ITdiapositivas2 (19 1)

Informática Teórica
Andrés A. Aristizábal P.
aaaristizabal@icesi.edu.co
Departamento de Matemáticas y Estadística
2019-1
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Agenda
1 Proofs
Aims
Discussion and exercises
2 Equivalence relations
Presentation of next topic
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Proofs Aims
Agenda
1 Proofs
Aims
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Proofs Aims
Aims
Know and understand the different kind of proof techniques.

Be able to use any proof method to verify a property or theorem.
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Proofs Discussion and exercises
Agenda
1 Proofs
Aims
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Discussion of the previous reading material
Presentation of concept maps
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Exercises
Exercise
Show that the square of an even number is an even number using a
direct proof.
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Ejercicios
Exercise
Show that the square of an even number is an even number using a
proof by contradiction.
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Ejercicios
Exercise
Use a direct proof to show that every odd integer is the difference of
two squares.
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Exercises
Exercise
Prove that if n is an integer and 3n + 2 is even, then n is even using:
a) a proof by contraposition.
b) a proof by contradiction.
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Exercises
Exercise
Prove or disprove that the product of two irrational numbers is
irrational.
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Exercises
Exercise
Prove or disprove that the product of two rational numbers is rational.
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Exercises
Exercise
Prove or disprove that the product of a nonzero rational number and an
irrational number is irrational.
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Exercises
Exercise
Prove that if x is rational and x 6= 0, then 1/x is rational.
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Exercises
Exercise
Prove that if n is a positive integer, then n is even if and only if 7n + 4 is
even.
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Exercises
Exercise
Prove that m2 = n2 if and only if m = n or m = −n
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Equivalence relations Presentation of next topic
Agenda
1 Proofs
Aims
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Equivalence relations
Definition
A relation R on a set A is called an equivalence relation if it is reflexive,
symmetric, and transitive.
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Definition
In order to understand the previous notion let us verify if the following

examples are equivalence relations or not.
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Definition
In order to understand the previous notion let us verify if the following

examples are equivalence relations or not.
Example
Let R be the relation such that x R y if and only if x, y ∈ Z
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Solution
Is R reflexive?
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Solution
Is R reflexive? Since x ∈ Z then x R x and R is reflexive.
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Solution
Is R symmetric?
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Solution
Is R symmetric? We assume that x R y then x, y ∈ Z. Therefore y R x
and R is symmetric.
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Solution
and R is symmetric.
Is R transitive?
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Solution
and R is symmetric.
Is R transitive? We assume that x R y and y R w then x, y , w ∈ Z.
Hence x R w y R is transitive.
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Example
Let R be an equivalence relation such that a R b if and only if a ≡ b (mod m)
on the set of integers.
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Example
Example
Since a − a = 0 y 0 is divisible by m then a R a and R is reflexive.
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Example
Example
We assume that a R b then a − b is divisible by m thus a − b = km where k is
an integer. It follows that b − a = (−k )m and since −k is an integer b − a is
divisible by m. Thus R is symmetric.
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Example
Example
We assume that a R b then a − b is divisible by m thus a − b = km where k is
an integer. It follows that b − a = (−k )m and since −k is an integer b − a is
divisible by m. Thus R is symmetric.
We assume that a R b and b R c then m divides a − b and b − c. Therefore
there exists integers k , l such that a − b = km and b − c = lm. Adding the two
formulas we have a − b + b − c = km + lm = (k + l)m hence a − c is divisible
by m and R is transitive.
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Equivalence classes
If two elements x, y are related by means of an equivalence relation,

we say that x and y are equivalent. Then, if two elements are
equivalent they belong to the same equivalence class.
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Equivalence classes

Definition
Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The set of all elements
that are related to an element a of A is called the equivalence class of
a. The equivalence class of a with respect to R is denoted by [a]R . That
is [a]R = {b | a R b}. When only one relation is under consideration, we
can delete the subscript R and write [a] for this equivalence class.
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Equivalence classes

Definition
Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The set of all elements
that are related to an element a of A is called the equivalence class of
a. The equivalence class of a with respect to R is denoted by [a]R . That
is [a]R = {b | a R b}. When only one relation is under consideration, we
can delete the subscript R and write [a] for this equivalence class.
If b ∈ [a]R , then b is called a representative of this equivalence class.
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Example
Let R be the relation on the set integers such that a R b if and only if
a = b or a = −b. What are the equivalence classes of a ∈ Z. What
are the equivalence classes of 0 and 7?
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Example
Solution
[a]R = {a, −a}
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Example
Solution
[a]R = {a, −a}
[0]R = {0} y [7]R = {7, −7}
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Example
Generally speaking, what is the class [x]R if R is the relation mod m?
How do we call these classes?
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Example
Solution
If we have x ≡ y mod m then x − y is divisible by m,
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Example
Solution
If we have x ≡ y mod m then x − y is divisible by m, which takes us to
the fact that x − y = km, where k is an integer,
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Example
Solution
the fact that x − y = km, where k is an integer, therefore y = x − km.
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Example
Solution
Since k is any integer, then:
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Example
Solution
[x]R = {..., x − 2m, x − m, x + m, x + 2m, ...}
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Example
Solution
[x]R = {..., x − 2m, x − m, x + m, x + 2m, ...}
The equivalence classes of the relation congruence modulo m are
called the congruence classes modulo m.
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Next class
Exercises and section

Reading material Section 7.5 (in Moodle)
Exercises: 29,30,32,35,41,43 32,33,36,38,40
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Informática Teórica

Departamento de Matemáticas y Estadística

Know and understand the different kind of proof techniques.

Discussion of the previous reading material

Presentation of concept maps

In order to understand the previous notion let us verify if the following

In order to understand the previous notion let us verify if the following

If two elements x, y are related by means of an equivalence relation,

If two elements x, y are related by means of an equivalence relation,

If two elements x, y are related by means of an equivalence relation,

If b ∈ [a]R , then b is called a representative of this equivalence class.

Exercises and section

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