Emp 211 Complete Module

EMP211
COURTESYOFLECTORABUYA.
LECTORABUYABUNDI EMP211COMPLETEPDF 0724614628
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CURRI
CULUM CONTEXT
1.
2.1Def
ini
ti
onsofbasi
cconcept
sincur
ri
cul
um
Educat
ion
Theter
m educati
onmai nl
yref
erstoknowl edge,ski
ll
sandat t
it
udesoneacqui
resei
therthr
ough
for
malschool
ingorinformalmeans.Oluoch,(1982)def
inesEducati
onastheprocessof
acqui
ri
nganddev el
opingdesi
redknowledge, ski
ll
sandatti
tudes.Ot
hert
ermsassociat
edwi t
h
educat
ioni
ncludeInst
ructi
on,school
i
ng, andlearni
ng.
Whati
sthedi
ff
erencebet
ween?
 Educat
ionandi
nst
ruct
ion
 Educat
ionandschool
i
ng
 Educat
ionandl
ear
ning
Themai npurposeofeducati
onist osocial
izeanindi
vi
dualamongpeergr oups.From the
beginni
ngofhumansoci ety
,themai nobjecti
veofeducat
ionhasbeent hatoftr
ansmittingt
o
thechil
dtheaccumulatedexperiencesofhispeopleandthei
rcult
ureaswel l
asoft r
aininghi
m
tofi
tintothemember shi
pofthegr oup.I
twast hr
oughthisbackgroundthatt
hesocietyhas
managedt osurvi
veandgainincreasingknowledgeoverallf
ormsofhumani nsti
tuti
ons:
governance,r
it
ual
s,survi
valetc.
Cur
ri
cul
um
Ther earemanymeani ngsat tachedtotheword“ curr
iculum”someti
mesitisref
erredtoas
“syl
labusorlistofsubject
sorcour seofstudyort opi
csort er
msofknowledgetobecov er
edor
contentoror gani
zati
onoft eachingandlear
ningormet hodorti
metabl
eetc.Theterm has
thereforebeendefineddif
ferentlybyvari
ousauthors.Amongstt hemostnotabl
eincludethe
foll
owi ng:
 Tanner(
1980)def
inedcur
ri
cul
um as“
thepl
annedandgui
dedl
ear
ningexper
iencesand
i
ntendedout
comes,
for
mul
atedt
hrought
hesy
stemat
icr
econst
ruct
ionofknowl
edgeand
exper
iencesundert
heauspi
cesoft
heschool
,fort
hel
ear
ner
s’cont
inuousandwi
l
lful
growt
h
i
nper
sonal
soci
alcompet
ence”
.
 Pr
att(
1980)def
inescur
ri
cul
um asawr
it
tendocumentt
hatsy
stemat
ical
l
ydescr
ibesgoal
s
pl
anned,
obj
ect
ives,
cont
ent
,lear
ningact
ivi
ti
es,
eval
uat
ionpr
ocedur
esandsof
ort
h.
 Goodl
adandSu(
1992)def
inecur
ri
cul
um asapl
ant
hatconsi
stsofl
ear
ningoppor
tuni
ti
es
f
oraspeci
fi
cti
mef
rameandpl
ace,
atool
thatai
mst
obr
ingaboutbehav
iourchangesi
n
st
udent
sasar
esul
tofpl
annedact
ivi
ti
esandi
ncl
udesal
ll
ear
ningexper
iencesr
ecei
vedby
1 LECTORABUYABUNDI 0724614628
st
udent
swi
tht
hegui
danceoft
heschool
.
 Hass(
1987)pr
ovi
desabr
oaderdef
ini
ti
on,
stat
ingt
hatacur
ri
cul
um i
ncl
udes“
all
oft
he
exper
iencest
hati
ndi
vi
dual
lear
ner
shav
einapr
ogr
am ofeducat
ionwhosepur
posei
sto
achi
evebr
oadgoal
sandr
elat
edspeci
fi
cobj
ect
ives,
whi
chi
spl
annedi
nter
msofa
f
ramewor
koft
heor
yandr
esear
chorpastandpr
esentpr
ofessi
onal
pract
ice”(
p.5)
.
 Ol
uoch(
1982)def
inescur
ri
cul
um asal
lthati
spl
annedt
oenabl
ethest
udent
sacqui
reand
dev
elopt
hedesi
redknowl
edge,
ski
l
lsandat
ti
tudes
Curri
cul
um isaplanofEducati
on.Thi
spl
ant r
ansfor
msideasintocurr
icul
um whichi
srel
atedto
l
if
e,needs,
aspir
ationsandprobl
emsofpeople.I
nthi
smanner,thecurr
icul
um becomesa
powerf
ulanddynami ci
nstr
umentofsoci
al,
economicandcult
uraltr
ansfor
mationofthesoci
ety
Curriculum i
smuchwi derthansyll
abus,whereasy l
l
abusi sonlypartoft
het
otalcur
ri
culum.So,
curr
iculum isconcernednotsomuchwi thprescribi
ngt heknowledgetobeacqui
redaswi t
hthe
areaofl ear
ningexperiencestobeorganizedbyt eachers,bothwit
hinandout
sidetheschoolt
o
enablepupilstoadoptaposi ti
veatti
tudetolearning,butalsotoacquir
eandappl
yknowledge
andski l
lstodeveloppupils’t
astesandabalancedsenseofv al
ues.
Cur r
icul
um waspromptedduri
ngtheWorl
dWars;especi
all
ythe1stWor
ldWar(1918)when
Frankli
nBobbi
ttpubl
ishedabookcall
ed“
theCur
ri
culum”toprovi
deacourseofoper
ati
onson
thewarandit’
sderiv
edoutcomes.
Thi
sper
iodwasmar
kedbyi
ndust
ri
alandt
echnol
ogi
cal
dev
elopment
.Ther
ewasneedt
odesi
gn
programmesofact i
vi
tyorevent
swhichhadprof
oundeff
ectonthesoci
al,
economicand
poli
ti
calli
feofpeopl
e.Curr
icul
um asseennowistocr
eateasi
tuat
ionofsoci
alact
ivi
ty-based
ondev el
opmentofthepeople.
Compet
encyBasedCur
ri
cul
um
Whati
scompet
encybasedcur
ri
cul
um?
 Compet
encycanbedef
inedast
heabi
l
ityt
odoapar
ti
cul
aract
ivi
tyt
oapr
escr
ibedst
andar
d
 I
nCBC,
theemphasi
sisonwhatst
udent
sneedt
oknowandbeabl
etodowi
themphasi
s
bei
ngonwhatt
heycandoi
nvar
yingandcompl
exr
eal
li
fesi
tuat
ions(
probl
em sol
vi
ng)
 Ther
efor
eCBEi
sout
come/l
ear
ning-
basedr
athert
hancont
ent
-basededucat
ion
 I
nCBE,
thegoal
ist
ogetALLst
udent
stomast
erasetofski
l
lst
oapr
edet
ermi
nedst
andar
d
–r
esear
chhasshownt
hatt
hisi
spossi
blegi
vensuf
fi
cientt
imeandr
esour
ces.Andhence
oneoft
hei
ntent
ionsoft
heCBCi
sst
atedas:
ensur
ingal
ll
ear
ner
sar
esuccessf
uland
becomeengaged,
empower
edandet
hical
cit
izenst
hroughi
tsmi
ssi
onofnur
tur
ingev
ery
l
ear
ner
’spot
ent
ial
.
FROM TO
Cont
entFocus Focusoncompet
enci
es
Ri
gidandpr
escri
pti
vecur
ri
cul
um wi
th Fl
exiblewithoppor
tuni
ti
esf
or
l
imi
tedfl
exi
bil
i
ty special
izat
ion
Focusonsummat
iveassessmentand Bal
ancebet
weenf or
mati
veand
competi
ti
on summati
veassessmentandexcel
l
ence
Emphasi
sonschool
i
ng Emphasi
soneducat
ion
.
2.2Basi
cCur
ri
cul
um Quest
ionsandel
ement
sof
cur
ri
cul
um
Alt
houghFr anklinBobbit
t(1918)lai
dthefoundat
ionandj usti
fi
cationforcurr
icul
um
development ,
theprocessofdesigningacurri
cul
um remai nedachal l
engetocur r
icul
um
developer
s.Ral phTyler(
1949)inhismonographpr ovidedar ati
onalefordevelopi
nga
curr
iculum andhassi ncebeenthemai ngui
deincur r
iculum dev el
opmenti nt
hewor l
d.Ref
err
ed
toast heobjectiv
emodel Tyleri
denti
fi
edfourbasicquest ionsthatguidethecurri
culum
developmentpr ocess.
1.Whateducat
ional
pur
posesshoul
dtheschool
seekt
oat
tai
n?
2.Whateducat
ional
exper
iencesshoul
dbepr
ovi
dedt
oat
tai
nthesepur
poses?
3.Howcant
heseexper
iencesbeef
fect
ivel
yor
gani
zed?
4.Howcanwedet
ermi
newhet
hert
hepur
posesar
ebei
ngat
tai
ned?
Answer
stot
hesef
ourbasi
cquest
ionst
her
efor
egui
dei
n:
 For
mul
ati
onofai
ms,
goal
sandobj
ect
ivesoft
heeducat
ionf
orapar
ti
cul
argr
oup/
lev
el
 Sel
ect
ionofexper
iences/
cont
ent
/l
ear
ningact
ivi
ti
esf
ori
ncl
usi
oni
ntheschool
progr
am
 Or
gani
zat
ion,
sequenci
ngoror
der
ingoft
hecont
ent
/exper
iences/
lear
ningact
ivi
ti
es
 Ev
aluat
ionoft
hepr
ogr
amme
El
ement
sofaschoolcur
ri
cul
um
Thefourquesti
onssuppl
ythebasi
soft
heobj
ecti
vemodel
ofcur
ri
cul
um dev
elopment
.These
for
mt hebasicel
ementsofcur
ri
cul
um,namel
y;
1.Ai
msandobj
ect
ives/
lear
ningout
comes
2.Cont
ent
/subj
ectmat
ter
3.Or
gani
zat
ionofl
ear
ningexper
iences/
met
hods
4.Ev
aluat
ion
Thesefourbasicelementsofcur
ri
culum donotconst
it
uteneat,
discret
ecategori
es.Theyfor
m
adynamic,organi
cwhol eandarecl
oselyint
err
elat
edandeachelementisinfl
uencedby,and
i
nfl
uences,theothers.Howevermostcurri
cul
um desi
gnscontai
nthreemajorelements,namel
y;
1.Obj
ect
ivesoft
hecur
ri
cul
um/
lear
ningout
comes
2.Thel
ear
ningexper
iencesasameansofachi
evi
ngt
hoseobj
ect
ives
c. Theev
aluat
ionpr
ocessf
orappr
aisi
ngt
hesui
tabi
l
ityoft
hepr
ogr
amme/
measur
ingt
he
ext
entt
owhi
chobj
ect
iveshav
ebeenachi
eved.Ol
ouch(
1982)r
efer
stot
hisasst
udent
assessment
.
1.
2.3Di
mensi
onsoft
heSchoolCur
ri
cul
um
Oluoch(1982)inhi
sconceptual
frameworkofcurr
iculum devel
opment,
heidenti
fi
est
hree
curr
icul
um elementsandthr
eemai ndi
mensionsofaschool curr
icul
um.El
ementsher
er ef
ert
o
partsofaschoolcurr
icul
um whi
ledimensi
onsref
ert oit
saspects.Thedi
mensionsar
e
For
maldi
mensi
on
Thisref
erst
hataspectoftheschoolcurri
cul
um whi
chconsi stsoft hoselearni
ngact
ivi
ti
esthat
student
sundert
akeformerlyasaclassaswel l
ascurr
iculum objectivesandstudent
assessmentmethodsthatrel
atet
ot hem.Theyarecarri
edoutasf ormal cl
assworkthoughthey
maybecar r
iedoutwit
hinoroutsi
det heschool
.
1.Nonf
ormaldi
mensi
on
Thisrefer
stot hoselearni
ngactivi
ti
est r
aditi
onallyreferredtoasextr
a-cur
ri
cularormore
recentl
ycore-
cur ri
cul
ar.Theyareorganizedi nlessr i
gidmannerthanformallearni
ngacti
vi
ti
es.
Theyarenotcar riedoutbystudentsintheirregulargr oupi
ngsrat
herstudent
sgr oupt
hemsel v
es
i
naccor dancewi thsuchfactor
sasi ndivi
dual i
nterests,att
it
udesandages.Themaybecar r
ied
outinsi
deorout sidetheclassr
oom orwi thinorwi thouttheschoolcompound.Thenon-formal
dimensionreferst ot
hesenonf or
mal learni
ngact ivit
iesaswellastheobject
ivesandstudent
assessmentmet hodsthatrel
atetothem
1.I
n-f
ormaldi
mensi
on
Thisconsi
stsoftheguidedaspectsoftheinfor
mal l
earni
ngacti
vi
ti
esthatgoonintheschoolall
theti
me.Theseincludethei
nteract
ionwiththeplannedaspect
softheschoolenv
ironment,e.
g.,
assimi
lat
ionofdesiredhabi
tsbystudentsfrom goodexamplesdel
iber
atel
ygi
venbyt heschool
.
I
nformal i
nteract
iongoonal lthetimeandnotalli
nteract
ionfor
m desi r
abl
einformal learni
ng
acti
vi
tiesandonlyt heacti
vit
iesthatr
elatet
otheplannedaspectoft heenvir
onmentcountas
non-f
or maldi
mensi on.Theplanningoftheenvi
ronmentisdonet hroughformulat
ionofschool
rul
esandr egulat
ions,encouragementofdesir
ablel
ifesty
lesamongt hestaffofani nsti
tuti
on.
Therichertheenv i
ronmentthemor etheopport
unit
iesofbenefi
ttingfrom t
hecurriculum
dimension.
1.
2.5Cur
ri
cul
um document
s
Forfaci
l
itateef
fect
ivecur
ri
cul
um dev
elopmentat
eacherwi
l
lrequi
ret
ohav
ethef
oll
owi
ng
document s
1.Sy
ll
abuses/
cur
ri
cul
um desi
gns
Thesyll
abus/
curri
cul
um desi
gnsshowt hetopi
cs,l
ear
ningoutcomes/obj
ecti
ves,cont
entand
acti
vi
ti
esforeachsubj
ectonthecurr
iculum.Theygui
deteachersi
nthepreparat
ionofthe
schemesofwor k
1.Schemesofwor
k
 Thi
sisan out
li
neshowi
ngt
het
opi
cst
obecov
eredi
neachsubj
ecti
nthecur
ri
cul
um i
na
gi
vent
erm/
year
 Adet
ail
edschemeofwor
kcan
i. I
dent
if
ywhathasbeencov
eredduri
ngtheter
m andwhathadbeenl
eftout
.A
t
eachercant
henmakereal
i
sti
cchangesf
orthefol
l
owingyear
i
i. Hel
pteacher
steachi
ngmult
ipl
estr
eamsensur
ethateachcl
asscov
erst
he
sameamountofwor
kbykeepingtr
ackoft
opi
cstaughti
neachcl
ass
i
ii
. Givet
eacher
swhot
akecl
assdur
ingt
henexty
earacl
ear
eri
deaofwhatar
eas
hav
ebeencover
ed
1.Lessonpl
ans
Thisisapl anorgui dethatateachusestoeffecti

vel
ydeli
veralesson.Lessonpl anscanbe
doneonadai lyorweekl ybasisasperpoli
cyrequi
rements.Alessonmai nlycontains
i
nstructi
onal objecti
ves/l
earningoutcomes,t
hecontentt
obecov ered,t
her esourcesand
teachingaidsthatt heteacherwouldneedtouseduringthelesson,theteachingmet hodt
hat
thelessonwi llusetodelivert
helesson,t
helearni
ngacti
vit
iesthelearnerswilldotoandthe
moni t
oringandev al
uati
on.
1.Text
books/
teacher
sgui
des/
ref
erencemat
eri
als
Teacher
swi
llneedsubj
ecttext
booksf
orlessonpreparat
ion.Refer
encebooksandot
her
suppl
ement
arymateri
alsar
enecessar
yforproperlessonplanni
ng.
1.Pupi
l
sassessment
/pr
ogr
essr
ecor
ds
Thi
sisadocumentwi
thr
ecor
dofl
ear
ner
’sassessment
.Thi
srecor
disi
mpor
tanti
nmoni
tor
ing
l
earner
’spr
ogr
ess
1.Cl
assat
tendancer
egi
ster
Thi
sisadocumentt
hatshowstheregi
ster
edl
ear
nersinaclassandthei
rdai
lycl
assat
tendance.
I
tsusedbot
hforadmini
str
ati
vepur
posesandcur
ri
culum super
visi
onpur
poses
1.Recor
dofwor
kcov
ered
Thisisadocumentt
hatshowswhathasbeencov
eredandwhathasnotbeencov
eredwi
tht
he
necessar
ydetai
l
sandcomments.
FOUNDATI
ONSOFCURRI
CULUM
2.
1Int
roduct
ion
Thef oundat i
onsofCur ri
culum compr iseofv al
ues,tr
aditi
ons,
factorsandf or
ceswhich
i
nfluencet hekind,quantit
yandqual ityoft heexper
iencetheschool offer
stoitsl
earners.I
nthi
s
l
essonwel ookathistori
cal,phi
losophical,psychol
ogical
,soci
ologicalandtechnol
ogical
foundationsofcurriculum andtheirinfluenceandimpl i
cati
onstocur r
icul
um devel
opmentand
i
nnov ati
on.
2.
2LessonLear
ningOut
comes
Byt
heendoft
hisl
esson,
youwi
l
lbeabl
eto:
2.
2.1 Di
scusshi
stor
ical
foundat
ionsandi
tsi
nfl
uenceoncur
ri
cul
um dev
elopment
2.
2.2 Di
scussphi
l
osophi
cal
foundat
ionsandi
tsi
mpl
i
cat
ionsf
orcur
ri
cul
um dev
elopment
2.
2.3 Di
scusspsy
chol
ogi
cal
foundat
ionsandi
tsi
mpl
i
cat
ionsf
orcur
ri
cul
um dev
elopment
2.
2.4 Di
scusssoci
ologi
cal
foundat
ionsandi
tsi
mpl
i
cat
ionsf
orcur
ri
cul
um dev
elopment
2.
2.5 Di
scusspr
ofessi
onal
foundat
ionsandi
tsi
mpl
i
cat
ionsoncur
ri
cul
um dev
bel
opment
Di
scusst
echnol
ogi
cal
foundat
ionsandi
tsi
mpl
i
cat
ionsf
orcur
ri
cul
um dev
elopment
2.
2.1Hi
stor
icalFoundat
ions
Hi
stor
ical
foundat
ionsdeal
swi
thpastev
ent
s,whi
chhav
eledt
opr
esentt
rendsi
neducat
iont
o
i
nfor
m cur
ri
cul
um deci
sionsi
nter
msofcur
rentandf
utur
eeducat
ionneeds.
Thestudyofhist
or yofeducat
ioncanhelpusunder st
andwhycer tai
npr acti
ceshav eevolved
overti
me.Itcanhel pusunderst
andthecontr
oversiesthathav
ef acededucat i
onal l
eadersinthe
pastandthechoicest heymade.Thi
sunderst
andingcanhel pusunder standcurrent
contr
over
sies,whichcanhelpuschooseamongcompet i
ngproposals.Thest udyofhistorycan
helpusuncoverpracti
cesthathavebeensuccessfulandthosethathav ebeennot .
Hist
oryofeducat
ionprov
idesacontextandcasestudi
est
hatcanhel
puseval
uat
ecur
rent
educat
ionalpr
act
icesandproposal
sforchange.I
nrevi
ewi
nghist
oryweneedt
oconsi
der:
1. Whyapar
ti
cul
areducat
ional
pract
icewasest
abl
i
shed?
2.Doest
hatpr
act
icest
il
lmeetaneed?
3.Doest
hepr
oposal
forchangemeetnewneedsori
sitl
i
kel
ytot
akeusi
ndi
rect
ionst
hat
ar
einconsi
stentwi
thourdeepl
yhel
dval
ues?
Abasi cpur
poseforthestudyofhistoryofeducati
onisthatitpr ovi
desari
chunderstandi
ngof
theissuesweneedtoconsi deraswemakedeci si
onsaboutchangeandt hefutur
e.Curri
culum
developer
salwaysensurethehistor
icalper
spectivei
swel l
reflectedwhendesigni
ngcur r
iculum
i
nor dertocapt
urenotonlythelocalfl
avourbutalsoglobalhistori
calvi
ews.
Hi
stor
ical
dev
elopment
sthathav
eshapedKeny
aeducat
ionsy
stem
a) TheEur
opeanI
nfl
uence
Manyoftheschoolpract
icesar
esofamili
arandref
lectl
ongstandi
ngcul
turalchoi
ces.Consi
der
t
hefol
lowingchar
acteri
sti
csofoureducat
ion(Ar
mst r
ong,HensonandSavage,2009)
 Thei
deat
hatconcept
sshoul
dbeor
gani
sedundermaj
orcat
egor
iesorheadi
ngs
 Thei
deat
hatknowl
edgeshoul
dbedi
vi
dedamongi
ndi
vi
dual
subj
ect
s
 Thei
deat
hatt
eachi
ngshoul
doccuri
naset
ti
ngt
hatbr
ingsy
oungpeopl
etoget
heri
ngr
oups
f
ori
nst
ruct
ional
pur
poses
 Thei
deat
hatschool
sshoul
dbeor
gani
sedi
nsequenceofgr
ades
 Thei
deat
hatasmanypeopl
easpossi
bleshoul
dbeeducat
ed
 Thei
deat
hatt
eacher
sshoul
dconsi
deri
ndi
vi
dual
dif
fer
enceswhenpl
anni
ngi
nst
ruct
ion
 Thei
deat
hatschool
sshoul
dhel
plear
ner
sdev
elopr
ati
onal
thi
nki
ngpr
ocesses
 Thei
deat
hatt
eacher
sshoul
dhav
esomeki
ndofspeci
ali
sedt
rai
ning
 Thei
deat
hatschool
i
ngshoul
dbeapr
epar
ati
onf
orr
esponsi
bleci
ti
zenshi
p
Thesei
deasevol
vedov
erthecent
uri
esfr
om educati
onalpr
act
icesinEurope.Theanci
ent
romanswant
edyoungpeopl
etorecei
veapr
actical
educati
onthatwouldprovi
dethem wi
th
usef
ul knowl
edge.Thi
sper
spect
iveisshar
edbymanycountr
iesi
ncl
udi
ngKenya.TheRomans
tooarguedthatst
udent
snotbeharshl
ypunishedadv
ocat
edformor
egent
lerandsensi
ti
ve
approaches
Duri
ngthemi ddl
eages, t
hei
nfl
uenceofearlyChri
sti
aneducationt hatwasablendofGreek,
RomanandHebr ewi deal
swaswi t
nessed.Thetr
adit
ionofchur chestaki
ngresponsi
bil
i
tyfor
secul
areducati
onistracedt
othisperi
od.TodayinKenyaf ai
thbasedor gani
zati
onspl
aya
piv
otalr
olei
ncur r
icul
um devel
opmentandi mpl
ement at
ion.
Dur ingt hereformati
onmanychur chleadersbelievedthatthebiblewast her epositoryof
wi sdom andhencedesi r
abl
eforalllearnerstolearntor eadsothattheymi ghtaccesst oit
s
truths.Thi sledt oi
ncreaseddemandf orbibli
calandot hermateri
alsinthev ernacularfor
readi ngt ointer
pretthebibl
e.Thecampai gnsbyMar t
inLutherKingforProtest antsandt he
count ercampai gnsbyIgnati
usofLoy ola( f
ounderofJesui tschools)l
edt oincr easedchurch
act i
v i
tyinelement ar
y ,
secondaryandhi ghereducat i
on
Laterduringther enaissance,therewasi ncreasedquestf orknowl edget hatledt oopeni ngupof
educationtot hemasses.Thi sledt otheopeningofhumani sti
cschool sandagr owing
emphasi sont hewor thandi mpor tanceoft heindiv
idualevolved.School sconcer nf ormeet i
ng
i
ndiv i
dualdiff
er encesdev el
opedf rom thisperspecti
ve.Ani ncreaseddegr eeofenl i
ghtenment
duringtherenai ssanceenhancedcommuni cati
onbet weent hevariousnat i
onsi nEur opeand
beyond.Thi sledf ordemandi nv ocationalskil
l
sr el
atedtonat i
onal andinternat i
onal t
rade.The
school curr
iculum startedtohav eincreasingamountofv ocationalstudiesint heform ofbook-
keeping,businessar it
hmet i
camongot hers.Demandf orhighercadr eofprof essionalpeople
withspecial f
acul t
yspeciali
zationsdur i
ngt hi
sper i
odledt otheest abli
shmentofuni v
ersit
ies.
Thenextmaj oreventisthescienti
fi
cmov ementineducati
on.I
nt heearl
y17C Franci
sBacon
(1561-1626)helpedt oestabl
ishtheideathattr
uthcouldbechal
lengedandmodi fi
edthrough
observationandcar eful
weighingofev i
dence.Thisl
edtothephil
osophyofr eal
ism.Thisisthe
foundationofthesci ent
if
icmet hodthatconti
nuestobetremendouslyimportanttotoday’
s
education.JohnAmosComeni us(1592-1670)promotedthei
deasofor gani
zinglearni
nginto
sequent i
al,
gradedschool sandofv i
ewingeducationassomethi
ngt hatshouldpreparepeople
forhappyl i
ves.
Inthe18cent uryJohannHeinri
chPest
alozzi(
1746-1827)suggestedthateducat i
onshoul
dtake
placeinacaringatmosphereandshouldfuncti
onasanagentt oimpr
ov esociety.Thi
svi
ewthat
educati
oncoul dpromotesociali
mprovementwasconsi deredradi
cal
inPest alozzi
’st
imebut
todayit’
severyonesupportt
hesame.Pest al
ozzial
sointroducedthei
deat hatteachersr
equi
re
specialt
rai
ning.
Inthe19th centurymandator
ypublicschool
i
nghadbeenadopt edaspubl i
cpolicyinEuropeas
compar edt oKeny awhereithappensafewy ear
sagoandst i
llf
aci
ngsomer esist
ance.An
educatorFr iedri
chFroebel(
1782-1852)workedhardtoconvi
ncepeoplethattheyshould
supportef fortstopr
ovideyoungchil
drenwithwell
-pl
annededucat
ionalexperi
ences.
Inthesame19th centuryanothereducatorJohannFri
edri
chHerbar
t(1976-1841)developeda
standardi
zedformatf orlessonplanni
ng.Thelessonplansyouwil
luseprobablywill
include
manyf eatur
esiniti
all
yintroducedinHerbert
’sdesi
gn.Simil
arl
ywasalotofinteresti
nt he
i
mpor tanceofpsy chol
ogyi nlear
ning
b) Thepr
e-i
ndependenceeducat
ioncommi
ssi
onsandor
dinances
TheBri
ti
shgov er
nmentwasagainstt
hei
ntr
oduct
ionofanacademi
ccurr
icul
um i
nthecoloni
es.
Theyadvocat
edfori
ndust
ri
aleducati
ont
hatwasadaptedt
otheneedsofthel
ocalpeopl
e.The
schoolwastobeconduct
edinaccor
dancewit
hnativ
ecustomsi
nmattersofdressand
eti
quett
e,inor
dert
hatpupi
lsmaynotbecomedenati
onal
i
zedorconsi
derthemselvesacl
ass
apart
,whichwasmeanttocombatpoli
ti
cal
agi
tat
ion.
Themi ssi
onari
eswhoseobj ecti
vewereevangel
ism andenli
stedAfr
icanstojoint
hei
rchurches
est
abli
shedschoolsinthev i
llagesandprovi
dedsimpleeducationmainl
yreading,
wri
ti
ng
ari
thmeti
candreli
giousinstructi
on.Postpr
imaryeducati
onwasnotencour aged.Thi
sstand
wassupportedbycolonialadmi ni
str
ator
swhoar guedthatmoreemphasizeshouldbegivento
manuallabor
Theexpansionofmissionaryeducati
onasar esultoftherail
wayli
neledtocompet
iti
on
amongstthemissi
onaries.Consequentl
ytheytaughttheirpupil
stomist
rustt
hei
rri
val
sleading
toani
mositybet
weent hem.Theyhadl imit
edfunding,trai
nedteacher
swereinshor
tsupplyand
nocurr
icul
um wasavailabl
e.
In1909Nel sonFr aser(
FraserCommi ssi
on)wascommi ssi
onedt orecommendasy st
em of
educationf ort heeastAfri
canprotectorate.I
nhisreportheplacedemphasisontheprovi
sionof
i
ndustrial educat i
on,andeducati
onf acil
it
iesforAf
ricansshouldbepr ovi
dedbymissi
onary
societ
iesont hegroundsthatanyeducat ionwit
houtChr i
sti
aninst
ructionwoul
dlackamoral
foundation.I talsorecommendedest abli
shmentofthedepar t
mentofEducat i
onwasfoundedin
1911(Si funa, ChegeandOanda, 2006) .
Gov er
nment–grant–inaidsstar
tedtosuppor
tmissi
onschool st
hatwhichprovi
dedtechni
cal
educati
on.Anumberofschool swereof
feri
ngi
ndustr
ialski
ll
ssuchassmi t
hing,
carpentr
y,
agri
cul
tureandt
yping.Racial
l
ysegregat
edschool
swer estart
edforEur
opeansandAsi ans.
ThePhel ps-
St okesCommi ssion( 1924)recommendedcr eationofDi r
ect
orofeducat ionin
severalcolonies, cr
eationoflocal advi
sorycommi tteeoneducat ionandf oundingofschool st
o
trai
nJeanest eacher s(Ber
man, 1971).Furthert
heyemphasi zedont heneedf orAfr
icanst o
recei
vet echnical educati
onandemphasi zeonagricult
ure.Fol l
owingphel ps–Stokes
commi ssiongov ernmentcameupwi thaneducat i
onor dinancetodemonst rat
eitscommi t
ment
tosuperv i
seanddi recteducationatalllevelswit
hassistanceoft hreeadv i
sorycommi t
teesto
dealwithEur opean, AsianandAf r
icaneducat i
on.
Allschool
sandt eachersweretober egi
steredandthedir
ectorofeducat
ionwasempower edto
i
nspectallschools.Thedistri
cteducati
onboar dordi
nanceof1934establi
shedDist
ri
ct
Educati
onboar dswer esetupt oassi
stinthemanagementofal lschool
s.Theyhandledthe
al
locati
onofgr ants-
in-ai
d,feesandscholarships,
salar
yscal
esaswel lasmaint
aini
ngr egi
ster
ofschools
c) Post
-I
ndependenceeducat
ioncommi
ssi
onsandcommi
tt
ee
1.i
. Keny
aFi
rstEducat
ionCommi
ssi
on(
Omi
ndeRepor
t)1964/
65madet
he
f
oll
owi
ngr
ecommendat
ions/
cont
ri
but
ions:
 Abol
i
tionofeducat
iononr
aci
alsegr
egat
iont
opr
omot
enat
ional
uni
ty
 Cameupwi
thpr
e-i
ndependentst
atement
soft
henat
ional
goal
sofeducat
ion (
educat
ional
phi
l
osophy
)
 7-
4-2-
3educat
ional
syst
em wi
thCPEatcl
asssev
enr
epl
aci
ngKAPEatcl
assei
ght
.
 Educat
iont
hathadl
essemphasi
sofv
ocat
ional
subj
ect
sinr
eact
iont
opr
edomi
nant
ly
t
echni
cal
educat
iont
hatwasbei
ngpr
ovi
dedt
oAf
ri
cansbycol
oni
ali
stsi
npr
efer
encet
o
academi
csubj
ect
stopr
epar
eKeny
anst
akeov
erwhi
tecol
l
arsj
obst
hatwer
ebei
ngdoneby
whi
tes
 Engl
i
shwast
akenast
hel
anguageofi
nst
ruct
ionandt
henat
ional
off
ici
all
anguage
1.i
i. Nat
ionalCommi
tt
eeoneducat
ionalobj
ect
ivesandpol
ici
es(
theGachat
hi
Repor
t)1975
 Recommended9y
earpr
imar
yeducat
ionwi
th2y
ear
sbei
ngf
orv
ocat
ional
/t
echni
cal
educat
ion

1.i
ii
. MackayRepor
t(1981)
 Recommendedt
heest
abl
i
shmentofasecondt
echnol
ogi
cal
uni
ver
sit
y
 Recommended8-
4-4educat
ionsy
stem
 Recommendedabr
oadcur
ri
cul
um t
hatwasmor
epr
act
ical
andwi
themphasi
zesonsel
f-
r
eli
ance
1.i
v. KamungeRepor
t(1988)
 Recommendedcostshar
ingi
neducat
ionwi
thgov
ernmentpr
ovi
dingt
eacher
s’sal
ari
esand
par
ent
smeett
hecostofi
nfr
ast
ruct
ureandt
eachi
ng/
lear
ningmat
eri
als
1.v
. KoechRepor
t(1992)
 Recommendedt
he“
Tot
all
yInt
egr
atedQual
i
tyEducat
ionandTr
aini
ng(
TIQET)
”
1.v
i. Keny
aconst
it
uti
onal2010
 Br
oughtaboutdev
olut
ionandear
lychi
l
dhoodeducat
ionwasdev
olv
edt
hecount
y
gov
ernment
s
 Val
ueswer
etobet
aughti
ntheschool
cur
ri
cul
um.
 Accor
dingt
otheConst
it
uti
onofKeny
a,2010i
tisi
mper
ati
vet
hatt
heSt
ateDepar
tment
r
esponsi
blef
oreducat
iondev
elopsandi
ncor
por
atesv
aluesi
ntot
hecur
ri
cul
aatal
ll
evel
sof
educat
ion.
 Thev
aluesst
atedi
ntheConst
it
uti
oni
ncl
uder
esponsi
bil
i
ty,
respect
,excel
l
ence,
car
eand
compassi
on,
under
standi
ngandt
oler
ance,
honest
yandt
rust
wor
thi
ness,
trust
,andbei
ng
et
hical
1.v
ii
. Odhi
ambor
epor
t(2012)onal
ignmentoft
heeducat
ionsect
ort
othe
const
it
uti
on2010
 Recommendedi
ntr
oduct
ionof2-
6-6-
3educat
ionsy
stem wi
thgr
adesr
epl
aci
ngcl
assesand
l
essemphasi
sonexami
nat
ions(
summat
iveassessment
)
 Recommendat
ionsofacompet
encybasedcur
ri
cul
um (
CBC)t
hati
scompet
encybasedand
nur
tur
ingofeachl
ear
ner
spot
ent
ial
1.v
ii
i. SESSI
ONALPAPERNO.1OF2019onAPol
icyFr
amewor
kforRef
ormi
ng
Educat
ion,
Trai
ningandResear
chf
orSust
ainabl
eDev
elopment
Thispolicydocumentproposesasystem ofeducat
ionandtrai
ningt
hatemphasizesthe
att
ainmentofcompet enci
esandvaluesatalll
evel
s(CompetencyBasedCurr
iculum).Ref
orming
thecurr
iculum wi
llal
soemphasizenati
onalval
ues,i
ntegr
ati
onofscienceandinnovati
on,and
adopti
onofI CTtechnol
ogies.
2.
2.2Phi
losophi
calFoundat
ions
Phil
osophi
calper
spect
ivesr
epresentcl
ust
erofv
aluesandat
ti
tudest
hati
ndi
vi
dual
suset
o
eval
uateal
ter
nati
veacti
onopti
onsanddecidewhichar
epref
err
ed.
1.Whati
syourper
sonal
phi
l
osophy
?
2.Whati
syourphi
l
osophyofeducat
ion?
Yourphi
losophi
cal
posi
ti
onshelpexpl
ainyourper
sonal
reacti
onst
oev
ent
syouconf
ronti
nyour
dai
lyl
if
eandwhaty ouf
indper
sonall
yrewardi
ngandsati
sfyi
ng.
Phi
losophi
cal
foundat
ionsconst
it
utet
hev al
uesandbeli
efsthatmakeupthephil
osophi
esof
l
if
eandofeducati
onandhav eapermeat
inginf
luenceontheotherf
oundat
ions.
Phil
osophyseekstoprovideanswer
stobasicpr
oblemsandt oest
abli
shcoher
enceinthewhol
e
domainofexperi
ence.Sinceonecannott
eachever
y t
hing,
ther
eisneedtosel
ectcont
entfr
om
thevastst
oresofknowledgepossessedbyeachnati
onandsociet
y.Therear
ebroadl
ytwo
phi
l
osophi
cal
school
sthatgui
det
hesel
ect
ionofcur
ri
cul
um cont
ent
.
a.Tr
adi
ti
onal
school
1.Per
enni
ali
sm
2.essent
ial
i
sm
b.Pr
ogr
essi
veschool
Fur
ther
,wehav
eot
herphi
l
osophi
cal
school
swi
thsi
mil
ari
ty
a.Tr
adi
ti
onal
school
1.I
deal
i
sm
2.Real
i
sm
b.Pr
agmat
ism
Phi
losophi
calcr
it
eri
aforsel
ect
ionofcont
ent
Themainphil
osophi
calschool
sofper
enni
ali
sm,
essent
ial
i
sm andpr
ogr
essi
vi
sm adv
ancet
hree
cor
respondi
ngtheor
iesofsubj
ectmat
ter
:
1.Subj
ectmat
tershoul
dbet
aughtf
ori
tsownsake.
 Adv
ancedbyper
enni
ali
sts.Theybel
i
eveeducat
ionsy
stem shoul
dbest
abl
eandi
tspur
pose
st
eady
.
 Theybel
i
evet
hatper
manenceoft
hecur
ri
cul
um cont
entandexper
iencesi
smor
eimpor
tant
t
hanchange
 Subj
ectmat
terhasav
aluet
hati
sinher
enti
nthesubj
ectbei
ngt
aughtaswel
lasbei
ng
i
ntr
insi
ctot
hatsubj
ect
 Per
enni
ali
stsl
ayemphasi
sont
hecl
assi
cal
subj
ect
sandal
lst
udent
sshoul
dbeexposedt
o
t
hem.Consi
dercor
esubj
ect
sint
hecur
ri
cul
um
 St
udent
sshoul
dbet
aughtcer
tai
nbasi
csubj
ect
sthatwi
l
lacquai
ntt
hem wi
thwor
ld
f
undament
alv
aluesandwhi
chmaket
hem r
efr
ainf
rom r
egar
dingmoder
nchangesasbei
ng
t
hemosti
mpor
tant
 Man’
shi
ghestat
tri
but
eisr
ati
onal
i
ty.Teacher
sshoul
dincul
cat
egoodt
ast
e,i
nfusei
deas,
i
nst
il
lwi
sdom andi
mpl
antgoodsense.
1.i
i. Subj
ectmat
tershoul
dbet
aughtf
oruse
 Essent
ial
i
stsmai
ntai
nthatt
her
ear
ecer
tai
nessent
ial
sthateachst
udenti
ntheschool
shoul
dknow.
 Essent
ial
i
stst
aket
imet
ore-
exami
necur
ri
cul
armat
ter
s,di
sti
ngui
shessent
ial
sfr
om non-
essent
ial
sandr
e-est
abl
i
shi
ngt
heaut
hor
it
yoft
het
eacheri
nthecl
assr
oom
 Essent
ial
i
stagr
eewi
thper
enni
ali
stst
hat
:
o Lear
ningi
nvol
veshar
dwor
k.Ther
eisneedf
orst
ri
ctdi
sci
pli
nei
nthepr
ocessof
educat
ion
o Teacher
’sr
olei
stomedi
atebet
weent
headul
twor
ldandt
hewor
ldoft
hechi
l
d.
Teacher
sar
eespeci
all
ypr
epar
edf
ort
het
askofgui
dingt
hegr
owt
hoft
hei
rpupi
l
s
o Thehear
toft
heeducat
ional
processi
stheassi
mil
ati
onoft
hepr
escr
ibedsubj
ectmat
ter
.
Onl
ysubj
ectmat
tert
hati
susef
uli
nev
ery
dayl
i
feshoul
dbest
ressedi
nschool
cur
ri
cul
a
o School
sshoul
dret
aint
radi
ti
onal
met
hodsofment
aldi
sci
pli
ne.Sal
i
entpr
inci
plesand
concept
sofgr
eatsci
ent
ist
sandphi
l
osopher
sandar
ti
stswhi
chhav
erel
evancet
othe
wor
ldt
oday
o
1.Subj
ectmat
teri
samedi
um f
ort
eachi
ngl
i
fepr
ocessesandski
l
ls.
 Pr
ogr
essi
vi
stst
aket
hepr
agmat
istv
iewt
hatchange,
notper
manencei
stheessenceof
r
eal
i
ty
 Educat
ional
i
stsmustber
eadyt
omodi
fymet
hodsandpol
i
ciesi
nthel
i
ghtofnewknowl
edge
andchangesi
ntheenv
ironment
.
 Pr
ogr
essi
vi
sm i
sassoci
atedwi
thJohnDewey(
1948)andadv
ancest
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
inci
ples
i
nregar
dtot
henat
ureofeducat
ionandcur
ri
cul
um pl
anni
nganddev
elopment
o Educat
ionshoul
dbel
i
fei
tsel
fnotapr
epar
ati
onf
orl
i
ving.
o Lear
ningshoul
dbedi
rect
lyr
elat
edt
othei
nter
est
soft
hechi
l
d.Thechi
l
dneeds
gui
danceanddi
rect
ionf
rom t
eacher
sandt
eacher
sar
ebet
terequi
ppedt
oper
cei
ve
meani
ngi
nthechi
l
d’sact
ivi
ti
es
o Lear
ningt
hroughpr
obl
em sol
vi
ngshoul
dtakepr
ecedenceov
ert
hei
ncul
cat
ingof
subj
ectmat
ter
o Teacher
shav
etoadv
isenotdi
rectpupi
l
s.Teacheri
sonl
yimpor
tantasst
ageset
ter
,
gui
deandco-
ordi
nat
or
o Theschool
shoul
dencour
agecooper
ati
onasopposedt
ocompet
it
ion.Compet
it
ioni
s
admi
ssi
blei
nsi
tuat
ionswher
eitpr
omot
essel
ect
ionf
orst
ati
onsi
nli
feandot
her
oppor
tuni
ti
esf
orwhi
chqual
i
tat
ivedi
ff
erent
ial
shav
etobemani
fest
Ot
herphi
l
osophi
cal
school
s
I
deal
ism
 Tr
adi
ti
onal
viewi
nfl
uencedbywr
it
ingsf
rom Pl
ato
 I
deal
i
sm usesdeduct
iver
easoni
ngi
nit
squestf
oranswer
stocur
rentpr
obl
ems
 I
nideal
i
sm t
her
eisov
er-
emphasi
sont
hei
ntel
l
ect
ual
aspect
sofl
i
featt
heexpenseoft
he
phy
sical
aspect
s
 I
deal
i
sm st
ressest
her
oleofeducat
ioni
nthet
ransmi
ssi
onoft
hecul
tur
alher
it
ageas
handeddownt
hrought
heagesf
rom t
hepast
.
 Justl
i
ket
heper
enni
ali
stst
hei
deal
i
stv
iewi
sthatt
hest
udentcopi
esandemul
ateshi
s
t
eachert
hrought
heexchangeofi
deasi
nteacher
-cont
rol
l
eddi
scussi
ons
Real
ism
 Real
i
sm bel
i
evesi
ntheexi
stenceofar
eal
wor
ld,
div
orcedf
rom t
hei
magi
nat
ionoft
he
per
cei
ver
 Ther
eal
wor
ldexer
cisesasy
stemat
icandaccur
ater
egul
ati
onofi
tsact
ivi
ti
eswhi
chcanbe
obser
vedi
nthephy
sical
uni
ver
se
 Real
i
stsappr
oacht
hepr
obl
emsofmani
nli
fet
hrought
hei
nduct
ivemet
hodwhi
chi
sdat
a
gat
her
edt
ofor
m abasi
sfornewpr
inci
plesandgener
ali
zat
ions
 Real
i
sm accept
sGodast
hemot
ivecauseofal
lexi
stence.
 Real
i
sm ar
guet
hateducat
ionshoul
dinductl
ear
ner
sint
othei
rcul
tur
eandhel
ptoadj
ustt
o
t
henat
ural
ordert
oli
vei
nhar
monywi
tht
heuni
ver
se.
 St
udent
sint
heschool
syst
em ar
eexpect
edt
orecogni
zenat
ural
lawsandt
oreact
appr
opr
iat
elyt
othem
 Teacher
sactasgui
desmaki
ngchi
l
drenawar
eoft
het
ruenat
ureoft
her
eal
wor
ld
 Real
i
sm encour
agesanobj
ect
iveappr
oacht
osi
tuat
ionsaswel
lasact
iveuseoft
hesenses
i
nlear
ning
 Real
i
stsadv
ocat
east
udyofphy
sical
andsoci
alsci
enceswhi
char
einst
rument
alt
o
expl
aini
ngnat
ural
phenomena
 I
naddi
ti
onmat
hemat
icsi
sconsi
der
edessent
ial
int
hedescr
ipt
ionoft
heuni
ver
sesi
ncei
tis
sy
mbol
i
candaccur
ate
Pr
agmat
ism
 Pr
agmat
ism i
sapr
ogr
essi
vi
stposi
ti
ont
hatseesr
eal
i
tyasbei
ngi
nast
ateoff
luxor
const
antchange
 Toest
abl
i
sht
rut
hiti
snecessar
ytoexami
neal
lthepossi
bleconsequencesl
i
kel
ytor
esul
t
f
rom put
ti
ngt
hei
deai
ntoact
ionori
ntopr
act
ice
 Sci
encei
susedt
opr
ovi
deanswer
stoman’
spr
obl
ems
 Pr
agmat
ist
sempl
oyt
her
eal
i
stappr
oachi
ngat
her
ingi
nfor
mat
ionandf
act
s,andt
hei
deal
i
st
appr
oachi
ngener
ali
zi
ngaboutt
hef
act
sgat
her
ed
 Accor
dingt
opr
agmat
ist
seducat
ion:
 Shoul
denabl
ethel
ear
nert
oexper
iencesi
tuat
ionsi
npr
act
ice
 I
t’
sameansf
orr
ecr
eat
ing,
cont
rol
l
ingandr
edi
rect
ingexper
ience
 Shoul
dhel
plear
ner
stosol
vet
hei
rpr
obl
emsandi
stobeconsi
der
edasi
ntegr
alpar
tofl
i
fe
 Sy
stemat
icsequenci
ngofl
ear
ningexper
iencesi
semphasi
zedbypr
agmat
ist
s
 Cur
ri
cul
um shoul
dbeor
gani
zedont
hebasi
soft
hel
ear
ner
sint
erest
sandsubj
ectmat
ter
sel
ect
edshoul
dhel
pthel
ear
nert
osol
vepr
obl
ems
2.
2.3Psy
chol
ogi
calFoundat
ionsofcur
ri
cul
um
dev
elopment
Psy
chol
ogi
cal
foundat
ionsofcur
ri
cul
um r
efert
othosei
nsi
ght
sgai
nedf
rom psy
chol
ogywhi
ch
haveabear i
ngont hel
ear
ningprocess.Theysubsumet hetotalknowledgethatgui
desthe
l
earningprocessandmakesitpossibl
efortheteacher
si mplementingthecurri
cul
um t
omake
appropri
atedeci
sionsr
egardi
ngtheclassroom behavi
oroflearners
 Psy
chol
ogi
stsbel
i
evet
hatl
ear
ningexper
ienceshav
etobei
ntr
oducedt
othel
ear
nerwhen
suchexposur
eismostef
fect
iveandmostbenef
ici
alt
ohi
m
 Psy
chol
ogyasadi
sci
pli
neof
fer
scer
tai
npr
inci
plest
hatgov
ernt
hepr
ocessofl
ear
ning
whi
chat
eacherwhounder
standst
hem wi
l
lfi
ndhel
pful
inmeet
ingsomeoft
hedemandsi
n
t
hel
ear
ningpr
ocess
 I
thel
pst
hecur
ri
cul
um desi
gnerandt
het
eachert
omakedeci
sionsi
nrel
ati
ont
o:
1.Sequence-
int
hest
agesofdev
elopment
2.Or
gani
zat
ion-
groupi
ngofl
ear
ningexper
iencesf
oropt
imal
eff
ect
3.Met
hodol
ogy
-deal
i
ngwi
tht
hequest
ionofwhatmet
hodsandappr
oachesar
eli
kel
yto
pr
omot
eandgui
del
ear
ningmostef
fect
ivel
y.
4.For
mul
ati
onofappr
opr
iat
eeducat
ional
goal
s
5.Deci
sionsr
egar
dingt
hescopeoft
hecur
ri
cul
um
 Theor
iesofhumandev
elopment
,theor
iesofl
ear
ningandt
hepedagogi
cal
pr
inci
plesder
ivedf
rom psy
chol
ogi
cal
theor
iesmustal
lbeconsi
der
edi
ndet
ermi
ningt
he
cur
ri
cul
um.
Psychologyfocusesonlear
ningandt
eachingthr
ought
hreemai
ntheor
ies:Behav
iour
al
theor
ies,Cogni
tiv
etheor
iesandHumanist
ictheor
ies
1.Behav
ior
alTheor
ies
 Behav
ior
alpsy
chol
ogyi
stheol
destt
heor
yofl
ear
ning.Thi
sgr
oupofpsy
chol
ogi
stshav
e
cont
ri
but
edt
odeci
sionmaki
ngi
ncur
ri
cul
um t
hrought
hei
rfi
ndi
ngsandt
heor
iesr
egar
ding
condi
ti
onedr
esponsesi
nthear
eaofemot
ions.
 Knowl
edgeoft
hishel
psi
ndeal
i
ngwi
thpr
obl
emsconnect
edwi
thdesi
rabl
ecl
assr
oom
at
mospher
e.
 Knowl
edgeaboutt
hel
ear
neri
srel
evanti
nmaki
ngcur
ri
cul
um deci
sionsdur
ingcur
ri
cul
um
pl
anni
ngsuchas:
üSel
ect
ionandar
rangementofcont
ent
ü Thechoi
ceoflear
ningexperi
encesbywhichthi
scont
entwil
lbemani
pul
atedandbywhi
ch
t
heobjecti
vesnoachiev
ablethr
oughcontental
onecanbeatt
ained.
ü Pl
ansf
oropt
imum condi
ti
onsf
orl
ear
ning.
 Thesedeci
sionscannotbemadeadequat
elywi
thoutknowi
ngagooddeal
aboutl
ear
ner
s
andl
ear
ning.
vKnowl edgeofhowi nt
ell
i
gencefunct
ionsandhowcapaci
ti
esdevelop,
enabl
ecur
ri
cul
um
dev
eloper
stail
orcurr
icul
um contentt
oneedsandcapaci
ti
esofchil
dren
vKnowledgeabouttr
ansferofl
earni
nghelpinmakingdecisi
onsabouttheef
fici
encyof
l
earni
ngi.
e.,
howt omakewhat everi
slear
ntinschool
mostusef ulfort
herestofl
i
feandhowt o
appl
yitt
othingsothert
hanthoseinwhichtheschoolexper
iencescentr
e.
vKnowledgeaboutt
hetot
aldev
elopmentoft
heindivi
dual
canhel
pdiscoverwhatt
hetotal
r
angeofobj
ecti
vescanbeandhowthecurr
icul
um canaccommodateordevel
opthi
srange.
 Appl
i
cat
ionofBehav
iour
alPsy
chol
ogyi
sil
l
ust
rat
edbysuchl
ear
ningt
rendsas:
o Mi
cro-
teachi
ng,
Inst
ruct
ional
trai
ningmodel
s,I
ndi
vi
dual
lear
ning,
Dir
ecti
nst
ruct
ion
andMast
eryl
ear
ning
2.Cogni
ti
veTheor
ies
 Mostl
ear
ningt
heor
iest
odayar
ecogni
ti
on-
ori
ent
ed(
Int
ell
ect
ual
).
JeanPiaget,aSwissPsychol
ogist
,formulat
edtheor
iesofl
earni
ng,l
anguageandmodeof
thoughtofthechi
ld.Heobservedandrecordedi
nminutedetai
lthespont
aneousr
eact
ionsof
manychi l
drentoawidevari
etyofsit
uati
ons
Hei
dent
if
iedf
ourst
agesofcogni
ti
vedev
elopmentas:
1.i
. Sensor
y-Mot
orst
age(
0-2y
ear
s)(
Inf
antst
age)
 Noabst
ractr
easoni
ng
 Thought
sofi
nfant
sar
eint
uit
ive,
closel
yli
nkedwi
thact
ual
phy
sical
act
ionandi
mmedi
ate
obser
vat
ion.
 Thei
nfantcannoti
magi
neofconsequencesofact
ionunl
esshe/
sheact
ual
l
ycar
ri
esi
tout
.
 Thechi
l
disunabl
etodr
awl
ogi
cal
concl
usi
onsf
rom hi
sact
ivi
ti
esandexper
iences.
1.i
i. Pr
e-oper
ati
onalorpr
e-concept
ual
stage(
2-7y
ear
s)
 Thechi
l
dmani
pul
atest
hingsment
all
ybutonl
yobj
ect
s/mat
eri
alst
hatar
econcr
ete.
 Ment
aloper
ati
onsdev
elopwi
thact
iveexpl
orat
ionoft
hingsi
nhi
simmedi
ateenv
ironment
 Thechi
l
dcanappr
eci
ateav
ari
etyofl
i
vingt
hingsandobj
ect
sar
oundhi
m
 He/
shedev
elopsabi
l
ityt
odi
scussandcommuni
cat
e,
 canr
ecogni
zeshapesandpat
ter
ns,
and
 Cangr
oupt
hingst
oget
heraccor
dingt
oagi
vencr
it
eri
ae.
g.,
shape,
col
our
,li
vi
ngornon-
li
vi
ng
et
c.
1.i
ii
. Concr
eteoper
ati
ons(
7-11y
ear
s)
 Thechi
l
dper
for
msv
ari
ed,
mor
epower
ful
ment
aloper
ati
ons,
 Pr
obl
emsar
esol
vedi
namor
eor
der
edandquant
it
ati
veway
 canv
isual
i
zeobj
ect
sfr
om di
ff
erentangl
es
 Canv
isual
i
zet
heshapeofcr
oss-sect
ions.
 Hecancl
assi
fyl
i
vingt
hingsandnon-
li
vi
ngmat
eri
alsi
ndi
ff
erentway
s
1.i
v. For
maloper
ati
onsorabst
ractt
hinki
ng(
over11y
ear
s)
 Thechi
l
dcant
hinkaboutabst
ract
ions
 Hei
snol
ongert
iedt
otheconcr
eteandt
otheher
eandnow
 canusehy
pot
het
ical
reasoni
ng.
 Abst
ractl
ogi
candmat
hemat
icsar
enowathi
sdi
sposal
 Hei
sabl
etodi
sti
ngui
shobser
vat
ionswhi
char
eper
ti
nentt
oasol
uti
onf
rom t
hosewhi
char
e
not
 Hei
sabl
etounder
takecont
rol
l
edexper
iment
ati
on
 Al
lchi
l
drenpasst
hroughPi
aget
’sst
agesofcogni
ti
vedev
elopmenti
nthesameor
derbutat
adi
ff
erentr
ate.Theageatwhi
chachi
l
dappear
svar
iesdependi
ngon:
o Chi
l
d’si
ntel
l
igence
o Pr
evi
ousl
ear
ningexper
ience
o Soci
alandcul
tur
albackgr
ound
o I
mpl
icat
ionsf
ort
hecur
ri
cul
um
vReadi
ness-
 Eachst
ageofdev
elopmentbui
l
dsonanear
li
eroneandf
ormst
hef
oundat
ionf
ort
henext
st
age
 Concept
sar
eacqui
redi
nsequent
ial
hier
archi
esandt
her
efor
ecer
tai
nconcept
sar
e
f
undament
alf
oracqui
sit
ionoft
hoset
hatf
oll
ow
 Whenpl
anni
ngt
hecur
ri
cul
um wemustt
aket
hesest
agesofdev
elopmentoft
hel
ear
neri
nto
account
 Thepl
anni
ngoft
hecur
ri
cul
um shoul
dbeconsi
der
edf
rom t
hel
ogi
coft
hechi
l
drat
hert
han
t
hel
ogi
coft
hesubj
ectmat
ter
 Shoul
dnothur
ryt
hesy
ll
abuscov
erageunt
ilt
heear
li
ercogni
ti
vest
ageshav
ebeenmast
ered
 Ti
mei
stheser
vantnott
hemast
eroft
hechi
l
d
 Youcannotf
orcet
hechi
l
dtodev
elopunder
standi
ngf
ast
ert
hanhi
sabsor
pti
onoft
he
r
elat
edexper
iences,
hewi
l
llear
nwhenhei
sreadyi
.e.whenhehasr
eachedt
heappr
opr
iat
e
st
ageofi
ntel
l
ect
ual
dev
elopment
 Teacher
scanst
imul
atechi
l
dreni
ntor
eadi
ness-
thel
ear
ningpr
ocesscanbespeededupor
sl
oweddownbyappr
opr
iat
eori
nappr
opr
iat
elear
ningsi
tuat
ions
vSequent
ial
lear
ning-
 Thi
sinv
olv
esawar
enessoft
hest
agesofdev
elopmentandl
ear
ninghi
erar
chi
est
hrough
whi
cht
hel
ear
nermustpassashe/
sheadv
ancesf
rom oneconceptt
oamor
esophi
sti
cat
ed
oneandt
hecor
respondi
ngsequenci
ngoft
eachi
ng/
lear
ningexper
iencesandt
hemat
eri
als
andr
esour
cesused.
 Thet
askoft
het
eacheri
stof
igur
eoutwhatt
hel
ear
neral
readyknowsandhowher
easons
soast
oaskt
her
ightquest
ionatt
her
ightt
imesot
hatt
hel
ear
nercanbui
l
donhi
sown
knowl
edge
vTheneedi
ngener
alt
opassf
rom concr
etet
otheabst
ract
;concr
eteexper
iencesf
ir
st,
the
wor
dlat
er
vThepr
ocessoff
ormi
ngaconceptt
akesl
ongert
hanhadbeenpr
evi
ousl
ythought
vOnemustcr
osst
hel
i
nebet
weeni
gnor
anceandi
nsi
ghtmanyt
imesbef
orer
eal
under
standi
ng
comes
vWi
thi
neachsubj
ectordi
sci
pli
net
her
ear
epr
ogr
essi
vel
ymor
ecompl
exconcept
s
vChi
l
dsi
ntel
l
ect
ual
dev
elopmenti
senhancedbypar
ent
alandenv
ironment
alst
imul
ati
on
1.Par
ent
alst
imul
ati
on-
chi
l
drenwhor
ecei
veaf
fect
ionandcar
edev
elopmor
erapi
dly
i
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
ythant
hoset
owhom pr
operpar
ent
alat
tent
ioni
sdeni
ed
2.Cul
tur
alst
imul
ati
on-Lackoft
oys/
pict
urebooksandot
herst
imul
icanr
etar
ddev
elopment
ofmani
pul
ati
veski
l
ls
3.Useofpi
ctor
almat
eri
al–l
ackoft
oyscanr
etar
dcogni
ti
vedev
elopment
.
vHeal
thandnut
ri
ti
on-
lackofpr
otei
nsandv
itami
nscanr
etar
dint
ell
ect
ual
growt
h
3.Humani
sti
cTheor
ies
 Humani
sti
cappr
oacht
ocur
ri
cul
um i
sthemostr
ecentl
ear
ningt
heor
y.
Mai
npr
oponent
sincl
ude:
 Masl
ow’
sonHumanneeds
 Roger
’sonFr
eedom t
olear
n
 Gui
l
for
d’sonSt
ruct
ureofi
ntel
l
ect
 Dewey
’sonRef
lect
ivet
hinki
ng
 St
enber
g’sonCr
it
ical
thi
nki
ng
 Br
unner
’sont
hest
ruct
ureofsubj
ectandi
nqui
ry/
discov
erymet
hods
 Gest
alt
’st
heor
yonshape,
for
m andconf
igur
ati
on(
sti
mul
usv
sresponse)
 I
nthi
stheor
ycur
ri
cul
um i
saf
tert
hepr
ocess,
nott
hepr
oduct
,focusesonper
sonal
needs,
notonsubj
ectmat
ter
,andcl
ari
fyi
ngpsy
chol
ogi
cal
sit
uat
ions.
 I
temphasi
zest
hatcur
ri
cul
um shoul
dbebasedonsoci
etal
needs.Thi
sappr
oachi
ncl
ude:
o For
mat
ionofdesi
redat
ti
tudes,
Dev
elopmentofhumanef
eel
i
ngs,
Sel
f-
Act
ual
i
zat
ion,
Fr
eedom t
olear
nandVal
ueCl
assi
fi
cat
ion
 Masl
ow’
sonHumanneeds
a) Basi
cneeds
1.Phy
siol
ogi
cal
needs(
food,
wat
er,
war
mth,
rest
,sex)
2.Saf
etyneeds(
secur
it
y,saf
ety
)
b) Psy
chol
ogi
cal
needs
1.Bel
ongi
ngnessandl
oveneeds(
int
imat
erel
ati
onshi
ps,
fri
ends)
2.Est
eem needs(
prest
ige,
andf
eel
i
ngofaccompl
i
shment
)
c) Sel
f-f
ulf
il
lmentneeds
1.Sel
f-act
ual
i
zat
ion(
achi
evi
ngonesf
ull
pot
ent
ial
,incl
udi
ngcr
eat
iveact
ivi
ti
es)
 Youshoul
dnot
ethatbehav
iour
istcomponenti
sneedf
orpl
anni
ngandt
he
cur
ri
cul
um.Cogni
ti
vecomponenti
sfordev
elopi
ngt
hei
ntel
l
ectt
hroughsubj
ectcont
ent
andhumani
stcomponenti
sfori
nst
ruct
ion
4.Appl
icat
ionofKnowl
edgeofPsy
chol
ogi
calFoundat
ionst
oCur
ri
cul
um Dev
elopment
a) Cur ri
cul
um dev
eloper
s/t
eacher
scanappl
yknowl
edgeofcer
tai
nbasi
cpsy
chol
ogi
cal
pr
inci
plesin:
1.Meani
ngf
ulsel
ect
ionandgui
danceofexper
iencesi
nor
dert
ocont
ri
but
etomaxi
mum
dev
elopmentoft
hel
ear
ner
2.Or
gani
zi
ngandi
mpl
ement
ingt
hecur
ri
cul
um i
nrel
ati
ont
ovar
yingr
atesofmet
algr
owt
h
3.Pr
ovi
dingf
lexi
blecur
ri
cul
um t
oal
l
owf
ordi
ver
sit
yofchar
act
erandl
ear
ningr
eadi
ness
amongt
hel
ear
ner
s
b) Anunderst
andi
ngofcer
tai
nbasicpsychol
ogicalpri
nci
pleswi
l
lenhancetheef
fect
iveness
ofpl
anni
ng,
desi
gnanddevel
opmentofthecurr
iculum i
nanumberofway s:
1.Thephy
sical
,heal
thandphy
siol
ogi
cal
stat
usoft
hel
ear
neri
nthecl
assr
oom hasabear
ing
ont
her
ateatwhi
chhewi
l
llear
n
2.Al
ear
ner
sner
vouscondi
ti
onal
sohasanef
fectonhi
sment
alr
eadi
ness
3.Cur
ri
cul
um shoul
dbedev
elopedi
naccor
dancet
odi
ff
erentagegr
oups,
cor
respondi
ngt
o
di
ff
erentage-
gradel
evel
4.Di
ff
erentagegr
oupshav
euni
quechal
l
engeswhi
chr
equi
ret
hatcur
ri
cul
um i
spl
anned
t
aki
ngi
ntoaccountt
hecommonchal
l
engesofal
lyout
handt
hespeci
fi
cchal
l
engesi
nthe
l
i
vesofi
ndi
vi
dual
student
s
5.Lear
ner
shav
ethei
rowni
nter
est
sandaspi
rat
ions.t
hesei
nter
est
sandaspi
rat
ionsar
e
i
mpor
tantdet
ermi
nant
soft
hecur
ri
cul
um st
ruct
ureandcont
entandt
husi
nfl
uence
l
ear
ningef
fect
iveness
6.Ef
fect
sofr
ewar
dsandpuni
shmentont
hepr
ocessofl
ear
ning.Chi
l
drenr
epondbet
tert
o
l
ear
ningwhent
eacher
sputemphasi
sonr
ewar
dst
hanpuni
shment
-t
eachershoul
dpl
an
r
ewar
dsi
nor
gani
zi
ngl
ear
ningexper
iences
c) Lear ningenvi
ronmentsshoul
dmeetlear
nersbasic,
psychol
ogicalandself
-ful
fi
ll
ment
needs…permissi
ontoattendtocal
lofnat
ure,
provi
sionofwater,
food,cleant
oil
ets,adequat
e
l
ighti
ng/venti
l
ati
on,avoi
dridi
cul
eanddemeaningpunishmentsetcwill
contri
butetosuit
able
l
earningenvir
onment.
d) I
mpor
tanceofpar
ent
alandenv
ironment
alst
imul
ati
on
 Chi
l
drear
ingpr
act
icescanhav
eani
mpor
tantef
fectoni
ntel
l
ect
ual
dev
elopment
.Chi
l
dren
onwhom car
eandaf
fect
ionar
ebest
oweddev
elopmor
erapi
dlyi
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
ythant
hoset
o
whom pr
operpar
ent
alat
tent
ioni
sdeni
ed

e) Cul
tur
alst
imul
ati
on
 Thedegr
eet
owhi
chachi
l
d’si
ntel
l
ect
ual
pot
ent
ial
isdev
elopeddependst
oal
argeext
enton
t
hest
imul
usher
ecei
ves
 Lackoft
oysand ot
hersuchst
imul
uscanr
etar
dthedev
elopmentofmani
pul
ati
veski
l
ls
f
) Heal
thandnut
ri
ti
on
 Lackofpr
otei
nsandv
itami
nscanser
iousl
yret
ardi
ntel
l
ect
ual
growt
h.Forexampl
e
Kwashi
orkorwhi
chi
scausedbyl
ackofpr
otei
nint
hedi
etcausesment
alapat
hyand
sl
ownessandf
eebl
enessofmov
ement
.
 Thecogni
ti
vedev
elopmentofchi
l
dreni
sret
arded;
theyl
osenor
mal
cur
iosi
tyanddesi
ref
or
expl
orat
iont
hati
snat
ural
tot
hechi
l
d andseem t
oshownoi
nter
esti
nthei
rsur
roundi
ng
I
mpl
icat
ionsofpsy
chol
ogi
calf
oundat
ionsf
orsel
ect
ionofcont
ent
 I
nsel
ect
ionofsui
tabl
esubj
ectmat
terandappr
opr
iat
eteachi
ng/
lear
ningexper
iencesf
ort
he
cur
ri
cul
um:
o consi
deri
nter
est
sandneedsofst
udent
s,
o speci
alchar
act
eri
sti
csofchi
l
drenatdi
ff
erentages,
o st
agesofhumandev
elopment
o Fact
orssuchasst
imul
ati
on,
mat
urat
ion,
mot
ivat
ionwhi
chbearoni
ntel
l
ect
ual
dev
elopment
o Nat
ureofl
ear
ningpr
ocess
o Howknowl
edgecanbestbesequencedandor
gani
zedf
oref
fi
cientl
ear
ningand
t
eachi
ng
o Newway
sofknowi
ngandoft
eachi
ng
o Under
standi
ngoft
heacademi
cdi
sci
pli
nesandt
hest
ruct
ureofl
ear
ningandt
eachi
ng
2.
2.4Soci
ologi
calf
oundat
ionsofcur
ri
cul
um
Knowledgedeemedrelev
anttothecur
ri
cul
um wil
lrel
atetor
elev
antcontemporar
yissuesof
soci
etyandoftheworl
datlarge.Acur
ri
cul
um hastoguideandori
entpupi
lstowardsthecul
tur
e
i
nwhicht heywi
ll
li
vethei
rli
ves.
Thiswi
ll
embracethecust
oms,
val
ues,
bel
i
efs,
techni
ques,
inst
it
uti
onsandpat
ter
nsofsoci
al
l
i
vingoft
hesociet
y.
Acur
ri
cul
um i
sacul
tur
alsel
ect
ionandachi
l
dmustbet
aught
 Theaccept
edv
aluesandmor
esofhi
ssoci
ety
 Gener
alknowl
edgeandt
heat
ti
tudesappr
opr
iat
etoaneducat
edper
son
 Apar
ti
cul
arski
l
l,sot
hathecanear
nhi
sli
vi
ngandmakeacont
ri
but
iont
osoci
ety
.
In1957Smi th,StanleyandShor esadv ocateda“commoncul turecor

ecur r
iculum “i nt
ermsof
broadsoci alproblemsandt hemesofsoci alli
vi
ng fortheUnitedStatesofAmer ica.Denni
s
Lawt on(1973)ar guesforsel ecti
onf rom cult
ureofwhatseemsmostsi gni
ficantandf rom body
ofknowl edgeandexper iences.Suchasel ecti
onleadshimt of i
vecoresofthecur r
icul
um,
correspondingt oProfessorPaul Hi r
st‘ f
ormsofknowl edge’.Thelatt
erarguest hatoneoft he
pri
mar yaimsofeducat ionist hedev elopmentofar ati
onalmi nd.Hesaysknowl edgeconsists
offormsoft houghtwi t
ht heirdi
stinctiveandcharacteri
sti
clogicalst
ructur
escal l
eddisci
pli
nes
orsubjects.Thef iveareasorcor ear e:
 Mat
hemat
ics
 Phy
sical
andbi
ologi
cal
sci
ence
 Humani
ti
esandsoci
alst
udi
es(
hist
ory
,geogr
aphy
,cl
assi
cs,
li
ter
atur
e,r
eli
gion)
 Expr
essi
veAr
ts(
musi
c,dr
ama,
phy
sical
educat
ion,
pai
nti
ng,
pot
ter
y)
 Mor
aleducat
ion
Oftennotsuf
fi
cientat
tent
ionisgi
ventoi
ncl
udi
ngt
hecul
tur
e,t
het
radi
ti
ons,
oft
hehome,
of
societ
y,i
nwhatgoesoni ntheschool
s
Soci
ologist
susethr
eedif
ferentper
spect
ivest
oaddr
esst
hef
unct
ioni
ngandper
for
manceof
i
nsti
tuti
onssuchaseducati
on.
Theseper
spect
ivesar
e:
a) Funct
ional
i
stper
spect
ive
 Thi
sper
spect
iveanal
ysi
stheanal
ysest
her
oleoft
heschool
inmai
ntai
nanor
der
lyand
ef
fi
cientsoci
ety
 Funct
ional
i
stcont
endt
hati
fal
li
nst
it
uti
onsar
efunct
ioni
ngwel
l
,thensoci
etywor
kswel
l
 Funct
ional
anal
ysi
sfocusont
hedomi
nantv
aluesi
nsoci
etyandemphasi
zet
hebenef
it
sofa
commonl
anguage,
commonv
aluesanddev
elopmentofusef
ulski
l
lsi
nor
dert
oassi
mil
ate
di
ver
segr
oupsandmol
dthem i
ntoaf
unct
ioni
ngandcohesi
vesoci
ety
 Funct
ional
i
sm i
sadomi
nantper
spect
ivef
orv
iewi
ngandev
aluat
ingeducat
ion.Whent
her
e
ar
edy
sfunct
ionsi
nsoci
ety
,theschool
sar
equi
ckl
yvi
ewedasbot
honeoft
hecausesoft
he
pr
obl
em aswel
laspar
toft
hesol
uti
on
 Thef
unct
ional
i
stper
spect
ivepr
ovi
desomegui
dancef
oraddr
essi
ngper
sist
enteducat
ion
pr
obl
emse.
g.school
fai
l
urewher
etheysuggestt
hatt
heschool
shoul
dwor
kinconj
unct
ion
wi
tht
hef
ami
l
y
 Funct
ional
i
sm t
husi
nfl
uenceseducat
ionpol
i
cyandsuggest
ionsf
orr
efor
m.Thebusi
ness
andt
hei
ndust
rygr
oupsi
ssuer
epor
tsst
ati
ngt
hatt
heschool
sshoul
dbedoi
ngmor
eto
pr
epar
est
udent
sfort
hewor
ldofwor
k
 Whatcur
rentschoolpr
act
icescany
oui
dent
if
ythatar
econsi
stentwi
tht
hef
unct
ional
i
st
per
spect
ive?
b) Conf
li
ctper
spect
ive
 Conf
li
ctper
spect
ivebegi
nswi
tht
hecont
ent
iont
hatpowerr
elat
ionshi
psandconf
li
cti
ng
i
nter
est
sinf
luenceeducat
ionpol
i
cyandpr
act
ice
 School
sar
evi
ewedaspl
aceswher
epowergr
oupscompet
eforadv
ant
age.
 I
tisi
nthei
nter
estoft
hedomi
nantpowerandst
atusgr
oupst
ocont
rol
andshapeeducat
ion
i
nor
dert
omai
ntai
nthei
radv
ant
age
 Si
ncecont
rol
ofeducat
ioni
sbasi
cal
l
yint
hehandsoft
hosei
npower
,school
sar
epl
aces
t
hatr
epr
esentt
hepowergr
oupsi
nsoci
etyandt
her
efor
eper
pet
uat
essoci
ali
nequal
i
ty
 Anal
ysi
sofschool
sfr
om conf
li
ctper
spect
iver
eveal
sthatschool
sser
vingmi
nor
it
ygr
oups
andt
hepoort
endt
obepoor
lyf
inancedandi
nadequat
elyst
aff
ed
 Peopl
ewhouseconf
li
ctper
spect
ivet
oev
aluat
eeducat
ioncont
endt
hati
ngener
al,
the
school
hasbeenst
ruct
uredt
omai
ntai
nthedomi
nanceoft
hegr
oupswhohav
ethemost
powerandwhobenef
itt
hemostf
rom t
hesy
stem e.
g.mostpeopl
edonotr
eal
i
set
hatmer
it
i
nschool
sisusual
l
ydef
inedi
nter
msofmi
ddl
ecl
assandupper
-cl
assexpect
ati
ons.
 St
udent
sfr
om mi
nor
it
ygr
oupsandf
rom l
owersoci
oeconomi
cst
atusgr
oupsmustadaptt
o
di
ff
erentsetofnor
msandexpect
ati
onsandt
husputt
hem atadi
sadv
ant
age
 Conf
li
ctper
spect
ivepr
ovi
desani
mpor
tantl
enst
hroughwhi
chwecanv
iewt
heeducat
ional
r
efor
m mov
ementandpr
oposal
sforchange.
 Theypr
oposeschool
progr
amsshoul
daddr
essi
nequal
i
tyandpr
omot
esoci
alj
ust
ice
 Pr
oposal
sforchangeshoul
dbef
rom per
spect
ivesofal
lmember
soft
hesoci
ety
,notj
ust
f
rom t
het
hosei
npower
.
 Weneedt
oaskhar
dquest
ionssuchaswhoi
spr
oposi
ngt
hischange.Whyar
etheymaki
ng
t
heser
ecommendat
ions?Whowi
l
lbenef
it
?Whowi
l
lbehar
med?
 Whati
syourr
eact
iont
otheconf
li
ctper
spect
iveasat
oolf
oranal
yzi
ngandev
aluat
ing
school
s?
c) Sy
mbol
i
cint
eract
ioni
stper
spect
ive
 Thef
unct
ional
i
standconf
li
ctper
spect
ivesl
ookateducat
ionata‘
macr
olev
el’
.These
per
spect
ivesv
ieweducat
ionasani
nst
it
uti
onandhowi
trel
atest
oot
heri
nst
it
uti
ons
 Sy
mbol
i
cint
eract
ioni
stscont
endt
hatt
hesemacr
oappr
oachesmi
sst
hedi
mensi
onof
ev
ery
dayl
i
fet
hatshapest
udentf
utur
es
 Thef
ocusofsy
mbol
i
cint
eract
ioni
sti
s‘mi
crol
evel
’orwhatact
ual
l
ytakespl
acei
nthe
cl
assr
oom
 Theycl
aim st
udent
sdev
elopt
hei
rident
it
ies,
lear
nthei
rsel
f-
concept
s,anddev
elopt
hei
r
hopesandaspi
rat
ionst
hroughi
nter
act
ionswi
thot
her
s
 Wel
ear
nwhowear
ethr
ought
hemi
rr
orofot
her
s.Ther
efor
elooki
ngatt
hei
nter
act
ions
bet
weenst
udent
sandbet
weent
eacher
sandst
udent
siscr
it
ical
inunder
standi
ngt
her
oleof
t
heschool
insoci
ety
 Sy
mbol
i
cint
eract
ioni
stsi
nvest
igat
ethef
ormal
andi
nfor
mal
processest
hatt
akepl
acei
nthe
cl
assr
oom (
thecul
tur
eoft
heschool
andcl
assr
oom)
 Thi
sinv
olv
espowerr
elat
ionshi
psbet
weent
het
eacher
sandt
hest
udent
s,t
her
ulest
hat
gov
erncl
assr
oom i
nter
act
ions,
peerr
elat
ionshi
psandf
ri
endshi
ppat
ter
nsandhowal
lthese
r
elat
etosoci
alcl
assandgender
 Theyar
eint
erest
edi
nwhoi
srewar
ded,
whati
srewar
ded,
andwhatst
udent
sar
elear
ning
t
hrought
hei
rint
eract
ionswi
thot
her
sint
heschool
env
ironment
 Theyi
nvest
igat
ether
elat
ionshi
poft
hesedi
mensi
onst
oet
hni
cit
y,r
ace/
tri
be,
genderand
soci
oeconomi
cst
atus
I
mpl
icat
ions
1.Onedi
mensi
onofi
nter
act
ioni
sm i
sthatoft
eacherexpect
ati
onsandhowt
hosei
nfl
uence
st
udentachi
evement
.Resear
chhasshownt
eacherexpect
ati
onsi
nfl
uencet
hei
nter
act
ion
bet
weent
eacherandst
udentandt
hismayr
esul
tina‘
’
sel
f-
ful
fi
ll
i
ngpr
ophesy
’sot
hat
st
udent
sbehav
eandachi
evei
namannert
hati
sconsi
stentwi
tht
eacherexpect
ati
ons
2.Anot
heraspectofcl
assr
oom i
nter
act
ionf
ocusesont
hecul
tur
albackgr
oundandgender
oft
het
eacherandt
hest
udent
s.E.
g.st
udent
sfr
om cul
tur
albackgr
oundsdi
ff
erentt
han
t
het
eachermayexhi
bitbehav
iour
sthatar
enor
mal
fort
hem butar
emi
sint
erpr
etedbyt
he
t
eachersot
hatt
het
eacherconcl
udest
hatt
hest
udentsar
erebel
l
ious,
disr
espect
ful
,or
unmot
ivat
ed
3.Manycur
renteducat
ionpr
act
icesr
efl
ectt
hesy
mbol
i
cint
eract
ioni
sm per
spect
ive.
 Abol
i
tionsofeducat
iont
hatwasr
aci
alaf
teri
ndependenceandr
epl
aci
ngi
twi
thasi
ngl
e
cur
ri
cul
um t
hatal
l
owsal
lchi
l
drenr
egar
dlessoft
ri
be,
ethni
cit
y,r
eli
giousbel
i
ef,
soci
al
cl
asses,
genderandbackgr
oundwasi
nfor
medbyt
hisper
spect
ive
 Mai
nst
reami
ngofspeci
aleducat
ionst
udent
sint
other
egul
arcl
assr
oom.Thi
swasbasedon
t
hei
nter
act
ioni
stnot
iont
hatpl
aci
ngspeci
aleducat
ionst
udent
sinr
egul
arcl
assr
oom woul
d
pr
omot
eint
eract
ionbet
weenst
udent
sthatwoul
dchanget
heexpect
ati
onsandper
cept
ions
ofev
ery
one
Soci
alf
orcest
hathav
ehadmaj
ori
nfl
uenceonschool
sandcur
ri
cul
um
Theai
ms/goalsandobject
ivesofeducat
ionaredeter
minedbyt
hecult
ureofi
tssoci
ety
.The
i
nfl
uenceofsoci
alfoundat
ionsonthecurri
cul
um canbeconsi
deredi
ntermsof:
1.Pur
posesoft
hecur
ri
cul
um
Schoolsser
veasagent
sforsoci
algr
owt
h,dev
elopmentandr
efor
m.Theyper
for
mthef
oll
owi
ng
funct
ions
 Pr
eser
vat
ionandt
ransmi
ssi
onofcul
tur
alher
it
age
 Tr
ansf
ormat
ionofcul
tur
e.Educat
ionshoul
dhel
pthey
out
htoadj
ustt
ochangesi
nsoci
ety
anddev
elopway
sofdeal
i
ngwi
thpr
obl
ems
 Ani
nst
rumentf
ori
ndi
vi
dual
dev
elopment
.Theschool
shoul
dhel
pthey
out
hto
i
. Real
i
zet
hei
rpot
ent
ial
i
i
. Det
ermi
net
hei
rindi
vi
dual
goal
s
i
i
i. At
tai
nthei
rindi
vi
dual
goal
s
1.Pr
essur
esi
nfl
uenci
ngt
hecur
ri
cul
um
 Thepubl
i
cingener
alandv
ari
oussoci
alf
orcesi
nfl
uencest
hecur
ri
cul
um.Pr
essur
egr
oups
i
nfl
uencet
henat
ureanddi
rect
ionoft
hecur
ri
cul
um
 Soci
etyusesbot
hfor
mal
andi
nfor
mal
meanst
oputpr
essur
eont
heschool
syst
em whi
chi
n
t
urni
nfl
uencescur
ri
cul
um dev
elopment
1.Char
act
eri
sti
csoft
hest
udent
sexper
ienci
ng t
hecur
ri
cul
um
Student
s/l
earner
sarepri
meconsi
derati
onincur
ri
cul
um desi
gnanddev
elopment
.St
udent
sar
e
uniquei
ndi
vidual
sandthi
shasthefol
lowingi
mpli
cat
ions
 Thesoci
alst
ruct
ureofwhi
chast
udenti
sapar
tdi
ctat
est
her
elev
anceoft
hecur
ri
cul
um.
Teacher
sshoul
drel
atet
hecur
ri
cul
um t
othel
ocal
sur
roundi
ngandal
soachi
evet
heset
obj
ect
ivesoft
hecur
ri
cul
um i
nthesubj
ectar
ea
 Aspi
rat
ionsofst
udent
s.Cur
ri
cul
um shoul
dhel
plear
ner
smakecor
rectchoi
cesal
ongt
hei
r
l
i
nesofaspi
rat
ion.I
tshoul
dal
sohel
pbui
l
dposi
ti
veat
ti
tudesi
nthest
udentandt
orai
set
he
l
evel
andqual
i
tyoft
hei
raspi
rat
ions
 Ef
fectofenv
ironmentonment
aldev
elopment
.School
sandt
eacher
sshoul
dcr
eat
esui
tabl
e
l
ear
ningenv
ironmentt
ohel
plear
ner
sdepr
ivedofsucht
oimpr
ovei
nthei
racademi
c
per
for
mance.
Ther
oleofot
hersoci
ali
zingagent
s
Thefamilyandrel
i
giousi
nst
it
uti
onsar
etwoi
mpor
tanti
nst
it
uti
onst
hathav
egr
eati
nfl
uenceon
theschoolcur
ri
culum
1.Thef
ami
l
y
Knowl
edgeofthefamil
ybackgroundhelpsthecur
ri
cul
um dev
eloperandt
het
eacheri
nthe
sel
ect
ionofappr
opri
atelear
ningexper
iences
1.Soci
etyar
oundt
heschool
Thesoci
etyar
oundt
heschool
aff
ect
sthepr
ocessofcur
ri
cul
um pl
anni
ng
Thereshoul
dbeprov
isionfori
nter
act
ionbet
weent
heschool
,thesoci
etyandt
hef
ami
l
yto
enri
chtheschool
cur
ricul
um
Rel
i
giousi
nst
it
uti
ons
Reli
giouseducat
ioni
spartoftheschoolcurr
icul
um atbothpri
mar yandsecondaryschooll
evel
s.
Reli
giouseducat
iondevel
opsanappreci
ationinthel
earnerandsenseofself-
respectand
respectf
orli
feaswellasthecont
ri
buti
onofsuchst udytowardsthedevel
opmentoft hequali
ty
ofli
fe.
CURRI
CULUM DESI
GN
3.
2LessonLear
ningOut
comes
1.
1.1 Expl
aint
het
erm cur
ri
cul
um desi
gn
1.
1.2 Di
scussmodel
sofcur
ri
cul
um desi
gn
1.
1.3 Di
scusst
hecr
it
eri
aforsel
ect
ionofcont
ent
/l
ear
ningexper
iences
1.
1.4 Di
scusst
hepr
inci
plesf
oror
gani
zi
ngcont
entandl
ear
ningexper
ience
1.
1.5 Di
scusspat
ter
nsofCur
ri
cul
um desi
gn
1.
1.6 Expl
aint
hecomponent
sKI
CDdesi
gnsi
ncur
ri
cul
um
3.
2.1TheconceptCur
ri
cul
um desi
gn
Accordi ngt oTaba( 1962)cur r
iculum designi sast atementwhi chident if
iestheelement softhe
curri
culum, stateswhatt heirrelati
onshipsar etoeachot her,i
ndicatesthepr i
ncipl
esof
organizat i
onandt her equirement soft heor ganizati
onf ortheadmi nistrati
vecondi ti
onsunder
whichi tist ooper ate.Cur r
iculum designi samor ecompl exprocesst hatresultsfrom a
parti
cularmodel ofcur r
iculum dev elopment .Cur r
icul
um desi gnisaboutwhatwet each,whywe
teachit, andhowwet eachi t.I
tisanev erchangingkal eidoscopeofchangi ng,shifti
ngpositi
ons.
Ifcurr
icul um isdef inedmor ebr oadl
yt hansy l
labusorcour seofstudyt heni tneedst ocontain
mor ethanmer est atement sofcont entt obest udied.Acur ri
culum hasatl eastfourimpor t
ant
element s: content; t
eachingandl earningstrategies;assessmentpr ocesses; andev aluat
ion
processes.
Thepr ocessofdefi
ningandorgani
singt
heseelementsint
oal
ogi
calpat
ter
nisknownas
curri
culum desi
gn.Curr
icul
um wri
ter
shavet r
iedt
oplacesomeor
derorr
ati
onal
it
yonthe
processofdesigni
ngacur r
icul
um byadvocati
ngmodels.
Indesi
gningacurri
culum wemakeappr opri
atechoi
ceofobject
ives,
cont
entandlear
ning
experi
encessequencethem andplanforthei
reval
uati
on.Howeverthepr
ocessofcurr
icul
um
planni
ngismuchwi derandinvol
ves:
 Sur
vey
ingt
hecur
rentcur
ri
cul
um andi
tscont
ext(
sit
uat
ional
anal
ysi
s)
 Set
ti
nggoal
s
 Deci
dingast
rat
egyf
orchange
 Desi
gni
nganddev
elopi
nganewcur
ri
cul
um t
omeett
hesegoal
sint
hatcont
ext
 I
mpl
ement
ingi
tandf
oll
owi
ngi
tup
3.
2.2Model
sofCur
ri
cul
um Desi
gn
Wearegoi
ngtolookatt
wocommonmodel
sofcur
ri
cul
um desi
gn,
namel
yTy
ler(
1949)model
andTaba(
1962)model
1.1. TheTy
lerModel
Thebasi
cfourst
epmodel
comesf
rom Ral
phTy
ler
,in1950,
wit
hhi
sfamousf
ourquest
ions:
1."
Whateducat
ional
pur
posesshoul
dtheschool
seekt
oat
tai
n?
2.Whateducat
ional
exper
iencescanbepr
ovi
dedt
hatar
eli
kel
ytoat
tai
nthesepur
poses?
3. Howcant
heseeducat
ional
exper
iencesbeef
fect
ivel
yor
gani
zed?
4.Howcanwedet
ermi
newhet
hert
hesepur
posesar
ebei
ngat
tai
ned?
")
Thesequest
ionsar
eeasi
l
ytur
nedi
ntof
ourst
eps:
1. Pur
poses(
obj
ect
ives)
,
2.Sel
ect
ionofl
ear
ningexper
iences,
3.Or
gani
zat
ionofl
ear
ningexper
iencesand
4.Ev
aluat
ion.
Steponeisthemostimportanti
nthi
smodelbecauseallt
heotherstepsarederi
vedfrom i
t.
Tylersai
danyeducati
onalprogr
ammeshouldbeguidedbyobject
ives.Becauseofthi
s
emphasisontheobject
ivesthemodeli
sref
err
edtoast heobj
ecti
vemodelofcur r
icul
um
development
.
Ty
leri
dent
if
iest
hreesour
cesofeducat
ional
obj
ect
ives
i
) St
udyofthelearner
s-educat
ional
object
ivesr
epr
esentt
heki
ndsofchangesi
n
behav
iort
hatt
heschoolseekstobr i
ngaboutinpupi
ls
i
i
) Studyofcont
empor
aryl
i
fei
nsoci
ety
-theschool
issupposedt
opr
epar
ethey
out
h
f
orl
i
fei
nthesoci
ety
i
ii
) Suggest
ionsf
rom subj
ectspecial
ist
s-t
hisisthesour
cecommonl yusedwhere
subj
ect
ssti
l
lformthemainbasisofthecurri
cul
um.Si ncewewilldependonthesubj
ectmat
ter
todesi
gnt
hecurri
culum,
theexpert
iseofthesubjectspeci
ali
sti
scr i
ti
cal
Theobjecti
vesar
riv
edatfr
om thethreesourcesshoul
dthenbefil
teredthr
ough
phi
l
osophicalandpsychol
ogi
cal“
screens”inordert
oarri
veatthef
inalrefi
nedobject
ives.
Insteptwot heobjecti
vesareusedt ogeneratecertai
nlear
ningexperi
encesandcontent.Tyler
i
nsiststhatnotjustfactsandconceptswel earnbutskil
lsandprocesseswelearn.Thiscont
ent
mustbel imitedtomanageabl escopeandsequence.Thenat ur
eofknowledge,t
heneedsoft he
l
earnerandofsoci etyaswell ascer
tainotherconsider
ati
onsenableustodecideont hescope
andsequence.Heout l
inestypesoflearni
ngexperiencesandsuggeststhepri
nci
plesf or
sel
ectingsuchexper i
ences.
St
ept
hreeTy
lerdef
ineswhathemeansbyor
gani
zat
ionandpr
ovi
descr
it
eri
a,pr
inci
plesand
st
ruct
uresf
oror
gani
zi
ngl
ear
ningexper
iences
I
nstepfourexpl
ainsthateval
uati
onistheprocessf
ordet
ermini
ngtowhatextenteducati
onal
obj
ect
iveshavebeenachievedbytheprogrammeofcurri
cul
um andinst
ruct
ion.Eval
uati
onis
di
vi
dedintotwotypes:for
mativeandsummat iv
e.
Tylermodel iscel
ebrat
edast hefi
rstmodel forcurr
iculum devel
opmentandallothermodels
havebeendev el
opedusingitasaprototype.Howev erseveralcr
it
ici
smshav ebeenlevel
led
againstTylermodel.Fi
rst,
iti
stoosimplisti
canddoesnotmakeadequat eall
owancef or
i
nterrel
atednessoftheseparateparts(i
tsli
near).Secondlythemodel doesnotmention
expli
cit
lywhichit’
sassumedundert helearningexperiences
1.2. Hi
ldaTabaModel
Taba(1962)asser t
edthatacurr
icul
um mustcontai
ncert
ainbasicelementsnamel y
;aimsand
obj
ecti
ves,content,l
earni
ngexperi
encesandeval
uati
on.Shefurthersai
dthattheseelement
s
mustbeselectedont hebasi
sofcer t
ainconsi
der
ati
onsli
keprincipl
esoflear
ning,natur
eofthe
l
earnerandknowl edge.
Themodel i
ssimil
artotheTy l
ermodel
asTabatooemphasizest
hei
mportanceofobj
ect
ives.
HoweverTabaaddscont entasel
ementinhermodel
.Sheal
soemphasi
zesont he
i
nter
rel
atednessoftheelements.
TheTabamodel
hassev
enst
epswhi
char
ecy
cli
cnamel
y,
1.Di
agnosi
sofneeds
2.For
mul
ati
onofobj
ect
ives
3.Sel
ect
ionofcont
ent
4.Or
gani
zat
ionofcont
ent
5.Sel
ect
ionofl
ear
ningexper
iences
6.Or
gani
zat
ionofl
ear
ningexper
iences
7.Ev
aluat
ion
1.Backwar
dDesi
gnModel
Ther
ear
ethr
eeappr
oachest
ocur
ri
cul
um desi
gn,
namel
y:
a.For
war
ddesi
gn/
inputappr
oach.I
tfocusesont
hei
nput
sfi
rst
.I.
einput
-pr
ocess-
out
put
b.Cent
ral
desi
gn/
processappr
oach.I
tfocusesont
hepr
ocessf
ir
stf
oll
owedbyi
nputand
out
put
c. Backwar
ddesi
gn/
out
putappr
oach/
out
comeappr
oach.I
tfocusesont
heout
comef
ir
st
t
henpr
ocessandi
nputf
oll
ows.Backwar
ddesi
gni
sal
socal
l
edbackwar
d
pl
anni
ng/backwar
dmappi
ng/out
putappr
oach/
out
comeappr
oach.TheCBCadopt
s
backwar
ddesi
gnmodel
wher
ethecur
ri
cul
um f
ocusi
sont
hel
ear
ningout
comesandnot
t
hecont
entl
i
kewi
tht
hepr
evi
ouscur
ri
cul
um desi
gns.Backwar
ddesi
gnal
i
gnsev
ery
thi
ng
i
nthecl
assr
oom t
owar
dsf
inal
goal
,keepsst
udent
sint
erest
,al
l
owf
ordi
ff
erent
iat
ed
appr
oachesi
nact
ivi
ti
esandmeet
sdi
ver
seneedsofst
udent
s.Thedesi
gnhast
hree
st
agesnamel
y:
 I
dent
if
yingt
hedesi
redout
come
 det
ermi
ningt
heassessment
 pl
anni
ngl
ear
ningexper
iencesandi
nst
ruct
ion.
3.
2.3Cr
it
eri
aforsel
ect
ingl
ear
ningexper
iences
Conf
ormi
tywi
thobj
ect
ives
Theexperi
encessel
ectedmustgi
vethest
udent
stheopport
uni
tyt
opr
act
icet
heki
ndof
behav
iourthati
simpl
iedbyatl
eastoneormoreobj
ect
ives.
I
I)Val
idi
ty
Thelear ni
ngexper
iences-
content,
lear
ningacti
vit
iesormateri
als-mustbeauthent
icor
consistentwi
thdev el
opmentinthesubjectorknowledgear
ea.Teacher sneedconst
anti
n-
servi
cingandselfeducati
ontokeepabr eastofchangesint
heirdisci
pli
nestoavoi
duseof
text
booksandmet hodsthatareoutofdate.
I
II
)Si
gni
fi
cance
Learningexperi
encesmustbemeani ngful-
mustcontr
ibut
etothepr ocessoflearning.Isthe
contentl
ogical
lycent
ral
enought oapplytoawiderangeofproblems?Theobj ecti
v esshould
gui
det heteachersoastocovercontentthatwoul
dbeunderstoodbyl earner
sofagi venlevel
.
Coverageoftoomuchcont entandactiv
iti
esmayconfusethelearnersifdonewi t
houtt aki
ng
careofbreadthanddepth.
I
V)Lear
ner
-abi
li
ty:
Learningexper
iencesmustbeappr opri
atetothelearners-mustbeadjust
edt otheabili
ti
esof
thelearner
s.Considert heabil
it
yofthelear
nersandt heirindi
vi
dualdif
fer
ences.Learningal
so
dependsonci r
cumst ancespr evai
li
ngintheschools,classroomsandsocietyatlarge.The
reacti
onsdesir
edi ntheexper i
encesmustbewi thi
nt her angeofpossi
bil
it
ytotheirpresent
attai
nmentsandpr edispositi
ons-t
helearni
ngexperiencemusti nvol
vethekindofbehav i
ourthat
achildisablet
omani fest.
V)I
nter
est
Lear
ningexper
iencesmustbei
nvi
ti
ngsot
hatt
hel
ear
ner
sar
est
imul
atedt
ohar
d-wor
k.
Learner
swi l
lbemotiv
at edtoperf
ormi nt
erest
ingactivi
ti
esthusenhancingt
herat
eatwhich
l
earningtakepl
ace.Selecti
onoflearni
ngexperiencesshouldnotbedonesolel
yonthebasi
sof
pupi
lsinter
estunl
esstheexperiencesaddressalreadysetobject
ives.
VI
)Sat
isf
act
ion
Thel earni
ngexperiencesmustbesucht hatthepupi
lsderi
vesat
isfact
ionfrom carr
yingoutt
he
kindofbehav i
ourimpl i
edbytheobjecti
ves.I
ftheexperi
encesar
eunsat i
sfy
ing,thedesir
ed
l
earni ngisnotl
ikel
yt ooccur-
ther
emustbesat isf
acti
onobtai
nedintheidenti
fi
edbehav i
ourf
or
thelearningexperi
encet obecomeeffecti
ve.
Vi
i
)Rel
evance
Thel earni
ngexperi
encesmustbeappl i
cabletolif
esi tuati
onsnowandi nthef ut
ure.Al though
relevanceisembeddedi ntheobjecti
ves,iti
simpor tanttolookatitinimmedi ateterms.The
l
ear nermustseehi sschoolexperi
enceasbei ngrelatedt ohisli
feoutsi
det heschool .The
exper i
enceshouldbebasedonorr ei
nforcewhathehasexper i
encedathome.Thel ear ner
shoul dbeabletorepeatthatexperi
encet osolv
ehi spr obl
emsandpr obl
emsofsoci et yinreal
l
ife.Ifwhatlear
nersexperienceissimil
artowhatt heyhav eexperi
encedbef oreori sr elatedtoa
problem theyseeinreall
ife,theybecomev erycurious, at
tenti
veandeagert ohav eagoati t
.
VI
II
)Consi
stencywi
thsoci
alr
eal
it
ies.
Alear
ningexper i
encemayaddresstheobjecti
vesbutcont
radi
cttheactual
sit
uati
onathomeor
i
nsociety.Change, r
api
dchange,i
scharacteri
sti
coftheworl
dwel i
fei
n.Themat er
ial
and
exper
iencesselectedmusthel
pdev el
opmi ndswhichcancopewithchange.Oft
enwhatis
sel
ectedisbasedt ooexcl
usi
velyonwhathasst oodthet
estofti
me.
I
X)Economy
/Compr
ehensi
veness
Dothecont entandlearningexperi
encesprovi
deforawi derangeofeducati
onalobj
ecti
ves?
Therearecertai
nindivi
dual l
earni
ngexperi
encesthatareli
kelytobri
ngaboutanumberof
l
earningoutcomes.Lear ningexper
iencest
hatleadtotheattainmentofmorethanoneobjecti
ve
permitseconomyint heuseoft ime-t
hesearepref
erabl
et othosethatcanonlyachi
eveasingl
e
obj
ect i
ve.
X)Rei
nfor
cement
.
Thoseexperiencesthatrei
nforcepreviousorot herexperiencesinordert
oachi eveobjecti
ves
canbev er
yusef ul
.Certai
nObj ect
ives,bytheirnature,cannotbeachievedwel l
throughasi ngl
e
exper
ience-
thereisneed, t
herefor
e,tounder standobjectivesandthecorrespondinglearni
ng
exper
iencessoast obeabl etodeci deonandsel ectexperienceswherer
einforcementoccur s
3.
2.4Pr
inci
plesf
orOr
gani
zingCur
ri
cul
um Cont
ent
Thesel
ect
ionandorgani
zati
onofcontent
/l
ear
ningexper
iencescanbepr
obl
emat
ic.Cur
ri
cul
um
desi
gnmusttakei
ntoaccountt
hefoll
owingpr
inci
ples
1.Scope-
Thi
srel
atest
othebr
eadt
handdept
hofcont
ent
.
 Whatcont
entf
rom t
hedi
sci
pli
nesandnon-
disci
pli
nesshoul
dbei
ncl
udedi
nthecur
ri
cul
um?
 Whatcont
entshoul
dbeconsi
der
edasel
ect
ives?
 Howmuchcont
entcanbel
ear
nedi
nonesubj
ectar
eai
noney
earori
nacy
cle,
inat
opi
cor
t
heme;
inaschemeofwor
k;i
nasi
ngl
elesson?
Iti
sgeneral
lyagreedt
hatthescopeofcurri
culacontenti
sregul
atedpartl
ybythe
goal
sandobject
ivesgener
atedduri
ngthediagnost
icstageincurri
cul
um pl
anning.These
obj
ecti
vesal
sohelptoregul
atecurr
icul
um obj
ecti
ves
1.2. Sequence-Sequencedeal
swi
thor
derofcont
entandexper
iences.I
taddr
essest
he
pr
obl
em ofor
der
ingt
hecur
ri
cul
aof
fer
ingssoast
oopt
imi
zel
ear
ning.
a) Cont entcanbeor ganisedandsequencedbydr awingbydr awi

ngonitssubstanti
ve
str
ucturei.
e.,
thelogi
coft hedi sci
pli
ne.Herethecont enti
sarrangedonthebasi
sofkey
conceptsandtheorderoflear ningi
sdeterminedbywhatconcept sar
epre-r
equi
sit
et othe
l
earningandcompr ehendi
ngofot herconcepts.Thelogicalar
rangementofcur
ri
culacontent
dependsentir
elyonthenat ureandst r
uctur
eofpar t
icularsubj
ects.
b) Sequencebasedonpsy chologi
cal pri
ncipl
esdr
awsonourunder standingofgrowt h,
devel
opmentandl earni
ng.Piaget(1960)pr ovi
desafai
rl
yusefulframewor kforsequenci ng
l
earni
ngex per
iencesbasedont heknowl edgeabouthowi ndi
vidualsfuncti
onatv ar
ious
cogni
ti
velevel
sofdev elopment.Thel ear
nerneedstoacquireacer t
ainlevelofdevelopment
physi
cal
ly
, mentall
y,social
l
yandmor all
ytobeabletodeal wi
thcertai
nconcept sandsi tuat
ions
c) Chronol
ogy-t
hisisarat
hersil
entor
ganizerforsequenci
ngcur
ri
culacontent.Subject
slike
Hi
stor
yandGov er
nmentareorgani
zedchronological
l
y.Theassumpti
onisthathistor
icall
y
ev
entstakepl
acesuccessi
vel
yinti
meandt hatpriorhappeni
ngsl
eadtothepr esentevents
1.Cont
inui
ty-t
hisr
efer
stot
hemanyoccasi
onswhi
chi
ndi
vi
dual
swi
l
lexper
iencecont
entat
v
ari
ousl
evel
swi
thaneducat
ionsy
stem.I
tist
hev
ert
ical
rei
ter
ati
onofcur
ri
cul
um
el
ement
saf
fect
ingt
heoccasi
onsonwhi
chcer
tai
nexper
ienceswi
l
lbeschedul
eddur
ing
consecut
iveper
iodsoft
ime.Cur
ri
cul
um speci
ali
stsof
tenext
endt
hemesv
ert
ical
l
y
t
hroughoutanent
ir
eeducat
ional
syst
em.Cont
inui
tydeal
swi
thcont
inuedpr
esenceof
cur
ri
cul
um demandsl
i
keconcept
sori
ssuesandi
tisnecessar
ytoensur
ethatt
her
eisa
r
ecur
ri
ngandcont
inui
ngoppor
tuni
tyf
oraski
l
ltobepr
act
icedanddev
eloped.
2.I
ntegr
ati
on-t
hisemphasi
zest
hehor
izont
alr
elat
ionshi
psbet
weenv
ari
ouscur
ri
cul
aar
eas
i
nanat
temptt
oint
err
elat
econt
ent
,orl
ear
ningexper
iencesi
nor
dert
oenabl
ethe
st
udent
stoper
cei
veuni
tyofknowl
edge.Cur
ri
cul
um exper
tsgener
all
yfeel
thatl
ear
ningi
s
mor
eef
fect
ivewhencont
entf
rom onef
iel
disl
i
nkedmeani
ngf
ull
ytocont
enti
nanot
her
f
iel
d.I
ntegr
ati
oni
sar
eact
iont
othet
radi
ti
onal
emphasi
sofsepar
atesubj
ect
sint
he
cur
ri
cul
um.I
tisgener
all
yusedi
nthebr
oadf
iel
dsandcor
rel
atedcur
ri
cul
um desi
gns.I
t
hassev
eral
adv
ant
ages:
 I
tassi
stsst
udent
sincr
eat
ingacompr
ehensi
veunder
standi
ngoft
hecont
entexper
iencedi
n
aneducat
ional
set
ti
ng
 Hel
pst
hest
udentt
ogetanuni
fi
edv
iewandt
ouni
fyhi
sbehav
iori
nrel
ati
ont
otheel
ement
s
deal
twi
th
 Hel
pst
ocr
eat
euni
tyi
nthest
udent
’sout
look,
ski
l
lsandat
ti
tudes.
1.Bal
ance-abal
ancedcur
ri
cul
um i
mpl
i
esst
ruct
ureandor
deri
nit
sscopeandl
eadst
othe
achi
evementofeducat
ional
obj
ect
ivesoror
der
.Abal
ancedcur
ri
cul
um meansashor
t
pr
ogr
am whi
chadequat
elyensur
est
hateacheducat
ional
obj
ect
ivei
sachi
eved.A
bal
ancedcur
ri
cul
um shoul
ddev
elopal
lmaj
orar
easofhumancompet
encel
i
ke
communi
cat
ion,
probl
em sol
vi
ng,
under
standi
ngconcept
sandenv
ironment
,heal
thcar
e,
r
ecogni
ti
onofi
nter
est
s,anddeepi
nter
estandski
l
linaest
het
ics.I
naddi
ti
ont
oindi
vi
dual
dev
elopment
,abal
ancedcur
ri
cul
um shoul
daddr
essal
lthenat
ional
goal
sofeducat
ion.
Pr
obl
emsofcur
ri
cul
um bal
ance:
 Ther
eisadi
l
emmaast
ohowmuchoft
hecul
tur
aldi
sci
pli
nesst
udent
sshoul
dlear
nandat
t
hesamet
imecat
erf
ort
hei
rindi
vi
dual
needsandi
nter
est
s-howt
ost
ri
keabal
ancebet
ween
soci
etal
expect
ati
onsandt
heneedsofi
ndi
vi
dual
lear
neri
ntheschool
cont
ext
 Sci
encesubj
ect
sver
sust
hear
tsandt
hehumani
ti
es-
whet
hert
oemphasi
zesci
enceor
bal
ancei
twi
thar
ts.
 Techni
cal
andv
ocat
ional
subj
ect
sver
susacademi
csubj
ect
s-emphasi
sonpr
act
ical
and
pr
act
ical
cur
ri
cul
um-
dil
emmai
sast
owhatt
oincl
udei
nthecur
ri
cul
um gi
vent
hel
i
mit
ed
t
imeav
ail
abl
eforl
ear
ningatschool
 Ther
ural
urbandi
chot
omyi
nKeny
a-st
ri
keabal
ancebet
weenneedsoft
heur
banandr
ural
f
olk-
shoul
dwehav
edi
ff
erentcur
ri
cul
a-oneur
banandanot
herr
ural
.
3.
2.5Pat
ter
nsofCur
ri
cul
um Desi
gn
Formulati
onofobjecti
vesandsel
ectionoflear
ningexperi
encesi
sfol
lowedbyor gani
zati
onof
theseexperi
encesforeff
ecti
vepresentat
ionandlearni
ng.Pat
ter
nsofcurr
iculum organi
zati
on
alsoref
erredtoaspatter
nsofcurri
culum desi
gnrefert
ot hemai
nstr
uctur
al elementsinwhich
thelear
ningexper
iencesaretobeorganized
Patt
ernsofcurricul
um designcanbedi vi
dedint
ot hreemai ncat
egori
es,namel
y,subj
ect
-
center
eddesigns, l
earner
-cent
ereddesignsandlearningexperi
encesorgani
zedi
nst r
uct
uresof
sequenti
alcourseslikeBi
ologyI,Bi
ologyII
,Bi
ologyIII,et
c.,
Subj
ect
-cent
eredcur
ri
cul
um desi
gns
a) Thet
radi
ti
onalsubj
ectdesi
gns
 Theol
destandt
hemostpopul
arf
orm ofcur
ri
cul
um or
gani
zat
ion
 Thesubj
ectdesi
gnor
gani
zest
hecur
ri
cul
um i
ndi
ff
erentandspeci
fi
csubj
ect
seachofwhi
ch
r
epr
esent
saspeci
ali
zedandhomogeneousbodyofknowl
edge-
cont
ent
.
 Emphasi
sispl
acedonsepar
ateacademi
car
eascal
l
edsubj
ect
s/ar
easwi
tht
hei
rownl
ogi
cal
or
derandsequenceasdeci
dedbysubj
ectspeci
ali
sts
Adv
ant
agesofsubj
ectdesi
gns
i
) Mostsyst
emati
candef
fect
iveor
gani
zat
ionf
oracquai
nti
ngy
out
hwi
tht
he
essent
ial
sofcur
ri
cul
um her
it
age
i
i
) Subj
ectsconst
it
uteal
ogi
calandeff
ectiv
emethodofor
gani
zi
ngandi
nter
pret
ing
l
ear
ning-
student
slear
nmosteconomical
lyandeff
ici
ent
ly
i
i
i) Becauseoft
hel
ongest
abl
i
shedt
radi
ti
ont
eacher
sandpar
ent
stendt
osuppor
twhat
t
heyar
efami
li
arwit
h
i
v) Mostt
eacher
shav
ebeent
rai
nedi
nsubj
ectcur
ri
cul
um-
theyunder
standi
tbet
ter
v) Cur
ri
cul
um pl
anni
ng,
impl
ement
ati
onandev
aluat
ioni
seasi
eri
nthesubj
ect
cent
eredcur
ri
cul
um
vi
) Theful
li
ntel
l
ect
ualpower
sbebestdev
elopedt
hrought
hest
udyofl
ogi
cal
or
gani
zat
ionofsubj
ectmat
ter
vi
i
) Textbooksandothercur
ricul
um packagesontheeducat
ionmar
kett
endt
obe
or
gani
zedt
ofittheest
abli
shedsubjectcat
egories-
accor
dingt
osubject
s
Di
sadv
ant
agesofsubj
ectcent
eredcur
ri
cul
um desi
gns
i
) Lackofint
egrati
onofcurri
cul
um content-
compartment
ali
zat
ionandat omi
zati
onof
knowledgel
eadi
ngtofragmentat
ioninthestudentsunder
standi
ng(t
helearnerfai
l
stoseethe
rel
ati
onshi
pbetweensubject
sandy etnat
urall
yknowledgeexist
sasanintegrat
edwhole)
i
i) Subj
ect
stendtobedetachedfrom t
hereal
ityofst
udents-
thedesi
gnisnotbasedon
afunct
ionaluseofknowl
edgeandisdetachedfrom t
heconcernsandtheevent
sofrealworl
d
i
ii
) Itf
ocusesonthei
ntel
l
ect
ual
per
for
mance(
cont
ent
)att
heexpenseofot
heraspect
s
ofhumandevel
opment
i
v) I
ttendstorel
egat
eteachi
ngtoknowledgeandrecal
lofsubj
ectmatt
er-
reci
tati
on,r
ote
andpassi
velearni
ngdominat
ethelear
ningpr
ocessandtheteacheri
sthecent
reofattent
ionor
act
ivi
ty
v) I
tleansheavi
lyonver
balact
ivi
ti
esandi
stoomuchor
ient
edt
owar
dsexami
nat
ions
whicht
est
smemor izat
ionrat
hert
hanunderst
andi
ng
b)Cor
rel
ati
on
Corr
elati
ontri
estor
educefragment
ati
onofcur
ri
cul
acontentbydr
awi
ngfr
om v
ari
oussubj
ect
s
ordi
scipl
inesi
nlear
ningaselect
edt
heme,e.
g.,
cont
entcanbedrawnf
rom
 Economi
cs,
hist
oryandr
eli
giont
oteacht
het
hemeof‘
warandpeace’
 Geogr
aphy
,hi
stor
y,economi
cs,
agr
icul
tur
eandci
vi
cst
oteach‘
pat
ter
nsofset
tl
ementi
n
i
ndependentKeny
a’
Thoughcor
rel
ati
ondoesnotthefragment
ati
onofthesubject
s(theysti
l
lremai
n
separ
ate)i
ttr
iest
oshowthelear
ner
stherelat
ionshi
pbetweent
hev ar
ioussubject
s
c) Br
oadf
iel
ds
Alsocommonl yreferr
edt oasf useddesi gni sanadv ancedstageofcor relationinthe
modi f
icati
onofsubj ectmattercur r
icul
um.I tinv olvesamer gerofdi f
ferentbutr el
atedsubj
ects
i
ntonewcour setoov ercomef ragment ati
one. g.. ,
’
soci alstudies’
resulti
ngf rom themergerof
ci
v i
cs,histor
y,geography,sociology,anthropol ogy ,soci alpsychology,economi cs,soci
alet
hics
andot hersubjectsthatdealwithmanandhi sr elationshipsinagi venphy sicalenvi
ronment.The
Gachat hicommi ssion(1976)hadsuggest edf iv ebr oadar eas
 Languages(
Engl
i
shandKi
swahi
l
i)
 Mat
hemat
ics(
ari
thmet
ic,
algebr
aandgeomet
ry)
 Sci
ences(
biol
ogy
,agr
icul
tur
e,heal
theducat
ion,
phy
sicsandchemi
str
y)
 Cul
tur
est
udi
es(hi
stor
y,ci
vi
cs,
musi
c,ar
tandcr
aft
,phy
sical
educat
ion,
andsoci
alet
hics)
 Pr
e-v
ocat
ional
studi
es(
woodwor
k,masonr
y,busi
nesseducat
ion,
met
alwor
ket
c
Phi
li
pPhoeni
x’
scombi
nat
ionsuggest
ssi
xdi
ff
erentcl
ust
ersofknowl
edge
i
) Sy
mbol
i
c:or
dinar
ylanguage,
mat
hemat
ics
i
i
) Empi
ri
cs:
phy
sical
sci
ences,
biol
ogy
,psy
chol
ogy
.Soci
alsci
ences
i
i
i) Aest
het
ics:
musi
c,t
hev
isual
art
s,ar
tsofmov
ement
,li
ter
atur
e
i
v) Sy
nnoet
ics:
per
sonal
knowl
edgeandi
nter
per
sonal
rel
ati
onshi
ps
v
) Et
hics:
mor
alknowl
edge
v
i) Sy
nopt
ic:
hist
ory
,rel
i
gion,
phi
l
osophy
Adv
ant
ages
i
) Thi sdesigni
smor eevi
dentinprimaryschools.Howeveri
tisbecomingmorer
elevantto
hi
ghschool andhi
ghereducat
ionasdemandf oreducati
onthati
srelev
anttot
hecurrentand
ant
ici
patedneedsoflear
ners’
increases.
i
i
)Ital
soal
l
owsmeani
ngf
uli
ntegr
ati
onofr
elat
edcont
ent
.
i
i
i)I
tcanmeetst
udent
s’i
nter
estandf
urni
shwi
thdi
ver
seexper
iences
Di
sadv
ant
agesofbr
oadf
iel
ds
i
) Cont
entsoor
gani
zedcanbesuper
fi
cial
andl
ackdept
hoft
reat
ment
i
i
) Contentst
ruct
uri
ngcanst
il
lbef
ragment
edandf
ail
tor
elat
etot
heact
ual
wor
ldoft
he
l
ear
ner
d) Cor
e-cur
ri
cul
um
Corecur ri
culum cameasareact
ionagainstt
hefragmentati
onandpiecemeallear
ning’
s
associatedwi t
hseparat
esubj
ects.Core-
curr
icul
um meanst hatpar
toftheschoolcurr
icul
um
thati
sessent i
alandacommonrequirementforal
lstudent
s.Othert
ermsassociatedwithcor
e-
curri
culum include:
vCommonl
ear
ning’
s
vUni
fi
edst
udi
es
vBasi
ceducat
ion
Thecor
e-cur
ri
cul
um dr
awsonsoci
ali
ssues,
mor
alcont
entandv
aluesandhel
pto:
v
Dev
elopi
ntegr
ati
onofknowl
edget
oser
vet
heneedsoft
hest
udent
s
v
Promot
eact
ivel
ear
ningandar
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenl
i
feandl
ear
ning
v
Ser
vet
heneedsofsoci
ety
vGiv
est
udent
stheoppor
tuni
tyt
omakechoi
cesf
ort
hesubj
ectar
eaofst
udyt
hrough
el
ect
ives
Adv
ant
agesofcor
e-cur
ri
cul
um
i
) Emphasi
zesacor
eofsoci
alv
alues
i
i
) I
tcombi
nessubj
ectmat
terwi
tht
her
eal
i
tiesandchal
l
engesoft
heday
i
ii
) I tai
mst oint
egrat
el ear
ningbyuni
fyi
ngsubjectmat
terf
orst
udy
ingsoci
ali
ssuesand
pr
obl
em areasrel
atedtoindiv
idual
saswellassociet
y
i
v) I
ttakescar
eoft
heneedsandi
nter
est
soft
hel
ear
ner
v
) I
tissoci
all
yrat
hert
hancogni
ti
vel
yor
ient
ed
Di
sadv
ant
agesofcor
e-cur
ri
cul
um
i
) Failstooff
ersigni
fi
cantandsy
stemat
icknowl
edge.I
tal
sopossesor
gani
zat
ional
pr
obl
emsinschool
s
i
i) Cal
lsforv
ari
ati
onswhi
chmodernt
eacher
scannotcopewit
hbecausetheylackt
hebr
oad
compet
enceandtr
aini
ngr
equi
redt
oarr
angecont
entaroundf
ocusesorissues
i
ii
)Itrequi
rest
eachersofv
ari
edspecial
ti
es,
anadequat
ecur
ri
cul
um gui
deandmat
eri
alswhi
ch
ar
eusuall
ynotavai
labl
eori
nshortsuppl
y
Lear
ner
-cent
ereddesi
gns
Thesearedesi gnswheret
hechil
dorthelearneri
sthecentr
eofthecur
ri
cul
um processandhis
act
ivepart
icipationi
nthel
ear
ningprocessisthemainfocusoft
hesedesi
gns.I
tisassociat
ed
wit
hthephilosophyofJeanJacquesRousseauandwor ksofJohnDeweywithhi
spr ogr
essive
movementi ntheUS.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofl
ear
nercent
ereddesi
gns
vTheytakethei
ror
gani
zati
onalcuesfr
om indivi
dual
student
srat
hert
hanf
rom cont
ent
-the
l
ear
neristhecent
reandendofschoolacti
vi
ties
vTheyf
ocusont
hel
ear
ner
s’needs,
int
erest
sandexper
iences
vTheyar
ehi
ghl
yfl
exi
ble,
wit
hmanyopt
ionsav
ail
abl
eforl
ear
ner
s
vIdeal
l
ythelear
ner
sar
esupposedt
opl
ant
hei
rowncur
ri
cul
um,
usual
l
ywi
thv
ari
ousdegr
ees
oft
eacheri
nput
vLear
ner
sar
einst
ruct
edi
ndi
vi
dual
l
yatappr
opr
iat
epoi
nts
a) Act
ivi
tycur
ri
cul
um
Origi
nat edinEur opeandisassociatedwithworksofRousseauandPest alozzibutgai
ned
promi nencedur ingtheprogr
essivemov ementi
n1920sand1930s.Ki l
patri
ckemphasi zed
purposef ulacti
v i
tybasedonthechild’
sexperi
ences,needsandinter
ests.Hecl ai
medt hat
desirablelearningwouldbepr oducedbyacti
veparti
cipati
onoftheindi
vidualinhisenvir
onment
.
From t heactivi
tymov ementthereemergedanypedagogi cal
conceptsthatareassociatedwi
th
activ
itylearning:
vLi
feexper
ienceuni
ts
vPr
oject
s
vSoci
alent
erpr
ises
vFi
eldt
ri
ps
vCent
ersofi
nter
est
Al
ltheact
ivi
ti
esi
nvol
ve;
vAsect
ionofpr
obl
em sol
vi
ng
vAct
ivepar
ti
cipat
ionbyst
udent
s
vSoci
ali
zat
ionoft
hest
udenti
nthewor
ldar
oundhi
m
vGr
eat
erschool
communi
tyl
i
nkages
b) Soci
alandl
if
edesi
gns
Thedesi
gnisbasedonsocial
processesandli
fefunct
ions.Iti
sconcernedinpromoti
ngl i
fethat
i
sneededinthesociet
yandprovi
dingsol
uti
onstoprevail
ingsoci
al pr
obl
em.Itatt
empt sto
prov
idearel
ati
onshipbet
weenthecontentoft
hecurri
culum andlif
e.Str
atemeyer
,Forknerand
Mckim(1957)suggest
edadesignorgani
zedaroundpersist
entli
fesit
uati
ons:
1.Si
tuat
ionscal
l
ingf
orgr
owt
handi
ndi
vi
dual
capabi
l
iti
es
 Heal
th
 I
ntel
l
ect
ual
capaci
ty
 Mor
alchoi
ces
 Aest
het
icexpr
essi
onandappr
eci
ati
on
1.Si
tuat
ionscal
l
ingf
orgr
owt
hinsoci
alpar
ti
cipat
ion
 Per
son-
per
sonr
elat
ionshi
ps
 Gr
oupmember
shi
p
1.Si
tuat
ionscal
l
ingf
orgr
owt
hincapabi
l
ityf
orpr
ocessi
ngenv
ironment
alf
act
orsandf
orces
suchas:
 Nat
ural
phenomena
 Technol
ogi
cal
phenomena
 Economi
c-soci
al,
pol
i
tical
str
uct
uresanddy
nami
cs
Wemayl ookatcur r
iculum desi
gnseitherini
solati
onorsomeki ndofrel
ati
onship.Inmost
schoolcurri
culaboththet r
adit
ionalandthenewsubj ectsfor
mt hebasi
cstructur
es.Howev er
,in
theprocessofselecti
ngt hesubjectmatterandincurri
culum implementat
ion,severali
deas
from t
hemodi fi
edsubjectdesignsandf rom thel
argelychil
d-center
eddesignshav ebeen
i
ncorporated.Todevelopanycur ri
culum wemustconcept ualizeaframeworkthatwi l
lgui
deour
owndesi gnwhichwi l
li
nt urnguidetheprocessofcurricul
um planninganddevelopment
CURRI
CULUM DEVELOPMENTPROCESS
4.
1Int
roduct
ion
Inthi
slessonweexpl ai
nthet er
m curr
icul
um devel
opmentandcur riculum dev elopmentpr ocess,
thendiscussthest agesinthecurri
cul
um devel
opmentpr ocess.Ther oleoft heKeny aInsti
tute
ofCurricul
um Dev elopment(KICD)wil
lthenbeoutl
ined.Approachedt ocur r
iculum development
willt
henbedi scussedandf inal
lyt
heroleofvari
ousAgenciesandI nstitut
ionsi nvol
vedin
curri
culum devel
opmentwi llbeexplai
ned.
4.
2LessonLear
ningOut
comes
Byt
heendoft
hisl
esson,
youwi
l
lbeabl
eto:
1.
1.1 Di
scusst
hest
agesi
ncur
ri
cul
um dev
elopmentpr
ocess
1.
1.2 Outl
inether
oleoftheKeny
aInsti
tut
eofCur
ri
cul
um Dev
elopmenti
ncur
ri
cul
um
devel
opment(
includi
ngi
tsstr
uctur
eandfuncti
ons)
1.
1.3 Expl
aint
her
oleofv
ari
ousagenci
esandi
nst
it
uti
onsi
ncur
ri
cul
um dev
elopment
pr
ocess.
4.
2.1:Meani
ngofcur
ri
cul
um dev
elopmentand
cur
ri
cul
um dev
elopmentpr
ocess
Curricul
um dev el
opmenti stheplanningofl earni
ngopportuniti
esint
endedt obri
ngabout
certainchangesint helearnersandt heassessmentoft heext enttowhichthesechangeshav e
takenplace.Cur r
iculum developmentent ai
lst hewri
ti
ng,t
rialandtesti
ngofi nst
ruct
ionalpl
ans
andeducat i
onal mat er
ial
s.Thecur r
iculum developmentprocesssy st
emat i
call
yorganizeswhat
willbetaught,whyi twil
lbet aught,whowi ll
bet aught
,andhowi twil
lbebet aught
Mostmodelsofcurr
icul
um devel
opmentdescr
ibe/
por
tray
/depi
cti
tascont
inuouspr
ocess,
wit
h
nosi
ngl
efixedstar
ti
ngpoint.
St
agesi
nthecur
ri
cul
um dev
elopmentpr
ocess:
1.Needsassessment
2.Pol
i
cyf
ormul
ati
on
3.Cur
ri
cul
um desi
gnandsy
ll
abusdev
elopment
4.Appr
oval
oft
hecur
ri
cul
um andsy
ll
abus
5.Dev
elopmentandappr
oval
ofcur
ri
cul
um suppor
tmat
eri
als
6.Capaci
tybui
l
dingandor
ient
ati
onofcur
ri
cul
um i
mpl
ement
ers
7.Pi
l
oti
ngoft
hecur
ri
cul
um
8.Regi
onal
impl
ement
ati
onoft
hecur
ri
cul
um
9.Moni
tor
ingandev
aluat
ionoft
hecur
ri
cul
um
4.
2.2:Thest
ruct
ureandf
unct
ionsofKeny
aInst
it
uteof
Cur
ri
cul
um dev
elopment
a) St
ruct
ure
 KI
CDi
sasemi
-aut
onomousgov
ernmenti
nst
it
uti
onundert
heMi
nist
ryofEducat
ion.The
i
nst
it
utei
smanagedbyagov
erni
ngcounci
lappoi
ntedbyt
hemi
nist
erofeducat
iont
ogui
de
pol
i
cymat
ter
sandact
ivi
ti
esoft
hei
nst
it
uteonbehal
foft
hemi
nist
ry.
 Thecounci
li
smadeupofseni
oreducat
ional
admi
nist
rat
orsandr
epr
esent
ati
vesofr
eli
gious
or
gani
sat
ionsandeducat
ional
inst
it
uti
ons(
Pri
nci
pal
secr
etar
yst
atedepar
tmentofbasi
c
educat
ion,
Dir
ect
orQual
i
tyAssur
anceandSt
andar
ds,
CEOKeny
anat
ional
exami
nat
ions
counci
l
,CEOTeacher
sSer
viceCommi
ssi
on,
etc.Thechai
rper
soni
sappoi
ntedbyt
he
Cabi
netSecr
etar
yMOEandt
heCEOoft
hei
nst
it
utei
sthesecr
etar
y.
 Thecounci
lhast
womaj
orCommi
tt
ees,
namel
y,t
heacademi
cboar
dandt
hef
inanceand
gener
alpur
posecommi
tt
ee.
 TheAcademi
cboar
dgui
dest
hepr
ofessi
onal
act
ivi
ti
esoft
hei
nst
it
utesuchasr
esear
ch,
ev
aluat
ionandt
heact
ual
dev
elopmentoft
hei
nst
ruct
ional
progr
ammes
 Thef
inanceandt
hegener
alpur
posecommi
tt
eegui
det
heexecut
iveandadmi
nist
rat
ive
f
unct
ionsoft
hei
nst
it
ute.I
tal
socont
rol
stheappoi
ntmentandt
endercommi
tt
ees.I
t
pr
ovi
dessuppor
tser
vicest
othemai
nact
ivi
ti
esoft
hei
nst
it
utewhi
chf
all
undert
he
academi
cboar
d.
 Undert
heacademi
cboar
dwehav
ecur
ri
cul
um dev
elopmentpanel
sandr
esear
chev
aluat
ion
di
vi
siont
hatcar
ryoutpr
ofessi
onal
wor
k.Ther
eisacour
sepanel
foreachl
evel
orar
eaof
educat
ion(
cour
sepanel
forPr
imar
yeducat
ion,
Cour
sePanel
forsecondar
yeducat
ion,
cour
sepanel
forpr
eschool
educat
ion,
cour
sepanel
fornon-
for
mal
andcont
inui
ngeducat
ion.
Cour
sepanel
sal
sodeal
wit
hteachereducat
ionmat
ter
sfort
hatl
evel
ofeducat
ion.
 Ther
ear
esev
eral
subj
ectpanel
sundereachcour
sepanel
.
o Eachsubj
ectorcur
ri
cul
um ar
eahasapanel
.
o Eachoft
hesubj
ectpanel
stakescar
eoft
her
elat
edt
eachereducat
ion,
resear
chand
ev
aluat
ion.
o Subj
ectpanel
skeepunderconst
antr
evi
ewt
heexi
sti
ngsy
ll
abuses(
cur
ri
cul
um desi
gns
f
orCBC)
,exami
nat
ionsandt
ext
booksi
nthesubj
ectandmaker
ecommendat
ionst
o
school
sandcol
l
eges.
o Theyal
soi
nit
iat
eandgui
deappr
opr
iat
ecur
ri
cul
um pr
oject
satt
hei
nst
it
ute
o Subj
ectpanel
sar
eanswer
abl
etot
hecour
sepanel
inal
lthei
rpr
ofessi
onal
act
ivi
ti
es
o Theymaker
ecommendat
ionst
othecour
sepanel
whi
cht
heymayappr
ove,
make
modi
fi
cat
ionsorr
ejectt
hem al
toget
her
.
o Theacademi
cboar
dmustappr
oveal
lrecommendat
ionsandpr
ogr
ammesbef
oret
hey
cangot
oschool
sfori
mpl
ement
ati
on.
b) Funct
ions
TheKeny aI
nst
it
uteofCur
ri
cul
um Dev
elopmenti
smandat
edt
oper
for
m someoft
hef
oll
owi
ng
funct
ions:
1.Adv
isest
heGov
ernmentonmat
ter
sper
tai
ningt
ocur
ri
cul
um dev
elopment
2.Ev
aluat
e,v
etandappr
ove,
forappl
i
cat
ioni
nKeny
a,anyl
ocal
andf
orei
gncur
ri
cul
aand
cur
ri
cul
um suppor
tmat
eri
alsi
nrel
ati
ont
othel
evel
sofeducat
ionandt
rai
ning”ot
hert
han
uni
ver
sit
y
3.I
mpl
ementt
hepol
i
ciesr
elat
ingt
ocur
ri
cul
um dev
elopmenti
nbasi
candt
ert
iar
yeducat
ion
andt
rai
ning;
4.Dev
elop,
rev
iewandappr
ovepr
ogr
ams,
cur
ri
cul
aandcur
ri
cul
um suppor
tmat
eri
alst
hat
meeti
nter
nat
ional
standar
dsf
or—
a) Ear
lychi
l
dhoodcar
e,dev
elopmentandeducat
ion;
b) Pr
e-pr
imar
yeducat
ion;
c) Pr
imar
yeducat
ion;
d) Secondar
yeducat
ion;
e) Adul
t,cont
inui
ngandnon-
for
mal
educat
ion;
f
) Teachereducat
ionandt
rai
ning;
g) Speci
alneedseducat
ion;
and
h) Techni
cal
andv
ocat
ional
educat
ionandt
rai
ning.
5.I
nit
iat
eandconductr
esear
cht
oinf
orm cur
ri
cul
um pol
i
cies,
rev
iewanddev
elopment
.
6.Col
l
ectdocumentandcat
aloguei
nfor
mat
iononcur
ri
cul
a,cur
ri
cul
um suppor
tmat
eri
als
andi
nnov
ati
onst
ocr
eat
eadat
abankanddi
ssemi
nat
ethei
nfor
mat
iont
oeducat
ional
i
nst
it
uti
ons,
lear
ner
sandot
herr
elev
antor
gani
zat
ions
7.Pr
int
,publ
i
shanddi
ssemi
nat
einf
ormat
ionr
elat
ingt
ocur
ri
cul
aforbasi
candt
ert
iar
y
educat
ionandt
rai
ning
8.Col
l
abor
atewi
thot
heri
ndi
vi
dual
sandi
nst
it
uti
onsi
nor
gani
zi
ngandconduct
ing
pr
ofessi
onal
dev
elopmentpr
ogr
amsf
ort
eacher
s,t
eachert
rai
ner
s,qual
i
tyassur
anceand
st
andar
dsof
fi
cer
sandot
herof
fi
cer
sinv
olv
edi
neducat
ionandt
rai
ningoncur
ri
cul
um
pr
ogr
amsandmat
eri
als
9.Dev
elopdi
ssemi
nat
eandt
ransmi
tpr
ogr
amsandcur
ri
cul
um suppor
tmat
eri
alst
hrough
massmedi
a,el
ect
roni
clear
ning,
dist
ancel
ear
ningandanyot
hermodeofdel
i
ver
ing
educat
ionandt
rai
ningpr
ogr
amsandmat
eri
als
10.Pr
omot
eequi
tyandaccesst
oqual
i
tycur
ri
cul
aandcur
ri
cul
um suppor
tmat
eri
als
11.Pr
omot
eappr
opr
iat
eut
il
izat
ionoft
echnol
ogyt
oenhancei
nnov
ati
onsandachi
evementof
aknowl
edgebasedeconomy
12.Of
ferconsul
tancyser
vicesi
nbasi
candt
ert
iar
yeducat
ionandt
rai
ning
13.I
ncor
por
atenat
ional
val
ues,
tal
entdev
elopmentandl
eader
shi
pval
uesi
ncur
ri
cul
um
dev
elopment
Recei
ve,
consi
der
,dev
elopandr
evi
ewcur
ri
cul
um pr
oposal
s
CURRI
CULUM I
MPLEMENTATI
ON
5.
1Int
roduct
ion
Int
hi sl
essonwedef i
netheter
m curr
icul
um implementati
onandthendiscussthestrategi
esfor
curr
icul
um implementat
ion.Weshall
thenoutli
netheroleofvar
iousagenciesofcurri
culum
i
mpl ementat
ion.Wethenexamineteachereducati
oninKenyaandf i
nal
lydiscussthechall
enges
tocurri
cul
um implementati
on.
5.
2LessonLear
ningOut
comes
Byt
heendoft
hisl
esson,
youwi
l
lbeabl
eto:
5.
1.1 di
scusst
hest
rat
egi
esf
orcur
ri
cul
um i
mpl
ement
ati
on
5.
1.2 out
li
net
her
oleofv
ari
ousagenci
esofcur
ri
cul
um i
mpl
ement
ati
on
5.
1.3 exami
net
eachereducat
ioni
nKeny
a
5.
1.4 di
scusst
hechal
l
engest
ocur
ri
cul
um i
mpl
ement
ati
on
5.
2.1:Def
ini
ti
onofcur
ri
cul
um i
mpl
ement
ati
onand
st
rat
egi
est
ocur
ri
cul
um i
mpl
ement
ati
on
Thi
sisthenat
ionalroll
outofthecur
ricul
um inal
lappl
icabl
einst
it
uti
ons.Atthi
sstage,t
he
syl
l
abusesandallnecessarycur
ri
cul
um supportmateri
alsar
emadeav ail
abl
etotheschools
andotheri
mpl
ement inginst
it
uti
ons,
andr el
evantgui
deli
nesonimplementat
ionar
epr ov
ided.
Thisi
st hest
ageatwhichtheplannedcur r
icul
um isi
ntr
oducedintotheschoolsandcol
l
eges.I
t
i
sthest agei
nwhicht
henewl ydev el
opedandt ri
edcurr
icul
um ismade
publi
clyavai
l
abl
e.Thi
sisthelogicalprocesstoundert
akeafterthet
ryoutofthecur
ri
cul
um.
I
mpl ementati
onofnewcur r
iculum shoul
donl ybeatt
empt edbytheinsti
tuti
ons(school
s)i
n
whichtherightcondit
ionsprevail
.Implementati
onofanewcur ri
cul
um shouldonlytakepl
acei
n
theinst
it
uti
onst hathavetherightcondit
ions.Theseinst
it
utionssat
isfactor
yarr
angements
havebeenmadef or:
 i
n-ser
vici
ngoft
eacher
s
 pur
chaseofadequat
emat
eri
als,
teachi
ngandl
ear
ningai
dsandequi
pment
 necessar
yphy
sical
faci
l
iti
es
Implementati
oncanhardl
ytakeplaceuni
for
ml yacrossthecountr
yorgeogr
aphi
calarea
concerned.Theschool
sshouldbegroupedtogetheraccordi
ngtothei
rdegr
eeofreadi
nessand
i
mpl ementthecurr
icul
um accor
dingl
y.
St
rat
egi
esf
orCur
ri
cul
um I
mpl
ement
ati
on
Insummaryformt
her
ear
eni
nesubpr
ocessesofi
mpl
ement
ati
onst
agest
obef
oll
owed;
(
Oluoch,
1982).
1.1. Per
suadi
ngpeopl
etoacceptt
henewcur
ri
cul
um.
Thisbeginsattheconceptionandformulationoft
hecurri
culum dev
elopmentpr
oject
.Many
peopleinauthorit
y,t
eachersandparent
sshoul dbepersuadedtoacceptthenewcurr
icul
um.
Curri
culum developmentandimplementationisateam workandallt
eam membersmustbe
persuadedtoallowf orsmoothi
mplement ation
Keepi
ngt
hepubl
i
cinf
ormed.
Duringi
mplement at
iongenerali
nfor
mationaboutthenewcur
ricul
um star
tedduri
ngpil
oti
ng
shouldbeextendedandintensi
fi
ed.Provi
sionshouldbemadeforinf
ormingpeopleand
answeri
ngofquest i
onsandt hi
sshouldconti
nuethroughi
mplementati
onprocess.
Disseminat
ionavenuesincl
ude:
 Newsl
ett
ers
 Magaz
ines
 Newspaper
s
 Radi
o
 Tel
evi
sion
 Soci
almedi
a(y
out
ube,
Facebook,
Inst
agr
am,
etc)
 School
broadcast
s
 Useoff
iel
dof
fi
cer
s(educat
ionof
fi
cer
s,QASO,
Cur
ri
cul
um suppor
tof
fi
cer
s)
1.Educat
ingt
het
eacher
s.
In-servi
cingofteachersstar
teddur i
ngpi lot
ingshouldbeint ensifi
edandextendedduring
i
mpl ement at
ion.Forsuccessfulcurr
iculum implementati
ont het eachersi
nvolvedmust
understandandacceptt heideascont ainedinthenewcur riculum.Teachershav etounderstand,
acceptandi nter
nali
zethephilosophybehi ndthenewi deas, mat er
ial
s,andteaching
met hodologyinthenewcur r
iculum.Teacher sandteachert raineesincoll
egesanduniversit
ies
havet oundergot hr
oughspeciallydesignededucationalprogrammes
1. Educat
ingt
het
eachereducat
ors.
Theseincl
udeeducati
onaladmi ni
str
ator
s,qual
it
yassuranceandst
andar
dof
fi
cer
s,col
l
ege
tut
ors,
curri
cul
um supportoff
icersandschoolheads.
Pr
ovi
sionofnecessar
yfaci
l
iti
esandequi
pment
.
I
mpl ementat i
onofnewcur ri
culum requir
esui t
ablefaci
li
ti
esandequipmentsuchascl
assrooms,
desks,seats,blackboards/whiteboards,pl
ayingfiel
dsetc.i
naddit
ionsecondar
yschool
swi l
l
needlaboratories,workshopset c.someoft hesemayr equir
eimprovementandother
smay
needprocur ementofnewmat erial
s,forexampl etext
booksoraddit
ional
onesli
keexer
cise
booksetc
Provi
sionoft
hesefaci
l
iti
esandequi
pmenti
sajointresponsi
bil
i
tyoft
heeducat
ional
aut
hor
it
ies,
schoolmanagementandthecommunit
yandparents.
1.Suppl
yofCur
ri
cul
um Mat
eri
als/
andequi
pment
.
Suppl
yofcur
ri
cul
um mat
eri
alsbecomecr
it
ical
att
hisst
age.Her
ewehav
ethequest
ionsof
 Pur
chasi
ng
Thi
scanbedonebyschool
managementorbythegov
ernmentandt
hent
hemat
eri
alsar
e
del
i
ver
edtoschool
s/col
l
ect
edf
rom cent
ral
points
 Del
iv
ery
Wi
l
ldependont
hepr
ocur
ingent
it
y.School
suppl
i
ersdel
i
vert
oschool
s
 St
orage
Booksshoul
dbeusedwi
thcar
eandwel
lst
oredwhennoti
nuset
olastatl
eastf
oury
ear
s.
 Pr
oduct
ion
Thi
sisdoneby
:
 gov
ernmentownerf
ir
ms
Keny
ali
ter
atur
eBur
eau(
K.L.
B)
JomoKeny
att
aFoundat
ion(
JKF)
 Pr
ivat
ecompani
es.
Oxf
ordUni
ver
sit
yPr
ess
EastAf
ri
canEducat
ionPubl
i
sher
s
Mor
anPubl
i
sher
s
Longhor
nPubl
i
sher
s
FocusPubl
i
sher
s
1.Pr
esent
ati
onoft
henewcur
ri
cul
um
Thisi
stheactualpr
esentat
ionofthenewcur r
icul
um tothel
earner
s.Adequatepr
epar
ati
ons
shoul
dbedonet oensureproperpresent
ati
onoft hecur
ri
cul
um.Thismayi ncl
ude
rev
isi
on/r
eorgani
zati
onofthetimetable,
in-
ser
v i
cingoft
eacher
setc
St
udentassessmentpr
ocedur
es/
met
hods
Theseshoul
dbedesi
gneddur
ingcur
ri
cul
um pl
anni
ng
Pr
ovi
sionofcont
inuoussuppor
tfort
het
eacher
s.
Theheadt eacher
sandteacher
swi l
lrequi
reconti
nuoussupportf
rom Quali
tyAssur
anceand
StandardsOffi
cer
s,Cur
ri
culum SupportOf
ficer
s,Educat
ional
Admi ni
str
ator
sandeducati
onal
authori
ti
es.
5.
2.2Rol
eofVar
iousAgenci
esi
nCur
ri
cul
um
I
mpl
ement
ati
on
a) TEACHERSSERVI
CECOMMI
SSI
ON(
TSC)
Funct
ions
1.Regi
stert
rai
nedt
eacher
s
2.Recr
uitandempl
oyr
egi
ster
edt
eacher
s
3.Assi
gnt
eacher
sempl
oyedbyt
heCommi
ssi
onf
orser
vicei
nanypubl
i
cschool
or
i
nst
it
uti
on
4.Pr
omot
eandt
ransf
ert
eacher
s
5.Exer
cisedi
sci
pli
nar
ycont
rol
overt
eacher
s
6.Ter
minat
etheempl
oymentoft
eacher
s
7.Rev
iewt
hest
andar
dsofeducat
ionandt
rai
ningofper
sonsent
eri
ngt
het
eachi
ngser
vice
8.Rev
iewt
hedemandf
orandsuppl
yoft
eacher
s
9.Adv
iset
henat
ional
gov
ernmentonmat
ter
srel
ati
ngt
othet
eachi
ngpr
ofessi
on
b) DI
RECTORATEOFQUALI
TYASSURANCEANDSTANDARDS(
MOE)
Funct
ions.
I
tisr
esponsi
blef
or
1. Est
abl
i
shi
ng,
mai
ntai
ningandi
mpr
ovi
ngst
andar
dsi
nal
lbasi
candt
rai
ningi
nst
it
uti
ons;
2. Qual
i
tyAssur
anceandSt
andar
dsassessmentofbasi
ceducat
ional
andt
rai
ning
i
nst
it
uti
ons;
3. Co-
ordi
nat
ion,
organi
zat
ionandi
mpl
ement
ati
onofco-
cur
ri
cul
um act
ivi
ti
esatnat
ional
andi
nter
nat
ional
lev
els;
4. Vet
ti
ngofexpat
ri
atet
eacher
sandi
nst
it
uti
onsof
fer
ingi
nter
nat
ional
cur
ri
cul
um;
5. Li
aisonwi
thKNEConassessmentofpr
e-ser
vicepr
imar
y,ECDEanddi
ploma
t
eachereducat
ionexami
nat
iont
eachi
ngpr
act
ice;
6. pol
i
cyf
ormul
ati
onandi
mpl
ement
ati
ononmat
ter
srel
atedt
oQual
i
tyAssur
ance;
7. Dev
elopi
ngofassessmentst
andar
ds;
8. Li
aisonwi
thKNECi
nmoder
ati
on,
awar
dsandNat
ional
AssessmentandLear
ning
Achi
evement(
NASMLA)andexami
nat
ions;
9. l
i
aisonwi
thKeny
aInst
it
uteofCur
ri
cul
um Dev
elopment(
KICD)oncur
ri
cul
um,
10. desi
gn,
dev
elopmentandev
aluat
ionoft
henat
ional
cur
ri
cul
um;
11. Tal
enti
dent
if
icat
ionanddev
elopmenti
nschool
sandcol
l
eges;
12. Adv
isi
ngt
heMi
nist
erandPer
manentSecr
etar
yonal
lmat
ter
sofQual
i
ty
Assur
anceandSt
andar
dsi
nthecount
ry.
5.
2.3:TEACHEREDUCATI
ONI
NKENYA
TeacherPr
ofessi
onal
dev
elopment
:AnI
nter
nat
ional
Rev
iewofl
i
ter
atur
e
Uset
heabov
eli
nkandr
eadpages43-
54on:
1.Meani
ngofpr
eser
vicet
eachereducat
ion
2.Model
sofi
n-ser
vicet
eachereducat
ion
3.Thecont
ent
sofpr
eser
vicet
eachereducat
ion
4.Chal
l
engesandl
i
mit
ati
onsoft
eachereducat
ion
I
n-ser
viceTeachereducat
ion
TeacherPr
ofessi
onal
dev
elopment
:AnI
nter
nat
ional
Rev
iewofl
i
ter
atur
e
Uset
heabov
eli
nkandr
eadpages43-
54on:
1.Meani
ngofi
n-ser
vicet
eachereducat
ion
2.Ty
pesofi
n-ser
vicet
eachereducat
ion
3.Thecont
ent
sofi
n-ser
vicet
eachereducat
ion
4.Li
mit
ati
onofi
n-ser
vicet
eachereducat
ion
Whati
sIn-
Ser
viceEducat
ion?
Pre-ser
v i
ceeducati
ont akespl
acei nresidenceinacol l
egeorUniversi
tybeforeateacheris
appointedtohisfi
rstpostorempl oyedandr egisteredbytheTeachersSer v
iceCommi ssion.On
theotherhandin-serv
iceeducati
onmaybet akenanyt imewhil
et heteacherisal
readytrained
andqual i
fi
edwhoar eal sopr
ofessionallyemploy ed.I
tmayalsobear rangedforuntr
ained
teacherswhohav ebeenr ecr
uit
edbyT. S.Candr egist
eredtot
eachinpubl i
cschools.
Whateverknowledgeateacheracquir
esduri
nghisi
niti
altr
aini
ngmaynotst i
l
lbesati
sfactoryi
n
tenorfi
ft
eenyearslat
er.Newknowl edgekeepscomingupt hr
oughresear
chandtechnology.I
n-
serv
iceeducat
ionisanessential
elementandcondit
ionforall
teacher
sinpubli
candprivate
school
s.
Rol
eofi
n-ser
viceeducat
ion
1.Acqui
sit
ionofNewKnowl
edge
Tradit
ional
l
yIn-
servi
ceeducationwaspopul arwi
thprimaryschoolteacherstoprepar
et hem to
i
mpl ementvari
ouschangesincur r
icul
um especiall
ybecauset heywerenotwel l
academi cal
l
y
preparedduetothei
rshortdurationintraini
ngandt hemanysubj ectstheytookincol
lege.
Graduateanddipl
omast eacherswer eregar dedspeci
ali
sts.Thisvi
ewhaschangedwi thnew
developmenti
neducationaswi tnessedt hrough
1.pr
ogr
ammesofonet
erm oroney
eardur
ati
onor
gani
zedbyov
erseasagenci
esf
or
exper
iencedser
vingt
eacher
stoat
tendadv
ancedcour
sesabr
oadf
ort
het
eachi
ngof
Sci
ence,
Mat
hemat
icsandEngl
i
shet
c
2.Local
l
yor
gani
zedi
n-ser
vicepr
ogr
ammesofonemont
horl
ongerhav
ebeenor
gani
zedby
t
heMi
nist
ryofEducat
ioni
nconj
unct
ionwi
tht
heKeny
aInst
it
uteofEducat
ionandt
he
publ
i
cuni
ver
sit
ieswhi
cht
rai
nteacher
sE.
g.SMASSE
3.I
n-ser
viceEducat
ionpr
ogr
ammesf
ort
rai
nedt
eacher
sofnor
mal
chi
l
drenhav
ebeen
or
gani
zedi
nbyKI
SEandt
heuni
ver
sit
ies.Thesespeci
ali
zeast
eacher
sforchi
l
drenwi
th
di
sabi
l
iti
es.Teacher
sofAr
t,Musi
c,Dr
amaandP.
E.et
ccanobt
ainmor
eknowl
edgeand
t
echni
quest
hroughor
gani
zedi
n-ser
viceeducat
ionpr
ogr
ammes.
4.Teacher
shav
edoneupgr
adi
ngf
rom P1t
odi
ploma,
Dipl
omat
odegr
ee,
Degr
eet
oMast
ers
andmast
erst
oPhDi
nther
ecenty
ear
sthr
ough:
1. f
ull
-t
imepr
ogr
ammesbyenj
oyi
ngst
udyl
eav
efr
om t
heTSC,
2.Cont
inuedEducat
ionPr
ogr
amme(
CEP)
/School
basedpr
ogr
amme
3.Openanddi
git
all
ear
ning(
ODEL)
2.Fami
li
ari
zat
ionwi
thCur
ri
cul
um Dev
elopment
 Tof
ami
l
iar
izet
eacher
swi
thchangesi
ncur
ri
cul
um dev
elopment
,semi
nar
s,wor
kshops,
and
conf
erencesar
eor
gani
zedatsub-
count
y,count
yandnat
ional
lev
els.
 Changesi
ncur
ri
cul
um dev
elopmentar
echannel
l
edt
hroughci
rcul
arsandgov
ernment
document
sfr
om t
heMOEt
otheschool
s.
 Headsofschool
sar
eexpect
edt
omakesuchi
nfor
mat
ionav
ail
abl
etot
eacher
s.School
headsar
eexpect
edt
oor
gani
zeschool
s,semi
nar
sormeet
ingsf
ormember
sofst
afft
o
di
scussnewchangesi
ncur
ri
cul
um.
 Tr
aini
ngofexami
ner
sandmar
ker
sforpubl
i
cexami
nat
ionsf
all
sundert
hiscat
egor
y.I
tis
donebyt
heKeny
aNat
ional
Exami
nat
ionsCounci
l
.
3.Fami
li
ari
zat
ionwi
thPr
inci
plesofOr
gani
zat
ionandManagement
.
TheMi nistr
yofEducation,oft
enor gani
zestr
aini
ngcoursesrangi
ngf r
om di
plomaand
certi
fi
catecourses,seminars,workshopsandmeetingstofamili
ari
zehead-
teacher
swith
essenti
al pr
inci
plesofeducationalmanagement.Suchcourseshavebecomepopul art
o
teacherswhogotappoi ntedtoheadshipwithalimi
tedknowledgeineducat
ionalmanagement
.
Benef
it
sofI
n-ser
viceTeacherEducat
iont
oTeacher
s
Teacher
spar
ti
cipat
eini
n-ser
viceeducat
ionf
orv
ari
ousr
easons.
1.1. Pr
omot
ionSt
atus
Manyt eachersinthi
scount r
yhav ebeenpr omotedfrom onegr adet oanotherafterunder-going
anin-servi
ceeducationprogramme.Thecer t
if
icat
esawar dedcor respondtosalar yscalesfrom
otherteachersi
nt heprof
ession.Pr omoti
onsandchangesofst atusar emajorreasonswhy
mostunt rai
nedprimaryschool teacher
sattendin-
servi
cecour ses.Thesecondr easonwoul dbe
tosecur eper
manentandpensi onableemploymentstatusenjoy edbyot herqual
ifiedteachers
employ edbyT.S.C.aft
ergainingknowledgeinmet hodsoft eachinginthepr i
mar yschools.
1.2. I
mpr
ovedJobPer
for
mance
Changesintheteachi
ngprofessi
onar ecommon.Mostt eacherswanttoimprovethei
r
perf
ormancetocopewi thnewchangesi neducat
ion.Tothisgroupofteacher
s,pr
omot i
onsor
sal
aryarenotreasonsforpart
ici
pati
on.Curr
icul
um SupportOffi
cersorgani
zeshor
tin-
servi
ce
educat
ioncoursesfort
heimpr ovement,i
ncr
easeandexpansi onofknowledge.
1.3. I
ncr
easedSal
ary
Salaryi
nKenyagoesal
ongwithcer
tifi
cat
esanddegr eesobtained.Majori
tyofin-
ser
vice
educati
onprogr
ammemaynotbeor gani
zedforthepurposesofawar dingextr
aorhigher
certi
fi
cat
esordipl
omas.Howevert
hef ol
l
owingleadtoincreasedsalary
1.Di
plomaordegr
eepr
ogr
ammesf
orser
vici
ngt
eacher
s
2.Oney
earf
ull
timecour
sef
orunt
rai
nedgr
aduat
eteacher
s.Af
tersuccessf
ull
ycompl
eti
ng
t
hecour
sewi
thsal
aryi
ncr
easeorsomeadj
ust
ment(
TSCdoesnol
ongerempl
oy
unt
rai
nedgr
aduat
es)
.
5.
3.1COMPETENCYBASEDTEACHEREDUCATI
ON
— ACompet encyBasedTeacherEducat
ionprogrammespeci
fi
est
hecompet
enci
est
obe
demonst
rat
edbyt hest
udentt
eachers.Speci
fi
call
yinr
elat
iont
o;
— Pr
ofessi
onal
knowl
edgeandunder
standi
ng
— Pr
ofessi
onal
ski
l
ls
— Pr
ofessi
onal
val
uesandat
ti
tudes
— At
ti
tudes
Thatf
aci
l
itat
esandenhancet
he:
—I
ntel
l
ect
ual
— Soci
al
— Emot
ional
and
— Phy
sical
growt
hofchi
l
dren.
— Thesecompetenci
esareinev
itabl
efort
eachi
ngef
fect
ivenessandt
her
efor
east
udent
t
eachermustdemonstrat
ethem.
Theessent
ial
element
sofCBTEar
e:
 Teachi
ngcompet
enci
est
obedemonst
rat
edar
erol
e-der
ivedandspeci
fi
edi
nbehav
iour
al
t
erms.
 Assessmentcr
it
eri
aar
ecompet
encybased–speci
fymast
eryl
evel
s.
o Assessmentr
equi
resper
for
manceaspr
imeev
idenceandt
akesst
udentknowl
edgei
nto
account
.
o Thest
udentt
eacher
srat
eofpr
ogr
essdependsondemonst
rat
edcompet
ency
.
 Thei
nst
ruct
ional
progr
ammef
aci
l
itat
esdev
elopmentandev
aluat
ionofspeci
fi
c
compet
enci
es.
 TheCompet
encyBasedTeacherEducat
ionappr
oachf
ocusesonwhatt
hest
udent
shoul
dknow,
beabl
etodoandv
alueasl
i
fe-
longl
ear
ner
s.Thi
sther
efor
ecal
l
sfor
dev
elopmentofcompet
enci
esatmul
ti
plel
evel
s.
Gener
icCompet
enci
es
 Thesecompet
enci
esar
eanchor
edi
nthe21stCent
uryski
l
lsandt
her
efor
erepr
esentt
he
uni
ver
sit
y’sexpect
ati
onsofal
lgr
aduat
esi
rr
espect
iveoft
hepr
ogr
ammest
heyhav
epur
sued.
 Thesecompet
encesi
nfor
mtheexpect
edl
ear
ningout
comesofpr
ogr
ammes.
 Thecompet
encesal
soi
nfor
mthest
udentt
eacher
slear
ningexper
iences.
Pr
ogr
ammeCompet
enci
es
 Thesecompet
enci
esr
efl
ectdi
sti
nct
ivechar
act
eri
sti
csofagr
aduat
eatt
hecompl
eti
onof
t
heTeachereducat
ionpr
ogr
ammes.
 Thepr
ogr
ammecompet
enci
esar
egr
oundedont
eacherpr
ofessi
onal
standar
dsandupon
whi
cht
heexpect
edl
ear
ningout
comesoft
hepr
ogr
ammear
efr
amed.
Di
sci
pli
ne/
Subj
ectCompet
enci
es
 Thesecompet
enci
eschar
act
eri
zet
hespeci
fi
cfeat
uresofadi
sci
pli
ne/
subj
ectofa
pr
ogr
amme.
 Theyar
ti
cul
atet
hespeci
fi
ccompet
enci
esi
nter
msofknowl
edge,
ski
l
lsandat
ti
tudesi
n
r
elat
iont
othedi
sci
pli
ne.
Cour
se/
Uni
tCompet
enci
es
 Thesecompet
enci
esi
nfor
mtheout
comest
hatt
hest
udentt
eacher
swi
l
ldemonst
rat
e
achi
evementbyt
heendoft
hecour
seaccor
dingt
opr
edet
ermi
nedst
andar
dsof
per
for
manceandcont
ent
.
 Out
comesbasedoncour
secompet
encesshoul
dbeexpl
i
citandshoul
dgui
det
het
eachi
ng
l
ear
ningandassessmentact
ivi
ti
esoft
hecour
se/
uni
t.
 Thecompet
enci
esexi
sti
nani
ter
ati
ver
elat
ionshi
pwi
tht
hegener
ic,
progr
ammeand
di
sci
pli
necompet
enci
es
5.
2.4Chal
lengest
oCur
ri
cul
um I
mpl
ement
ati
on
Chal
l
engesaf
fect
ingef
fect
ivei
mpl
ement
ati
onofbasi
ceducat
ioni
ncl
ude:
1. i
nsuf
fi
cientphy
sical
faci
l
iti
esandi
nst
ruct
ional
resour
cest
ocopewi
tht
heexponent
ial
gr
owt
hofst
udentpopul
ati
onr
esul
ti
ngi
ntr
oduct
ionofFr
eePr
imar
yEducat
ionandFr
ee
DaySecondar
yEducat
ion;
2. i
nadequat
eteacher
sresul
ti
ngi
nhi
ght
eachi
ngl
oadpr
ompt
ingt
heuseofi
nef
fect
ive
t
eachi
ngmet
hods;
3.Lackofmot
ivat
ionoft
het
eachi
ngf
orcer
esul
ti
ngi
ntoi
nsuf
fi
cientf
ocusont
hel
ear
ner
andt
huscr
eat
ingl
i
ttl
eroom f
oruseofmoder
nteachi
ngt
echni
quest
hatr
equi
re
i
ndi
vi
dual
i
zedt
eachi
ng,
amongstot
her
s.
CURRI
CULM EVALUATI
ON
6.
1Int
roduct
ion
I
nt hislessonwedef i
nethetermscur ri
culum ev aluati
on,assessmentoflearning,assessment
aslearning,assessmentf orl
earning,cr
iterion-
referencedassessment,norm- r
eferenced
assessmentandassessmentr ubric.Wet hendiscusst heroleofFormati
v eevaluation
(assessmentf orlearni
ng,assessmentasl earni
ng)andsummat i
veeval
uat i
on( assessmentof
l
earning).Wet henexpl ai
ntheprincipl
esofi nstructi
onalevaluat
ion.Thent heev al
uati
on
acti
viti
esateachst ageofcurr
iculum developmentpr ocessareexamined.
6.
2LessonLear
ningOut
comes
Byt
heendoft
hisl
esson,
youwi
l
lbeabl
eto:
6.2.
1 def
inet
hetermscurr
icul
um eval
uati
on,assessmentofl
earni
ng,assessmentas
l
earning,
assessmentforl
ear
ning,
cri
ter
ion-
ref
erencedassessment,nor
m- r
eferenced
assessmentandassessmentrubr
ic
6.
2.2 discusst
her
oleofFormati
veev al
uat
ion(assessmentf
orl
ear
ning,
assessmentas
l
earni
ng)andsummati
veevaluat
ion(assessmentoflearni
ng)
6.
2.3 Expl
aint
hepr
inci
plesofi
nst
ruct
ional
eval
uat
ion
Exami
net
heev
aluat
ionact
ivi
ti
esateachst
ageofcur
ri
cul
um dev
elopmentpr
ocess
6.
2.1Def
ini
ti
onofKeyconcept
sincur
ri
cul
um ev
aluat
ion
Cur
ri
cul
um ev
aluati
onr
efer
stot heprocessofst
udyi
ngthemeritorwort
hofsomeaspector
whol
eofacurr
icul
um.I
tisconcernedwith“what
”and“how”aspects.
Cur
ri
cul
um ev
aluati
onistheprocessforassessi
ngt heeff
ect
ivenessofchangest
hathav
ebeen
made.I
tdemonstr
atestheef
fecti
venessofacur r
iculum.Componentorpr ogr
am
Ev aluationinthecontentofeducati
onisapr ocessusedtoobtaininf
ormat i
onfrom t
esti
ng,
fr
om di rectobservat
ionofbehaviour,
from essaysandfrom ot
herdev i
cestoassessast udent
’s
overallprogresstowardssomepr edetermi
nedgoal sorsubj
ects.I
tincl
udesbot haquali
tati
ve
andquant i
tati
vedescri
pti
onandi nvol
vesav aluejudgmentofoveral
lstudentbehavi
orfor
decisionmaki ng.
Evaluati
onandmeasur ementarenotthesame, al
thoughevaluati
oninvol
vesmeasurement .I
fwe
assessast udent’
sknowledgeandunderstandi
nginasubjectbymeansofanobj ect
iveoressay
typetest,thatismeasurement.I
fateacherputsav al
ueont hestudent’
swork,tal
ents,
atti
tudes
andot herchar act
eri
sti
csofbehavi
ourthatiseval
uati
on.Evaluati
onshouldinparti
nvolve
test
ingt hatisnon-subj
ecti
veonthepartoftheteacher,
otherwiseiti
sli
kelytobeunrel
iable.
Assessmentisusedint
erchangeablywit
heval
uat
ion.Test
ingi
st heprocessofusi
ngan
i
nstrumentortestt
omeasur eachievement
.Measurementandtesti
ngarethuswaysof
gat
heringeval
uati
onandassessmentdat a.
Moni
tor
ingandEv
aluat
ion
Monit
oringandevaluati
onarecurri
cul
um managementfunct
ionst
hroughwhi
chtheI
nst
it
ute
est
abl
ishesthepr
ogr essofcurr
icul
um impl
ementat
ionprogr
ammesandt heext
entt
owhich
cur
ri
culum obj
ect
ivesareachieved.
Moni t
ori
ngisacont i
nuousundertakingthati
nformst heInsti
tuteofanybot t
lenecksi
nthe
i
mpl ementat
ionprocessforpurposesofcar ry
ingoutcor r
ecti
v eint
erv
entionsinordertoensure
thecurri
cul
um objecti
vesaremet .Necessaryinter
venti
onsar emadedur ingtheimplementati
on
processbasedont hemonitor
ingr esul
ts.Regularmonitori
ngisundertakenthroughoutthe
l
ifet
imeofcur r
icul
um impl
ement ation.
Ev
aluat
ioni
sat
ime-
boundact
ivi
tywhi
chi
scar
ri
edoutt
odet
ermi
net
her
elev
ance,
per
for
mance
andsuccessofcur ri
cul
um programmesei t
herduringtheimplementationpr ocessorattheend
ofadefini
tecycle.Eval
uati
onestabli
shestheextenttowhichthecurriculum objecti
veshave
beenachievedandt heoveral
lsuccessorfai
lur
eoft hecurr
iculum pr
ogr ammesi nter
msof
expect
edout comes.Resultsofmonitori
ngandev aluat
ionmayl eadtocur r
iculum change,
ref
orm orinnovati
on.
Thecurri
cul
um isthenmai nt
ainedafteral
ltheseser
ies.I
nmaintai
ningthepr ogramme, t
he
curr
icul
um l
eadersstr
ivetostabil
izeitandkeepoperati
onal
thecontent;exper i
encesand
envi
ronments.Themai nt
enancerequiresasteadyfl
owofaccuratedataori nformati
oninorder
toassessconti
nualprogrammeper formance.Itmeansmanagingthecur r
iculum andsupport
syst
ems.
COMPETENCYBASEDASSESSMENT
competencybasedassessmentisakeyr eformati
onwhichwil
lfaci
li
tat
et headopti
onof
formati
veassessmentpracti
cesthatpr
omot ediagnost
icappr
oacheswhi chwil
lintur
nenhance
l
earningandimprovel
ear ni
ngoutcomes.Thenewcur ri
cul
um,whichiscompet encybased
emphasizesonutil
i
zati
onoff or
mat i
veassessmentasthebasisfori
mpr ovementofteachi
ng
andlearni
ng.Thecont
inuousassessmentt est
ssettorepl
aceoneoffexami nati
onswill
be
standar
dizedandadminister
edatvari
ouslevels.
Thisisadepartur
ef r
om currentassessmentpracti
cesthatseekt
ocompar elear
ner
switheach
other(assessmentwithref
erencet oanormaldist
ri
buti
on,ornormref
erenced)andisashi
ft
towardsassessmentpr act
icesthatseektocol
lectevi
denceandmakej udgmentsontheext
ent
andnat ur
eofprogresstowar dsalear
ner’
sachievement.
 Val
idi
ty
 Rel
iabi
l
ity
 Fai
rness
 Fl
exi
bil
i
ty
 Access
For
mat
iveAssessment(
Assessmentf
orLear
ning)
Thegoal off
ormati
veassessmentistomonitorst
udentlearningt
oprovi
deongoingfeedback
thatcanbeusedbyt eacherst
oimprovepedagogi
calst
rategiesandbystudent
sfor
i
mpr ovementint
heirlear
ning.
Theassessmentsshoul
dbemadeonr ecor
dedev i
dencebasedonanecdot
alr
ecor
dst
obe
maint
ainedbythecl
assteacherorsubj
ectteacher
.
Theov erallassessmentshoul
dbef ol
lowedbydescript
iveremar ksbythecl
assteacherorthe
teacherresponsibl
eforthesubjectaboutposit
iveandsigni
ficantachi
evements,
av oi
ding
negativ
eassessmentev enbyi mplicat
ion.For
mat i
veassessmentcanbecar ri
edoutusi ng
mul t
ipl
emodesofassessment
Summat
iveAssessment(
AssessmentofLear
ning)
Summat
iveassessment
sar
eusedt
oev
aluat
est
udentl
ear
ning,
ski
l
lacqui
sit
ion,
andacademi
c
achievementattheconclusi
onofadef i
nedinstr
uctionalper
iod–typicall
yattheendofa
l
earningcycl
e–bycompar i
ngi
tagainstsomest andardorbenchmark.I nKenya,summative
assessmentwillbeattheendof:upperprimaryeducation,l
owersecondaryeducationand
seni
orschool.Summat iv
eassessmenti susedforplacementandcert i
fi
cati
on
AssessmentI
nst
rument
sforFor
mat
iveAssessment
1.Obser
vat
ion
2.Obser
vat
ionschedul
e
3.Checkl
i
sts,
4. Rat
ingScal
esand
5.Rubr
ics
6.Quest
ionnai
res
7.Pr
ojectMet
hod
8.Jour
nal
i
ng
9.Por
tfol
i
o
10.Quest
ionandAnswer
Compet
enci
es
 Knowl
edgeandunder
standi
ng:
Doest
hechi
l
ddemonst
rat
eanunder
standi
ngoft
hesubj
ect
?
Hast
hechi
l
dmast
eredt
hekeysubj
ectconcept
s?
 Pr
act
ical
ski
l
ls:
Howdoest
hechi
l
dper
for
m onapt
it
udeandpr
act
ical
sit
uat
ions?
 At
ti
tudeandv
alues:
Howdoest
hechi
l
drespondt
oat
askorasi
tuat
ion?Whati
sthechi
l
d‟s
behav
iourl
i
kei
nar
angeofsi
tuat
ionsandcont
ext
s?
 Gener
iccompet
enci
es:
Whatar
ethest
epst
akent
oper
for
m agi
vent
ask?Whati
sthe
r
easoni
ngbehi
ndt
hem?Howdoest
hechi
l
dov
ercomeeachchal
l
enge?
 Knowl
edgeandunder
standi
ngwi
l
lhav
eindi
cat
orssuchascor
rect
nessofanswer
s,
coher
enceofi
deas,
andl
ogi
calr
easoni
ng.
 Pr
act
ical
ski
l
lswi
l
lhav
eindi
cat
orssuchasaccur
acy
,usi
ngappr
opr
iat
emet
hods,
qual
i
ty
pr
oduct
,speedandef
fi
ciency
,andcoher
ence.
 At
ti
tudeandv
alueswi
l
lhav
eindi
cat
orssuchasappr
oacht
oasi
tuat
ion,
appr
eci
ati
onoft
he
t
askgi
ven,
impr
essi
onofasi
tuat
ion,
mani
pul
ati
on,
reasoni
ng,
per
sist
ence,
andt
oler
ance.
Per
for
manceI
ndi
cat
ors
 Knowl
edgeandunder
standi
ngwi
l
lhav
eindi
cat
orssuchascor
rect
nessofanswer
s,
coher
enceofi
deas,
andl
ogi
cal
reasoni
ng.
 Pr
act
ical
ski
l
lswi
l
lhav
eindi
cat
orssuchasaccur
acy
,usi
ngappr
opr
iat
emet
hods,
qual
i
ty
pr
oduct
,speedandef
fi
ciency
,andcoher
ence.
 At
ti
tudeandv
alueswi
l
lhav
eindi
cat
orssuchasappr
oacht
oasi
tuat
ion,
appr
eci
ati
onoft
he
t
askgi
ven,
impr
essi
onofasi
tuat
ion,
mani
pul
ati
on,
reasoni
ng,
per
sist
ence,
andt
oler
ance.
 Gener
iccompet
enci
eswi
l
lhav
eindi
cat
orssuchasr
easoni
ng,
mani
pul
ati
ng,
present
ing,
v
aluej
udgment
,andappl
yi
ngknowl
edge.
Gr
adi
ngofcompet
encybasedassessment
/Rubr
ic
Excel
l
ent:Thi
sisa standar
dofexcel l
encelevel
.Descri
pti
onsshouldi
ndi
catet
hatal
laspect
sof
competenci
esexceedgradelevelexpectat
ionsandshowexempl ar
yperf
ormanceorin-
dept
h
under
standi
ng.Lear
ninggoalsaremeti nacompr ehensi
veway.
VeryGood:Thi
sisapproachingthestandar
dofexcel l
encelevel
.Descr
ipt
ionsshoul
dindi
cat
e
someaspectsofworkthatexceedgradelevel
expectationsanddemonstratesol
i
dperfor
mance
orunder
standi
ng.Lear
ninggoalsaremetinapr act
icalandthoroughway.
Good: Thi
smeet
saccept
ablestandar
ds.Thislevelshoul
dindi
cat
eminimal
compet
encies
acceptabl
etomeetgr
adelevel
expectat
ions.Learni
nggoalsaremeti
nanappr
opri
ateand
reasonabl
eway.
Suff
ici
ent
:Per
formanceandunderst
andi
ngar
eemer
gingordev
elopi
ngbutt
her
ear
esome
err
orsandmaster
yisnotthor
ough.
Notsuf f
ici
ent
:Thisdoesnoty etmeetaccept ablestandar
ds.Thi
sl ev
eli
ndicateswhatisnot
adequateforgradel evel
expect at
ionsandi ndicatesthatt
hestudenthasseriouser
rors,
omissionsormi sconceptions.Thet eacherneedst omakedecisionsaboutappropr
iat
e
i
nterventi
onstohel pthest udenti
mpr ove.
6.
2.2Rol
eofFor
mat
iveEv
aluat
ion(
Assessmentf
or
Lear
ning,
AssessmentasLear
ning)andSummat
ive
Ev
aluat
ion(
AssessmentofLear
ning)
PHASESOFEVALUATI ONANDPURPOSESOFCURRI CULUM EVALUATI
ON
Ther
earethreephasesofev
aluat
ionwhi
chev
eryt
eacherneedst
oknow.
♦ Pre-
assessment
♦ Formati
veEv al
uati
on
♦ Summat i
v eEval
uati
on
Thesetermsaretechni
cal
wordstodi
ffer
ent
iateeval
uat
ionthattakespl
acebef
orei
nst
ruct
ion
(pr
e-assessment
),duri
ngi
nst
ruct
ion(
format
ive),
andaft
erinstr
uction(
summati
ve).
Pre-assessmenteval
uati
oni spr ovidedbeforeinstr
ucti
onthatt akespl acebef orei
nstruct
iont
o
determinethestar
ti
ngpoi ntonani nstr
ucti
onal pr
ogram.Itidentif
iesneedpr erequi
sit
eskil
ls
andcausesofl ear
ningdiffi
culti
esandt opl
acest udent
sinlearninggr oups.For mat
ive
evaluati
onconsist
softhoset echni quesofaf ormalandinformal nature,includingt
esting,
that
areuseddur i
ngtheperiodofi nstructi
on.Progresstest
saregi veni nthecl assroom ar
eagood
i
ll
ust r
ati
onofformativ
eev aluation.
Thor oughf or
mat i
veevaluationt eachersmaydi agnosestudentdi f
fi
cult
iesandt akeremedi al
actiontohel pthem overcomet heirdif
ficul
ti
esbeforetheyar econf ront
edwitht heterminal
(summat i
ve)ev al
uat
ion.Format i
v eevaluat
ionenablesteacher stomoni tort
heirinstr
uctionso
thattheymaykeepi toncour se.Itisalsousedtoprov i
deassessmentofcur r
iculum qualit
y.I
tis
conduct edduringthecur r
iculum dev elopmentprocessfort headdi t
ionalpur
poseofpr ovidi
ng
i
nf ormat i
onthatcanbeusedt of ormaabet terf
ini
shedpr oduct .Thusformativeevaluati
on
takespl aceatanumberofi nt er
medi atepointsduri
ngcur r
iculum dev el
opmentpr ocess.
Summat i
veevaluat
ionist
heassessmentthatt
akesplaceattheendofacourseoruni
t.Afi
nal
examinat
ion(
post -
test
)meansusedforthesummativ
eev al
uati
onofinst
ruct
ion.I
tmajor
purposei
stofindoutwhethert
hestudentshav
emast eredt
heprecedi
nginst
ructi
on.
Agoodteacheruti
l
izesresul
tsofsummat
iveev
aluat
iont
orev
isehi
sorherpr
ogr
am and
met
hodologyforsubsequentgr
oups.
PURPOSESOFI
NSTRUCTI
ONALEVALUATI
ON
a.Ev
aluat
ionasabasi
sforschoolmar
ksorgr
adesbyt
eacher
s
Educat
ional
syst
emsr
equi
ret
hatt
eacher
soccasi
onal
l
ysubmi
tmar
ksorgr
adeson
st
udent
s.Thesemar
ksorgr
adescanbear
ri
vedatt
hroughf
ormal
exami
nat
ions,
regul
ar
t
est
s,assi
gnment
s,l
abor
ator
iesr
epor
ts,
obser
vat
ional
inf
ormat
ionorcombi
nat
ionof
t
hese.
b.Ev
aluat
ionasaMeansofI
nfor
mingPar
ent
sofschool
schi
ldr
enhav
ear
ightt
oknow
howt
hei
rchi
l
drenar
epr
ogr
essi
ngi
nschool
.St
udent
s’ev
aluat
ioni
sthemosti
mpor
tant
wayofpr
ovi
dingt
hem wi
tht
hisi
nfor
mat
ion.
c. Ev
aluat
ionf
orPr
omot
iont
oHi
gherCl
ass
St
udentev
aluat
ioni
ssomet
imesusedt
odet
ermi
newhet
herast
udenthasmadeenough
pr
ogr
esst
obepr
omot
edt
oahi
ghercl
assorf
ormi
ntheschool
.
d.Ev
aluat
ionf
orSt
udentMot
ivat
ion
Successi
ntest
sandexami
nat
ionsaswel
lasspor
tsandot
herschool
act
ivi
ti
escangi
ve
gr
eatencour
agementt
ost
udent
s.Si
mil
arl
y,f
ail
uret
odowel
lcanmakest
udent
swor
k
har
derorst
ri
vet
odobet
ter
.Teacher
sshoul
dtr
ytogi
vet
hei
rst
udent
sfeedbackont
he
ev
aluat
ionofal
laspect
soft
hei
rlear
ningandbehav
ioursot
hatbot
hthosewhodewel
l
andt
hosewhodonotwi
l
lbemot
ivat
edt
oimpr
oveont
hei
rper
for
mance.
e. Ev
aluat
ionf
orGui
danceandCounsel
ingPur
poses
Al
lst
udent
sneedt
obeadv
isedt
ohel
pthem sol
vet
hei
rownper
sonal
probl
ems,
whet
her
academi
coremot
ional
.Thet
wot
ypesofpr
obl
emsar
eindeedof
tenconnect
ed.
Successf
ulst
udent
stendt
oenj
oyschool
mor
ethant
hosewhoar
enotsosuccessf
ul.I
tis
gener
all
ythosest
udent
swhoappeart
obef
ail
ureasi
ndi
cat
edbyt
heev
aluat
ionoft
he
t
eachi
ngst
aff
,whoneedt
hemostat
tent
ionandi
tist
othem t
hatt
hecl
asst
eachermust
di
recther
sel
f.
f
. Ev
aluat
iont
oAssesst
heEf
fect
ivenessoft
heTeachi
ngSt
rat
egy
I
fat
eacherdoesnoti
nsomewayassesst
hest
udent
s’i
mpr
ovedknowl
edge,
under
standi
ngandhi
ghercogni
ti
veski
l
lsaswel
last
hei
rat
ti
tudesandpsy
chomot
or
abi
l
iti
es,
wil
lnotbeabl
etoev
aluat
ethesuccessorot
her
wiseoft
het
eachi
ngst
rat
egyshe
hasempl
oyed.Ahi
gherf
ail
urer
atei
nacour
sei
smor
eof
tenduet
opoort
eachi
ngt
hatt
o
t
hel
ackofi
ntel
l
igenceoft
hest
udent
s.
g.Ev
aluat
ionf
orEmpl
oymentPur
poses
Notal
lst
udent
swhopasst
hroughpost
-pr
imar
yschool
swi
l
lpr
oceedt
ouni
ver
sit
yorot
her
i
nst
it
uti
onsofhi
gherl
ear
ning.Somest
udent
smaydeci
det
ojoi
nacompanyor
busi
ness.Empl
oyer
snor
mal
l
yrequi
rei
nfor
mat
iononpot
ent
ial
empl
oyeeswi
thr
efer
ence
t
oacademi
cabi
l
ity
,at
ti
tudet
owor
k,mor
alchar
act
erper
sonal
i
tyandsoon.I
tist
her
efor
e,
necessar
yfort
het
eacher
stoev
aluat
enear
lyal
laspect
soft
hest
udent
s’per
for
mance
whi
l
etheyat
tendt
heschool
.
2.Cur
ri
cul
um Ev
aluat
ion
Thepr
imar
ypur
poseofcur
ri
cul
um ev
aluat
ioni
s,ofcour
se,
todet
ermi
newhet
hert
he
cur
ri
cul
um goal
s,andobj
ect
ivesar
ebei
ngcar
ri
edout
.Thesegoal
sandobj
ect
ivesar
eto
beev
aluat
edi
nthef
ir
stpl
acet
odet
ermi
nei
ftheyar
ether
ightki
ndofobj
ect
ive.I
tal
so
det
ermi
neswhet
hert
hecur
ri
cul
um i
sfunct
ioni
ngwhi
l
einoper
ati
on,
andusi
ngt
hebest
mat
eri
alsandt
hebestmet
hods.
Cur
ri
cul
um ev
aluat
ional
sodet
ermi
neswhet
hert
hepr
oduct
sofourschool
sar
e
successf
uli
nhi
ghereducat
ionandi
njobs,
whet
hert
heycanf
unct
ioni
ndai
l
yli
feand
cont
ri
but
etooursoci
ety
.Cur
ri
cul
um ev
aluat
ional
sodet
ermi
neswhet
hereducat
ional
pr
ogr
am i
scost
-ef
fect
ive,
thati
stosaywhet
hert
hepeopl
ear
eget
ti
ngt
hemostoft
hei
r
money
.
Rol
eofEval
uat
ioni
nCur
ri
cul
um
 Ev
aluat
ionent
ail
snotasi
ngl
est
udybutal
soaser
iesofsub-
studi
es,
per
for
medatt
he
v
ari
ousst
agesofcur
ri
cul
um dev
elopmentpr
ocess.Themai
nai
m ofcur
ri
cul
um ev
aluat
ion
i
stocol
l
ectdescr
ipt
ivei
nfor
mat
ionaboutaneducat
ional
progr
amme,
whi
chi
sthenusedt
o
modi
fyandi
mpr
ovet
hepr
ogr
am;
tocompar
ethepr
ogr
am t
oot
herpr
ogr
ams,
andt
omake
j
udgementast
othewor
thoft
hepr
ogr
am orpr
oject
.
Ev al
uationgener al
lyanswer sthequestionsr egardi
ng:select
ion,adopt i
on, adoption, support
change, i
nnov ationandwor thofaneducat i
onpr ogram.For mativeevaluationhel pst he
curri
culum team att hepl anningstagetoformul ateaneweducat i
onalpol i
cy ,todiscov ernew
needs,tof ormul atenewgoal s,toclari
fyintheirdefini
ti
onofgoal s,selectappr opriategoals
form compet inggoal s,determinecompl ement arygoals,numberofnewdi sci pl
inest obet aught
,
provi
deempi ricalevidenceont hev i
ewoft eacher s,
parents,l
earners,empl oyers,pr ofessi
onal
onwhatr equireschangeort owardstheenv isagedchange.
Att heprojectmateri
alsdevelopmentst age,evaluati
onhelpst otranslat
ebr oadeducat
ional
goalsintocurri
cul
um objectivesforvarioussubjects,r
edefinegener alobjectivesi
nto
operati
onalobjecti
ves,determineappr opri
atesyll
abusandt ext
booksst ructureandcontent;
ensurerelevanceincontentscope, sequence,continui
ty,i
ntegrati
onandbal ance,i
denti
fyareas
thatrequir
ein-ser
viceforteachersanddet ermineappr opr
iateevaluationpr ocedur
esand
process.
Att
hepr
ojectf
iel
d-t
ri
al(
try
-out
)st
ageev
aluat
ionhel
pst
odet
ermi
ne:
 ♦ Adequacyoft
hemat
eri
als
♦ Neededr
evi
sions,
costofpr
oduct
ion,
quant
it
y
♦ Nat
ureneeded
♦ Teachi
ng-
lear
ningst
rat
egi
esneed
♦ Ev
aluat
ionpr
ocedur
es–i
nst
rumentr
equi
red
Ev
aluat
ionatt
heschooli
mpl
ement
ati
onst
agecheckonar
ri
valoft
eachi
ng-
lear
ning
 r
esour
cesi
nschool
sandt
hei
rusebyt
eacher
sandst
udent
s
♦ Whet
hert
eacher
shav
ebeenadequat
elypr
epar
ed
♦ React
ionoft
eacher
s,par
ent
sandot
herst
akehol
der
sont
henewpr
ogr
am
♦ Whet
herpr
ocedur
esusedmeett
hest
andar
dcr
it
eri
adesi
gnat
edbyt
hecur
ri
cul
um
dev
eloper
♦ Whati
sact
ual
l
ybei
ngl
ear
ned–t
heoper
ati
onal
cur
ri
cul
um
♦ Whatr
equi
reschange
♦ Accept
anceoft
henewpr
ogr
am byt
hebenef
ici
ari
es
Nationalexaminat
ionscaterforcompar i
sonofschool
s,dist
rict
s,pupi
ls,
teacher
s.Gr
adi
ng
sel
ecti
on,placement,cer
ti
ficat
ion,schoolacademi
crecords.Eval
uati
onof
 exami
nat
ionpr
ocedur
esensur
eshi
gherst
andar
dsofeducat
ion,
det
ect
sar
easofdi
ff
icul
ty;
det
ermi
ner
snewmet
hodsoft
eachi
ngandev
aluat
ion;
probl
emst
eacher
sandl
ear
ner
shav
e
i
nint
erpr
eti
ngcour
seobj
ect
s.
6.
2.3Pr
inci
plesofI
nst
ruct
ionalEv
aluat
ion
1.PRI
NCI
PLESOFI
NSTRUCTI
ONALEVALUATI
ON
I
nst
ruct
ional
Eval
uat
ionshoul
dbeusedont
hef
oll
owi
ngcr
it
eri
abywhi
chwor
thi
s
det
ermi
ned.
a)Consi
stencywi
thObj
ect
ives
Ev
aluat
ionshoul
dbeusedt
omeasur
ewhati
sindi
cat
edi
ncur
ri
cul
um obj
ect
ivesofa
cour
sepr
ogr
ammeR.Ty
ler(
1950)obser
vert
hateducat
ional
obj
ect
ivesar
ethecr
it
eri
aby
whi
chmat
eri
alsar
esel
ect
ed,
cont
enti
sout
li
ned,
inst
ruct
ional
procedur
ear
edev
eloped
andt
est
sandexami
nat
ionsar
epr
epar
ed.Ev
aluat
iont
ell
sushowsuccessf
ulwehav
e
beeni
nthi
sef
for
t.Thecr
it
eri
aforev
aluat
ionandt
her
esul
tssoobt
ainedshoul
dbe
under
scor
edandaccept
edbyal
lthoseconcer
ned.Ther
eisneedt
odev
elopi
npupi
l
sthe
abi
l
ityt
olear
nfur
ther
.
b)Val
idi
tyandRel
iabi
li
ty
Ev
aluat
ioni
nst
rument
sar
eval
i
dift
heymeasur
ewhatt
heyar
esupposedt
omeasur
e.A
t
esti
nCRE,
forexampl
e,shoul
dnotbeexpect
edt
oel
i
citsci
ent
if
icknowl
edgebut
r
eli
giouseducat
ionconcept
s.Av
ali
dtestshal
lrel
atet
oobj
ect
ivesoft
hespeci
fi
ccour
se
andappr
opr
iat
efort
hel
evel
.
2.
3.Rel
i
abi
l
ityr
efer
stot
heconsi
stencywi
thwhi
chanev
aluat
ioni
nst
rumentmeasur
esgi
vi
ng
t
hesamescor
eofr
esul
ts.Twodi
ff
erentexami
ner
sar
eabl
etoar
ri
vet
hesamescor
eon
t
het
estcandi
dat
eswhohav
egonet
hrought
hesamel
ear
ningpr
ocess.At
esti
tem t
hat
hassev
eral
answer
syett
het
estconst
ruct
orr
equi
redonl
yonecor
rectanswercannotbe
sai
dtober
eli
abl
e.Ar
eli
abl
etestwi
l
lal
sot
ryt
oel
i
citt
hesameabi
l
iti
es,
ski
l
lsf
rom t
he
samesampl
eofst
udent
s.
4.
d)Cont
inui
ty
Cur
ri
cul
um ev
aluat
ionshoul
dbeanon-
goi
ngpr
ocessi
nor
dert
opr
ovi
deef
fect
ive
f
eedback,
whi
chwi
l
lleadt
ocour
sei
mpr
ovement
.Itshoul
dmor
eov
err
elat
etopr
evi
ous,
pr
esentandf
utur
elear
ningexper
iencesandf
oll
owpr
opersequenci
ngoft
hecour
se,
from
easyt
ocompl
exi
tems.Theev
aluat
ionsy
stem begi
nswi
thcur
ri
cul
um deci
sion,
whi
ch
r
esul
tsi
nthei
dent
if
icat
ionoft
hef
ir
stgoal
s.I
tcont
inuest
hroughoutt
hepl
anni
ngpr
ocess
i
ntoi
mpl
ement
ati
onact
ivi
ti
es,
andcy
clesbackt
othepl
anni
ngpr
ocess.
Instructionaleval
uat
ionshoul
dbeacont i
nuousprocesssot hattheteachercanadequatel
yand
eff
ect i
velyassesseachstudentneedsi
nordertoselectappropri
ateresources,
develop
appropriatelearni
ngstr
ategi
es,j
udgeeachstudentmerit
,andpr ovi
deeffecti
vefeedbackand
mot i
vationt oeachst
udent;pl
angroupmethods,appropri
ateactiv
iti
esalongspecif
iedlear
ning
objecti
ves.
Throughconti
nuousassessmenttheteacherconsist
entl
yandsystemati
cal
lyprovi
desthe
educati
onalexper
iencemostsui
tedtotheeducationalneeds,
int
erest
s,r
eadinessandabi
li
tyof
eachstudent.
e)Balance
Balancemeanst hatthecur ri
culum dev elopershav eweighedther elati
veimpor tancetheyhav e
giventoeachstudentneedanddev elopmentt asks.Consider
ati
onsshoul dbegi ventoal l
studentneeds.Evaluati
onshoul dassessal lskil
lsweightedagainstt hetimeallocatedtoeach.
Balancealsoensuret hatthev ar
iouscogni ti
veski l
lsareequall
yorr easonabl yweighted.Ifthe
testit
emsdwel lonhigherorl owercogni t
iveskill
sonly,suchatestwi l
ll
ackbal ance.Hence,
thereshouldbeabal ancei nthefoll
owi ngcogni ti
velevelsofski
lls:knowl edge,compr ehensiv
e,
appli
cati
on,analysi
s,sy nt
hesisandev aluati
on.Ther eshouldbeal sobal ancetheoryand
practi
calski
ll
s.Allsubjectshav etheoreticaland
pr
act
ical
aspect
s.
f)Compr ehensiveness
Educat ionaimsatt hedev el opmentoft hewhol eper son.Hence, alltheobj ectivesofthe
curri
culum progr ammeshoul dbeev aluat ed, namel y:thecogni t
ive,effect
ive,
psychomot or
, spir
it
ual andsoci alrelatingdomai ns.Ev aluationinstrument sshoul dbedesi gned
toyieldaccur ateinformationconcer ningper sonal,
soci aladj ustment ,
phy sicalgrowth,spir
it
ual
growt h,habit
sofwor k,
int
er estsandat tit
udes; special apti
tudes, growt hi
ncr eati
veabili
ty,
home
andcommuni tybackgr oundsmustal sobeav ail
ableift heschool istodot hebestj obpossibl
e
i
nf oster i
ngthewhol esomegr owthofl ear ner sandpr epar i
ngt hem f oreff
ect ivecit
izenshi
pina
democr ati
cmul ti
-part,multi-r
acial
,mul ti
-et hnic,multi-reli
gioussoci etysuchasobt ai
nsinKeny a.
Educat ionshouldpr eparet heindividual t
of acethev icissit
udesofl i
fewi t
hconst ancy,
persistency,i
nsistenceandcour age.
Indivi
dualsplaydif
fer
entrol
esatdi f
ferenteducati
onalexperi
enceandstagesofli
fe;Pre-
primary,pri
mar y
,secondary
,univer
sity
; chil
dhood,adol
escence,adultmi
ddleage,
retir
ement
ageandol dage.Eachst agerequir
esdef ini
teknowledge,
skil
ls,
v al
uesandaresubjectto
evaluati
onbysoci et
y.Iti
snotthemer eacqui si
ti
onofknowledget hatmatt
ers
buthowi tutil
i
zed.Modernevaluati
onatt
empttoobt
ainascomplet
eapictureaspossi
bleoft
he
i
ndividual.Theeval
uati
onprocedureiscompr
ehensi
veift
heyut
il
izeav
arietyofmeansand
techniquesincol
lect
ioneval
uationdata.
g)Cooperati
on
Anev al
uati
onsystem isdependedupont headequacyoft hepl
anningwhi chresult
edint he
sel
ectedorcreati
onofcur ri
cul
um programs, act
ivi
ti
es,procedures,
resourcesandot her
el
ement stobeevaluated.Eval
uati
onsy stemsarealsodependentupont heutil
it
yandi ntegr
it
y
ofthespecif
icdatatobegat her
ed,displayedandintepr
eted(practi
calskil
ls,
wor katprimary,
secondary
,anduniversit
yexams).Whatcr i
ter
iashouldbemett oensurev ali
dit
yandr eli
abil
it
y?
Anadequateevaluati
onssy st
em i nv
olvesatl
eastt
wolevelsofcooper at
ion.Thefir
stconcer
ns
theint
egri
tyoftherelat
ionshipsest abl
ishedamongtheplanni
ng, i
mplement i
ngandev al
uati
on
phasesofprogram buil
ding.Ev aluat
ionshouldbei
nbuil
tintheplanni
ngandpr eparati
onstat
es
ofcurr
icul
um development .Thesecondconcer nst
hecompr ehensiveinvolv
ementofal l
part
ies,
whichhavelegi
timateinputorf rom theprogr
amsactiv
iti
esoritsevaluat
ionsy st
ems.
Thedet er
mi nati
onofwhatconst it
utessuccessorf ail
ur erequir
esthecooper ati
v ei
nvolv ement
ofthosewhoi mpl ementandar eaffectedbyt hepr ogram andt hosewhoev aluate.Ther eshould
becooper ati
onamongt heKIEcurri
culum dev elopers,theKeny aNat i
onalExami nati
onsCounci l
andt heclassroom t eacher
s.Thereshoul dbeal socooper ationamongt hepsy chologists,
sociologi
sts,philosopher,r
eli
giousleaders,professors, t
radeunionists,
curri
culum dev eloper
s,
empl oyer
sandt eachers;andallot
herst akeholders.
Evaluati
oninstr
ument sshouldbefunct
ional
,pr acti
cal understoodandacceptablebyal
l
teachersinvol
ved.Thereshouldbeacloserrelationshipbetweent heexaminati
onandthe
objecti
veswhichschool educati
onhopestoachi ev e,t
herefore,bet
weenthest y
leofthe
Whati sthedif
ferenceevaluat
ionandmeasur ement ?
CURRI
CULUM I
NNOVATI
ONS
7.
1Int
roduct
ion
7.
1 I
ntr
oduct
ion
I
nthisl
essonwedef i
netheterm curr
icul
um innov
ati
on,andthendiscussinnov at
ionmodels.
Thecri
ter
iaforcur
ri
culum i
nnovati
onwi l
lthenbeexpl
ained.KeyrecentCurr
iculum I
nnovati
ons
i
nKenyawi l
lbeexaminedandfinall
ychall
engestocurr
iculum i
nnovati
onwillthenbediscussed.
7.
2LessonLear
ningOut
comes
Byt
heendoft
hisl
esson,
youwi
l
lbeabl
eto:
7.
1.1 Expl
ainWhycur
ri
cul
um i
nnov
ati
on/
change?
7.
1.2 Di
scussi
nnov
ati
onmodel
s
7.
1.3 Expl
aint
hecr
it
eri
aforcur
ri
cul
um i
nnov
ati
on
7.
1.4 Exami
nekeyr
ecentCur
ri
cul
um I
nnov
ati
onsi
nKeny
a
Di
scusschal
l
engest
oCur
ri
cul
um I
nnov
ati
on
7.
2.1WhyCur
ri
cul
um I
nnov
ati
ons/
Change
Meani
ngofcur
ri
cul
um i
nnov
ati
onandchange
 I
nnovat
ioni
sdef
inedasact
ivat
ingf
orceswi
thi
nthesy
stem t
oal
erti
t.
 I
nnov
ati
onorcur
ri
cul
um changei
sanef
fectofchangewher
eeducat
ional
inst
it
uti
ons
adj
ustt
ochangesoccur
ri
ngt
oot
hersoci
ali
nst
it
uti
ons.Thecur
ri
cul
um hast
oadj
ustt
othe
economi
c,t
echnol
ogi
cal
andi
deol
ogi
cal
fact
ors
 I
nnov
ati
onorcur
ri
cul
um changecanal
sobedescr
ibedasacondi
ti
onofchangewher
e
changesi
ncur
ri
cul
um oreducat
ionf
ort
hatmat
terar
enecessar
yforbr
oadersoci
alchanges.
 Cur
ri
cul
um changemustbepl
anned.
 I
scur
ri
cul
um changet
hesameascur
ri
cul
um i
mpr
ovement
?
 Cur
ri
cul
um i
mpr
ovement(
Taba,
1962)i
sconcer
nedwi
thdi
scr
eteaspect
soft
hecur
ri
cul
um
wi
thoutf
undament
alchangesi
nit
sconcept
ual
desi
gnoror
gani
zat
ion.Ont
heot
herhand
cur
ri
cul
um changeori
nnov
ati
oni
nawaymeanst
ochangeani
nst
it
uti
onaf
fect
ingsev
eral
aspect
s.
 Changecanbei
nthr
eel
evel
s
1.Mi
norchangesmayi
nvol
vet
her
e-ar
rangementoft
hesequenceoft
hesubj
ectmat
teror
l
ear
ningact
ivi
ti
esormer
elyt
headdi
ti
onofat
opi
cormet
hodt
oinst
ruct
ional
progr
amme.
2.Medi
um changesmayi
nvol
veani
nnov
ati
onl
i
ket
hei
ntegr
ati
onofsubj
ect
s,anewsubj
ect
oranewappr
oacht
otheexi
sti
ngsubj
ect
3.Maj
orchangeswi
l
laf
fectmanyaspect
soft
hecur
ri
cul
um-
cont
ent
,met
hodol
ogy
,
appr
oaches,
mat
eri
als,
subt
ract
ingandaddi
ngt
owhati
sexi
sti
ng.Thi
smayal
soi
nvol
ve
changesi
ntheconcept
ual
desi
gnandt
heor
gani
zat
iont
huscal
l
ingf
oranewpl
an.
Iti
simportantt
onot et
hatchangeusual
lyai
mstoimprov
ethecur
ri
cul
um.Howev er
,change
maynotnecessaril
ybri
ngimprovementbutt
heobj
ect
ivei
stoimpr
ovetheexi
sti
ngprogramme
i
nthecontextofthenewenvir
onment.
.
2.2Model
sofCur
ri
cul
um I
nnov
ati
ons
Ronal
dHav
elock(
1969)ofUni
ver
sit
yofMi
chi
gani
dent
if
iedt
hreemai
nmodel
sofi
nnov
ati
on.
1.TheResear
ch,
Dev
elopmentandDi
ff
usi
onModel
(R,
D&D)
2.Thesoci
ali
nter
act
ionmodel
3.Thepr
obl
em-
sol
vi
ngmodel
a. TheResear
ch,
Devel
opmentandDi
ff
usi
onModel(
R,D&D)
Theideaorpract
icei
sconceivedatacent
ral
planni
nguni
t(head)andt
henf
edi
ntot
hesy
stem.
I
tisalsocal
ledcentr
e-per
ipher
yappr
oach.
I
tinv
olv
est
hef
oll
owi
ng
1.Basi
cresear
chbyacent
ral
proj
ectt
eam whi
chdev
elopsanewcur
ri
cul
um,
dev
icesand
desi
gnspr
otot
ypemat
eri
alset
c
2.Fi
eldt
ri
als-t
hedev
elopmentandt
est
ingofpr
otot
ypemat
eri
alsi
nanumberoft
ri
al
school
s,f
oll
owedbyr
e-desi
gnandr
evi
sioni
nthel
i
ghtoft
heset
ri
als
3.Masspr
oduct
ionoft
hemodi
fi
edpr
otot
ypes
4.Thepl
annedmassdi
ssemi
nat
ionoft
hei
nnov
ati
onbyconduct
ingcour
ses,
conf
erences,
wor
kshopset
c
5.I
mpl
ement
ati
onoft
hei
nnov
ati
onbyt
heuser
s9t
heschool
s,t
eacher
s,pupi
l
s).
Adv
ant
ages.
1.Canhar
nesst
heef
for
tsofexper
tsandt
alent
edt
eacher
stopr
oducemat
eri
alsofhi
gh
qual
i
ty
2.Suchasy
stem canensur
ethatnat
ional
pri
ori
ti
esar
egi
venadequat
eemphasi
s
3.Cur
ri
cul
um dev
elopmentcent
rescant
aket
hel
eadi
ngr
oleonpr
inci
plesofcur
ri
cul
um
dev
elopmenti
nthecr
uci
all
yimpor
tantt
askoft
rai
ningandr
e-t
rai
ningoft
eacher
sfort
hei
r
newt
asks
4.Mat
eri
alsar
etest
edbef
oredi
ff
usi
ononal
argescal
e.
Di
sadv
ant
ages.
1.Hi
ghi
nit
ial
dev
elopmentcost
sthoughcompensat
edbyr
esul
ti
ngqual
i
tyandef
fi
ciencyi
n
t
hel
ongt
erm
2.Teacher
sar
einv
olv
edi
nthedev
elopmentpr
ocessonl
ytoal
i
mit
edext
ent
,ot
her
wiset
hey
ar
epassi
ver
eci
pient
soft
hecur
ri
cul
um
3.Becauseoft
hehi
ghdegr
eeofcent
ral
i
zat
iont
her
eisadangeroff
ail
i
ngt
otakei
nto
accountl
ocal
needsandv
ari
ati
ons
4.Notsui
tabl
efornewst
rat
egi
esf
ort
eachi
ngt
houghv
eryef
fect
ivef
orpr
oduct
ionof
mat
eri
als
1.b. TheSoci
alI
nter
act
ionModel(
SI)
 Accor
dingt
othi
smodel
,changepr
oceedst
hroughcont
act
s,f
ormal
andi
nfor
mal
,among
i
nter
est
edi
ndi
vi
dual
sandgr
oupsofpeopl
e.
 Soci
ali
nter
act
ioni
stheusual
waybywhi
chi
deasandpr
act
icesar
edi
ff
usedt
hroughsoci
ety
-
byi
nfor
mal
cont
act
sbet
weeni
nter
est
edi
ndi
vi
dual
sandgr
oups.
 TheSImodel
emphasi
zesdi
ff
usi
on,
themov
ementofmessagesf
rom oneper
sont
o
anot
herandsy
stem t
osy
stem
 I
tst
ressest
hei
mpor
tanceofi
nter
per
sonal
net
wor
ksofi
nfor
mat
ion,
ofopi
nionofl
eader
shi
p,
per
sonal
cont
act
,andsoci
ali
ntegr
ati
on.
 Thest
rat
egyt
akest
hef
orm ofconv
inci
ngar
espect
edadmi
nist
rat
orort
eacheroft
he
usef
ulnessofanewdev
iceorpr
act
ice,
andt
henenabl
i
ngcol
l
eaguest
ocomeandseef
or
t
hemsel
vest
henewpr
act
it
ionerusi
ngt
hei
nnov
ati
on.
Adv
ant
ages
1.Anat
ural
processadopt
saper
ipher
y-per
ipher
yappr
oach
2.Thoughi
tisanunpl
annedappr
oach,
itcanbemademor
esy
stemat
icbyst
ruct
uri
ngand
co-
coor
dinat
ingt
hecont
act
sbet
weengr
oupsandi
ndi
vi
dual
sint
erest
edi
ncur
ri
cul
um
dev
elopment
.Thi
scanbedonet
hrough-
cour
ses,
conf
erences,
visi
tst
oschool
s,by
QASOset
c.I
nthi
scase,
thecent
ral
Agencyact
sasaco-
coor
dinat
ororcommuni
cat
orof
i
deas
Di
sadv
ant
ages
1.I
tinv
olv
esi
ndi
vi
dual
srat
hert
hangr
oupsoror
gani
zat
ionswhi
l
eiti
sthel
att
ert
hathav
eto
i
mpl
ementt
hei
nnov
ati
ons
2.I
tisi
nfor
mal
andunpl
annedandt
huscanbesl
ow.
3.c. Pr
obl
em Sol
vi
ngModel(
PS)
 I
ndi
vi
dual
sar
ethemsel
vesi
nvol
vedi
nconcei
vi
ng,
ini
ti
ati
nganddev
elopi
ngi
nnov
ati
onsat
l
ocal
lev
el.I
tisaper
ipher
y-cent
re-
per
ipher
yappr
oacht
oinnov
ati
on.
 I
tisbasedont
heassumpt
iont
hati
nnov
ati
onsi
spar
tofapr
obl
em sol
vi
ngpr
ocesswhi
ch
t
akespl
acei
nsi
det
heuserorcl
i
entsy
stem,
bei
taschool
,thet
eacherort
hest
udent
.
 Her
ethei
nit
iat
ivecomesf
rom t
heper
ipher
y(t
heschool
orcl
i
ent
).I
nnov
ator
satt
he
per
ipher
ysetaboutsol
vi
ngt
hei
rownpr
obl
ems.Themodel
isbui
l
tar
oundt
heuseroft
he
i
nnov
ati
on.
 I
tassumest
heuserhasadef
ini
teneedandt
hati
nnov
ati
onsat
isf
iest
hatneed.
 Thust
hepr
ocessi
sfr
om pr
obl
em t
odi
agnosi
sofaneedt
hent
otr
ial
St
eps
1.Aneedi
sident
if
ied
2.Theneedi
str
ansl
atedi
ntoapr
obl
em whi
chi
sthendi
agnosed
3.Thedi
agnosi
sleadst
oasear
chf
orsol
uti
ons
4.Thepossi
blesol
uti
onsar
eev
aluat
ed.Thei
nnov
ati
onwhi
chseemst
opr
ovi
det
hebest
sol
uti
oni
sthent
est
edf
ori
tsef
fect
iveness.
Adv
ant
ages.
1.Thei
nnov
ati
onsar
eini
ti
ated,
gener
atedandappl
i
edbyt
het
eacher
sandschool
s
t
hemsel
vesont
hebasi
soft
hei
rneeds.Thust
hyhav
east
rongerusercommi
tmentand
l
ongt
erm sur
viv
al
2.I
tisf
lexi
bleenought
oencompassal
lty
pesofi
nnov
ati
ons-
mat
eri
als,
met
hods,
groupi
ngs
ofpupi
l
set
c,
3.Thechoseni
nnov
ati
on(
sol
uti
on)i
sgear
edt
othepar
ti
cul
arci
rcumst
ancesoft
he
school
/cl
i
ent
Di
sadv
ant
ages
1.Bei
ngl
ocal
andl
i
mit
edi
nsi
ze,
thequal
i
tyoft
hei
nnov
ati
one.
g.,
mat
eri
alsmaynotbeas
goodast
hatofR,
D&D
2.Thoughappr
opr
iat
etot
heneedsoft
heschool
,thepar
ti
cul
ari
nnov
ati
onmaynotbe
basedonsoundt
heor
yorpr
act
ice
3.Suchi
nnov
ati
onusual
l
ytakeupaconsi
der
abl
eamountoft
het
eacher
sti
me.
4.d. TheLi
nkageModel
Duet otheweaknessesofthet hr
eemodels,Hav
elockhasproposedafour
thmodelwhi
ch
combi nesaspect
sofallthethreemodelsbyusi
nglinkagepr
ocedur
esandagenci
es
i
ntermediatebetweenthecentresofthecur
ri
cul
um andschools,whi
chmediat
eandli
nkall
the
part
iesinvol
vedinthei
nnov ati
onprocess
7.
2.3Cr
it
eri
aforj
udgi
ngt
hequal
it
yofanCur
ri
cul
um
I
nnov
ati
on
Cr
it
eri
aforev
aluat
ingcur
ri
cul
um i
nnov
ati
on
RogersandShoemaker(
1971)i
dent
if
iest
hef
oll
owi
ngcr
it
eri
aforj
udgi
ngacur
ri
cul
um
eval
uati
on
1.Rel
ati
veadv
ant
age
Thi
sisthedegr
eetowhi
chacurri
cul
um i
spercei
vedasbei
ngbett
erori
ntr
oduci
ngsomet
hing
moreuseful
wil
ldet
ermi
nei
tsaccept
abi
li
tyandrat
eofadopt
ion
1.I
mpr
ovet
hest
udent
slear
ning
2.I
seconomi
cal
l
ymanageabl
e
3.Lowi
nit
ial
cost
4.Possesnospeci
alr
iskt
oany
body
’sj
obsecur
it
y
5.Compat
ibi
l
ity
Refert
othedegreetowhichaninnov
ationisper
cei
vedasbei
ngi
nagreementwithorsuppor
ti
ve
ofthepotent
ial
adopter
sneedsandv al
ues.Howwil
lthenewi
deaorpract
icef
iti
ntoorsuppor
t
theexi
sti
ngeducati
onalprogr
amme.
1.Tr
iabi
l
ity
Thisrel
atestotheextenttowhi
chaninnovat
ioncanbepil
oted,
wit
houtt
aki
ngtoomuchti
me,
energyorfunds.Canal i
mitedt
ri
alpr
oducesuff
ici
entdat
atomakeadecisi
onwhet
hert
he
i
nnov at
ionisnecessary
?
1.Obser
vabi
l
ity
Thepot
ent
ial
adopt
ersandt
hesponsor
swoul
dli
ket
oseet
angi
bler
esul
tsf
rom t
hei
ref
for
ts.
 I
mmedi
ateconsequences
 Account
abi
l
ity
-av
ail
abi
l
ityofconcr
etedat
a
1.Compl
exi
ty
Ani
nnov
ati
onmustbesi
mpl
eenought
obeunder
stoodandut
il
ized.I
fthe
pot
ent
ialadopt
er c7
sper .
2.4Chal
lengest
oCur
ri
cul
um
i
nnov
ati
ons
Chal
l
engest
ocur
ri
cul
um i
nnov
ati
ons
a) Soci
alanddemogr
aphi
cfact
ors
Mostpeopl
ewi
l
lresi
stchange
1.I
fitt
hreat
enst
hei
rcher
ishedt
radi
ti
onsandi
nst
it
uti
ons
2.Duet
oper
sonal
reasonsasf
orexampl
ewher
esuchchangeaf
fect
sthem ort
hei
r
posi
ti
onsnegat
ivel
y
3.Becauset
heydonotappr
oveoft
hesour
ceoft
henewi
deaort
heymayant
ici
pat
eadv
erse
ef
fect
sont
hesoci
ety
Publ
ici
nsti
tuti
ons,or
ganizati
onsorpr
ivat
eagenci
escanresi
stchange,
ift
heydeem i
t
det
ri
mentaltothei
rwell
-beingort
othewell-
bei
ngofsoci
etyasawhole.
b) Economi
cfact
ors
Mostcur
ri
cul
um i
nnov
ati
onscomeaboutduet
ocer
tai
neconomi
cpr
obl
ems.
1. Acur
ri
cul
um t
hatmaybeseent
ocont
ractt
heof
fi
cial
economi
cpol
i
ciesi
sunl
i
kel
yto
succeed.
2.Ont
hehand,
cur
ri
cul
um changesei
thersucceedorf
ail
dependi
ngont
heav
ail
abi
l
ityof
f
undsf
or:
 t
rai
ningoft
eacher
s,
 i
nser
vici
ngt
eacher
s,
 mat
eri
alspr
oduct
ion,
 t
ext
books,
 mor
efaci
l
iti
esi
nschool
s,
 wor
kshopssemi
nar
s,
 exper
iment
s,
 r
esear
ch
1.Pol
i
tics
 Agoodr
elat
ionshi
pmustexi
stbet
weent
hecur
ri
cul
um speci
ali
standt
hecont
empor
ary
gov
ernment
,becauset
hei
rgov
ernmentcanei
therpr
omot
eorbl
ockanycur
ri
cul
um pr
oject
whi
chi
snoti
nli
newi
thherpol
i
ciesandwhi
chdoesnotf
iti
nthef
ramewor
koft
hepol
i
tical
i
deol
ogy
.
 Fr
equentchangesi
ngov
ernmentmakei
tmor
edi
ff
icul
ttomai
ntai
naconsi
stentpol
i
cyand
t
ofol
l
owuppl
ans.
1.Technol
ogi
cal
fact
ors
 School
sar
eal
way
str
yingt
ochanget
hei
rpr
ogr
ammest
ocopewi
thnewt
echnol
ogy
 Manycur
ri
cul
um pr
oject
shav
ebeenov
ert
akenbyev
ent
sduet
orapi
dtechnol
ogi
cal
changes.
 School
sar
eal
sobecomi
ngabi
gmar
ketf
ornewi
nvent
ions
 Useofel
ect
roni
cmachi
nessuchascomput
ersandcal
cul
ator
sinv
ari
ousaspect
sofl
i
fe,
i
ncl
udi
ngeducat
ion,
put
sal
otofpr
essur
eont
hecur
ri
cul
um
1.Epi
stemol
ogi
cal
fact
ors
Theconstantchangeandhighrateofexpansioninknowledgeput
spressureonthecurr
icul
um
speci
ali
st-
whatcontentt
oincludeandwhatt oleaveout.Consi
der
ati
onshav et
obedone
beari
nginmindthechangingnatureofknowledge,lear
ners,
moreknowledgeabl
eteachers.
1.Phy
sical
fact
ors
Indevelopingacur
ri
cul
um forschool
theprevai
l
ingorpossi
blef
utur
ephy
sical
condi
ti
onsi
nthe
schools/count
rymustbeputint
oconsider
ati
on.

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