10 COORDINATION

10.1 Nervous system

COMPONENTS FUNCTION
a) State the organization of the nervous system. Central Nervous • Integration centers.
System • Where input is interpreted & associated with the appropriate response of the
body.
i. The CNS consists of the Brain
ii. Spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous • Connects the CNS to the receptors and effectors

System • Carries information from sensory receptors to the CNS and carries command
signals from CNS to the effector.
• Consist of sensory (afferent) neurons and motor (efferent) neurons
• The motor neurons are divided into 2 functional divisions
i. Somatic nervous system
ii. Autonomic nervous system
Somatic Nervous • Control voluntary movements and the reflex arc.
System • Transmit impulse from CNS to skeletal muscle
• Control movement of limbs

restores the body to a calm

Autonomic Nervous • Control involuntary responses.
dangerous or stressful
and composed state. System • Transmit impulse from CNS to cardiac muscle, the smooth muscle of internal
situations
organs & glands (effectors).
• Actions are controlled in the medulla and hypothalamus.
• ANS consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions which often have
antagonistic effects (opposite direction)

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 Resting potential
b) Explain the formation of resting and action potential

Membrane Potential: The differences in electrical charge (voltage)

across the cell’s membrane due to the differential distribution of ions.
Resting potential Action potential
Axon doesn’t conduct any impulse An electrical signal that
due to the absence stimulus. propagates (travels) along the
membrane of a neuron.

Positively charged outside of axon Negatively charged outside of

membrane and negatively axon membrane and positively
charged inside of axon membrane charged inside of axon membrane

HOW AXON MAINTAIN RESTING POTENTIAL?

A. Facilitated diffusion
1. K+ will diffuse out from the cell down the concentration gradient.
2. Concentration of K+ is higher inside cell than outside cell.
3. Axon membrane is more permeable to K+, because of a large number of potassium channels at axon
membrane.
4. Na+ will diffuse into cell down the concentration gradient.
5. Concentration of Na+ is higher outside cell than inside cell.
6. Axon membrane is less permeable to Na+ because of small number of sodium channels at axon
membrane.
7. More positive ion diffuses out of cell contribute to negative charged inside cell.

B. Sodium-Potassium pump
1. 3 Na+ are pumped out from cell and 2 K+ are pumped into cell.
2. Both pumped against concentration gradient

C. Anions
1. Large number or large anion inside cell.
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GENERATION OF ACTION POTENTIAL

3. RISING PHASE OF ACTION

POTENTIAL

• The influx of Na+ causes further

depolarization, which more voltage
gated Na+ channel, is open
(positive feedback mechanism)
• More Na+ diffuse into axoplasm
• Inside the axon is more positive.
4. FALLING PHASE OF THE
• Action potential is generated.
ACTION POTENTIAL
• Voltage gated K+ channels remain
close.
• Most of voltage gated Na+
channels close
• Most of voltage gated K+
2. DEPOLARIZATION channels open
• Presence of stimulus, triggers • K+ diffuses out from axoplasm.
opening of some voltage gated Na+ • Inside the axon is more negative.
channels. • Repolarization occur.
• Na+ diffuse into axoplasm down
concentration gradient slowly.
• Axon is slightly depolarizing.
• Inside the axon is less negative
• If depolarization reaches threshold
level, it triggers an action potential.

5. UNDERSHOOT

1. RESTING STATE • Voltage gated Na+ channels are close.

• Axon membrane is polarized.
Positively charged outside of axon membrane.
Negatively charged inside of axon membrane.
• The voltage gated Na+ channels and voltage gated K+ channels are closed.
• The Na+ K+ pump, Na+ channel and K+ channel is active.
• Voltage gated K+ channels are remaining open, but slowly close.
• Some K+ still diffuses out from axoplasm.
• Inside the axon is more negatively charged than resting potential.
• hyperpolarization occurs.
• Then, resting potential is re-established by Na+ K+ pump and diffusion
(Na+ channel and K+ channel)

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c) Describe the transmission of impulse in non-myelinated neuron and myelinated neuron.
Myelin sheaths are produced by glia cell,
Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells. Myelin
sheath is good insulator of electric current.

Transmission of impulse in non- Transmission of impulse in

myelinated neuron myelinated neuron

1. Action potential is generated as

1. Action potential is generated as Na+ Na+ flows inward across the
flows inward across the membrane at membrane at node of Ranvier.
one region.

2.Depolarization of action
potential at first node create local
2. Depolarization of action potential current (electrical current) and
create local current (electrical this current spread along the
current) and this current spreads to interior of axon to next node of
the next region of the membrane, Ranvier, reinitiating the action
reinitiate the action potential at the potential at the next node of
next region. Ranvier because myelin sheath
insulates the internode of the
axon.

3. At the first region the membrane is

repolarized as K+ is outflow.

4. Local current of second region is 3. The first node of Ranvier is

spread to the next region, initiate the repolarized as K+ is outflow.
action potential at the next region.
4. At second node, depolarization
occurs as Na+ flows inward across
the membrane at node of Ranvier.

5. The depolarization-repolarization
process repeated in the next region of
5. The depolarization-repolarization
the membrane. Therefore, action
process is repeated only at node of
potential is propagated along the
Ranvier, thus the action potential
length of the axon.
jumps from node to node. This
conduction of action potential known
as saltatory conduction.

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c) Describe the characteristics of nerve impulse.

STIMULATION • Subthreshold stimuli cannot cause an action potential.

• Threshold stimuli are of enough energy or potential to produce an action
potential (nerve impulse).
• Suprathreshold stimuli also produce an action potential, but their strength is
higher than the threshold stimuli.
ALL OR • If the intensity of stimulation is less than the threshold level, no action potential
NOTHING is generated.
EVENT • If the intensity of stimulation exceeds the threshold level, an action potential is
generated.
• Further increase in the intensity of stimulus does not increase the amplitude of
action potential.
• Intensity of stimulus will determine the frequency of action potential generated.

REFRACTORY • The short time immediately after an action potential, a neuron cannot respond
PERIOD to another stimulus.
• The previously excitable region undergoes a recovery period.

Two types

1) Absolute refractory period

• Period from the beginning of depolarization until action potential forms
until the end of repolarization.
• No stimulus can initiate another action potential.

2) Relative refractory period

• Period after absolute refractory period which is during hyperpolarization.
• Neuron cannot transmit another action potential unless the stimulus is
stronger than normally required.
• If there’s a strong stimulus, a new action potential will be generated.

RATE OF 1) Diameter of axon

IMPULSE • The larger the diameter of the provided a less resistance to the impulse
TRANSMISSION transmission.

2) Present of the myelin sheath

• Thus, impulse can be conducted faster along axon the action potential
jumps from node to node as its travel along axon (undergoes saltatory
conduction)
• Increase the speed of impulse transmission.

3) Number of synapse
• The greater the number of synapses in a series of neuron, the slower the
conduction velocity of impulse.
• Transmission of impulse by electrical signal is faster than chemical signal.

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d) Describe the structure of synapse

Synapse is the junction where one neuron (pre synaptic neuron) communicates with
another neuron (postsynaptic neuron) in a neural pathway.

It is a structure that allow a neuron to transmit an impulse to another cell

STRUCTURE DESCRIPTION

Synaptic Cleft • Narrow gap between presynaptic membrane and post synaptic
membrane.
• Has lot of free calcium ion

Synaptic Knob • Knob at the end of axon of presynaptic neuron.

• Contains numerous mitochondria to supply energy for the
activities of neurons and synaptic vesicles that contain
neurotransmitter.
• Has voltage gated Ca2+ channel

Synaptic vesicle • Vesicle containing neurotransmitter

• 2 main neurotransmitters:
i. Acetylcholine
- Secreted by parasympathetic neuron
- Degraded by acetylcholinesterase
ii. Norepinephrine
- Secreted by sympathetic neuron
- Degraded by monoamine oxidase
Presynaptic • Membrane that enclosed synaptic knob facing the postsynaptic
membrane membrane.
• Before synaptic cleft)

Postsynaptic • Membrane of the dendrite of postsynaptic neuron facing the

membrane presynaptic membrane
• After synaptic cleft
• Contains ligand-gated sodium ion (Na+) channels that have
specific receptor sites for the neurotransmitter.

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e) Explain the synaptic transmission.

1. Action potential arrive at synaptic knob of presynaptic neuron.

2. Cause voltage-gated Ca2+ channel at

presynaptic membrane open, therefore Ca2+
diffuses into synaptic knob.

Synaptic knob 4. Neurotransmitter bind at

neurotransmitter receptor on ligand

3. Concentration of Ca2+ increase in gated Na+ channel at postsynaptic

synaptic knob triggers synaptic vesicle to membrane.

fuse with presynaptic membrane. It causes

neurotransmitter to be release into synaptic
Post synaptic membrane
cleft via exocytosis.

5. This will cause ligand-gated Na+

channel open.

Ligand gated Na+ channel

8. What will happen to neurotransmitters at the postsynaptic membrane

after nerve impulse is generated? Depolarized 7. If depolarization reaches threshold level, the
action potential is generated at the postsynaptic
membrane.
6. Na+ influx to postsynaptic neuron
cause postsynaptic membrane to
depolarized.

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f) Compare the transmission of impulse across synapse and along axon

Transmission of impulse along axon Transmission of impulse across synapse

Impulse are electrically transmitted Impulse are chemically transmitted

Does not require neurotransmitter and neurotransmitter receptor Required neurotransmitter and neurotransmitter receptor

Impulse transmission is faster Impulse transmission is slower

Impulse travel along axon Impulse travel along axon

Gated Na+ channel is a voltage–gated ion channel which opens when it is electrically Gated Na+ channel at postsynaptic membrane is ligand-gated ion channel which open when it

stimulated is chemically stimulated

Does not involve voltage gated Ca2+ channel or involve diffusion of Ca2+ Involve voltage gated Ca2+ channel or involve diffusion of Ca2+

Similarities

The movement of impulse is unidirectional

Involve voltage gated Na+ channel or diffusion of Na+ across a membrane.

g) Explain the mechanism of action of drugs (cocaine) on the nervous system.

Presynaptic
1. Cocaine is stimulant drug
neuron
2. It affects nerve cells at the limbic system, (pleasure pathway of the
brain)
3. Cocaine enters synaptic cleft and bind to dopamine transporter
molecules.
4. Prevent reuptake of dopamine (neurotransmitter) to presynaptic neuron.
5. Dopamine stays at synaptic cleft.
6. Dopamine continuously binds to receptors on postsynaptic membrane.
7. Continuous depolarization and action potential is continuously sent to
limbic system.
8. This will produce an intense and prolonged feeling of pleasure (euphoria)
increase of heart beat rate and increase of blood pressure.

Postsynaptic neuron
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10.2 MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION Describe the structure of neuromuscular junction.

a)

Neuromuscular junction: Synapse between motor neuron and the muscle fibre. Located between
synaptic terminal of motor neuron and motor end plate of muscle fibre.
Presynaptic Has synaptic vesicles that contain neurotransmitter.
terminal (of motor
neuron)
Synaptic cleft Is a gap between the synaptic terminal of motor neuron and motor end plate
(sarcolemma of muscle fibre).
Motor end plate • The sarcolemma of the muscle fibre.
• Each extensively folded sarcolemma on the motor end plate is called junctional
folds.
• Has ligand gated Na+ ion channels
Synaptic vesicle Vesicle containing neurotransmitter (acetylcholine)
Presynaptic Membrane that enclosed presynaptic terminal facing the postsynaptic membrane
membrane (before synaptic cleft)
Postsynaptic • Membrane of sarcolemma facing the presynaptic membrane (after synaptic
membrane cleft)
• Contains ligand gated Na+ ion channels that has specific receptor sites for
neurotransmitter.

Voltage gated Ca2+ channel

Synaptic
vesicle

Motor end plate Sarcolemma The plasma membrane encloses the muscle fibre.
Receptor for Na+ Sarcoplasmic A specialized endoplasmic reticulum or networks of tubules and sacs that regulates
acetylcholine Ligand gated Na+ channel reticulum the concentration of calcium ions
T tubule An infolding of plasma membrane of skeletal muscle cells
Sarcoplasm The cytoplasm of the muscle fibre (cell) contains a lot of mitochondria, nuclei (on
the sarcolemma) and myofibrils.

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 b) Explain impulse transmission at the neuromuscular junction.
Axon of motor neuron
Myelin sheath

1.Arrival of action potential at synaptic terminal.

Synaptic terminal of motor neuron

Axon terminal

Synaptic vesicle 2.The permeability of presynaptic membrane to calcium ions

(Ca2+) increases. Voltage gated Ca2+ channels open. Ca2+ diffuse
Voltage gated Ca2+ channel into synaptic terminal.
Acetylcholine receptor site

Acetylcholine
(neurotransmitter) 5.Ligand gated Na + channel open and Na+ diffuse into
postsynaptic membrane to depolarize the motor end plate.
3.Diffusion of Ca2+ Action potential is generated when depolarization reach the
stimulates synaptic vesicle threshold level.
to fuse with presynaptic
membrane. Synaptic vesicle
release acetylcholine into
synaptic cleft by exocytosis. 6.Action potential is propagated along the sarcolemma

4.The acetylcholine diffuse

across synaptic cleft and
bind to specific receptor site Ligand gated
at ligand gated Na+ channel Na + channel Motor end plate
on the sarcolemma.

7.Action potential down the transverse tubule (T tubule).

9. Ca2+ channels open.

8. As the action potential spreads along T tubule, it Ca2+ diffuse into
increases the permeability of sarcoplasmic reticulum to sarcoplasm down
7 8
Ca2+. concentration gradient.
What happen after action potential is generated?

• Neurotransmitter unbind from receptor on ligand gated Na+ channel.

• Ligand gated ion channel closes. Resting potential is restored.
• A specific enzyme (acetylcholinesterase) will degrade the neurotransmitter. 9

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 c) Describe the structure of sarcomere

1. Cytoplasm of muscle fibre contain a lot of myofibrils.

Schematic diagram of sarcomere
2. Myofibril consist of thin and thick filament.
3. Thin filament consists of tropomyosin, troponin complex and actin. Actin has of myosin binding site.
4. Thick filament consists of myosin. Myosin has tail and head
5. Myofibril of muscle is made up from repeated unit, known as sarcomere.
6. Sarcomere is a basic unit of the myofibrils between two Z lines.
7. H zone is the dark region where consist of the thick filaments only.
8. A band is the darkest region, where the thick and thin filaments overlap.
9. I band the lightest region where consist of the thin filaments only.
10. M line is a central dark line in A band and hold the thick filaments.
11. Z line is a central line in I band and hold the thin filaments.
12. During muscle contraction I band and H zone become shorter.
13. If the muscle fully contracted, I band and H zone are disappearing

What happen to A band if the muscle contract?

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d) Explain the mechanism of muscle contraction based on Sliding Filament Theory

7. Before start a new cycle, Ca2+ are

1. Action potential triggers opening of Ca2+
removed by active transport into
channels at sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ diffuse
sarcoplasmic reticulum after the action 1
into sarcoplasm down concentration gradient.
potential ends.

2.Ca2+ bind to troponin

complex. Troponin undergoes
conformation changes and
removed the blockage of
tropomyosin at myosin
binding site on actin
2 filaments. The exposure of
8.Troponin without binding 8 myosin binding site allows
with Ca2+ changes to its original the binding of myosin head
conformation. Tropomyosin is with actin filaments.
controlled to block the myosin
binding site on actin filament.
Contraction ends and muscle
fiber relaxes. 3.The myosin head is in low-energy configuration. ATP
molecule bind to myosin head. ATPase binds at the myosin
head and hydrolyses ATP to ADP and Pi, energy is released.

6.The cross-bridge dissociates

from the actin due to the binding
of new ATP molecule to the
myosin head. and ready to start 6
a new cycle.
4

5. ADP and Pi are released from 4.Myosin head now in high-energy

myosin head. Myosin head return to
its low-energy configuration. The
actin filament is slide by the cross-
bridge towards the centre of the
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configuration. Myosin head bind to
the exposed myosin binding sites
5 on actin filaments and forms a
cross-bridge.
10.3 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

State the types of hormones in mammals and its example

Hormone

Chemical’s molecules that secreted by specialized cells, travel in body fluid

(bloodstream) and act on specific target cells in other parts and changing its
function.

Characteristics

1. Soluble and easy to enter and travel via the bloodstream, transported
to target organ
2. Specific, specific hormone induces a change on a particular target
organ
3. Small amount, hormones can cause desired effects in low concentration
but higher concentration can lead to inhibition of their action.
• Deficient or excessive amount can give bad effects in growth
and development.
4. Hormones do not cause immediate effect but the effects can be
permanent.

Types of Solubility Receptor at target Half-life Mechanisms of General target response Example
hormones cell hormone action

Proteins / Water solubles The receptor at Short cAMP activation Modification of existing protein glucagon, ADH, oxytocin, ACTH, calcitonin,
peptides plasma membrane insulin, growth hormone, prolactin, FSH,
(dissolved in blood LH, TSH
plasma)

Steroids Lipid solubles Receptor inside the Long Gene activation Induction of new protein cortisol, testosterone, progesterone,
nucleus synthesis estrogen
(Derived from (need carrier protien
cholesterol) when transported in
bloodstream)

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Mechanism Of Hormone Action

GENE ACTIVATION MECHANISM (Steroid hormone) cAMP ACTIVATION MECHANISM (Protein hormone)

Example : Aldosterone, Progesterone , Estrogen Example : Glucagon, Adrenalin

1. Steroid hormone diffuse into 2.In cytoplasm, hormone binds with specific 1. In plasma membrane, the peptide/non-steroid hormone acts as the first messenger, binds with
cytoplasm through plasma receptor protein forming hormone-receptor specific receptor protein forming hormone-receptor complex.
membrane of target cell. complex.

3.Hormone-
receptor
complex pass-
through nuclear 2.The hormone-receptor
pore and enter complex bind to and
nucleus. In activate G-protein (in the
nucleus, the membrane)
binds the
specific gene on
DNA.
3. The activated G-protein
4.Hormone- binds to and activate
receptor enzyme adenylyl cyclase.
complex act as
transcription
factor that
leads to the
transcription of 4. The activated adenylyl
specific gene on cyclase catalyses the
DNA which to conversion ATP to cAMP
mRNA. (cyclic adenosine
monophosphate), cAMP acts
as second messenger

5.mRNA moves
from nucleus to
cytoplasm 5. cAMP activates a variety
through of protein kinases in
nuclear cytoplasm.

6. mRNA binds with ribosome to be translated into new protein/enzyme through translation 6. Activated protein kinases phosphorylate various other proteins by cascade effect - trigger the
process that produce the specific response. cell response (such as promote conversion of glycogen to glucose)

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Compare the mechanism of hormone action of aldosterone and glucagon at the cellular response

[10 marks]

Mechanism of hormone action of aldosterone Mechanism of hormone action of glucagon

Similarities

1.Both act on specific target

2.Both bind to specific receptor
3.Both form hormone-receptor complex

Differences

Involve gene activation mechanism Involve cAMP activation mechanism

Hormone able to diffuse across the plasma membrane Hormone unable to diffuse across the plasma membrane

Hormone bind to receptor in cytoplasm Hormone bind to receptor on plasma membrane

Hormone receptor complex binds to DNA (activate the genes) Hormone receptor complex activates G protein which in turn activates adenylyl cyclase

Transcription & translation occur. Transcription & translation do not occur.

No production of cAMP Involve production of cAMP

No cascade event Cascade events occur

Involve one messenger which is hormone Involve two messengers which are hormone and cAMP

Not involving protein kinase Involve protein kinase

Produce long-term effects. Produce short-term effects.

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10.4 PHOTOPERIODISM
A phenomenon in which organism especially plants response to relative length of light & dark period
(photoperiod) in 24-hour cycle

Phytochrome
1. A blue green pigment in plants that acts as a
photoreceptor, absorb certain wavelength of
light & stimulate flowering and seed
germination in certain plants

2. Consists of a protein (kinase) covalently bond
to a non-protein part (chromophore) – the light
absorbing part
3. Two forms of phytochrome are interconvertible after absorb light of certain
wavelength
• Pr @ P660 (absorbs red light at 660 nm) to become Pfr
• Pfr @ P730 (absorbs far–red light at 730 nm) to become Pr
4. Plants synthesize phytochrome in Pr form, but the active form is Pfr

Short day plant Long day plant

• Require a short-day period and longer night period to flower • Require a long-day period and shorter night period to flower
• Require a minimum length of uninterrupted darkness to flower • Will not flower in longer night period, unless, the continuous dark period is interrupted
by a few minutes of light

1. Increase in Pfr concentration inhibit flowering in short day plant
2. Reduction in Pfr concentration stimulates production of florigen that cause flowering in
short day plant
3. During night, Pfr absorb far red light to be converted to Pr
4. Low concentration of Pfr will stimulate the production of florigen in short-day plants
5. Florigen is produced in leaves
6. Then, florigen is transported out of leaves to the flower bud via phloem and florigen will
stimulate the flowering process
Example: Chrysanthemums, some soybean varieties and morning glory
1. Increase in Pfr concentration stimulates production of florigen that cause flowering in
long day plant
2. Reduction in Pfr concentration inhibit flowering in long day plant
3. During day, Pr absorb red light to be converted to Pfr
4. High concentration of Pfr will stimulate the production of florigen in long-day plants
5. Production of florigen occur in leaves
6. Then, florigen is transported out of leaves to the flower bud via phloem
7. Florigen will stimulate the flowering of flower buds
Example: Spinach, lettuce, and some varieties of wheat

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