NMAT

REVIEWER
for Mathematics

Brought to you by:

Alliance of Pre-Medical Societies

Prepared by:
The Academics and Medical Education Committee

Transcending Expectations, Redefining Standards

APPSoc 2016 - 2017
TOPIC OUTLINE UNIT 1
SETS
UNIT 1 A set is a well-defined collection
● Sets of objects which are called elements or
● Integer Exponents members of the set.
● Polynomial Expressions ● Uppercase letters will
● Rational Expressions denote a set and braces
● Rational Exponents and Radicals will be used to enclose the
● Complex Numbers elements of a set.
UNIT 2 ● If a is an element of set A,
● Equations in One Variable we denote this by a ∈ A.
● Inequalities ● If a is not an element of set
● The Two-Dimensional Coordinate A, this will be denoted by a
System ∉ A.
● Systems of Equations
● The empty or null set is a
● Variation
set without any elements
● Verbal Problems
and is denoted by ∅ or {}.
UNIT 3
● The universal set U is the
● Functions
set consisting of all
● Polynomial Functions
elements under
● Inverse Functions
consideration.
● Exponential and Logarithmic
● The symbol n(A) denotes
Functions
the cardinality of a finite
● Sequences
set A, that is, the number
UNIT 4
of elements contained in
● Circular Functions
A.
● Identities and Equations
There are two ways to describe the
Involving Circular Functions
elements in a set:
● The listing/roster method
describes the set by listing all the
elements in a set.
● The rule method uses a
descriptive phrase in describing
the elements that are in the set.
This method is usually used when
the elements are too many to list
down.

Transcending Expectations, Redefining Standards

APPSoc 2016 - 2017
Example 1: Describing elements in
a set
Consider the collection of counting
numbers less than 6. This set can be
described as
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} (Roster Method)
Or A = {x|x is a counting number less
than 6} (Rule Method)
In this case, n(A) = 5.
RELATIONS ON SETS
1. A is a subset of B or A is
contained in B, written as A ⊆ B,
if and only if every element of A is
an element of B; thus that is, if x
∈ A then x ∈ B. If set A is
not contained in set B, we
write this as A ⊄ B.
2. A is a proper subset of B or A is
properly contained in B, written
A ⊂ B, if and only if A is a subset
of B and there exists an element
of B which is not in A.
3. A and B are equal, written as A =
B, if and only if they have
precisely the same
elements. This means x ∈ A
and only if x ∈ B.
Equivalently, A = B, if and
only if every element of A
is an element of B and
every element of B is in A.
If sets A and B are not
equal, we write A ≠ B.
4. A is equivalent to B, written as
A ~ B, if and only if n(A) = n(B),
that is, if sets A and B have the
same number of elements.
Transcending Expectations, Redefining Standards
APPSoc 2016 - 2017
Example 2: Finding relations on
sets
Let U = {x|x is a distinct letter in the
word “escape”} and consider its subsets:
A = {c, a, p, e} B = {p, a, c, e}
C = {a, p, e, s} D = {a, c, e}
We can conclude that the set A
is equal to set B or A = B while
set B is not equal to set C or B
≠ C. Also, A ≠ C and A ≠ D.
However, A ~ B, B ~ C and A ~ C
since they all have 4 elements.
Set D is not equivalent to any of
the others since n(D) = 3.
OPERATIONS ON SETS
1. The union of A and B,
denoted A ∪ B, is the set
of elements that belong to
either A or B or both.
A ∪ B = {x|x ∈ A or x
∈ B}
2. The intersection of A and B,
denoted A ∩ B, is the set of
elements that belong to both A
and B. Equivalently,
A ∩ B = {x|x ∈ A or x
∈ B}
3. The complement of A, denoted
A or A,, is the set of elements in U
C
which are not in A. That is,
AC = A, = {x|x ∈ U|x ∉
A}
 4. The set difference A - B or A \ ● If b is a real number not
B (read as A minus B) is the set of equal to zero, then
elements in A which are not in B. ○ (a/b)n = an/bn
A - B = A \ B = {x|x ∈ U|x ∈ A and
x ∉ B} POLYNOMIAL EXPRESSIONS
Addition and Subtraction of
PROPERTIES OF OPERATIONS Polynomials
1. A ∪ A = A ● (4x3 - 7x2 + 2x - 4) + (8x2 +
3x - 7)
2. A ∩ A = A
= 4x3 + (-7x2 + 8x2)
3. A ∪ U = U + (2x + 3x) + ((-4) + (-7))
4. A ∩ U = A = 4x3 + x2 + 5x -11
5. A ∪ B = B ∪ A ● 8y - 3y[4 - 2y +2]
6. A ∩ B = B ∩ A = 8y - 3y[4 - 2y + 2]
7. A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C = 8y - 12y + 6y2 - 6y
8. A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C = 6y2 - 10y
Multiplication of Polynomials
9. If A ⊆ B, then A ∪ B = B
10. If A ⊆ B, then A ∩ B = a
11. Distributive Laws
a. A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B)
∩ (A ∪ C)
b. A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B)
∪ (A ∩ C)
12. De Morgan’s Laws
a. (A ∪ B)C = AC ∩ BC
b. (A ∩ B)C = AC ∪ BC

INTEGER EXPONENTS
LAWS OF EXPONENTS Division of Polynomials
● an x am = an+m
● (an)m = anm
● (ab)n = anbn
● If a is not equal to 0, then
○ an/am
■ an-m if n > m
■ 1/am-n if n <
m
■ 1 if n = m

Transcending Expectations, Redefining Standards

APPSoc 2016 - 2017
 RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS
Rational Expressions in Lowest
Terms
● 16x3/24x7y5 =
(8)(2)x3y5y3/(8)(3)x3x4y5 = 2y3/3x4
● (x2-16)(x2-4x+16)/x3+64 =
(x+4)(x-4)(x2-4x+16)/(x+4)(x2-
4x+16) = x-4
Operations Involving Rational
Expressions

● ( )( )
Binomial Expressions =( )( )
(x+y)n = 1 (a0xn + a1xn-1y +
a2xn-2y2 + … + an-2x2yn-2 +an-1xyn-1) y4
Expand (3x + y)5
=( )( )
= 1(3x)5 + 5(3x)4(y) + 10 (3x)3(y)2 +
10(3x)2(y)3 + 5(3x)(y)4 + 1(y)5 =( )=
= 243x5 + 405x4y + 270x3y2 + 90x2y3 +
15xy4 + y5 ● ( )÷( )
Special Products
● Difference of two squares
=( )( )
○ (x+y)(x-y) = x2 - y2
● Square of a binomial =( )( )
○ (x±y)2 = x2 ± 2xy + y2
● Product of binomials I: =
○ (x+a)(x+b) =
x2+(a+b)x+ab =
● Product of binomials II:
○ (ax+b)(cx+d) = ● +
acx2+(ad+bc)+bd
● Cube of a binomial = =
○ (x±y)3 =
x3±3x2y+3xy2±y3 =
● Sum or difference of two cubes
○ (x±y)(x2 ∓xy+y2) = x3 ± y3 ● -

Transcending Expectations, Redefining Standards

APPSoc 2016 - 2017

= =-
RATIONAL EXPONENTS AND
RADICALS
● If a positive integer n>1 and a and
b are real numbers such that bn =
a, then b is an nth root of a. If n =
2 or 3, b is a square root or cube
root, respectively, of a.
● If n is a positive integer > 1 and a
is a real number, then the
principal nth root of a, denoted
√ , is defined as follows:
○ If a is a positive integer,
then √ is the positive
nth root of a.
○ If a is a negative integer
then √ is the negative
nth root of a.
○ √ =0
NOTE: When a is negative and n
is even, the principal nth root
√ does not exist. This is
because there is no real number b
such that bn = a.
Rational Exponents
● If n > 1 is a positive integer, and a
and √ are real numbers, then
a1/n = √
● If m and n are positive integers
that are relatively prime, and a
and √ are real numbers then
am/n = ( √ )m
Transcending Expectations, Redefining Standards
APPSoc 2016 - 2017
Simplifying Radicals
A radical is in simplest form when the
following conditions are satisfied:
A. The radicand is positive.
B. The radicand of a radical of index
n has no factor which is a perfect
nth power,
C. There are no fractions under the
radical sign.
D. There is no radical in the
denominator of a rational
expression.
E. The index of the radical is the
smallest possible.
● √ = √ = 32/4 = 31/2 = √
● √ =
√
=√ √ √ √
= -2x6/3 √
= -2x2 √
● √ =√ =√
= (22x2)2/6 = (22x2)⅓ = √
Operations Involving Radicals
To simplify a radical of index n
containing a fraction in its radicand, or a
rational expression with a radical of
index n in the denominator, we apply a
procedure called rationalizing the
denominator. This is done by
performing the multiplication to
produce an equivalent expression, where
the radicand in the denominator is a
perfect nth power of a monomial.
 √ √
●
√ √
Complex Numbers
√ √ √ √
=( )( ) ● If a > 0, then the principal square
√ √ √ √
root of -a, denoted by √ is
√ √
= i√ .
● The laws of exponents
√
= apply to positive integer
√ powers of i. In general, if
= n ∈ Z, n ≠ 1, for any k ∈ Z,
=5+2√ we have in:
● ○ i4k = 1
√ ○ i4k+1 = i
√ √ ○ i4k+2 = -1
=( )( )
√ √ √ ○ i4k+3 = -i
√ √ ● The conjugate of z = a +bi is defined
= as - bi.
√ Operations Involving Complex
√
= Numbers
√
A. z1+z2 = (a+c) + (b+d)i
√ √ √
= =1+ + B. z1 x z2 = (ac-bd) + (ad+bc)i
√ √
Find the sum and product of z1 = 3+2i
● 5√ √ + √ and z2 = 4-3i.
● z1+z2 = (3+2i)+(4+-3i)
=5 √ √ + = (3+4) + (2 + (-3))i
√ = 7-i
● z1 x z2 = (3+2i)(4+-3i)
= 5x √ √ + √ =[3(4-2)(-3) + (3)(-3)+2(4)]i
= (12+6) + ((-9) + 8)i
= -6x √ +4 √
= 18-i
= (-6x+4) √
√ √ √ UNIT 2
● =
√ √
= EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE
Linear Equations
√
=√ =√ -equations which involve only
√ polynomials of degree 1.
● Solve the value of x in 5x-5=2x+7
√
5x - 5 = 2x + 7
=
5x - 2x = 7 + 5
Transcending Expectations, Redefining Standards
APPSoc 2016 - 2017
 3x = 12
(x-5)(x+2)[ +
x = 12/3
x=4 ]= [(x-5)(x+2)]
NOTE: Solving a linear equation
equivalently means isolating the variable (x-5)(x+4)-(2x-3)(x+2)=3x-8
involved. A linear equation has only one x2-x-20-(2x2+x-6)=3x-8
solution. x2-x-20-2x2-x+6=3x-8
-x2-5x-6=0
Quadratic Equations
-equations which involve polynomials of x2+5x+6=0
degree 2. The standard form of a (x+2)(x+3)=0
quadratic equation is given by The solution x=-2 is dropped, being an
ax2 + bx + c = 0, extraneous root and the solution set is {-
where a, b, c ∈ R and a ≠ 0. 3}.
● Solve for x in 6x2 - 11x - 10 = 0 Equations Involving Radicals
6x2 - 11x - 10 = (3x + 2)(2x-5) ● Solve for x in √ √
Which gives 3x + 2 = 0 or 2x -5 = 0. Hence, √ √
x = -⅔ or x 5/2 which is lso the solution
x+√ = 4 square both sides
set.
● Solve for x in x2 - 6x - 1 = 0 √ 4 - x apply additive property of
√ √
equality
x= = =3 √ x - 2 = 16 - 8x + x2 square both sides
Hence, x = 3 √ or x = 3 - √ which x2 - 9x + 18 = 0
is also the solution set. (x - 6)(x - 3) = 0
NOTE: The discriminant of the If x = 3, we get √ √ . If x =
quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c is the
6, we get √ √ √ which is not
quantity b2 - 4ac which is the
equal to 2. Hence the solution set is {3}.
determinant of the nature of the
● Find the solution set of
solutions of the quadratic equation.
2√ √ -2=0
● b2 - 4ac > 0: 2 distinct real
solutions 2√ 2= √
● b2 - 4ac = 0: one real solution 4 (x - 1) - 8√ 4=x-2
which is a double root 3x + 2 = 8√
● b2 - 4ac < 0: 2 imaginary 9x2 + 12x + 4 = 64(x - 1)
solutions which are conjugates of 9x2 - 52x + 68 = 0
each other (9x - 34)(x - 2) = 0
Equations Involving Rational The solution set is {2, 34/9}.
Expressions Equations in Quadratic Form
● Solve + = -an equation is in quadratic form if it
can be written in the form a 2 + b + c =
The LCD is (x+2)(x-5). Hence,
Transcending Expectations, Redefining Standards
APPSoc 2016 - 2017
0, where a, b, c are real numbers and a is Equations Involving Absolute
not equal to 0. Values
● Solve for x in 2(x + 1/x)2 + (x + Let E be an expression in the variable x,
1/x) - 10 = 0. a all real numbers and |E| = a.
Let = x + 1/x -If a > 0, then E = a or E = -a.
2 2 + - 10 = 0 = (2 + 5)( - 2) = 0 -If a = 0, then E = 0.
So = -5/2 or = 2. To solve for x, we -If a < 0, then |E| = a has no solution.
substitute the values obtained in = x + ● Solve for x | |= 2
1/x.
If = -5/2, =2
-5/2 = x + 1/x
2x (-5/2) = (x + 1/x) 2x (2x - 3) = 2 (2x - 3)
-5x = 2x2 + 2 x = 4x - 6
2x2 + 5x + 2 = 0
6 = 3x
(2x + 1)(x+2) = 0
Hence, x = -½ or x = -2. x=2
Now if = 2,
2 = x + 1/x = -2
x(2) = (x + 1/x)x
2x = x2 + 1 (2x - 3) = -2 (2x - 3)
0 = x2 - 2x + 1
x = -4x + 6
0 = (x - 1)2
Thus, x = 1. The solution set is {-½, -2, 5x = 6
1}. x = 6/5
● Solve for x in 6 + √ = (x + Thus, the solution set is {6/5, 2}.
⅔
1)
Let = (x + 1)⅓ VERBAL PROBLEMS
2- -6=0 ● Thrice a number less four is
( - 3)( + 2) = 0 twenty deducted by that number.
If = 3, Let x be the desired number
(x + 1)⅓ = 3 3x - 4 = 20 - x
((x + 1)⅓)3 = (3)3 4x = 24
x + 1 = 27 x=6
x = 26 ● Six years ago, Harry’s mother was
If = -2 8 less than twice the age of Harry
(x + 1)⅓ = -2 then. Four years from now, twice
((x + 1)⅓)3 = (-2)3 her age will be four more than
x + 1 = -8 thrice his age. How old is Harry
x = -9 now?
Thus the solution set is {26, -9}. Let x be Harry’s present age

Transcending Expectations, Redefining Standards

APPSoc 2016 - 2017
 - Amount of Solute in Solution 1 +
6 years Present 4 years
ago from Amount of Solute in Solution 2 =
now Amount of Solute in the
Combined Solution
Harry x-6 x x+4 Let x be the amount of Solution X
needed
Mother 2(x-6)- 2(x-6)- 2(x-
8 2 6)+2 Amount Amoun Amount
of t of of Acid
Solution Acid (L)
2[2(x-6)+2] = 3(x+4)+4 (%)
4x-24+4 = 3x+12+4
x = 36 Solution x 20 0.20x
X
● Two airplanes traveling in
opposite directions leave an Solution 100 50 50
airport at the same time. If one Y
plane averages 480 mph and the
Resultin x + 100 30 0.30(x+
other averages 520 mph, how
g 100)
long will it take until they are Solution
2000 miles apart?
Let t be the number of hours it will take
0.20x + 50 = 0.30(x + 100)
for the two airplanes to be 2000 miles
0.20x + 50 = 0.30x + 30
apart,
20 = 0.10x
Distance travelled 200 = x
Plane 1 480t ● Find three consecutive odd
numbers whose sum is the square
Plane 2 520t of the second odd number.
Let x be the first odd number. Then the
Total 480t + 520t
other two odd numbers are x + 2 and x +
480t + 520t = 2000 4.
1000t = 2000 x + (x + 2) + (x + 4) = (x + 2)2
t=2 3x + 6 = x2 + 4x + 4
● Solution X is 20% acid while x2 + x -2 = 0
Solution Y is 50% of the same (x - 1)(x + 2) = 0
acid. How much Solution X must Since the x needs to be odd, we need
be added to 100 L of Solution Y to only check x = 1 and from there we will
get a solution that is 30% acid? know that the three consecutive integers
Note that: are 1, 3 and 5.
- Amount of Solvent x ● The denominator of a fraction is 3
Concentration (%) of the Solute = more than its numerator. If we
Amount of Solute in a Solution double the denominator, the sum

Transcending Expectations, Redefining Standards

APPSoc 2016 - 2017
 of the original and resulting Inequalities Involving Higher
fraction is ¾. Determine the Degree Polynomials or Rational
numerator of the original Expressions
fraction.
● Solve ≤x
Let x be the numerator of the original
fraction 0≤x-
Original Fraction x/x+3
0≤
Resulting x/2(x+3)
Fraction 0≤
We obtain the critical numbers -1, 2 and
+ =
0 which divides the real number line
4(x + 3)( + ) = 4(x + 3) into intervals: (-∞, -1), (-1, 0), (0,2)
and (2, +∞). We have the table of signs:
4x + 2x = 3(x + 3)
(-∞, -1) (-1, 0) (0,2) (2, +∞)
3x = 9
x=3 x+1 - + + +

x - - + +
INEQUALITIES
Linear Inequalities x-2 - - - +
-inequalities involving only polynomials
of degree 1. - + - +
● Find the solution set of 3x + 1 > x
+7.
The last row of the table
3x + 1 > x + 7
2x > 6 implies that the given
x>3 inequality is satisfied when x ∈
Thus, the solution set is (3, +∞). (-1,0) or when x ∈ (2, +∞). The
critical points x = -1 and x = 2 also
● Find the solution set of ≥
satisfy the inequality, but x = 0 does not.
+ Hence, the solution set is [-1,0) U
[2,+∞).
12( ) ≥ ( + )12 Inequalities Involving Absolute
Values
3(x + 1) ≥ 4(x) + 2(1)
● | |≤ 1
-x ≥ -1
-1 ≤ | |≤ 1
x≤1
Thus, the solution set is (-∞, 1].

Transcending Expectations, Redefining Standards

APPSoc 2016 - 2017
 a. The inequality ≤ 1 is ● Let P(x1,y1) and Q(x2,y2) be points
on the Cartesian plane
equivalent to ≤ 0. The ○ The distance between P
solution set is (-∞, 2). and Q is given by |PQ| =
b. The inequality -1 ≤ is √
○ The midpoint of |PQ| is
equivalent to 0 ≤ .
The critical numbers 1 and 2 give given by ( ,
the table of signs:
).
(-∞, 1) (1,2) (2, ∞) ○ The slope of |PQ| is given
2(x-1) - + + by mPQ= ,

x-2 - - + provided that x1 is not

equal to x2.
+ - + NOTE:
● The slope of a line
Thus, the solution set of 1 measures its steepness as
≤ is (-∞, 1] U (2, ∞). Getting the the line goes from left to
right. Horizontal lines
intersection of the solution sets of the
have zero slope while
two inequalities gives the solution set (- vertical lines have
∞, 1]. undefined slope.
● |2x - 1| > 4 ● Three or more points are
|2x - 1| < -4 or |2x - 1| > 4 collinear if and only if the
2x -1 < -4 slopes computed from all
2x < -3 possible pairs of these
x < -3/2 points are equal.
Thus, (-∞, -3/2) is the solution set for ● Given a graph,
the first inequality. ○ an x-intercept is a value of
2x -1 > 4 x where the graph
2x > 5 intersects the x-axis
x > 5/2 ○ a y-intercept is a value of y
Thus, (5/2, +∞) is the solution set for where the graph intersects
the second inequality. the y-axis
The solution set of |2x - 1| > 4 is (-∞, - NOTE: Given an equation in x and y, the
3/2) U (5/2, +∞) x-intercepts are values of x when y = 0
and y-intercepts are values of y when x =
0.
TWO-DIMENSIONAL
Lines
COORDINATE SYSTEM

Transcending Expectations, Redefining Standards

APPSoc 2016 - 2017
 ● Given a line with slope m
containing the point (x0, y0), the
point-slope form of the equation
of the line is given by
y-y0 = m(x - x0)
● The slope-intercept form of the
equation of the line is given by
y = mx + b
NOTE:
● When the slope is zero, then we
have a horizontal line whose
equation is y = b.
● When x0 = x1 = a in our slope
formula, then the slope is
undefined and we have a vertical
line whose equation is x = a.
Parallel Lines
-line 1 is parallel to line 2, denoted by
l1||l2, if and only if ml1 = ml2
● Find the slope-intercept form of
the equation of the line that
passes through P(2,-3) and is
parallel to l1 : 5x - 4y = 20
Let l2 be the line. Note that l1 = 5x-
4y=20: y = 5/4x + 5
Hence, ml1 = 5/4, Since l1||l2, ml2 = 5/4
also.
l2 : y - (-3) = 5/4 (x-2)
y = 5/4x - 11/2
Perpendicular Lines
-line 1 is perpendicular to line 2,
denoted by l1 ⊥ l2, ml1 x ml2 = -1.
● Find the slope-intercept form of
the equation of the line that
passes through P(2,-3) and is
perpendicular to l1: y = 5/4x + 5
Let l2 be the line. Note that ml1 = 5/4
If l1 ⊥ l2, then ml1 x ml2 = -1. Hence, ml2 = -
⅘.
l2 : y - (-3) = -4/5 (x-2)
y = -4/5x - 7/5
Transcending Expectations, Redefining Standards
APPSoc 2016 - 2017
Symmetry of Lines
- a graph is symmetric with respect to
point P if the graph is unchanged after
rotating it by a half-turn (180 degrees)
about the point P
● A graph is symmetric with respect
to:
○ the origin if for every
point (a,b) in the graph,
the point (-a,-b) is also in
the graph
○ the x-axis if for every
point (a,b) in the graph,
the point (a,-b) is also in
the graph
○ the y-axis if for every
point (a,b) in the graph,
the point (-a,b) is also in
the graph
○ the line y=x if for every
point (a,b) in the graph,
the point (b,a) is also in
the graph
● Given an equation in x and y,
○ If replacing y with -y gives
an equivalent equation,
then the graph is
symmetric with respect to
the x-axis
○ If replacing x with -x gives
an equivalent equation,
then the graph is
symmetric with respect to
the y-axis
○ If replacing y with -y and x
with -x gives an equivalent
equation, then the graph is
symmetric with respect to
the origin
 ● If a graph is symmetric with
respect to any two of the
following: x-axis, y-axis, origin;
then the graph is symmetric with
respect to the third
Parabolas
● The equation y = ax2+bx+c,
where a,b,c are real numbers and
a is not equal to 0, is called the
standard equation of a vertical
parabola
○ The y-intercept is c
○ The x-intercept(s) is/are
the solutions of the
equation. That is,
■ If there are 2 real
solutions, then
there are 2 x-
intercepts
■ If there is only one
real solution, then
there is only one x-
intercept
■ If there are no real
solutions, then
there are no x-
intercepts
○ If a > 0, the parabola
opens upwards; if a < 0,
the parabola opens
downwards
○ The vertex of a vertical
parabola, given by ( , Two Linear Equations in Two
), is the highest
or lowest point of the
parabola
○ The parabola is symmetric
with respect to the vertical
line x = -b/2a
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Circles
-set of points which are equidistant from
a fixed point called center. The fixed
distance from the center to any point on
the circle is called the radius.
● Let h,k,r be real numbers and r >
0. A circle with center C(h,k) and
radius r has an equation of the
form: (x-h)2 + (y-k)2 = r2 which is
called the standard form
● The general form would be
x2+y2+Dx+Ey+F=0
○ Center (-D/2, E/2) and
√
radius if
>0
○ Point with coordinates (-
D/2, E/2) and radius
√
if
=0
○ Not a circle if
<0
SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS
-set of two or more equations in several
variables. A solution of a system is a
solution common to all equations in the
system. The solution set of a system is
the set of all its solutions.
Variables
It can be done in two methods:
● Elimination by Addition or
Subtraction: multiply each of
the equations by suitable
constants such that when the two
equations are added or
 subtracted, one variable will be -4y = -4
eliminated y=1
● Elimination by Substitution: Solve for x by substituting y = 1 into
Solve for one variable in one of equation 4
the equations and substitute it 2x -1 = 3
into the other x=2
Systems Involving Quadratic Obtain the value of z from the equation 1
Equations by substituting x = 2 and y = 1.
● Find the intersection of the 2+1-z=4
graphs with equations: l: x+y=2 -1 = z
and c: x2+y2=4
y = 2-x (substitute in the equation) VARIATION
x2+(2-x)2 = 4 Direct Variation
X2+x2-4x+4 = 4 -The case when an increase in one
2x2-4x = 0 quantity causes another quantity to also
2x(x-2) = 0 increase
x = 0 or x = 2 -A variable y varies directly as the
Thus, the graphs of the given equations variable x or y is directly proportional to
intersect at (0,2) and (2,0). x, if y = kx for some nonzero constant k,
Systems of Three Linear Equations called the constant of variation
in Three Variables ● The approximate weight of a
● Solve for x,y,z in the following person’s muscles is directly
system: proportional to his or her body
○ x + y - z = 4 (1) weight.
○ x - 2y + z = -1 (2) ○ Express the number of
○ x + 2y + z = 3 (3) kilograms in the
Take the 1st and 2nd equations and approximate muscle
eliminate z by adding them up. weight of a person in terms
x+y-z=4 of the person’s body
x - 2y + z = -1 weight, given that a person
2x - y = 3 (4) weighing 70 kg has
Take the 1st and 3rd equations and muscles weighing 28 kg.
eliminate z again by adding these ○ Find the approximate
equations. muscle weight of a person
x+y-z=4 weighing 60 kg.
x + 2y + z = 3 Let w kilograms be the approximate
2x + 3y = 7 (5) muscle weight of a person having a body
Solve the resulting system of equations weight of x kilograms.
comprised by equations 4 and 5. w = kx
2x - y = 3 28 = k(70)
2x + 3y = 7 K=⅖
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 w = 2/5x
Since w = 2/5x, if x =60 then
W = ⅖(60) = 24
The approximate muscle weight of a
person weighing 60 kg is 24 kg.
Inverse Variation
- a variable y varies inversely as the
variable x, or y is inversely proportional
to x, if y = k/x for some nonzero
constant k
● For an electric cable of fixed
length, the resistance r is
inversely proportional to the
square of the diameter d of the
cable
○ If a cable of fixed length
has diameter ½ cm and a
resistance of 0.1 ohm,
express resistance in terms
of the diameter.
○ What is the resistance of a
cable having fixed length and
di meter of ⅔ cm?
r = k/d2
0.1 =
k = 0.025
r = 0.025/d2
Since r = 0.025/d2, if d ⅔
r= = 0.05625 ohm
Joint Variation
-a variable z varies jointly as the
variables x and y or z is jointly
proportional to x and y, if z = kxy for
some nonzero constant k
● In a community of 8000 people,
the rate at which a rumor spreads
is jointly proportional to the
number of people who have heard
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the rumor and the number of
people who have not heard of it
○ Given that the rumor is
spreading at the rate of 20
people per hour when 200
people have heard it,
express the rate at which
the rumor is spreading in
terms of the number of
people who have heard of
it.
○ How fast is the rumor
spreading when 500
people have heard of it?
Let r people per hour be the rate
at which the rumor spreads in a
community of 8000 people when
x people have heard the rumor
r = kx(8000-x)
20 = k(200)(8000-200)
k = 1/78000
r=
Since r = , if x =
500,
r= =
The rate at which the rumor is
spreading when 500 people heard
it is approximately 48 people
per hour.
UNIT 3
FUNCTIONS
Relations
-The idea of a relation arises when we
consider connections among elements of
two given sets.
-The concept of function is fundamental
in the whole of mathematics
Recall:
A x B = {(a,b) | a ∈ A and b ∈
B}
- Let A and B be nonempty
sets. A relation R from A to
B is a nonempty subset of
A x B.
Note: A relation R from A to B is
a nonempty set of ordered pairs
in A x B. If (a,b) ∈ R, we say that a is
related to b.
Let R be a relation from A to B.
1. The domain of R, denoted
dom R, is the set {a ∈ A |
there exists b ∈ B with
(a,b) ∈ R}.
2. The range of R, denoted
ran R, is the set {b ∈ B |
there exists a ∈ A with
(a,b) ∈ R}
3. The codomain of R, denoted
codom R, is the set B.
● Let X = {1,2,3,4}, Y =
{10,20,30,40}. Let R = {(2,10),
(2,20), (3, 30)}. Hence R is a
relation between X and Y whose
domain is {2,3}, range is
{10,20,30} and codomain is Y.
Functions
-is a relation where each element in A is
related to exactly one element in B
-mapping, transformation or
correspondence
Evaluating Functions
● Given f(x) = x2+5. Compute f(x)
for the given values of x.
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○ If x=t+1, then f(t+1)=
(t+1)2+5 = t2+2t+6
○ If x=2t, then f(2t) =
(2t)2+5 = 4t2+5
○ If x=t3, then f(t3) = (t3)2+5
= t6+5
Domain of a Function
- F is a real-valued
function if the codomain
is a subset of R. We say
that F is a function of a
real variable if dom F ⊆ R.
NOTE:
When given only the rule F(x) that
defines a real-valued function of a real
variable, assume that its domain is the
largest subset of R for which any x in
this subset defines a unique real number
F(x).
If no domain is explicitly specified, the
domain can be obtained by removing
from R the values for which the
expression F(x) is not a real number or
is undefined.
● Let f(x)=√ . When x=1, f(1)
=√ = √ = i, an
imaginary number. Hence 1
∉ dom f. In fact, since we
assume that f is real-
valued, dom f is the
largest subset of R for
which √ gives a real
number. In this case, those
numbers for which the radicand
x-2 is nonnegative. Hence dom f
= [2, ∞).
○ Let g(x)= . The
denominator cannot be
 zero, and so we exclude
from R the solutions of the
equation x2-6x-1=0. Thus,
dom g = All real numbers
except {3±√ }.
Graph of a Function
The Vertical Line Test
- A function F: A -> R, where
A ⊆ R can be considered as
a set {(x,y) | y = F(x)} ⊆ R
xR of points on the
cartesian plane.
- The graph of F: A -> R
where A ⊆ R is {(x,F(x)) ∈
dom F}
NOTE:
1. Given the rule F(x) and
dom F ⊆ R, its graph is
given by the points in the
graph of the equation y =
F(x) whose x-coordinates
are in dom F.
2. Given the function F and its
graph, dom F is the set of all x-
coordinates of points on the
graph, and ran F is the set of all y-
coordinates of points on the
graph.
Zeros of a Function
-a zero of a function F is a number such
that F(x) = 0
● To obtain the zeros of the
function given by G(x)=x2-4, we
solve the equation x2-4=0. Thus,
G has exactly two zeros, namely,
2 and -2. These are the x-
intercepts of G.
● Consider the function defined by
H(x)=2x2+1. If we solve the
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equation 2x2+1=0, we get the
√
solutions ± i. The function H
has no x-intercepts.
Symmetry of Graphs of Functions
● The function f is an even
function if f(x)=f(-x) for
all x ∈ dom f.
● The function of f is an odd
function if f(-x)=-f(x) for
all x ∈ dom f.
Transformations on Graphs of
Functions
● The graph of g(x)=f(x)+h is the
graph of f(x) shifted up by |h|
units if h is positive and down by
|h| units if h is negative.
● The graph of g(x)=f(x-k) is the
graph of f(x) shifted right by |k|
units if k is positive and left by |k|
units if k is negative.
● The graph of g(x)=cf(x) is the
graph of f(x) stretched vertically
by a factor of c for c>1 or
compressed vertically by a factor
of 0<c<1. This means that all the
y-coordinates of points of f(x) are
multiplied by c.
● The graph g(x)=-f(x) is the graph
of f(x) reflected about the x-axis.
This means that the signs of all
the y-coordinates are changed to
the opposite sign.
● The graph g(x)=f(-x) is the graph
of f(x) reflected about the y-axis.
This means that the signs of all
the x-coordinates are changed to
the opposite sign.
Operations on Functions
● Sum: (f+g)(x)=f(x)+g(x)
 ● Difference: (f-g)(x)=f(x)-g(x)
● Product: (fg)(x)=f(x)g(x)
● Quotient: ( )(x)= , g(x)≠0
● Composition:
(g∘f)(x)=g(f(x))
POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
-is a function p(x) of the form p(x) =
anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + … + a1x + a0,
where a0, a1, …, an-2, an-1, an are real
numbers and an is not equal to 0. We
call an the leading coefficient and a0 the
constant coefficient of p(x).
Synthetic Division
Remainder Theorem
Let p(x) be a polynomial and r be a real
number. The remainder R when p(x) is
divided by x-r is equal to p(r).
● Find the remainder when p(x) =
3x5 + 5x4 - 4x3 + 7x + 3 is divided
by x + 2.
r = -2
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p(-2) = 3(-2)5 + 5(-2)4 - 4(-2)3 + 7(-2) +
3
= 3(-32) + 5(16) - 4(-8) -14 + 3 = 5
Factor Theorem
Let p(x) be a polynomial function and r
a real number. Then r is a zero of p if
and only if x-r is a factor of p(x).
● Show that x-7 is a factor of 2x3-
27x2+84x+49.
p(7)=2(7)3-27(7)2+84(7)+49
=2(343)-27(49)+588+49
=686-1323+637=0
Thus, by the Factor Theorem, x-7 is a
factor of 2x3-27x2+84x+49
Finding Zeros of Polynomial
Functions
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Let f and g be functions such that:
(f∘g)(x) = x for all x ∈ dom g
 (g∘f)(x) = x for all x ∈ dom f ○ (ab)x = axbx
Then we say that g is the inverse ○ (a/b)x = ax/bx
function of f (and f is the inverse ○ (ax)y = axy
function of g). We denote the inverse o f ● If a > 1 and x < y, then ax < ay
by f-1 (and the inverse of g by g-1). ● If 0 < a < 1 and x < y, then ax > ay
● Find the inverse function of f(x) = Exponential Functions
-an exponential function with base b is
denoted by f(x) = bx where b, x ∈ R
y= such that b > 0 and b is not
equal to 1
y(3x-2) = ( ) (3x-2) ● dom f = R since bx is a unique
3xy - x = 1 + 2y real number for an x ∈ R
x(3y - 1) = 1 + 2y ● ran f = (0, ∞) since bx is
x= always positive
● If x = 0, bx = b0 = 1. So the y-
Interchanging the x’s and y’s, we obtain intercept is 1
y= ● If b > 1 and x1 < x2, then bx1 < bx2.
Thus, f(x) = bx is an increasing
● Determine f-1(x), dom f-1 and ran
function. If 0 < b < 1 and x1 < x2,
f-1 if f(x) = √ . then bx1 > bx2. Thus, f(x) = bx is a
Take y = √ and solve for x in decreasing function.
terms of y ● If x1 is not equal to x2, then bx1 is
y=√ not equal to bx2. Thus, f is one-to-
y2 = x + 3 one.
y2 - 3 = x Natural Exponential Function
Interchanging the x’s and y’s, we obtain - is the exponential function with base e,
y = x2 - 3. Thus f-1(x) = x2 - 3 with dom f-1 that is, f(x) = ex
= ran f = [0, ∞) and ran f-1 = dom Equations Involving Exponential
Expressions
f = [-3, ∞).
● 45-9x = 1/8x-2
(22)5-9x = (2-3)x-2
EXPONENTIAL AND
210-18x = 2-3x+6
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
10 - 18x = -3x + 6
Properties of Real Exponents
-15x = -4
● ax is a unique real number
x = 4/15
● a0 = 1 and a-x = 1/ax
● 9 + 2(3 ) - 3 = 0
x x
● If a = 1, then ar = 1r = 1
9x + 2(3x) - 3 = (32)x + 2(3x) - 3 =
● Laws of Real Exponents
(3x)2 + 2(3x) - 3
○ axay = ax+y
If we let y = 3x,
○ ax/ay = ax-y
y2 + 2y - 3 = 0
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 (y + 3)(y - 1) = 0 √
y = -3 or 1 = logb
Since y = 3 , we have 3x = -3 or 1. If 3x =
x
● Given loga2=0.3 and loga3=0.48,
1 then x = 0. The case 3x = -3 is not
find the exact value of loga72.
possible since exponentials are always
loga72 = loga (8)(9)
positive. Hence, SS = {0}.
= loga (2332)
Logarithmic Functions
= loga 23 + loga 32
Let b be a positive real number not equal
= 3 loga 2 + 2 loga 3
to 1. If by=x, then y is called the
= 3 (0.3) + 2 (0.48)
logarithm of x to the base b, denoted y =
= 1.86
logbx.
Logarithmic Equations
● 5-3 = 1/125 = log5 1/125 = -3
● 2log5(x-2) - log5x = log5(x+1)
● Log416 = 4 because 44 = 16
● loga(ax) = x because ax = ax log5 =0
● loga 1 = 0 since a0 = 1
● logaa = 1 since a1 = a 50 =
Common and Natural Logarithms
-1=0
● The common logarithm of x (f(x)
= log x), denoted log x, is the =0
logarithm of x to the base 10, that
is log x = log10x. =0
● The natural logarithm of x (f(x) = -5x + 4 = 0
ln x), denoted ln x, is the x=⅘
logarithm of x to the base e = Observe that x = ⅘ is an extraneous solution
2.7182…, that is, ln x = logex. since it makes the expression x-2 negative.
Properties of Logarithms Thus, the solution set is null.
Logarithm of a Product:
logb(xy) = logbx + logby SEQUENCES
Logarithm of a Quotient: Arithmetic Sequence
logb( ) = logbx - logby nth term of an arithmetic sequence:
an = a1 + (n - 1)d
Logarithm of a Power:
● Find the 36th term of the
Logbxp = plogbx
arithmetic sequence 2, 5, 8, 11,
● Express ½logbm + 3/2logb2n -
14,..., set a1 = 2, n = 36 and d = 3.
logbm2n as a single logarithm
a36 = 2 + (36 - 1)3
with coefficient 1.
= 2 + 35(3)
= logbm1/2 + logb(2n)3/2 - logbm2n
= 107
= logb(m1/2(2n)3/2) - logbm2n
Arithmetic Series: Sum of Terms
Sum of first n terms of an arithmetic
= logb
sequence:

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 -18 = 7 + (6 - 1)d
Sn = (a1 + an) 5d = -25
● Find the sum of the arithmetic d = -5
sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14,...107. a2 + (-5) = a3 = 7, so a2 = 12
S36 = 36/2 (2 + 107) a1 + (-5) = a2 = 12, so a1 = 17
= 18(109) S30 = 30/2 (2(17) + (30 - 1)(-5))
= 1962 = 15 (34 - 145)
Sum of first n terms of an arithmetic = 15 (-111)
sequence: alternative formula = -1665
Sn = n/2 (2a1 + (n - 1)d) Counting the Number of Terms in
● Find the sum of the first 27 terms a Sequence That Are Divisible by a
of the arithmetic sequence 2, 5, 8, Given Number
11, 14,..., with a1 = 2, d = 3, and n ● How many numbers from 15 to
=27. 633 are divisible by 3?
S27 = 27/2 (2(2) + (27 - 1)3) a1 = 15, an = 633 and d = 3
= 27/2 (4 + 78) 633 = 15 + (n - 1)3
= 1107 618/3 = n - 1
Finding the Terms of an 206 = n - 1
Arithmetic Sequence 207 = n
● An arithmetic sequence whose Geometric Sequences
terms decrease in value includes Finite Geometric Sequences
12.0 and -2.0. If 12.0 and -2.0 are Last term formula:
separated by three terms of this an = a1rn-1
sequence, what are the values of Sum-of-Terms formula:
these three terms? Sn =
an = a1 + (n - 1)d
Finding the Sum of the Terms of a
a5 = a1 + (5 - 1)d
Geometric Sequence
-2.0 = 12.0 +4d
● Find the sum of the first 9 terms
4d = -14.0
of this geometric sequence: 8, 4,
d = -14.0/4 = -3.5
2, 1, ...
Since d = -3.5, the three terms are:
a1 = 8, r = ½, n = 9
a2 = 12.0 - 3.5 = 8.5
a3 = 8.5 - 3.5 = 5.0 S9 = = 16(1 - ) = 24( )=
a4 = 5.0 - 3.5 = 1.5
Finding the Sum of the Terms of 511/25 = 511/32
an Arithmetic Sequence Finding the Terms of a Geometric
● If the 8th term of an arithmetic Sequence and Their Sum
sequence is -18 and the 3rd term ● If the 1st term of a geometric
is 7, find the sum of the first 30 sequence is 36 and the fifth term
terms of this sequence. is 64/9, what is the sum of the
an = a1 + (n - 1)d first 6 terms of this sequence?
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Find the common ratio using the Reciprocal identities
formula an = a1rn-1, where a1 = 36, a5 =
64/9, and n =5
64/9 = 36r5-1
r4 = =
Pythagorean Identities
r=± √ =±
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ
S6 = = 36 ( )=
cot2 θ + 1 = csc2 θ
Infinite Geometric Series
Quotient Identities
Sum of Terms of an Infinite
Geometric Series
S∞ = , provided that |r| < 1
Odd/Even Identities
UNIT 4 sin (–x) = –sin x csc (–x) = –csc x
cos (–x) = cos x sec (–x) = sec x
TRIGONOMETRY tan (–x) = –tan x cot (–x) = –cot x
Radian and Degree Conversion
- To convert from degrees to radians,
Cofunction Identities
multiply the number of degrees by π/180
- To convert from radians to degrees,
multiply the number of radians by
180/π Sum-Difference Formulas
The Three Basic Trigonometric
Ratios
Sin A = leg Opposite angle
A/Hypotenuse
Cos A = leg Adjacent to angle
A/Hypotenuse
Double Angle Formulas
Tan A = leg Opposite angle A/leg
Adjacent to angle A
SOH-CAH-TOA
The Reciprocal Functions
csc = 1/sin
sec = 1/cos
cot = 1/tan
Trigonometric Identities Power-Reducing/Half Angle
Formulas

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Sum-to-Product Formulas

Product-to-Sum Formulas

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