi
ngi
tas
ei
therameani ngf
ul,pr
oduct
ive,and(
Genit
aldespair
)happyexperi
enceoramajor
di
sappointmentfull
ofunful
fi
ll
edpromisetheoutcomeofthisfi
nall
if
ecrisi
s.

4.Deathismarkedbytheendofbl
oodcir
culati
on,t
heendofoxygentr
anspor
tto
organsandti
ssues,t
heendofbrai
nfunct
ion,andover
all
organf
ail
ure.

5.Inf
luencesofcul
tur
e,et
hni
cit
y,andr
eli
gionbeli
efshel
ptoshapepeopl
e’satt
it
udes
towarddeath.Howonediesandhowoner espondstodeat
hvarygr
eatl
y,dependi
ngon
thecultur
alcont
ext
.

6.Death’
simpactont hef
amily:Of
tenfamil
ieswit
hamemberwhoi sdyingexperi
ence
str
essmor ekeenlythant
hedyingpersondoes.Theyar
ecopingwit
hdeepfeeli
ngsof
anti
cipat
edloss,butdonotknowhowt oapproachthei
rdy
inglov
edone.

7.Kubl
er-
ross’
sst
agesofgr
iefandl
oss:

I
.Denial
:theprelimi
naryst
age,occurswhent
heper sondoesnotbeli
evethatthe
di
agnosisiscorrect
.Duri
ngthestageofdeni
al,onemayseekadv i
cefrom several
doct
ors,hopingthatoneofthem wil
lof
feramor eaccept
abl
eprognosis.Becausehope
i
smai nt
ained,thecl
ienti
ssuscepti
blet
ounorthodox,i
ll
egal
,orhar
mf ulwaysofcoping
wit
hadiagnosis.

II
.Anger:t
heindi
vi
duali
sangryandmayhaveper
iodsofact
ing-
outorr
age.Heorshe
mayask: Whydidthi
shappentome?Whynow?Whoi stobl
ame?Of t
en,thei
ndi
vi
dual
envi
esthepersonwhoisyoungandheal
thy
;heorshemaylashoutatfamil
ymembers
orheal
thcareper
sonnel
.
I
II
.Bargaini
ng:isastageofdevelopi
ngawar enessoft hesit
uat
ion.Anindi
vi
dualmakes
dealsorbargai
nswit
hGodorwi thhimselforher sel
f:Forexample,
IfIl
i
v ej
ust2more
weeks,Whent hebar
gainedf
ortimehaspassed, thepersonmaymakeanot hersuch
bargai
n,i
nthehopesofpostponingdeathindefinit
ely
.

IV:Depression:whent hepersonreali
zesthatheorsheisgoi ngtodieandt hatnothing
canbedonet ost opit.Thesenti
mentoft hi
sphasewoul dbeIam sosad.Ihav eno
hopeofr ecovery.Unlikesomef ormsofpsy chologi
cal
lydiagnoseddepression,this
stageandf orm ofdepr essi
onisconsideredanor mal,
healthyphase.Howev er,i
tmaybe
benefici
alfortheclientand,occasional
ly
,familymember storecei
vepsy chological
therapy,i
ncludingmedi cati
on.

V.Accept ance:isdemonst r
atedwhent heclientwishest oplanforli
feafterdeathorfor
theirfamilyaft
ertheydie.Iam atpeacewi t
ht hediagnosi s.Asanindiv
idual r
esol
ves
emot ionalconfl
ict
saboutdeat h,heorsheent ersthest ageofreali
zati
onand
accept anceoftheinev i
tabi
l
ityofdeath.Toreacht hispoint,apersonusuall
ymusthav e
hadt i
meandassi stanceinwor ki
ngthroughtheear li
erstages.Asdy i
ngper sonsresi
gn
themsel vestodeath,theymayseem dev oi
dofal l
f eel
ing.Thisti
mei sparti
cular
ly
diff
icultfort
hef amily,
whomayi nter
pretanindivi
dual’sacceptanceofdeat hasa
rej
ectionofl i
feandoft hem.

MODULE3
STUDYSECTI
ON1
Summar
y
Thest ageconceptofhumandev elopmentimpliesthathumandev el
opmentisdivided
i
nt ostepli
kelevelswi
thclear
-cutchangesinbehavioroccurr
ingfr
om onestaget othe
next.Thestageconceptofhumandev el
opmentshoul dbecompar edtot
hepr ocessof
i
nsetmet amor phosi
s.Thetheoryofpsychosexualdevelopmentwasnamedaf ter
SigmundFr eud.

TheFreudianstagetheor
yofpsychosexualdevel
opmentemphasizeonprogr
essi
ve
stagesofchil
d’sdev
elopmentasheexper i
encedpsychosexual
confl
i
cts’
whichar
e
resol
vedthroughegodefensemechanism.

SigmundFr eudpostul
atedt
hatachil
dpassest
hroughf
ivemaj
orprogressi
vest
agesof
psychosexualdevel
opmentnamely:
oralst
age(Bi
rt
hto18months)
, analSt
age(
18
monthsto3years)
,phal
l
icst
age(
ageofthr
eet
osi
x),
lat
encyst
age(
Ageof6t
o12
year
s)andgeni
talst
age(12t
o18year
s).

Eachst
agei
schar act
eri
zedbycer
tai
ndevel
opment
al andbehav
iorchanges.Fur
ther,
eachst
agepossessesforChi
l
drenauni
queconf
li
ctthattheymustresol
vebefor
et hey
passontot
henextstage.

I
ndividualsmaybecomesoaddi ctedtothepl easureofagivenstagethattheyare
unwill
ingt omov eont olaterstage.Thisalsomaybeast hepr ocessofstagnat
ion
whichi ndivi
dualsexperienceincludi
ngfixationasar esul
toffrustr
ati
onor
overi
ndul gence.Fixati
oninthev iewofZanden( 1978)ist
het endencytostayata
part
icularstaget obet r
oubledbyt heconf l
ictofthestageandt oreducetensi
onby
meansoft hebehav iourcharacteri
sti
cofthatst age.

Themaj orprogr
essi
vestagesofpsy
chosexualdevel
opmentofHumanbeings,
the
psychosexualconf
li
ctsofchi
ldr
enarepr
otectedbyegodefensemechani
sms.

Freud i denti
fies sever aldef ense mechani sms whi ch children,adol escentsand
adultsuset oexcuset hei rdif
fi
culti
esorshor t
comi ngandf ai
lure.Egodef ense
mechani smsar eactivatedwhenani ndi
vi
dual confrontseri
ousanxi etyandemot ional
conflict
.Theyar ement aldevi
cesusedbyi ndividualst
opr ot
ectt hemsel v esfrom
dist
or ti
onofr eali
ty.ThemostCommondef ensemechani smsar epr ojection,reacti
on
format i
on, r
ati
onalization,displacement,r epression,denial,subl imat ion and
regression.Thesedef ensemechani smsar eusedt oprotecttheegochi ldr endevelopas
partofper sonalit
ydev elopment .Proj
ect
iondef ensemechani sm occur sasani ndivi
dual
ascribeshi sunacceptabl ebehav i
ourtoothers,tojusti
fyself
-defense.

STUDYSECTI
ON2
Summar
y
Therearemanyv iewsofl ear
ningtheor
iesinthedevel
opmentofhumanbeings.Thi
s
hel
pust ounder
standthatlearni
ngisacont i
nuousprocessi
nwhichwemodi f
your
behaviorasweencount ersuccessorfail
ureinourenvi
ronment
.Theor
yisamol ar
approachtohumandev elopmentandbehav i
or.

Thi
ssessi
onhi
ghl
i
ght
edsomel
ear
ningt
heor
ies

Learning t
heori
es ofHuman Dev elopmentot herwi
se known asBehav i
ori
sti
c
t
heories of human developmentseelear
ningascommuni cati
vewhichbuildupon
i
tsel
fthemainpurposeoflearni
ngtheori
esistoexplai
nlear
ningoper
ations.Lear
ning
t
heori
esar
er oot
edinamechanisti
corient
ati
oninwhi
chthemodel foral
loccur
rences
i
sthemachine.WhereasSt
agetheori
esarederi
vedfr
om oneorgani
sticor
ient
ati
onin
whi
chtheunderl
yingmodeli
sthebiol
ogicalor
gani
sm andi
tsacti
vit
ies.

i
.Operantcondi tions:Ski
nnerbeli
evedt hatiti
sr el
ev antandprofi
tabletoobser v
eand
i
denti
fyf act
or sthatinfl
uenceindi
viduals’behavior.Heseesl ear
ningasaser i
esof
exper
ienceswhi chi nfl
uencesbehav i
oralchangei nthesamewayt hatconditi
oningdoes.
Heseesl earningasaser iesofexperienceswhi chinfluencesbehav i
oralchangei nt
he
samewayt hatcondi ti
oningdoes.Herecondi t
ioningdenot estheprocessbywhi ch
condi
tionedr esponsesar elear
nedoracqui red.

i
i.Classicalcondi
ti
ons:behaviori
sel i
cit
edbyst i
mulusandt heassoci
ati
onisbetweena
sti
mul useli
citedr
esponses.IvanPav l
ovstudiesthesali
vat
ionrefl
exindogsinthe
presentati
onofapi eceofmeat .Hediscoveredthatbypair
ingthesoundofabel l
with
thepieceofmeat ,heestabli
shedanewr el
ationshi
pbetweenast i
mulus(thesoundofa
bell
)andar esponse( Sal
iv
ation)thatwasnotassociatedwithoneanother.

i
ii.Soci
all
ear ni
ngtheor yemphasizeonsoci alvari
ableasdeterminantsofbehavi
orand
personal
it
y .Bandurapr oposedthatchil
drenlearnthroughi
mi t
ati
onormodel i
ngonwhat
theyseeandhearot herpeoplesayanddo.Heusest hewordmodel ingal
ongwi t
hthe
termsasobser vati
onal lear
ningandvicari
ouslearningtomeant hatthechil
daddst ohi
s
repert
oir
eofact i
onsbyseei ngorheari
ngsome- oneelseper
formt hebehaviourr
ather
thanbyov ertl
ymanif esti
ngthebehaviourhimself.

Ther el
evanceoflearningtheoriesastheyi nfl
uencehumandev el
opmentalst
agesand
behav i
or.Itwasseent hatpsychologi
stsusual l
yseehowi nst
rument
alcondit
ioni
ngand
respondentconditi
oninginfl
uenceachi ld’sdevelopmentandbehavi
orwhil
esocial
l
earningt heor
yemphasi zedhowachi l
dl earnactiv
elyt
hroughimi
tat
ionandmodel i
ng
whatheseesandhear sotherpeoplesayanddo.

STUDYSECTI
ON3
Summar
y
Eri
ckErickson,Danishpsychol
ogistofNeo-Fr
eudianpsy choanalyt
ictr
adi
ti
onidenti
fi
es
ei
ghtmaj orpsychosocial
stages.Eachpsychosocialcr
isisorstageisphr
asedasa
str
ugglebet weentwooppositeorconfl
ict
ingpersonali
tycharacteri
sti
cst
hroughouta
person’
slifespan.

Hest
ressest
hatchi
l
drenar
eact
ive,
adapt
iveexpl
orer
swhoseekt
ocont
inuet
hei
r
envir
onmentr at
herthanpassi vecreatur
eswhoar emoldedbyt heirparent
s.Healso
assumesthathumanbei ngsarer ati
onalcr
eat ureswhosethoughts,feeli
ngsand
acti
onsarelargel
ycontrolledbytheego.Er iksonhasbeenknownasanego
psychol
ogistbecausehebel ievesthatanindividual
mustfirstunderstandthereal
i
ties
ofthesoci
al worl
d(anegof uncti
on)inordertoadaptsuccessf ul
lyandshowanor mal
patt
ernofpersonalgrowt h.

Hispri
mar yconcerniswi thpsy
chosocial
developmentbuthedidnotcl
earl
yspecifythe
ty
pesofexper i
encet hatanindi
vidualmusthaveinordert
ocopewithandrevolve
psychosocial
crises.Eriksonal
sonotesthatindi
vidual
sdevel
opa“heal
thypersonali
ty”
bymast er
ingli
fe’souterandinnerdanger
s.

i
).Er
ickEr
ickson,
concent
rat
edonsoci
ocul
tur
aldet
ermi
nant
sofhumandev
elopment
.

i
i).Erickson’stheoryofpsychosocial
devel
opmentofanindi
vi
dualunder
goeseight
psy chosocialcri
ses.Thesecrisesarethet
rai
toft
rustt
hatvi
esfordominanceover
mi str
ustint heinf
ant’
spersonalit
y.

i
i
i).
Thenextst
age,
thet
rai
tofaut
onomyst
ruggl
esf
orshameanddoubt
.

i
v).t
het
hir
dst
agei
sini
ti
ati
vev
ersusgui
l
t.

v
).Thef
our
thst
agei
sindust
rywhi
chv
iesf
ort
heascendancyofi
nfer
ior
it
y.

v
i)Thefi
ft
hst ageoccur
sdur
ingpuber
tyandadol
escencewhi
chi
sident
it
yconf
ront
ing
r
oleconf
usion.

vi
i)Thesixt
hstagehappensatyout
hstagewhi chi
mpl
i
esi
nti
macyv
ersusi
sol
ati
on,
for
posit
iveornegat
ivei
nterper
sonalr
elat
ionshi
ps.

vi
ii
)Thesevent
hst
agei
sknownasgener
ati
vi
tyv
ersusst
agnat
ionwhi
choccur
sdur
ing
adul
thood.

Theei
ght
hst
agei
sthei
ntegr
it
ywhi
chv
iesf
ordespai
rascr
isi
s.

i
x).Eri
cksonmadet hegreat
estcontr
ibut
iont
othest
udyofi
dent
it
yinadol
escence
whichheexpressedasident
itycr
isi
s.

x)Abasictaskoftheadolescentst
ageversusthesearchforvocat
ionali
denti
ty,
personal
ident
it
y,sexual
i
tyidenti
ty,
andideologi
cali
denti
ty.Thesol
utionofthesecr
ises
contri
but
estothesuccessoft hest
ages.
 STUDYSECTI
ON4&5
Summar
y
JeanPi
agetwhof
ocusedontheoccur
renceofchangesint
hechil
d’smodeoft
hought
whichgaveri
setoPiaget
’scogni
ti
vestagesofdev el
opment
.

Piagetbeli
evest hati
ntell
ectualgrowthproceedsthr
oughst epli
kestageswhich
determinesmat urati
onal r
eadiness.Hefocusedontheoccur r
enceofchangesinthe
chil
d’smodeoft houghtwhi chgaverisetoPiaget
’scogni
tivestagesofdev
elopment.He
beli
evesthatcogni t
ivedev el
opmenti nv
olvesthei
nteract
ionofheredit
yand
envir
onment alexperiences.

i
) Pi
aget
’swor
kconcent
rat
edont
hecogni
ti
vest
agesi
ndev
elopment
.

i
i
) Hedescri
beschi
l
drenasacti
vethatexpl
oresknowledge(schemat
a)andmodify
t
hesecogni
ti
vest
ruct
urest
hroughtheprocessesoforgani
zati
onandadapt
ati
on.

i
i
i) Schemaisanor gani
zedpatter
nofthoughtoracti
onthatt
hechi
l
dconst
ruct
sto
i
nterpr
ethi
s/herexperi
encesorcogni
ti
vestruct
ure.

i
v) Organi
zati
oni
sthepr
ocessbyachi
l
drear
rangeshi
sexi
sti
ngknowl
edgei
nto
schemat
a.

v
) Adaptati
oncomprisesoft wocomplement aryacti
v i
ti
esnamelyassi
milati
onand
accommodat i
on.Assimilati
oni
nPiaget’stheoryistheprocessbywhichthe
chil
dattemptstomatchnewexper iencestoexistingschemata(ol
dschemata).
Accommodat ioni
mpliest hepr
ocessofmodi f
yingexist
ingschematain
responsetonewexper i
encesorschemat a.

v
i) Equil
ibri
um i
nPiaget
iant
heor
yisabal
ancebet
weent
hepr
ocessesof
assi
mi l
ati
onandaccommodati
on.

v
ii
) Thekeyconcept sofPiaget’
stheoryareschemat a,
assimilat
ion,accommodation
andequili
bri
um andt heyfi
ndexpressi
onint hefourdevelopment al
stagesof
Piaget
iantheory.Thesensori
motorstage,thepreoperat
ionalstage,theconcr
ete
operat
ionalstageandt hef
ormal oper
ati
onal st
age.

v
ii
i) Thesensori
motorst
age(0-
2year
s)maintai
nedthatchi
l
drenar
erely
ingon
behavi
oral
schemataasameansofexplori
ngandunderst
andi
ngthe
envi
ronment.
i
x) Thepr eoper ati
onalstage(2-4y ears)i
nv ol
vesthechild’sthinkingatsymbolic
l
evels.Itissubdi vi
dedintopr e-conceptualst
age( pr
e-logicst age2-4y r
s)and
theintui
t i
ver easoni
ngst age( 4to7y r
s).Thepreconcept ual chil
dis
characterizedbyegocent ricuseofl anguageandheav ydependenceor
perceptioni nsolvi
ngpr obl
ems.Thei ntuit
ivestageismar kedbymor esoci
alor
communi cativespeechandi nt ui
ti
vethinki
ngorr easoning’ andgr eat
erdecent
rat
ion.

x) Theconcret
eoperat
ional
stage(7to12y ear
splus)i
smar kedbymani
pulat
ionof
obj
ects.Chi
ldr
encanconserve,
classif
y,seri
ate,
decentr
e,accommodat
eand
par
ti
cipatef
ull
yinmostoftheactivi
ti
esinprimaryschool
s.

xi
) Theformaloperati
onsstage(12toage15plus)i sal
somar kedwit
hlogical
thi
nki
ngwi t
habst r
acti
onsamongadolescents.TheAdolescentmakesuseof
thehypot
hetical
-deducti
vemethodsofreasoning.Theycanacceptassumption,
hypot
hesisandlawsofpr obl
em sol
vi
ng.

xi
i
) ThePi aget
iantheoryofcognitiv
edevelopmenthasal otofi
mplicati
onstothe
teacherint
ernsandt eacher
si ntheschoolsy
stem whetherpre-
primary
,pri
mary
andsecondar yschools.Theteachershoul
dappl ythestepl
ikearr
angementof
thetheorytoprovideeffect
iveteachi
ngandlearning.

REFERENCES
MODULE2AND3OFCOURSEMATERIALEDPS302DEVELOPMENTALPSYCHOLOGY
DI
STANCELEARNI
NGCENTREAHMADUBELLOUNIVERSI
TYZARIA