3.

Topic #1: Globalization and Pluralism: New Challenges to Ethics

     Before we begin to relate with globalization, let me ask you this two questions, what do
you think is going on with the world at present? Do you agree that globalization has become
the ‘new normal’? Let’s analyze.

     Almost every day we experience globalization. It can be in the form of global movement
of people. Which may include some family members living permanently abroad. If your
family business is into manufacturing of goods, it may mean circulation of mechanical goods
and software. Or do you have a parent or sibling who is an overseas Filipino worker? Who
regularly sends money for the upkeep of your family. In this case, globalization may also
mean the global circulation of money. When you spend time to communicate and share with
parents, friends and relatives through social media sites, globalization too is about the flow
of culture. Finally, when you read a news article that the Pantawid Pamilya Pilipino Program
or 4Ps was actually a ‘conditional cash transfer scheme’ concept borrowed from the
practices of governments in some parts of the American and African countries. Indeed,
globalization is also about political ideas that has come to move around. These are just
some of the things that we know of.

     And indeed, many will agree to say that globalization has turned separate communities
interacting infrequently into a virtually one multi-faceted community. In whatever aspect,
politically, economically, and culturally, communities or appropriately known as nation-
states across the world now function on a fundamentally shared space.

     The transnational relations created by multinational companies and groups due to

globalizing forces like technology changes that allow free communication and travel
amongst people opened new forms of social bonds and responsibilities. It is because of
this, it has blurred the distinction between global and local communities. Actions and events
in one locality may bring forth transnational and transgenerational impacts. It is due to this
that moral reflection on our responsibilities and obligations in a globalized era become most
significant.

. Topic #1: Globalization and Pluralism: New Challenges to Ethics

3.1. Pluralism

     One ethical challenge attributable to globalization is the rise of an ideology known as

‘pluralism’. As a philosophical doctrine, it generally refers to the theory that there is more
than one basic substance or principle, whether it be the constitution of the universe, of the
mind and body, the sources of truth, or the basis of morality.  On the other hand, moral
pluralism or otherwise known as ‘ethical or value pluralism,’ refers to the idea that there can
be conflicting moral views that are each worthy of respect. It is more of a meta-ethical
theory which analyzes the moral aspects in situations. The first to popularize this objective-
value-pluralism is Isaiah Berlin (1909-1997), a Russian-British social and political theorist,
philosopher and historian. Although the idea of conflict in certain basic values were
prominent in the thought of German philosopher and sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920).

     It seems that moral pluralists are ‘acceptive’ when faced with competing perspective.
Issues are analyzed from different moral points of view before any decision and action is
taken. At times, they find many moral issues as extremely complicated. Meaning, there is
no single philosophical approach that will always give all the answers needed.

     Let us say for example, ‘the night is young and you just entered a narrow road, as you
walk, you saw from a distance a man lying at the other side of the road covered in blood.
You were about to approach him when you saw a shadow of another person hiding in a
nearby alley near where the injured person is. You then pause in your footsteps and
mentally decided on what to do next’. In a situation like this, a moral pluralist would argue
that to help the injured man may mean danger to the life of the rescuer. And that there is no
definitive way to decide which is the better course of moral action. Indeed, moral pluralism
concludes that, sometimes it is difficult to make a choice between competing values.
            Therefore, moral pluralism occupy a sensible middle ground between “there is only
one right answer” as moral absolutism would say, and “there is no wrong answer” as would
be the claim in moral relativism. 

     The charm of pluralism is in the acceptance of complexity and conflict which is part of
our moral experience. That our moral choices are not simple additive puzzles, but are
incommensurability’s and discontinuities in value comparisons, where value remainders (or
residues) when choices are made, and complexities in appropriate responses to value.

     Although it may appear cool and sensible, but it has its own flaws. Moral pluralism is
ethically untenable since it gives no moral standard, and offers no moral power. It behooves
on us to either conclude that, a) there is no real solution to ethical dilemmas, or b) all
possible answers are acceptable as long as they have underlying fundamental values.
Another fact is that, values are commensurable since they can be compared by their
varying contributions for the human good. The ends of freedom, equality, efficiency,
creativity and the like, are by itself not ends, but are valued for their consequences.
Therefore, moral pluralists claim that the problem of conflicting values is insolvable, is not
essentially true.

     Moreover, moral pluralists contention that we can adhere to any values we wish to, is to
say that, we can adopt any behavior we prefer. These two are intrinsically linked. Some say
that the popularity of pluralism and relativism in this global era is relatively associated by the
substantial moral collapse of today. And if moral pluralism in belief and in morals are
intrinsically connected to each other, then its outcome is simply a disaster. How then are we
to react to situations like, murder and gang rape performed by Satanist’ practitioners? Of
the Sawi tribe in Indonesia where savage cannibalism and ruthless killings, and treachery
are treated as the highest form of virtue? To follow moral pluralists claim, then we are
inclined to believe that all these spring from mere insights into same ultimate reality.

     As explained by AE McGrath of Wheaton College:

“Moral pluralism can never control or even rival our natural sloth and greed. The terrorists
groups (have) morality (which) is determined by their political goals. If you believe in your
cause as the most important thing on earth, you will bomb, maim, and kill in order to
achieve that goal. And the casualties? These are regrettable but inevitable. Many ancient
religions included the idea of human sacrifice: if these still existed, would this practice be
tolerated? Certainly not.” (McGrath, n.d.)

     No matter how appealing it may be to liberal minded people, still, it cannot be denied that
moral pluralism has a darker side for it carries certain negative social effects.

3. Topic #1: Globalization and Pluralism: New Challenges to Ethics

3.2. Globalization

According to British sociologist Anthony Giddens, it refers to the ‘intensification of worldwide

relationships which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by
events occurring many miles away and vice versa.’ It may also mean as the world
wide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets
through trade and the exchange of ideas. However may we define globalization, central to it
is the idea of ‘trans-nationalization’ of the connections taking place in the today’s world.

     Globalization has emphasized increased occurrences in trans-border or transnational

relations. In fact, it has restructured our social space or geography from one that is mainly
territorial to one that is increasingly transnational. For example, individuals usually interact
and affiliate with others who share their same space that is, village, town, municipality or
country. Now, there is a massive growth of interactions and affiliations either across or
outside of these boundaries of today’s globalization. In effect, it has brought escalation in
global relations.
     Some researchers contend that globalization begun after World War II. But it’s
acceleration was seen in the mid 1980’s. There are two factors to which this can be
attributed, namely 1) technological advances, and 2) liberalization of trade and capital
markets. The first one effectively reduced the cost of transportation, communication and
computation to the degree that it has become economically viable for a firm to place
different phases of production in various countries. As for the second one, more
governments are in to allowing foreign competition or influence. Import tariffs and nontariff
obstacles like import quotas, legal prohibition, and export restraints known to protect local
economies have been gradually declined by their own governments. International
institutions founded after WWII, such as the World Bank, International Monetary Fund
(IMF), and General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) – which was succeeded in
1995 by the World Trade Organization played a crucial role in endorsing free trade in place
of protectionism applied by governments to protect local economies.

     Let’s look at some of the significant economic problems posed by globalization.

Uses up finite resources more quickly
 increases world carbon dioxide emissions
Virtually impossible for regulators in one
country to foresee the worldwide implications of emissions may prove to encourage other
their actions
Acts to increase world prices
Transfers consumption of limited oil supply
from developed countries to developing
countries
Transfers jobs to developed countries to less
developed countries
Transfers investment spending from developed For investors, it is a choice of which
countries to less developed countries
Led US balance of trade deficits and other
imbalances
Tends to move taxation away from corporations, Companies has the ability to move to
and into individual citizens
Sets up a currency of ‘race to bottom’
The entry of China in the WTO in 2001,
has seen its rapid rise in coal use.
Besides the fact that the use of coal has
increased considerably.
The world may expect an increase in
carbon dioxide emissions if countries
continue their rapid use of coals, and
other fossil fuels
Individual actions of countries to reduce
to ramp up world trade, manufacturing
in coal producing areas, thus increase
emissions more
Globalization has pushed demand for oil
in a rapid state. However, the problem is
world supply of oil is virtually flat, and
may lend to increase its prices more in
the future.
Developing countries are better able to
use higher-priced oil. Growing shift in
manufacturing to less developed
countries relatively increased workers
who can afford to buy a motorcycle or
car.
Developed countries must now compete
with countries of low cost structures.
country will give the most competitive
advantage for businesses.
US dollar as ‘reserve currency’ of the
world, attracts other countries to buy
U.S. debts, which necessarily encourage
America to overspend on aspects of
globalization and control of oil prices. A
mismatch in government income and
spending accrues.
locations where the tax rate is lowest.
But not so in the case of individuals. A
depressed economy can put pressure on
individuals to shoulder government
costs.
Countries vie for export advantage by
dropping the value of its currency, and
is largely due to the competitive nature

Encourages dependence on other countries for
essential goods and services
Ties countries together – a system where the
collapse of a country ripples to other states
of world economy. Low wages, more
pollution, use of cheap fuels, and by
debase of currency thru quantitative
easing or printing money, with the goal
to produce inflation and lower the value
of currency relative to other foreign
currencies, to maintain competitive
edge.
Since goods may be obtained cheaply
elsewhere. It becomes easy to depend
on its importations, and for countries to
specialize on things like financial
services or high priced medical
care/service, which are not oil
dependent. But this is good only if
import system remain intact and
uninterrupted.
Countries now are interdependent, so
much so, an over-utilization of
resources of one, may cause financial
dislocation pull of other countries as
well

     At this point, we now peer into the challenges and/or implications of globalization in
relation to morality, business ethics, and for creating a global universal ethic or values. 

     Globalization in relation to morality, forefront  is the ‘radical inequality or disparity’

between the few rich and the many poor individuals. Neoliberal globalization have caused
the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few, leaving the majority in poverty.
Globalization has become a process driven by progressive capitalist countries to perpetuate
their economic and political domination. This is evident in countries where the laissez-faire
capitalism is practiced, and which tend to deepen inequalities within and between nations.
However, this is ethically condemnable from both the consequentialist and deontological
point of view. Consequentialists argue that globalization fail to maximize happiness for the
greatest number of people. Meanwhile, deontologists particularly adherents to Kantian
ethics, argue that globalization is condemnable due to exploited populations treated as
means to an end, rather than as an end to themselves. Second is that states are in effect
losing their sovereignty. Financially distraught states go to organizations like the
International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and the World Trade Organization (WTO)
for loan assistance. In exchange for this, these organizations take virtual control over their
(states) traditional governmental functions. This scenario is a morally condemnable
intrusiveness of international economic organizations, primarily the lack of accountability to
the people that may be openly affected by their policies which tend to impose agonizing
conditions on indebted governments. Lastly, the growing environmental problem if not
addressed collectively by states, pose global economic collapse that carry a threat of
human extinction. Significantly included are issues on greenhouse effect that generate
global climate change known as global warming; ozone layer depletion which extinguishes
the protective blanket that shields the world’s population from unsafe ultra violet rays being
discharged from the sun; global biosphere which has seen rapid reduction in the diversity of
ecosystems, in the number of species of life, and in the variety of genes that circulate within
individual species; population explosion where it threatens to surpass the earth’s carrying
capacity, thus eventually bust the biosphere. Towards this end, global environmental
considerations form the need for international environmental ethics which is an aspect of
global ethics.

     Globalization in relation to business ethics. As countries become interdependent

where there is now free movement within and out of territorial boundaries, of goods and
services, issues on ethical business practices has arisen as well. Business ethics is a form
of applied ethics that examines moral principles concerning business environment which
involves issues on corporate practices, policies, business behaviors, and the conducts and
relationships of individuals in the organizations. Various ethical issues like child labor,
duplication of products, money laundering, environment issues, business malpractices,
cybercrimes, sexual harassment in work places, intellectual property and patent thefts are
some of the pressing issues relatable to it. Indeed, it has become imperative for companies
to incorporate both business and environmental ethics as part of their strategic programs
and alliances. Also, it mandates top management to establish clear policies that will
encourage ethical behavior. All these are intended to attract competent employees, create a
conducive organizational climate, good profits and promote healthy competition in the
international globalized business world.

     Globalization in relation to creating a global ethic or universal values. Social

scientists and philosophers agree that the time has come for the world to develop a ‘global
ethic’, that is a universally accepted principles that could provide foundation for regulating
global interactions. Central to have a cohesive society, and in order to achieve global justice
and peace, is a set of shared ethical values and standards that can create at a global level
– peace and harmony. This is possible by looking into the basic and fundamental principles
and/or values that hold every society. Fundamental principles and/or values like truth,
justice, love, compassion, a universal spirit of fraternity, a solidary altruistic spirit, a decided
and generous will, and the will to live in peace. Developing universally acceptable global
principles that is, global ethics for administering transnational interactions through cultural
dialogue is possible, with a view to making material wealth go hand in hand with moral and
spiritual wealth.

4. Topic #2: Key Concepts in Ethics: Millennials and Filennials

     Millennials,  also known as ‘Generation Y’ or the ‘Net Generation,’ are the generational

cohort directly following Generation X. Generational cohorts are groups of people who were
born about the same time, or during a specific time period, possess similar characteristics
and behaviors, and are different from members of other age groups. According to Pew
Research Center, generational cut-off points are not exact science. There are no exact
dates when this cohort starts and ends. Researchers and demographers commonly use
the late ‘70s to early ‘80s as starting birth years, and the mid-‘90s to early 2000 as ending
birth years.

     There are five (5) generations that make up our society which specifies birth years for
each generation. The Center for Generational Kinetics presents it as follows:

GENERATIONAL COHORT BIRTH YEARS

Gen Z, iGen, or Centennials 1996 and later
Millenials or Gen Y 1977 to 1995
Generation X 1965 to 1976
Baby Boomers: Born 1946 to 1964 1946 to 1964
Traditionalists or Silent Generation: 1945 and before
Born 1945 and before

Millennials are consequently the children of baby boomers and older Gen Xers.

Filennials is a term used to denote the Filipino Millennials.

   Filennials’ or Millennials’ generation is commonly characterized by an increased use of

and familiarity with communications, media, and digital technologies. Their dependence on
Google or Wikipedia, which provide them plenty of various worldviews, is remarkable. No
less than in our country, millennials’ upbringing has been said to be marked by an increase
in liberal approach to politics, economics, and morality, though this claim is disputed.
            There are seven basic traits attributed to Millennials, namely ‘special,
sheltered, confident, team-oriented, conventional, pressured, and achieving’. However, the
idea of ‘team-oriented’ is questioned, based on a study, which show that millennials exhibit
a sense of entitlement and narcissism amongst them, as compared to preceding
generations when they were in their teens and twenties. Thus, it is of no surprise that some
psychologists ascribe Millennials as part of what is called “Generation Me”, instead of
“Generation We”. Perhaps, it can even be added that this attitudinal behavior of millennials
may be related to a time, when they came of age, the entertainment industry started to be
significantly influenced by the Internet. Nonetheless, despite the most ethnically and racially
varied compared to older generations, millennials are seen to be the most educated.

4. Topic #2: Key Concepts in Ethics: Millennials and Filennials

4.1. Ethical Outlook and Cultural Identity

     In the United Kingdom, a 2013 poll found that Millennials were more open-minded than
their parents on controversial topics. In 2013, a Pew Research Poll found that 84% of
Generation Y members favored legalizing the use of marijuana. In 2014, the same research
center issued a report revealing that Millennials in adulthood are detached from institutions
and networked with friends. Some authors describe Millennials’ approach to social change
“as pragmatic idealism” with deep desire to make the world a better place, combined with
an understanding that doing so requires building new institutions while working inside and
outside existing institutions”. 

     Millennials are also labeled as the ‘Boomerang Generation’ or ‘Peter Pan Generation,’
because of their perceived tendency for delaying some rites of passage into adulthood for
longer periods than most generations before them and for living with their parents for longer
periods than previous generations.

Generation Y members are very upbeat and more open to change than older generations.
Based on a survey by the Pew Research Center in 2008, Millennials are “the most likely of
any generation to self-identify as liberals and are also more supportive of progressive
domestic social agenda than older generations.”

     Concerning beliefs on ethical issues, most millennials of every religion, race, and
ethnicity support access to affordable contraception according to a study. “And 56 percent
of people ages 18 to 35 say that in some situations, choosing to have abortion “is the most
responsible decision that a woman can make.”

     A sampling of other findings reveal the following:

            a. One-quarter of millennials say that marriage has become old-fashioned and out of
date, while 71 percent disagree.

            b. A four-way split on “pro-life” and “pro-choice” labels has been found amongst
millennials. While 25 percent say they are exclusively “pro-life” and 27 percent say they’re
“pro-choice,” 22 percent rebuff both labels and nearly 27 percent say that both labels
describe them equally well.

            c. Seven percent of millennials identify either as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or

transgender.

4. Topic #2: Key Concepts in Ethics: Millennials and Filennials

4.2. Work Ethics

     Although it is common knowledge that millennials are children of either baby boomers or
older Gen Xers, it may probably interest you to know, if these two generational cohorts,
share similar work traits and attitudes. Let’s see a short comparison below between these
two.

Workplace Boomers & Gen EXers Millennials

attitude
Positive hardworking, idealistic, tech-savvy, appreciative of
committed to harmony, diversity, and skilled in
 entrepreneurial, flexible, self-
reliant, and comfortable with
technology
Negative self-centered with sense of
entitlement, workaholics, self-
motivated, don’t appreciate
feedback
multitasking.
lack basic literacy fundamentals,
short attention spans, not loyal to
organization, demand immediate
feedback & recognition, integrate
technology in workplace, may
seek employers & multiple
careers, and work dress is
whatever feels comfortable.

     On the other hand, a study on generational analysis of millennials illustrate a relatively
high percentages of them consider certain behaviors in the workplace to be ethical, which
includes:

Workplace behaviors considered among millennials to be ethical    %

Taking a copy of work software home for personal use 13%
Using social networks to find out the company’ competitors 37%
“Friending” a client or customer on a social network 36%
Uploading personal photos on a company network 26%
Keeping copies of confidential documents 22%
Working less to compensate for cuts in benefits or pay 18%
Buying personal items using a company credit card 15%
Blogging or tweeting negatively about a company 14%

4. Topic #2: Key Concepts in Ethics: Millennials and Filennials

4.3. Individualism

     Millennials have been painted as the self-entitled and selfie-snapping

generation. Considered as a class of self-centered and self-absorbed 20-somethings. But
there some who defend them by explaining that they are just individuals who have more
time to be themselves. This translates to their individualism having a self-focused time in
life. Not to mean as selfishness, but rather have fewer social rules and obligations, and
more freedom to be self-directed. They typically exhibit high individualistic characteristics of
independence and self-reliance.  Because of this, as they spend time to find themselves in
their 20s, a delay in settling down is consequential. Thus, society’s stigma on being single
has evaporated, leaving young people enough time to explore and eventually find
themselves.

     However, millennials’ individualism affect their moral outlook. It is said that their
generation views morality as personal and subjective, based on feeling, and therefore,
nontransferable to others. Particularly, to them, morality is a personal matter. Aside from
this, their being individualistically and materialistically motivated, has seen a decline in their
moral values, due to the culture of rampant narcissism. Some say that this veritable
epidemic is due to the misplaced overconfidence shown to  Millennials by their parents that
now led them into what we call the ‘self-esteem generation’.

     In describing Millennials’ ethics, it is however essential to note that new technologies
generate new moral problems, and the Millennials are, to a greater degree than any prior
generation, defined by the technology in which they are embedded. The ethical questions
that face them may be qualitatively different than those encountered by earlier generations.

4. Topic #2: Key Concepts in Ethics: Millennials and Filennials

4.4. Conflict with Parents

     As you already know, millennials are generally the children of the baby Boomers and
older Gen Xers. Elsewhere we have learned the differences in work attitude and behavior
between parents (baby Boomers and older Gen Xers) on the one hand, and children
(millennials) on the other. Here, we shall see if there are relationship issues between these
two. A common observation is that they are often in conflict with each other. For one thing,
Millennials are seen by Baby Boomers as somewhat greedy, self-absorbed, and wasteful.
One reason for the cause of conflict is the difference in mentality. Baby boomer’s life
principle are to: attain a good education, get a well-playing full-time job, find a stable
partner, purchase a house and a car, and have a child or children. And millennials who fail
in any of this, reflects on their dignity and is perceived by boomer’s to in moral fiber.

     As previously explained, millennials are perceived to have a tendency for delaying some
rites of passage into adulthood, consequently, live with their parents for long periods of
time. They are thus blamed for not living up to Baby Boomers’ (especially their respective
parents’) ideals. Millennials are seen as denying the lifestyles of their parents.

     The Pew Research Center made public opinion surveys and demographic data which
reveal some of the major differences between Baby Boomers and Millennials:

Millennials differ in relation to being Statistical analysis

More progressive on social issues
Hesitant to identify themselves with a Half of US millennials say they are
political party
Less wealthy
Reluctant to get married
Prone to live more at home than their
parents did at the same age
Baby Boomers oppose gay marriage by
a thin margin, while a solid majority
(68%) of millennials support this form of
marriage. An equal number of them
support the legalization of marijuana.
independents, 27% confessed
Democrats and 17% as Republicans.
Some 70% approved of President
Obama when he first elected in the
highest office
First generation U.S. history to come
into adulthood in worse economic shape
than their parents. Unemployment rate
is higher than it was for their parents at
the same age, and with higher student
debt.
When millennials get married, they’re
likely to marry someone of a different
race. From 3% to 15% now marry
interracially. Asians, Hispanics, African
Americans and Whites millennials say
that intermarriage is a good thing for
society.
22% of U.S. households presently have
two or more adult generations living
under the same roof, a level not seen
since the end of World War II.

This may be considered a symptom of a

generation gap which is normal, since it
is hard  to wage a  war between
generations when you live under the
same roof.

4. Topic #2: Key Concepts in Ethics: Millennials and Filennials

4.5. Secularism and Humanism

     We already know that Millennials, their generation, view themselves as individualistic,
where their perception of morality is feeling based and untransferable to others. Thus, to
them morality is a personal matter. Does this relatively mean that millennials are less
openly religious than their older generation counterparts?

     It has been said that, about one in four Millennials are unaffiliated with any religion,
which is much more than the older generations when they were ages of Millennials. And
when it comes to dealing with morality, Millennials tend to likely advocate secularism and
humanism.

     Secularism is basically a non-theistic belief system, or a worldview, which does not

acknowledge supernatural or divine views of reality. As such, it includes atheism,
agnosticism, naturalism, materialism, scientism, Darwinism, and other ideologies that reject
all spiritual explanations of the world.

     On the other hand, Humanism is a system of thought which gives emphasis to

the value of human beings  and  favors man’s thought over faith or religious
doctrine. Originally, the term refers to Renaissance cultural and intellectual movement
featuring the rediscovery of the arts and philosophies of ancient Greeks and Romans. The
word “humanistic” is derived from the olden Italian term ‘umanista’ which pertains to a
teacher or scholar of classical Greek and Latin literature.

     Although humanism does not necessarily imply non-theism, before 1800, it began to be
known as, beliefs centered on humanity without attention to any concepts of the
supernatural. To them, the universe is a natural phenomenon, that this earthly life is the
only life we have, and in the absence of an afterlife and of any pre-determined purpose to
the universe, we can act, to give meaning to our respective lives, by seeking happiness in
this life, and helping others to do the same.

     As an ethical perspective, humanism is a belief centered on human-based morality. By

rejecting any supernatural authority, it stands to reason that we can live ethical and fulfilling
lives by putting human well-being interests, and happiness at the heart of our moral
decision making. Nowadays, humanism has become essentially synonymous with
secularism.

     Advocates of secular humanism affirm some notions of human nature, that is, human
experience, human need, and human reason -  as its moral and ethical foundations.

     Human experience as moral basis. Secular humanist explains that moral rules are
derived from human experience. You need not be religious in order to realize that you can
live in peace and in harmony with others. Through experience, you learn that, though you
may want to assault , you do not want to be assaulted; you may be tempted to steal, yet
you do not want to be stolen from;  you may be enticed to kill, yet you do not want to be
murdered. Necessarily, a rule emerged: “Let no one do these things that we can live in
peace and realize the human good we need.” Secular humanists aver that there is every
reason people have come up with these rules without having to be told by God that these
are legitimate moral laws.

     Human need and reason. Secular humanists admit that Ethics is conventional, but it
has a natural basis. For them, its natural basis is not the so-called natural law, nor some
law written in man’s heart or in Scriptures. The natural basis of ethics is - human need and
human reason.

     To prove their point, they refer to things we hate: we hate to bleed, be wounded, be
killed, and be stolen from. Laws are then made, using our reason, by considering these
things. Thus, it is submitted that the natural basis of morality are the universal human needs
for security, safety, love, and by extension, the need to secure our families, and teach our
children to fulfill their potentials.

     Consequently, the rational for reasonable moral rules is because of the aforementioned
needs. Hence, they claim that we do not need rules from God - all we need is to be human,
to have the needs we have, and to have some human intelligence or reason.