Error due to incorrect distance allowed from run

A P H M

F
N J
C D E
O
F’

B K L Q
In fig ACB is PL at 1st sight. CD is Co & correct dist steamed.
CE = Incorrect dist steamed. DE = error in dist (say x).
 =  bet 1st PL & Co. PQ = 2nd PL. F correct fix and F’ = incorrect fix.
HK is 1st TrPL from D. ML incorrect P/L.

Thus NDE = 
NE = DE sin  = FJ
Also since  FF’J = θ (  of cut ) FJ = FF’ sin 
FF’ sin θ = DE sin 
DE sin  x sin
FF ' = =
Sin Sin

This formula shows if the 1st P/L is // to Co, error in dist run = 0. Since  becomes 0. Sin  =0.
The pos then will be at O, the intersection of CE & PQ. FF’ is maximum when  = 900 i.e. body
is Rt ahead or astern.

Error in Course Run between Sights

P
A H
L
F
J
F’
D
N
E Q

B K M

In fig. ACB = PL at 1st obsn

CD= Correct Co between Sights
CE= incorrect Co between Sights
DCE =  = Error in Co
HDK = Correct TrPL
LME = Incorrect TrPL
PQ = P/L at 2nd obsn which will be same whether point D or E is used as DR for 2nd Sight.

F = true fix F’= incorrect fix. Let  denote  ACE &  the error in Co.
Since  is small & CD = CE being distance run,  DEC is approx. at Rt  .
Draw DN & F’J ⊥ ar to LM & HK.
Thus, since CEM =  & DEC differs little from 900,  EDN is approx =  CEM & hence =  .
DN = ED Cos  . If θ is  between P/ls HK&PQ, JF’ =FF’ sin θ. also JF’=DN.
ED cos 
 FF’ sin θ = ED cos  FF ' = …… (1)
sin 
ED can be expressed in terms of CD (Run) & the error  & if  is expressed in radians.

ED = CD sin  = x CD (approx)
57
 = error in Co
CD = Dist bet sights in miles
 =  bet 1st PL & wrong co
θ = Angle bet 1st & 2nd PL
Subst for ED in eq=n (1) above
 CD Cos 
FF ' = miles, since CD is in miles.
57 sin 
If  = 900, cos  =0 hence. If  between Co & 1st Ph is 900 then error FF’ becomes 0.
This will happen if body is right ahead or right a stern.

Ex. A vessel proceeding on a Co 2850 (G) at 15 knots obtains a pos line of 3450 (T) - 1650
(T) from a sun sight at 1630h. At 1830h a star sight gave another P/L 0300 (T)- 2100(T). It
was then discovered that the gyro error of 30 L had not been allowed throughout this run.
Calculate displacement in the fix due to this error in Course.

Hint:

θ
φ
α

 CD Cos  3  30  Cos 600 45

Shift of pos = = = = 1.1106 M
57 Sin 
0
57.3  Sin 45 40.517
CD = distance between sights in miles.
 Errors on three
position lines

Similar Error
Random Error
(IE / Dip)
(Refraction and
Cocked hat must
chronometer error)
form and can be
geometrically
resolved
geometrically

If angular spread If angular spread Cocked-hat may not Cocked-hat if forms

>180o position <180o the position form but the cannot be resolved
will be inside is outside the intersection point is geometrically
cocked-hat cocked-hat not the correct position

If a cocked-hat is formed due to similar error the three PLs have uniformly shifted from the fix
either towards respective GPs or in the directions away from respective GPs. To resolve the
cocked-hat the three PLs are uniformly shifted either towards respective GPs or away from them.
This will either increase the size of cocked-hat or reduce the size of cocked-hat. Lines joining
respective verticals are drawn. All the three lines are extended towards the converging side to
meet at a point which is the true fix. From this fix, the perpendicular distance to any of the sides
of the cocked-hat is the uniform similar error in each of the PLs. What is that uniform amount of
shift, which when caused to all the three PLs would end up in a cocked-hat of zero dimensions in
the uniform similar error. The principle is if the required amount of similar error is removed from
all three PLs we must be left with the fix.

Ex. DR at 1800 24o00’N; 102o 00’E was used to calculate the following sights
1. 1800h 030oT x 4’ towards
2. 1806h 355oT x 5’ towards
3. 1809h 095oT x 5’ towards
If the dip correction was omitted from all the three PLs, find the HE. Also find the position
at 1809h. Given: ship’s course was 120oT @15kn during above interval.

Soln:

All the three PLs regardless of their times of observation are plotted on the same DR. This is
because the same DR was used for their calculation. The actual times of observation however
are noted against each PL. The PLs at 1800h and 1806h are transferred along 120oT for 9min
and 3 min respectively. The PLs are transferred to make a uniform time cocked hat i.e. A new
cocked-hat which is formed for 1809h is shown shaded.

This shaped cocked-hat is resolved in the same way as in the last question by transferring the
PLs uniformly towards each GP or away from each GP.

DR lat = 30o 00’N

D’lat = 1.4’S
Fix lat = 31 52.1’N
o

dep 1.5
d’long = =
Cos m' lat Cos 30 o
DR long = 075o 00’W
d’long = 1.6’W
Fix long = 100 58.4’E
o

The uniform similar error = 6.15’. A dip of 6.15; is equivalent to a height of eye of 12m.

Ans. Fix: 31o 52.1’N 100o 58.4’E. HE = 12m.

GP2 GP1

1809 PL1

PL2 1806
PL2 1809

GP3
30o 1800 & 1809 PL1

5o Course 120oT
DR Lat

Fix

DR long PL3 1809

Ex. On 16.1.92 to observer moving 275@ 16kn. the sun had equal true alt of 890 27’ @ 00h
48m 25s GMT & 00h 52m 25s. The sun having crossed the meridian to ‘N’ of observer. Find
latitude & observer’s longitude.

Soln:

GP sun at
00 52 25 GP sun at
GMT 00 48 25
GMT
169014.9’E D’lat 170014.9’E
2106.4’S 15.3’ 2106.5’S

169044.9’E
21021.75’S

Ans. 169044.9’E 21021.75’S

Ex A stationary obs. found his pos 33010’N 1390 55’E by obs of stars bearing 3100 (T) & 2100
(T) while an obsn of another star bearing 0900 (T) gave long 1390 52’E. It was subsequently
found that index error had not been applied to the first 2 observation and that chron error had
been taken as 16 S. slow instead of 16s fast for 3rd observation. Find true pos & IE of sextant.

139o55’E

50o Pos. 33o10.9’N

140o00’E
33o10’E
Error of 32s of chron will cause long to shift West by 8.02’.
Correct long = 140o 0.02’

TZD due non application of I.E has become 2.65’ too less.
T alt 2.65’ too high
IE 2.65’ on arc was not applied.
Ans IE 2.65’ on.

RISING AND SETTING OF BODIES

1. Sunrise and Sunset: At visual Sunrise and Sunset, the amplitude observed is the apparent
amplitude. The true amplitude will be at the theoretical Sunrise and Sunset. i.e. TZD = 90o. At
visual phenomenon the upper limb of the Sun is in contact with the sea horizon. The LMT of
this phenomenon on the Greenwich meridian is tabulated in the nautical almanac for the
observer at sea level. At true phenomenon the body’s centre is on the O.R.H no allowance
being made for dip and refraction.

THE EFFECT OF DIP & REFRACTION ON RISING AND SETTING TIME

P
h R X
Y
W E

The effect of HE is to depress the visible horizon and to cause the body to rise earlier and set
than they would, if there was no dip.
Refraction raises the position of celestial bodies and also accelerates the time of rising and retards
the time of setting.

To find the time interval between the visual and theoretical sunrise / sunset.

If fig NESW = RH. X = position of sun at visual sunrise. Y = position of sun theoretical sunrise.
XPY is the interval between visual and theoretical SR.

In quadrantal ∆PZY – Cos h = Tan lat x Tan Dec. This gives HA at SR when ZD = 90o. In ∆PZX
PZ = Co – lat PX = Polar distance. ZX = ZR + RX = 90 + effect of dip and refraction. Each can
be applied together or separately.

Dip = 1.77 h where h is in meters.

Refraction when altitude is zero is 34’ (from tables) RX = (34’ + 1.77 h ) of arc.

 ZPX can be calculated from haversine or cosine formula. The interval between theoretical and
visual SR =  ZPX -  ZPY.
Alternately, this can be calculated as follows:
1. Find azimuth of sun either from amplitude table or formula. Sine amp = Sine dec Sec lat.
2. Rate of change of alt = dz’ = dh’ Sine az Cos lat. Or dh’ = dz’ Cosec az Sec lat. Or dhm = dz
Cosec az Sec lat / 15 (where dz = RX in the fig).

MOONRISE / MOONSET: The remarks regarding rising and setting do not equally apply to moon
owing to large parallax of moon. Though the effect of dip and refraction is to accelerate visible SR
and MR & retard the SS & MS, the parallax retards the appearance moon at rising, which is about
57’ of arc as against 0.15’ of arc for sun.

The effect of (refraction – parallax) on the sun is (34.0’ – 0.15’) = 33.85’, so that the sun’s centre
is a full diameter above visible horizon when its centre is on the RH.

With the moon the effect of (ref-parallax) = (34.0’ – 5.7’) = -23’, so that moon’s centre is about 23’
below visible horizon at the time of theoretical MR. The moon’s UL would be just appearing to an
observer whose height of eye is about 12 to 15 m at theoretical MR>

Ex. If refraction is Neglected, show that stationary obs at sea level Sunrise time is accelerated
& sunset time is retarded as given by the following formula:
2s
where s is the semi-diameter of sun
15 Cos 2 L − Sin2 d
y
Soln : Ref when alt = 0 is 34’ which is approx = 2 SD
If HE = 0  dip = 0 & parallax negligible. z
Ref tends to elevate alt.
 will increase alt by 34’ = 2S
Time taken by sun is given by
dz = 15 sin Az cos lat
Hint napier at sunrise will give sin dec. = cos Az cosL
sin D
Cos Az =
Cos L Z X
2
Sin D
Sin2 Az = 1-Cos2 Az = 1− PZ PX
cos2 L
cos2 L − sin 2 D P
Sin Az =
cos2 L

cos2 L − sin 2 D
dz = 15 cos L
cos2 L
2s
Relevent time = 15 Cos L − Sin d
2 2

Astronomical Refraction
This is the refraction that results from the passage of the rays of light from a heavenly body
through the Earth’s atmosphere.

In normal circumstance, which are defined as the state of the atmosphere when the barometer
shows 1016 millibar and the temperature is 500 F., the refraction when the observed zenith
distance of a heavenly body is z is accurately given by the formula:
r0 = 58.29” tan z - 0.067” tan2 z
And ro is called the “mean refraction.”
Clearly the second term in this formula is negligible for values of z less than 70 0. Hence, for
ordinary altitudes, the mean refraction is given by;

ro = 58”.3 tan z………(2)

Ex If the observed zenith distance is 800, find the mean refraction.

Soln:
r0 = 58.29” tan z - 0.067” tan2 z

58.29” tan 80 - 0.067” tan2 80

= 5’30”.6 – 12”.2
T
Z
=5’ 18” S
B S

In figure the atmosphere is shown as a series of layers surrounding the earth, the air in each layer
being considered uniform. Since the density of the airC in the layers from the Earth, the path of a
ray from the star S is shown by the line SBO, where the part BO in the Earth’s atmosphere curves
as shown. The tangent OT to this curve gives the direction in which an observer at O sees the
star, but the true direction of the star is a line OS parallel to ABS. The angle ZOS therefore
measures the true zenith distance and the angle ZOT the apparent zenith distance. The angle of
refraction ro given by formula (1) in normal circumstances is thus TOS.

Terrestrial refraction
This is the refraction that results from the passage of the rays of light through pockets of air of
different densities adjacent to the Earth’s surface. In normal circumstances it will be negligible,
but if the temperature of the water above which the rays pass is not uniform, the air in contact
with the water is then heated differently; its density varies, and there is refraction, the usual effect
of which is a ‘lifting’ of the horizon.

In the figure O is observer and B the terrestrial object observed. BO is the path of the ray by which
the observer sees the object, and, since it is curved as shown, he sees the object in the direction
OT where OT is a tangent to BO. The angle TOB is thus the angle of refraction.

In normal circumstances the angle TOB is, by Biot’s law, equal to one thirteenth of the angle BCO,
and this later angle, when expressed in minutes of arc, is the number of nautical miles between
O’ and B’. Therefore;

dist of object from observer T

terrestrial refraction=
13
O

B
O’
B’

Dip and Distance of the Sea-Horizon

C
Dip is defined as the angle between the horizontal plane through the observer’s eye and direction
of the horizon.
i) Dip when refraction is neglected
If there is no refection, the horizon is fixed by the tangent from the observer to the surface of the
sea.
O
H
h

T
R

d
C
In figure above, the observer O is at a height h above sea-level. HOC is a vertical plane through
the observer, and T marks the horizon. The angle HOT is therefore the dip, and the angle VCT is
the distance of the horizon.

Denote the dip by  , the distance by d and the Earth’s radius by R. Then, since the angle HOC
and OTC are each 900:

 TOC +  TCO = 900 =  TOC +  HOT

i.e. d =  TCO =  HOT = 

That is, the distance of the sea-horizon is equal to the true dip. Also from the triangle TOC

R
Cos θ =
R +h
1 − 2 sin 2

=
(R + h ) − h = 1 − h
R+h
2 R+h
 h
 sin =
2 2 (R + h )
The radius of the Earth is 3,438 nautical miles, or 3,438X 1852m. Also, h, in practice, is not likely
to exceed 30m, and is therefore small compared with R.
The formula can thus be written:
  h h
sin = =
2 2R 2  3,438  1852
When  is expressed in minutes of arc:
 h h
sin 1' = i.e. = 6,876
2 6,876  1852 6,876  1852
θ in minutes =1.93 h

The true dip in minutes is thus equal to the distance of the sea-horizon in nautical miles, each
being equal to 1.93 times square root of the observer’s height of eye in met.

ii) Dip when refraction is allowed

Observer now sees points on surface of sea that lies beyond the horizon fixed by tangent from
him to surface.
O
H
h
O

V D
Ref

R 900-ref 900
T’

d
C

OT’ is curved path of ray by which observer sees T’..It touches surface at T’& OD & T’D are
tangents intersecting in D. The angle HOD is dip, θ and angle VCT’ measures the distance d.
Since T’D is a tangent to a curve which touches the surface of sea, it is also a tangent to that
surface. Angle DT’C is therefore 900.

The angle of refraction, r, is DOT’ and this is assumed to be equal to the angle DT’O. By Biot’s
law, r is equal to one-thirteenth of the angle subtended by O and T at the Earth’s centre.
1 R sin COT '
Thus, r = d By the rule of sines: =
13 R + h sin OT 'C

=
(
sin 1800 − d + 900 − r )
=
cos ( d − r )
= cos d + sin dtan r
sin ( 90 − r )
0
cos r
Cos d = 1- 2 sin2d/2= 1- 2xd2/4 = 1- d2/2
When r and d, which are both small, are expressed in circular measure, this equation becomes:
R d2 d2 d2 R 11d 2 h 26 h
=1 − + rd i.e. − =1 − Or = d=
R+h 2 2 13 R+h 26 R 11 R
The distance of the sea-horizon in nautical miles is thus given by:
26 h
d sin 1' =  d = 2.09 h
11  3,438  1852
Where h is the observer’s height of eye in met.
When, for example, h is 33m, the distance of the sea-horizon is 12’. The dip,  , is the angle HOD
and is given in terms of d and r by relation between the angle of the triangle OCT’. Thus,
 OCT +  CT’O +  T’OC = 1800
i.e. d+(900- r) + (900-  -r) = 1800 or  = d-2r
Hence, by substitution:
11
= d = 1.77 h
13
If h is not greater than 30 m, the formula may be stated thus: the dip in minute of arc is equal to
1.77 times the square root of the height of eye in m.
When the difference between the air temperature (ta) and the sea temperature (ta) is taken into
account, the formula for the dip becomes:
 = A h − B (ta − ta )
Where A and B are constants, the exact values of which are still the subject of investigation. The
formula does, however, show that the influence of temperature-difference increase as the height
of eye decreases, and that small heights of eye should be avoided in the ordinary practice of
navigation

iii) Dip of shore-horizon or a ship’s waterline

When haze obscures the sea-horizon or the Sun is over the land, a navigator can obtain a true
altitude by measuring the altitude above the shore-horizon or the waterline of a conveniently
placed ship and applying a special dip.

O
r H
D
h

S
R

d
C
In figure above, S is the shore-horizon or ship’s waterline distant d nautical miles from V. Then,
in the usual notation, from the triangle COS.
R + h sin CSO
=
R sin COS

=
 (
sin 1800 − d + 900 − r −  ) 
(
sin 90 − r − 
0
)
h Cos. (d − r −  )
i.e.1 + =
R Cos (r +  )
h Cos (d − r −  ) − Cos (r +  )
or =
R Cos (r +  )
d  d
( − )( − )2 Sin Sin  r +  − 
=
2  2
Cos ( r +  )
Since r,  and d are small angles:
d d d
Sin = Sin 1' =
2 2 2  3,438
d
r + −
 d 2
Sin  r +  −  =
 2 3,438
Cos ( r +  ) =1
By substitution:
 d
d  r +  −  = (3,438)
2 h

 2 R
Also, by Biot’s law, r is one-thirteenth of d. Hence:
 11  (3,438) h
2
d  − d  =
 26  3,438  1852
h
i.e. =1.856 + 0.423d
d
Where h is in met and d in nautical miles.

It should be clear that, when a ship’s waterline is used as the horizon, the ship herself must be on
the same bearing as the heavenly body observed and a course at right-angles to this bearing;
also that the altitude observed must be corrected separately for the dip, refraction, semi-diameter
and parallax.
This method should give the range to within quarter of a mile, and the greater the height of eye,
the greater should be the accuracy, since the base line is the vertical line from the sea to the
observer.

The method can also be used for finding the distance of a rock or flat island if the sea-horizon is
visible beyond.

ERROR IN A POSITION PLANE:

On a Mercator’s chart, the error introduced by drawing a position circle as a perfect circle is small,
particularly if the body observed is Sun, as the maximum declination can’t exceed 23.5oN or S of
equinoctial. This is illustrated below.

Z’ = distance in latitude  = departure. If  is the lat of the GP (U), then approximately Uk = z Sec
 , where z is the TZD. (Analogy: lat scale = long scale x Sec lat).
Explanation: If the radius is z then if read onlat scale it would read z divisions but on longitude
scale it would read z Sec ϕ divisions or z Sec ϕ meridional parts. The radius of circle is z miles or
z Sec ϕ meridional parts.
UK = (meridional part k – meridional part U). Since the distortion on Mercator chart increases with
lat, max error will be at k & error at this point is:
kK= [(mer–part k – mer-part u) – z Sec  ]MP K
Error in distance = kK / Sec  or kK Cos  Error in term of MP
k
DMP between
U&K
z Sec φ
meridional parts

U
z

e.g. Since Sun’s declination cannot exceed 23.5oN or S, consider an observation of Sun with
declination 23.5oN for an observation in N lat when Sun’s true alt was 88.5o.
The error in drawing the position circle on a perfect circle is kK
= (mer-part k – mer-part u) – z Sec 
= (mer-part 25o – mer-part 23.5o) – 90’ Sec 23.5o
= (1540.11 – 1441.95) – 90 x 1.09044 = 98.16 – 98.14 = 0.02’ of MP. (Insignificant)
THE EFFECT OF DIP & REFRACTION ON RISING AND SETTING TIME

P
h R X
Y
W E

The effect of HE is to depress the visible horizon and to cause the body to rise earlier and set
than they would, if there was no dip.
Refraction raises the position of celestial bodies and also accelerates the time of rising and retards
the time of setting.

Ex. A communication satellite launched from A(630 N 400 E) in E’/y dirr after injection makes 660
with equatorial plane. Periodic time T being 89.5 min. If V is point nearest to pole & B is
intersection of trajectory with // of 51030’N to the west of V. Find lat & long of V & time taken from
B to A?

Soln:
Orbital plane is at 660 to equitorial plane hence latitude of vertex is 660N. Lat of A is 630N. The
trajectory must cross 51.50N to west as well as east of vertex. The one to the west will be even
more west of A.
In triangle APV, PV = 240. V = 900 Cos P = tan 240/ tan 38.50, gives angle P = 2905.7’,gives vertex
=(660N 06905.7’E).
P

270 240
38.5
V
A 630N 400E
B 510 30’N

660

Also, Cos AV = Cos 270 / Cos 240, gives AV = 12.75370

In triangle BPV, PV = 240. V = 900 PB = 38.50 Sine (90 – PB) = Cos PB = Cos BV Cos PV
Gives BV = 31.05510. Hence, dist B to A = 18.30140
18.3014  89.5
Time taken = from B to A = = 4.55min
360
Ex. How to know the date in the year 1992, when Canopus will cross observer’s upper meridian
at say approx 0505 LMT in DR20oS 160o10’W?

Soln:

LMT 05 05 256o6.8’
LIT W 10 40 40
P
GMT 15 45 40
LHA star 0 or 360o
Long W 160o 10’W
23rd Sept
GHA 160o 10’
SHA 264o 3.2’ Gm
GHA  256o 6.8’

Assume EOT Nil

GAT = 15h 45m 40s = 15.761
GHATS = (15.761 – 12) x 15 = 56.4o
SHA Sun = 160.20
Ý
Sun 160.20 W of Aries
i.e. approx 20oE of Libra

The date should be sometimes in October when GHA  is 256o & when GMT is 1545.
Date is 10th October.

Ex. On 9th Jan 1997 at 09h00m00s GMT the celestial longitude of the following bodies were as
follows: Saturn 2830 46’, Mars 1810 46’. Mars & Saturn respectively are 1.52 & 9.53 AU from
sun. Assuming the orbits are circular & co planer, calculate date & time (GMT) when Mars &
Saturn will next be in line with sun. (Take 1 year as 365.25 days).

Soln:
Cel long of Saturn is more hence is more to east by 1020.
Mars = 1.52 AU, Saturn = 9.53 AU M
2
T Dm3
=K TM = 365.25
D3 DE3
3
= 365.25 1.52 = 684.47 D 102o

TS = 365.25 9.533 = 10745.573 D S

M
 360o
Rate of sidereal revolution of Mars, M = /D
684.47
360o
Rate of sidereal revolution of Saturn, S = /D
10745.57
102o
R/o overtaking = 0.4928o/day. Interval to overtake = = 206.98 Days = 206d 23h 32m
0.4928

Ex. If the distance of Jupiter from Sun is 5.2AU and assuming that earth’s & Jupiter’s orbits are
circular, co-planer if the Jupiter was on easterly elongation of 1300, find after how many days will
Jupiter be found in conjunction with sun?

Soln:
Angle SEJ = 1300. Let SE be x so that JS is 5.2x
By sine formula angle SJE = 8.470
Angle JSE = 41.530.
To reach conjunction earth has to overtake Jupiter through 138.470.
By Keppler’s 3rd law Sidereal period of Jupiter is 11.8578 years.
360 360
Rate of overtaking = ~ = 0.9025050 / d
365.25 365.25 x 11.8578
Time to conjunction = 153.428 d.

5.2x 41.53
130 x
8.47
J E

Ex. Calculate the mean altitude of geostationary satellite. Moon’s orbit has semi-major axis of
384000km and period of 27.3 days. Earth’s radius is 6370 km.

Soln:
Altitude of a geostationary satellite, using Moon as another satellite can be calculated with the
2
T D3
help of Keppler’s 3 law viz 3 or
rd
is constant,
D T2
 2
T  3
0.6667
 0.99727 
3
DGS DM3
Thus, =  DGS = DM   GS  = 384000   = 42229.78 km
 27.3 
2
TGS TM2  M
T

Altitude of GS = Distance – radius of Earth = 42,229.78 – 6370 = 35859.78 km.

Ex. An observer on top of a LtH0 40m above sea level obtains sextant  between W/L of Lt
vessel and his visible horizon as 00 5.6’ index error nil. Calculate dist bet Lt H0 and Lt vessel.

Soln: HE 40m

005.6’

Let the dist of Lt vsl = d M Ref = d 13

The difference is due to diff in ref of 2 rays

difference in the two dips
h
Dip of shore horizon = θ’ = 1.856 + .423d
d
Dip of sea horizon = 1.77 h (h in metres)
Dip of sea horizon + 5.6 = Dip of shore horizon
11.19’ + 5.6’ = 16.79’ = 1.856 h d + 0.423 d
1.856  40
+ .423 d = 16.79’
d
.423 d2 – 16.79 d + 74.24 = 0
16.792 − 4  .423  74.24
d = +16.79 ±
2  .423
 16.79 12.5
= = 34.62 M or = 5.07 M
.846
Ans = 5.07 M

Ex.1 Apparent altitude of moon in latitude 250 was 300. HP s read from almanac being 61.4’.
Semi-diameter as read from almanac being 16.7’, calculate the augmentation correction.

Soln:
HP = 61.4’. Reduction at latitude 25o = 0.05’. Hence, HP for 25oN = 61.35’.
z = apparent zenith distance = (90-30) = 600
Px in alt = HP Cos AA. = 61.35’ Cos 300  Px in alt = 53.2’
S.D. = 16.7’
 Sin z   sin 60 
a= −1 s =  −116.7 = 0.1526
 Sin( z − p ) 
0 '
 sin 59 6.8  .

th
1
Ex. 2 observers 1 at sea level & other atop a mountain of height of earth’s radius. Show that
n
12 2
at either equinox in lat L0 sun will rise earlier than the observer at sea level by
CosL n

N
P
h X
R
Y
W E

S
Soln:
 h  h 1
Dip (neglecting ref) is given by Sin = But R = nhSin = =
2 2R 2 2nh 2n
  1 1  2
For small values of θ,Sin = x =  =
2 2 57.3 2n 57.3 n
180 x 2 180 2
But 57.3 =  =  = x
 180 n  n
Now, dhm = dz Cosec az Sec lat / 15
Θ is change of altitude due dip = dz
180 2 1 12 2
dhm = x x Sec L x = 
 n 15  CosL n
Ex. Insat B is on a geostationary orbit at 35,864 km directly above equator in 93030’E. Calculate
azimuth & elevation of central axis of dish above horizontal. VSNL Bombay 180 58’N 72052’E at
ht of 150m above sea level.

Soln:
339o22’

20o38’

Z
W E

GS Sat
θ
Long = 93 30’E
o

GHA Sat = 266o30’

Obs Long = 72o52’E
LHA Sat = 339o22’

ORH Diagram / calculation (PX = 900) can give TZD

Sin 90 – ZX = Cos P Cos 90 – PZ
Sin alt = Cos P Cos L
hence true alt. T alt = 62015.4’.
tan P tan P
Sin (90-PZ) = tan P tan (90 –Z) = tan Z = Z = 49.2 0
tan Z SinL
 PZX gives Azimuth

HP = 8.60o
HP x Cos AA = Px in alt
Approx Px in alt = 8.6 x Cos 62.250 = 400.25’
Ref = -0.5’
Dip = 1.77 150 = 21.7’
T.alt – px in alt + Ref + Dip = Obs Alt
620 15.4’ – 40 0.25’+ 0.5’ + 21.7’ = 580 37.35’
Ans Az 049.20. Obs alt = 58037.35’

HP
6356km 42220 km

Relationship between Phases & Elongation of Moon

Elongation, as we have seen earlier, is the amount of angle by whch, the direction of a body is to
the east or west of Sun as measured at centre of earth in plane of Ecliptic. In this subtopic we will
establish relation between the elongation & phase angle of Moon.

M = Centre of Moon
MS = Direction of Sun
ME = Direction of Earth
EMS = Elongation of Moon
 P’PA =  CMA =  EMS in fig 1.
Also  PP’A =  P’PA =  of lune PAP’C.

AMB is great circle perpendicular to ME, indicates boundary of moon turned to earth. CMD is a
great circle perpendicular to MS indicates boundary of Moon turned to Sun and represents
illuminated part of moon by sun.

By theorem of lunes, area spherical lune is proportional to its angle.

Area of visible illumin ated part AMS E' MS PP' A

= = =
 Area of hemisphere 180o 180o 180o
E

S
P
D

B ELo

B C A
b b
N
a
a A

C
P’
ELo
Sum
Fig (i) Fig (ii)
E
Construction:
Draw CN perpendicular to AB so that point N forms the projection of point C on AMB. Arc AC (fig
ii) will then be the perspective of line CN in fig (ii) and will represent the bright part as a plane lune
shown in fig (ii). PCP’ is optical boundary & forms ½ of the ellipse whose major axis is PP’ and
minor axis is 2MN.
 Area of ellipsePCP' ab / 2 ab b
= = = .
Areaof hemisphere a 2 / 2 a 2 a
b MN
Where b = MN & a = AM i.e. =
a AM

Similarly:
Area of A PCP' AN AN
= =
Areaof APBP' AB 2AM

But AN = (AM – MN) = AM – CM Cos  CMA = AM Cos  CMA = AM (1 – Cos  CMA)

AN AM (1− Cos CMA ) (1 − Cos CMA )
 = =
2 AM 2AM 2
But CMA = elongation of moon
 phase  of moon = (1 – Cos elongation /2)
i.e. Phase angle of moon = Natural Haversine elongation of moon.

Moon’s change of Declination

The moon changes its declination not only rapidly because of its closeness but also its maximum
N’ly and S’ly declination varies year to year. This is because the plane of moon’s orbit is inclined
at an angle of about 5 ¼o to that of ecliptic. The points where the two orbits cross are called nodes
on moon. The point of crossing when moon is moving N’wards in declination is called the
ascending node. (Ω) and point directly opposite, when the moon is moving southwards in
declination is called descending node (). Like the equinoxes, these nodes also have a retrograde
motion along the ecliptic. For the ascending node complete 360o movement on the ecliptic it takes
18.6 years i.e. it moves backwards by about 19o per year.

Because of this plane of moon’s orbit oscillates nearly 5 ¼o about the ecliptic, caused by the pole
of the moons orbit making a small circle of 5 ¼o radius about the pole of ecliptic.

P K K’ P
K’ K
M’
C
Ω
ᶷ
Q Q1 Q Q1
Ω
ᶷϒ
ϒ
E ϒ
ϒ
M

Fig 1 Fig 2
In these figures EC represents ecliptic, QQ, the equinoctial and MM’ is the plane of moon’s orbit.
P is the pole equinoctial and K is the pole of ecliptic and K’ is the pole of moon’s orbit K takes a
circle of about 5 ¼o radius about K.

In fig. I, the moon’ ascending node coincides with Aries. Points M & M’ represent the maximum
declination moon during above period. It may be observed from this that the maximum declination
of moon attainable in that period is 23.5o + 5.25o = 28 ¾oN or S. Also after a few years when
ascending node coincides with Libra as shown in fig. 2, MM’ still being the moon’s orbit shows
the maximum declination of moon is 23.5o + 5.25o = 18.25oN or S. In a complete revolution the
nodes, the maximum declination moons oscillates from max 18.25oN or S to a maximum of 28.75o.
It takes 9.3 years from fig 1 to fig 2.

Synodic revolution of moon’s nodes

The nodes move westwards along the ecliptic y about 19o per year, more exactly 19o21’ per year
of 365.25 days. In that period the sun separates from node by 360o + 19o21’ = 379.35o. To
separate 360o it will take 346.62 days. This period is the length of synodic revolution of moon’s
nodes.

Saros Cycle
19 synodic revolutions of moon’s nodes equal 6585.78 days. Also 223 lunar months take 6585.32
days. Hence it follows that after 6585 1/3 days or 18 years and 11 1/3 days moon’s nodes would
have performed almost 223 revolutions. The sun and moon will occupy almost same position
relative to nodes at the end of this period. Eclipse will therefore reoccur after this interval. This
period of 19 synodic revolution of moon’s nodes causing eclipses to repeat is called Saros cycle.
The date goes foreward to 12 1/3 leap days intervene. This may happen when a year like 1900
false in it. 11 1/3 days when 4 leap days intervene and 10 1/3 days when 5 leap days intervene.

Epact
12 lunations or lunar months – 12 x 29 ½ = 354 days. Actually, 12 synodic months make
354.36706 days or about 11 days less then an average solar year of 365.25 days. This makes
the age of moon on 1st Jan 11 greater in successive year. Age of moon 1st of Jan, each year is
called the epact of that year. Its importance lies in the calculation of days of Easter. As Easter, is
always the first Sunday after the first full moon, on or after 21st March each year.

Metonic cycle
Metonic cycle is very similar in concept to Saros cycle. 12 lunar months of 29/30 in alternate
months will make only 354 days in a year. In order to make it almost coincide with solar calendar
it is necessary to add a 30th month to lunar calendar every 3rd year. This was known already in
the Eastern countries. It was introduced into Greece only in BC 433 by then astronomers Meteon
& Euctamon. This 30th month is introduced 7 times in 19 year. This gives (19 x 12) + 7 = 235 lunar
month. Their length amounts to 6939.6075 days @ 365.2425 solar days per year. Hence 19 year
gives a very close repetition of dates of new moon. Accumulated error amounts to about 1 day
after 237 year. This cycle of 19 years after which the new moon days repeat is called metonic
cycle.
Ex To an observer in lat θ, 2 stars A & B of dec α & β respectively rise simultaneously. Later A
transits & at that instant B sets. Show tan Ѳ tan α = 1-2 (tan2 Ѳ x tan2 β).

Soln{
In PZX Triangle, for star A
− Tan
Sin (90 – P) = Tan (90 – PZ) Tan (90 – PX) =
TanPX
−Tan  θ 90 - α
CosP =
Tan 90 −  P A
P −Tan  ½P
Also, Cos = 90 + β
2 Tan90 + 
Cos P = -Tan θ Tan α (see LHS)
Cos ½P = +Tan θ Tan β
P P P
-Cos P = Sin2 - Cos2 = 1 - 2 Cos2
2 2 2 B
= 1 – 2 Tan θ Tan β
2 2

Hence, Tan θ Tan α = 1 – 2 Tan2θ Tan2β

Ex Calculate EOT on 24.05.92, if perihelion occurred on 3rd January.

Soln:
A = W × (D + 10)
360
A=  (145 + 10) = 152.77
365.24
….(145 is count from 1st Jan & 10 is approx days from solstice (22nd Dec to 1st Jan)
B = A + 360°/π × 0.0167 × sin [W (D − 2)]
The number 2 is the number of days from 1 January to the date of the Earth's perihelion

B=A+
360
 e  Sin
360
(143) = 153.976
3.14 365.24
tan B
A − tan −1
Cos  180.79044
C= = =1.004391
180 180
EOT = 720 × (C − nint(C)) minutes = 720 x (.004717) = 3min 9.7sec
The expression nint(C) means the nearest integer to C.

Average length of Seasons:

Since Sun’s apparent motion is an elliptical motion & this motion is not uniform & the first point of
Aries is not a fixed point due to precession of equinoxes. The average length of seasons are not
all equal.

Spring starts when true sun is at Aries (  ) & lasts till true Sun reaches maximum North declination,
23o27.3’N i.e. when the Sun has travelled  /2 of its orbital journey. The total time taken by the
Sun to return back to Aries is 365.25 mean solar days to cover 2  radians. Length of seasons
are governed by the position of Sun in the Zodiac belt, whereas the length of a year is reckoned
in terms of solar days using mean sun. Apparent solar day differs from mean solar day by the
amount of difference occurring in equation of time from day to day. Thus, EOT becomes a factor
to be considered when calculating the average length of season.
Seasons may be divided as under, as per sun’s movement.
Spring  to  /2 of its orbit Av 92d 20h
Summer  /2 to  of its orbit Av 93d 14h
Autumn  to 3  /2 of its orbit Av 89d 19h
Winter 3  /2 to 2  of its orbit Av 89d00h
 
 + E1 − E 2 
General formula L = 365.25  
2
2
L = Average length in M.S.D
Caution: Check  Check hemisphere

E1 = EOT with sign of start of season

E2 = EOT with sign of end of season
(E1 – E2) in radians

Ex At a position on the Arctic Circle & GM show that at theoretical sunset sin SHA sun= - Cos
GHA sun.

Soln:
Lat = 66.5 N & also Lat = 90 – ω. N Z X = 900

X P Z X

W E
Z PZ 90- PX

Dec = d & ZX = 900

P
P = LHA sun = GHA sun
S
− tan d − tan d
Sine (90 – P) = Cos P = Cos GHA = -1 tanL tan d = CosGHA = ..............(1)
tan  tan 

S = 900

SX SA
Sd ω
SHA A X 90- A
XSun

AX
tan d tan d
Sin SA = Tan SX Tan (90 − A ) = Sine SHA = ..................................(2)
tan  tan 
From (1) &(2) we get Sin SHA Sun= - Cos GHA Sun.

Ex. On 16th Jan1992, PM Co 2300 T speed, 18 kn DR 520 36’N 1370 W, equal altitude of star
Alioth near the lower meridian were at chron: 01 51 02 & 03 01 28. Chron error 01 05 slow.
The altitude at LMP being 18038’. Find obs’s pos at LMP.

Soln GMT = 02 or 14 approx.

So LMT GT – 9h (approx) Hence GMT 02 is appropriate
as LMT is 16th PM.

Chron 01 51 02 03 01 28
Error + 01 05 + 01 05
GMT 01 52 07 03 02 33
Mean = GMT of min alt = 17th 02 27 23 50
SHA Alioth = 1160 34.4’ Dec N 55059.7’ 18 18 Cos 50
2x
H (Sec) = 15.28 y (1 +/- ) (Tan L +/- Tan d)
900 18 Sin 50
18 Sin50
x= = 22.702’ y = 18 Cos 50 = 11.57’
Cos52.60
Rate of change of dec = 0.Hence y, the combined change due ship & declination change = 11.57’
p h. Since ship is opening up in LMP situation min alt will be after LMP.

1. (+) sign is used when ship is moving West & latitude & declination are of different names
whereas (-) sign is used when ship is moving East & latitude/declination are of same name.
2. Maximum altitude occurs when the rate of change of altitude due to earth’s rotation combined
with ship’s rate of change of longitude due to its own motion are equal in magnitude but opposite
in sign to the ship’s N/S component of speed combined with the rate of change of declination of
sun.
3. If ship & body are approaching, the maximum altitude occurs after MP & if ship & body are
opening up the maximum altitude occurs before the MP.

H = 15.28 x 11.57 x 1 +  (
 2x 22.702  Tan52.6 0 + Tan560 )
= 185.710 x 2.79 = 518.13s.
 900 
The time obtained is correct if sun was the body. But if star was the body the equivalent
15
time = x518.13 = 516.7 s = 8m 37s after (below pole)
15.041
 Hsec = 15.28 y [1 +/- 2x/900] [Tan l + Tan d] for following reasons:
1. Within 1st bracket use +ve sign when ship moves West & -ve sign when ship moves East. This
does not change because the ship’s movement is always above pole.
2. Since MZD at lower transit is [180 – (L + D)], Tan L + Tan d is always used with the 2nd bracket
though lat & declinations have same names. Because of this the interval is usually large.
3. When the body is below the pole, the body is changing its azimuth from West to East, unlike
the UMP where the azimuth changes from E to W. Because of this the rule finding whether the
mer-pass occurs before or after minimum altitude’, the earlier rule that of upper transit has to
be reserved. Thus,
a. For closing situations between ship & body minimum altitude occurs before mer-pass.
b. For opening situations min-alt occurs after mer-pass.

Min alt = 17th 02 27 23 Mer pass GMT = 02h 18m 46s

When Alioth is at lower meridian, LHA = 1800. At mer pass GHAϒ = 1500 28.3’
GHA STAR = 3170 02.7’. Star on lower mer. Hence LHA = 1800 Long. = 1370 2.7’W.
LMA = L+D-90 = LMA, or L + 550 59.7’- 900 = 180 38’ gives lat = 52038.3’N

Ex. If the alt & LHA of cel. body are known S.T. lat may be determined by following equation:

− lat SinZX x Sin( Z + P )
Tan 2 =
2 PX + ZX PX − ZX
2Cos Cos SinP
2 2

Soln:
Cos PX+Cos ZX = Cos PZ Cos ZX + Sine PZ Sine ZX Cos Z
+CosPX Cos PZ + Sine PX Sine PZ Cos P
Rearranging…
Cos PX+Cos ZX - Cos PX Cos PZ – Cos PZ Cos ZX = Sin PZ (Sin ZX Cos Z + Sin PX Cos P)
Rearranging…
(Cos PX + Cos ZX) – Cos PZ (Cos PX + Cos ZX) = Sin PZ (Sin ZX Cos Z + Sin PX Cos P)
Taking (Cos PX + Cos ZX)…
(Cos PX + Cos ZX) (1- Cos PZ) = Sin PZ (Sin ZX Cos Z + Sin PX Cos P)
Taking (Cos PX + Cos ZX) to RHS & Sine PZ to LHS….
1 − Cos PZ Sin ZX Cos Z + Sin PX Cos P
=
Sin PZ Cos PX + Cos ZX
PZ 1 − Cos = 2 Sin 2  
2 Sin 2  
1 − Cos PZ 2 PZ  2
LHS = = = Tan
Sin PZ 2 Sin
PZ
Cos
PZ 2 ……….
2 2
II
− lat
90 - lat
But PZ = 90-lat  LHS = Tan = Tan 2 …………(1)
2 2
RHS = X &  by Sin P we get
Sin ZX Sin P Cos Z + Sin PX Cos P Sin P
RHS = A+ B A− B
PX + ZX  Cos A + Cos B = 2 Cos
 PX − ZX  Sin P
Cos
2 Cos   Cos  
2 2
 2   2  ………Using sine rule
Numerator = Sin ZX Sin P Cos Z + Sin Z Sin ZX Cos P = Sin ZX (Sin P Cos Z + Sin Z Cos P)
= Sin ZX Sin (P + Z)
Sin ZX ( Sin P + Z )
Substituting we get RHS = ..................( 2 )
PX + ZX PX − ZX 
2  Cos Cos  Sin P
 2 2 
(1) = (2). Hence the proof.

Ex. 2 stars of same celestial long 1st star RA=a1 & Dec d1 2nd star RA= a2 Dec d2 Show that
Sine (a1-a2) = (Cos a1 Tan d2 – Cos a2 Tan d1) Tan ω.

Soln:
 KPS = 180-(90-α1) = 90+α1
Applying 4 parts formula to KPS,
Cot OS Sin IS
= Cot OA Sin IA + Cos IS Cos IA

ω (90-d2)
K (90- ) a1

90-d1

A ωW
W

 Cot (90-d1) Sin ω = Cot (90-  ) Sin (90+a1) + Cos ω Cos (90+a1)
 Tan d1 Sin ω = Tan  Cos a1 - Cos ω Sin a1 …………….(1)
Similarly, Tan d2 Sin ω = Tan  Cos a2 - Cos ω Sin a2 ….. (2) Rearrange to eliminate λ.
Tan  Cos α1 = Tan d1 Sin ω + Cos ω Sin α1 …(3)
Tan  Cos α2 = Tan d1 Sin ω + Cos ω Sin α2 …(4)
( 3 ) Cos a1 Tand1 Sin  + Cos Sina1
= =
( 4 ) Cosa2 Tand2 Sin  + Cos Sina2
Cos a1 Tand1 Tan + Sina1
=
Cosa2 Tand1 Tan + Sina2
 Cos a1 Tan d2 Tan ω + Cos a1 Sin a2 = Cos a2Tan d1Tan ω + Cos a2 Sin a1
 Cos a1 Tan d2 Tan ω - Cos a2Tan d1Tan ω = Cos a2 Sin a1- Cos a1 Sin a2
 Tan ω (Cos a1 Tan d2 - Cos a2Tan d1) = Sin (a1- a2)
Hence the proof.

Ex. During 1992 for observer in certain lat north, at 073856 LST, true altitude & azimuth of star to
west was 530 42.9’ & 316.50 respectively. At same instant another observer same lat but well to
west, observes same star with altitude 410 43.8’ & azimuth 48.70. If LHA & EHA of the two
observers add to give 900, identify star.

Sol:

SinP1 Sin 43.50 CosP1 Sin 480 16.2' P

By Sin rule = & =
Sin 36017.1' SinPX Sin 48.70 SinPX P2 P1
480 16.2’
Sin 43.5  Sin 36 17.1
0 0 '
43.5’
Sine P1 = …………….(1) 48.70 360 17.1’
SinPX Z2 Z1
Sin 480 16.2'  Sin 48.70
Cos P1 = ………………(2)
SinPX
Sin 43.50  Sin 36017.1'
Tan P1=
Sin 480 16.2'  Sin 48.70

Sin 43.50  Sin 36017.1'

 P1 = 360 0.1’. Substituting in 1, we get Sine PX = gives, PX = 43.870 &
Sine 360 0.1'
thus, dec = 46.130N
LHA ϒ for 1st observer = LST x 15 = 7.6488 x 15 = 114044’
 SHA star = LHA star – LHA aries = 281016.1’
PX = (90-dec)  star indentified as Capella.

Ex. A chronometer whose rate is uniform is found at Greenwich to have an error of d1 hours, when
the time is indicated as t1. It is then taken to a place ‘A’ & it indicates a time t2, it is found that
excess of observed local time of place A over t2 is d2 hours. It is now brought back to GW & chron
time & error are found to be t3 & d3 resp. P.T. long of A east of Greenwich is given by

d 2 t 3 + d 3t1 + d1t 2 − t 2 d 3 − t 3 d1 − t1 d 2
15 deg .
t 3 − t1
Soln:
When chron was t1 error = d1
When chron was t3 error = d3
d3 − d1
 chronometer rate =
t3 − t1
d3 − d1
Charge of error in time (t2-t1) =  (t2 − t1 )
t3 − t1
d3 − d1
New error at t 2 = d1 + ( t 2 − t1 )
t 3 − t1
d3 − d1
GMT at A when clock showed t2 = t2 + d1 + (t2 − t1 )
t3 − t1
Since, LMT>GMT, long is E
 d −d 
LIT = ( t 2 + d2 ) − t 2 + d1 + 3 1 ( t 2 − t1 ) 
 t 3 − t1 
d −d 
= (d 2 − d1 ) −  3 1  (t 2 − t1 )
 t3 − t1 
( d2 − d1 ) (t 3 − t1 ) − ( d3 − d1 )( t 2 − t1 )
=
( t 3 − t1 )
( d2 − d1 ) (t 3 − t1 )−( d3 − d1 )( t 2 − t1 )
 long = = x150
( t 3 − t1 )

Ex. A stationary obs finds 2 stars of dec d1 & d2 on same meridian, simultaneously having true alt
a, & a2 resp. show that obs’s lat  can be calculated by following formula
 Cos d1Sine a 2 − Cos d2 Sine a1 
 = Sin−1  
 Sine (d2 − d1 ) 

Soln:
Write cosine formula for side ZX giving cos (90 – a1) or sine a1.
90-d1
Thus, Cos (90-a1) = Sine a1 = Cos PZ Cos (90-d1)+Sin PZ Sin (90-d1) CosP
Similarly find Sine a2. 90- 90-a1
Thus, Sine a1 = Cos PZ Cos (90-d2)+Sin PZ Sin (90-d2) CosP
Equate Cos P of the two equations.
Sine a1 − Cos PZ Sine d1 Sine a2 − Cos PZ Sine d 2
=
Sine PZ Cos d1 Sine PZ Cos d 2
Now, Sine Pz = Cos L & Cos PZ = Sine L
Cross multiplying and rearranging:

Cos L (Sine a1 Cos d2- Sine a2Cos d1) = Sine L Cos L (Sine d1 Cos d2- Sine d2Cos d1)
(-) Sine L (Sine d2 Cos d1- Sine d1Cos d2) = (Sine a2Cos d1- Sine a1 Cos d2)
(Sine a2Cos d 1 - Sine a1Cos d 2 )
Hence the latitude = Sine-1 (Sine d Cos d - Sine d Cos d )
2 1 1 2

Ex. For a stationary observer in N lat star of celestial lat 90 57.6’N, celestial long 0370 20’ & moon
were on observer’s meridian at same instant both bearing due S of observer. True altitude of star
was 90 22’more than that of moon’s. Calculate dec of moon & identify star (ω = 23027’)

Hint:
Solve KPX triangle. Cosine formula for Cos k gives k = 66038.9’ the polar distance. Thus, dc of
star = 23021.10N. Dec of moon, being also on meridian has dec 9022’less than tht of star &
hence equal to 13059.1’N

ω P
K
80o 2.4’ 52o 40’ PS is polar distance of
the star found by
k
Cosine formula. Angle
KPS (which can be
S
found by Cosine
formula) – 90 will give
RA star.
ϒ Polar distance of moon
is 9o22’ more than that
of star.

Sine formula now gives angle KPS as 121027.6’ or RA = 31027.6’ or SHA as 328032.4’ Thus,
star is Hamal.

Ex. 23 A star was on lower meridian at 08 24 34 & at that instant her rate of change of azimuth
was 7.685/min. At 16:24 57 star was found to have max azimuth. Find her lat. & declination.

X = 90
At max azimuth X = 900
PX ZX

P 90 - Z
Sin (90 – P)
tan PX tan L PZ
Cos P = =
tan PZ tan D
Interval = 120.4240
Internl angle P = 59.576
 tan L
0.506 = ……………………..(1)
tan D
dA = dhm Sine PX/Sine ZX or dhmCos dec / Sine (L+D) / min
CosD CosD
= 15.041 = 7.685 = 0.5109 ……………………(2)
Sin( L + D ) Sin( L + D )
Sin( L + D )
=1.9573SinL + CosL TanD =1.9573
CosD
Tan L
But Tan D = = 1.9763. Tan L, substituting we get Sin L + 1.9763 Sin L = 1.9573
0.506
1.9573
 2.9763L = 1.9573Sin L = L = 41.120 N /S. D = 59.90 N or S.
2.9763

At upper transit MZD being L~D, Sine L~D will be at least to give maximum dA’ before or just after
mer pass. At lower transit MZD being 180 – (L+D), Sine (L+D) will be greatest to give a minimum
of dA’ just before or just after mer pass.

Ex.28 At 08h16m54s L.S.T, at second observer, a 2nd magnitude star had a rate of change of
altitude of zero for an observer in long 0690 1.2’ E. At the same instant the rate of change of
azimuth of same star was 0 for an obs. in N lat on Greenwich meridian. If the lat of observer was
numerically ½ of declination of star, identity the star & calculate its rate of change of altitude in
minutes of arc/ min of solar time for observer on Greenwich meridian. (star is Alioth 8.38’)
Tan d / 2
Sin (90 – p) = Cos p =
Tan d
P (90-d)
Tan A + TanB 90-d/2 691o2’ X
Tan A + B =
1 − Tan A TanB
Tand 2 + Tand 2
Tan d =
1 − Tan2 d 2 Z

Cos P =
(
Tand 2 1 − Tan2 d 2 )
2 Tand 2
2 Cos P = 1 – Tan2 d/2
Tan2 d/2 = 1 – 2 Cos P
d/2 = 28.05 (90 – 56.1)
d = 56.1

Dec of 56.1oN (90 – 28.05)

LST = 8h 16m 54s
LHA  = 124.225o
LHA = 290o 58.8’
Dec = 56.1oN
SHA = 166o 36.6’
Star is Alioth.
CosD Cos56.1
Sin Z = =
CosL Cos 28.05
Z = 39.19o rate =15.041 x Cos 28.08 x Sin 39.19 = 8.38’
Ex.29 At 08 54 38 LST a stationary observer in N Lat observed that moon had a true alt of 57 0
46’ on an azimuth of 1400(T). It was also observed that moon had a rate of increase of alt of 8/
minute of solar time. V correction of moon for that hr was 9.5’. At the same time a bright star west
of meridian was at its maximum azimuth. The LHA of star was 2.73 times the EHA of moon identify
the star. (star is capella)
dz = 8’ = 14.475 Cos L Sin 40 0
8' 54055.4’ 20 7.1
Cos L = P’
14.475Sin 40 X
L = 30o42.25’
In triangle PZX of moon, applying 4 part formula.
Z 140o
Sin59 o 17.75' Sin140o
= + Cos140o Cos59 o 17.75'
Tan32 o 14' TanP
Sin140o X
1.36360 = + 0.39115
TanP
32o14’
P = 20 7.1’ = EHA Moon
o

LHA Star = EHA moon x 2.73 = 54o 55.4’

But LHA  = 133o 39.5’ 59o17.75’
SHA Star = 281o 15.9’.
In PZX triangle of star 140o
Tan PX = Cos P tan PZ gives Dec 450 56.4’N
Star is Capella. 32o14’

Ex.37 From vessel @ pos in N lat following observations were taken:

(a) At LMT 00h 08m 36s moon was on meridian
(b) At LMT 04h 28m 49s, moon bore 2700 (T) & had a rate of change of alt=13.96 per minute of
solar time
(c) At LMT 06h 29m 06s the moon set (ZD=900). If the length of lunar day 24h 43m of mean solar
time. Calculate (i) lat of observer (ii) Av. hourly v’ corrn of moon (iii) T.alt & bearing of moon.(L=160
34.4’ dec=70 39’ 3.6”)

Mer-pass to PV crossing = 4.33694h

Mer-pass to setting = 6.34167h
360o
Average hourly rate of Moon = =14.5651=14o 33.9' V =14.9' P
24.71666
In triangle PZX, with Z = 90o
 P = 4.33694 x 14.5651 = 63o 10.1’
Tan73o 25.6' X Z
Sin (90 – P) = Cos P = Cos 63o 10.1’ =
TanPX
Tan73o 25.6'
TanPX =
Cos63o 10.1'
PX = 82o 29.95’. Declination = 7o 39.05’N.

Ex. On a certain day lat 120 30’N at 7h 32m 00s LST a star was observed to have max rate of
azimuth 49.2648/min, 3.7226 times rate of change of alt of same star at maximum azimuth.
Identify the star.
 X = 90
PX ZX

P 90 - Z

PZ

Since star is at max az, L & D are same name & D > L
dA’ = 15’ Cos dec / Sine (L~D)
49.2648 = 15.041 Cos D / Sin (D – 12.50)…………….(1)
Rate of change of alt of same star at maximum azimuth = 13.234
dz = 15’ Cos lat Sine Az per minute of time
or dz = dh Sine PX Sine PXZ = dh Cos D Sin X
13.234 = 15.041 Cos D. Gives Cos D = 0.87986. Substituting in (1)
49.2648 = 15.041 x 0.87986 / Sin (D – 12.50)
0.87986  15.041
Sin (D-12.50) =
49.2648
( )
 D − 12.50 = 15.58D = 28.080 N

LHA at mer pass = 0 or 3600. LHA Aries = 1130

SHA = 2470.
Calculate EOT on 24.05.92, if perihelion occurred on 3rd January.

Soln:
A = W × (D + 10)
360
A=  (145 + 10) = 152.77
365.24
….(145 is count from 1st Jan & 10 is approx days from solstice (22nd Dec to 1st Jan)
B = A + 360°/π × 0.0167 × sin [W (D − 2)]
The number 2 is the number of days from 1 January to the date of the Earth's perihelion

B=A+
360
 e  Sin
360
(143) = 153.976
3.14 365.24
tan B
A − tan −1
Cos  180.79044
C= = =1.004391
180 180
EOT = 720 × (C − nint(C)) minutes = 720 x (.004717) = 3min 9.7sec
The expression nint(C) means the nearest integer to C.
13.1 Coordinated Universal Time

Purpose
The purpose of having Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is to provide the basis for civil time.
This 24-hour time standard is kept using highly precise atomic clocks combined with the Earth's
rotation. The world's timing centers have agreed to keep their time scales closely synchronized -
or coordinated to UTC- therefore the name Coordinated Universal Time.

Constituents
Two components are used to determine UTC viz. Atomic and Solar Time. International Atomic
time or TAI is a time scale that combines the output of some 400 highly precise atomic
clocks worldwide, and provides the exact speed for our clocks to tick. Universal time or UT1 on
the other hand, also known as astronomical time or solar time, refers to the Earth's rotation. It is
used to compare the pace provided by TAI with the actual length of a day on earth.

History
UT Started in 1884. Greenwich Mean time (GMT) predates UTC by nearly 300 years. Universal
Time (UT) was created at the International Meridian Conference in 1884. This is the basis for the
24-hour time zone system we know today. At that time, GMT was chosen as the world’s time
standard. The reference line or starting point, the Prime Meridian, was determined to be the transit
meridian at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, London. The transit meridian is a part of the
telescope's mechanics and it is still cited as the prime meridian's original reference I.e. 0 0
longitude. In 1960, the International Radio Consultative Committee formalized the concept of
UTC, and it was put into practice the year after. The name Coordinated Universal Time was
officially adopted in 1967. UTC was adjusted several times until 1972, when leap seconds were
introduced to keep UTC in line with the Earth's rotation, which is not entirely even, and less exact
than atomic clocks.

The system has been adjusted several times, including a brief period where time coordination
radio signals broadcast both UTC and "Stepped Atomic Time (SAT)" before a new UTC was
adopted in 1970 and implemented in 1972. This change also adopted leap seconds to simplify
future adjustments. This CCIR Recommendation 460 "stated that (a) carrier frequencies and time
intervals should be maintained constant and should correspond to the definition of the SI second;
(b) step adjustments, when necessary, should be exactly 1 s to maintain approximate agreement
with Universal time (UT); and (c) standard signals should contain information on the difference
between UTC and UT."

GMT is now a Time Zone rather than a time standard. Until 1972, Greenwich Mean Time (also
known as Zulu time) was the same as Universal Time (UT). Since then, GMT is no longer a time
standard. Today, Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is only the name of a time zone that is used by a
few countries in Africa and Western Europe, including the UK during winter and all year in Iceland.

A number of proposals have been made to replace UTC with a new system that would eliminate
leap seconds. A decision whether to remove them altogether has been deferred until 2023.
The current version of UTC is defined by International Telecommunications
Union Recommendation (ITU-R TF.460-6), Standard-frequency and time-signal emissions, and
is based on International Atomic Time (TAI) with leap seconds added at irregular intervals to
compensate for the slowing of the Earth’s rotation. Leap seconds are inserted as necessary to
keep UTC within 0.9 seconds of the UT1 variant of universal time.

13.2 Time Signals

The telegraphic distribution of time signals was made obsolete by the use of AM, FM, shortwave
radio, Internet Network Time Protocol servers as well as atomic clocks in satellite
navigation systems. Since 1905 time signals have been transmitted by radio. There are dedicated
radio time signal stations around the world.

Time stations operating in the longwave radio band have highly predictable radio
propogation characteristics, which gives low uncertainty in the received time signals. Stations
operating in the shortwave band can cover wider areas with relatively low-power transmitters, but
the varying distance that the signal travels increases the uncertainty of the time signal on a scale
of milliseconds.

Radio time signal stations broadcast the time in both audible and machine-readable time
code form that can be used as references for radio clocks and radio-controlled watches. The
audio portions of the shortwave WWV and WWVH broadcasts can also be heard by telephone.
The time announcements are normally delayed by less than 30 ms when using land lines from
within the continental United States, and the stability (delay variation) is generally < 1 ms. When
mobile phones are used, the delays are often more than 100 ms due to the multiple access
methods used to share cell channels. In rare instances when the telephone connection is made
by satellite, the time is delayed by 250 to 500 ms. These broadcasts are available by telephone
by dialing appropriate numbers.

Loran - C time signals may also be used for radio clock synchronization, by augmenting their
highly accurate frequency transmissions with external measurements of the offsets of LORAN
navigation signals against time standards. Where this is not available, a locally connected GPS
receiver can precisely set the time using one of several software applications. Today,
GPS navigation radio signals are used to precisely distribute time signals over much of the world.
There are many commercially available radio controlled clocks available to accurately indicate the
local time, both for business and residential use. Computers often set their time from an Internet
atomic clock source.

VARIABLE STARS: It may be observed that several stars listed in nautical

almanac are marked ‘var’ denoting that the magnitude varies periodically through a
wide range. The periodic changes of brightness may be due to either
a. Total or partial eclipse of 1 star by another in binary system e.g. Algol.
 b. Due to irregular intrinsic variation in their brightness due to pulsation of star
e.g. Cepheld i.e. α Cephi.
c. The irregularly variable stars have mostly a slow rather small variations in the
brightness e.g. Betelgeuse (α Orion).

Binary System: Some stars revolve about some other stars or more approximately 2
stars revolve about, the centre of mass. Such a system of stars is called Binary
System. When seen by naked eyes it appears to be clearly distinguished example
Algol (β persel).

Proper Motion: Many stars instead of being fixed in space are gradually changing
their positions. They are then to have a proper motion. This motion may partly
belong to stars & partly an apparent motion due to the fact that the solar system itself
is moving through space in a direction of a point, declination 30oN, SHA 100o i.e. in
the direction of a constellation Hercules.
Many of these motions like that of solar system are apparently progressive i.e. stars
move with the constant velocity & in the same direction.

The earth is satellite of body, sun which is a member of a vast flattened system
known as the galaxy, whose diameter is about 100 thousand light years. (A light year
being a distance traveled by light in 1 year at 186285 miles per second i.e. 6 x 10 12
miles.

The Milky Way has two small galaxies orbiting it nearby, which are visible from
the southern hemisphere. They are called the Large Magellanic Cloud. The
nearest large galaxy is the Andromeda Galaxy. It is a spiral galaxy like the Milky
Way but is 4 times as massive and is 2 million light years away. Our galaxy, one
of billions of galaxies known, is travelling through intergalactic space.

ANNUAL PARALLAX: Or simple parallax of star is the angle subtended at the

star by the radius of earth’s orbit. The mean value of radius is 93 million miles & is
known as astronomical unit. The distance of heavenly body is inversely proportional
to its parallax. A parallax of 1 second of arc corresponds to 206265 AU. The distance
is known as ‘PARSEC’ & is equal to 3.26 light years.
 Fixed Direction

Direction of Star

Annual
Parallax

Earth’s orbit
Autumn Spring

Sun

1 AU 1”

If anglemade is I seconds the distance is parasec

1
Angle in radian = dis tan ce on arc = Dist to star  angle in radians
3600  57.3

1AU= distance to star x angle in radians

1 AU
Distance to star = = 1 AU x 3600 x 57.3 = 206265AU =3.26 light years
angle in rad

The distance of star in PARSEC is the reciprocal of its parallax in seconds of arc.
Thus a star with the parallax of 1/100 seconds of an arc is at a distance of 100
PARSECs or 326 light years.

Ex Intrinsic brightness of a star is 60% more than that of Altair’s. Its distance from
earth is 20% more than Altair. Find scale magnitude?
Hint: Let intrinsic brightness of Altair be x. Then the intrinsic brightness of
unknown star is = 1.6x. Let the distance of Altair be d. The distance of unknown
star will be 1.2d.
App Brus 1.6x d2 1.6
=  = =1.111
App BrAltair x (1.2d)2 1.44
Scale magnitude of Altair = 0.9. Hence, it is 2.51(6-0.9) times brighter than 6th
magnitude star……1
Let the scale magnitude of unknown star be m. Hence, it is 2.51(6-m) times brighter
than 6th magnitude star………2
6−m
2 is 1.111 times 1.  2.51 5.1 = 2.516−m−5.1 =1.111 . Hence, m can be found.
2.51
Ex. Intrinsic brightness of a star is 60% more than that of Altair’s. Its distance
from earth is 20% more than Altair. Find scale magnitude?

Hint: Let intrinsic brightness of Altair be x. Then the intrinsic brightness of

unknown star is = 1.6x. Let the distance of Altair be d. The distance of
unknown star will be 1.2d.
App Brus 1.6x d2 1.6
=  = =1.111
App BrAltair x (1.2d) 1.44
2

Scale magnitude of Altair = 0.9. Hence, it is 2.51(6-0.9) times brighter than 6th
magnitude star……1
Let the scale magnitude of unknown star be m. Hence, it is 2.51(6-m) times
brighter than 6th magnitude star………2
6−m
2 is 1.111 times 1.  2.51 5.1 = 2.516−m−5.1 =1.111 . Hence, m can be found.
2.51 S
S’
Aberration, Precession & Mean position of star
M
ABERRATION: Is the apparent displacement of the
heavenly body’s position resulting from the fact that
the ratio of earth’s orbital velocity to the velocity of
light though is very small is not negligible. (linear
velocity = 19M/s) In the fig SO is a ray of light of a
distant star S travelling at 186285 M/s. Let that N O
μ
velocity be represented by v = MO. Let the observer
on earth E be travelling through space in direction NO
at a velocity of μ represented by distance NO. By the
principle of vector subtraction μ = MO – MN.
To an observer at O, star will appear at S’.
This is displacement angle SOS’ is called angle of
aberration or aberration error. (Note: the angle in fig
is highly exaggerated for clarity).

Explain precession of equinoxes & nutation.

Earth’s axis wobbles around ecliptic pole with a time period of about 26,000 years.
In this period not only the earth’s axis completes a circle around ecliptic pole but
even the equinoctial point i.e. first point of Aries and Libra slide on the ecliptic.

The Earth’s axis is tilted to its orbital plane. The gravitational pull of the Sun and
the Moon on the Earth’s equinoctial bulge tend to pull it back towards the plane of
the ecliptic. Since the Earth is spinning, the axis precesses. The North Celestial Pole
traces out a precessional circle around the pole of the ecliptic, and at the same time
the equinoxes precess westwards on the ecliptic, at the rate of 50.35 arc seconds per
year (this will take around 26,000 years for a complete cycle).

The Moon does not orbit exactly in the ecliptic plane, but at an inclination of about
5¼o to it. The Moon’s orbit precesses rather rapidly, with the nodes taking 18.6 years
t complete one cycle. The lunar contribution to luni-solar precession adds a short-
period, small-amplitude wobble to the precessional movement of the North Celestial
Pole, called nutation. Ignoring nutation, luni-solar precession simply adds 50.35 arc-
seconds per year to the ecliptic longitude of every star, leaving the ecliptic latitude
unchanged.

Effects of Precession:
➢ The RA of fixed bodies like stars increases.
➢ The plane of equinoctial changes gradually with corresponding change in the
declination of stars.
 ➢ Tropical year is about 20 minutes shorter than a sidereal year.

Effects of nutation:
➢ It makes the increase in RA of star due to precession, uneven.
➢ It causes a very small variation in the obliquity of the ecliptic.
➢ As a result of above a very small variation in the obliquity of the ecliptic is
caused.

APPARENT POSITION OF HEAVENLY BODY

Apparent position is the position in which, an observer actually sees the body apart
from the effect of refraction in the abridged nautical almanac. In tabulating apparent
position the body’s position is given wrt equator & true ecliptic at any instant. For
this, precession, nutation, aberration, proper motion & parallax are all allowed.

P
K P’

LSP R
R1

PL R

E Q
E1 ϒ Q1 New eq
F ϒ1 U wrt P1
ϒ2 V
F1

Fig 2

In the standard edition of astronomical almanac, certain information required called

theoretical astronomy is given wrt mean equator & mean ecliptic at the beginning of
Besselian Year.

Mean position of star:

To decide the position of star it is necessary to have fixed coordinates from which
SHA & declinations can be indicated. For this reason an equator, an ecliptic & the
equinoxes of a particular year are chosen & star’s position is given wrt them over
the conventional period.

The time taken for P to rotate a circle around K is about 50.3” of arc or 3 seconds of
time per year. This is called ‘Precession of Equinoxes’.

In fig 2 F  R & E  Q are the planes of ecliptics & equinoctials respectively for a
chosen day, say in 1950. Then after the interval of ‘t’ years P would have moved to
P1 & F1  2R1 & E1  1 Q1 will be the new positions of the two planes.
The equator E1  1Q1 is called the mean equator &  2 is called the mean equinox for
the time (1950 + t). By giving t its appropriate value the mean equator & mean
equinox can be specified for beginning of any specific year. Referred to mean
equator & mean equinox at any instant of the star is called a mean position of star.
This does not take nutation into account.

EFFECT OF PLANETARY PRECESSION

Due to luni-solar precession, considering the plane of ecliptic as fixed plane, first
point of  moves to  1 when P moves to P1. Due to planetary precession  moves
from  1 to  2, so that  1  2 represents change due to planetary precession. Luni solar
precession is 50.3” of arc & reduced by the planetary precession it becomes 50.26”
of arc. This quantity is known as constant of precession. Effect of planetary
precession is known to be therefore small.
Planetary precession (an advance) is due to the small angle between the
gravitational force of the other planets on Earth and its orbital plane (the ecliptic),
causing the plane of the ecliptic to shift slightly relative to inertial space. Lunisolar
precession is about 500 times greater than planetary precession. In addition to the
Moon and Sun, the other planets also cause a small movement of Earth's axis in
inertial space, making the contrast in the terms lunisolar versus planetary
misleading, so in 2006 the International Astronomical Union recommended that the
dominant component be renamed the precession of the equator, and the minor
component be renamed precession of the ecliptic, but their combination is still
named general precession. Many references to the old terms exist in publications
predating the change.

YEARLY CHANGE IN RA/SHA

If there was a star in the direction of  which coincided exactly with  in 1950 + 0,
the RA & declination of that star would each be 0 then. At the beginning of (1950 +
t) star will be in the direction of  but equinox itself would have moved to  1 under
the influence of luni-solar precession & RA will be  1V & declination  V.

The main epochs in common use are:

– B1950.0 - the equinox and mean equator of 1949 Dec 31st 22:09 UT.
– J2000.0 - the equinox and mean equator of 2000 Jan 1st 12:00 UT

The B1950 and J2000 reference frames are defined by the mean orientation of the
Earth’s equator and ecliptic at the beginning of the years 1950 and 2000.
The number suffix is, in fact, a date. It refers to the currently used standard equinox
(and epoch) which is J2000.0.

The prefix "J" indicates that it is a Julian epoch and the number refers to January
1, 2000, 12:00 Terrestrial Time. There have been other standard equinoxes (and
epoch) where the previous version was B1950.0, with the prefix "B" indicating it
was a Besselian epoch. Julian equinoxes and epochs have been used for every
equinox since 1984.
The number suffix is, in fact, a date. It refers to the currently used standard equinox
(and epoch) which is J2000.0.

Since over a period of 1 year the triangle V   1can be considered as plane triangle,
it follows that for a star near equator, increase in RA is approx. 50.3”Cos23 o27’ or
about 46” of equinoctial arc or 3 seconds of time. For a star in neighborhood of  the
annual change in declination = 50.3”Sine 23o27’ or 20” of meridional arc.
When planetary precession is taken in account, general precession is not   1 but 
U, i.e.
(   1 -  1U) Luni solar precession – planetary precession.

INDIRECT EFFECT
Apart from changes in RA, SHA & declination of bodies precession also causes
difference between sidereal & tropical years is the time taken by Earth to go round
one fixed star to same fixed star at its orbital revolution. Its length is 365.256 mean
solar days.