UNIT 4

Gender and Politics

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 LESSON 4.1
Gender and Leadership

Lesson Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you should have:

1. described characteristics of a good leader;

2. identified leadership traits of women and men;
3. analyzed reasons how gender matters in good leadership; and
4. Enumerated reasons why women can excel as leaders.

Activate

Below are few unfinished statements that would somehow check your
initial idea of the different concepts found in this lesson. Please complete the
phrases to make it a complete statement. There is no correct or wrong answers
here. It is just checking your personal and initial concept of certain ideas.
1. Leadership is ________________________________________.

2. A leader should be the one who is ____________________________.

3. A good leader is…? (please choose from the pictures below)

A. B. C.

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 4. Who should be the LEADER? Is it a: (please put a check of your
preference)
A. HIM _____
B. HER _____
C. Please specify ____________

Why? Use the available space for your answer.

Thank you for your sincerity in doing the activity above. Your answer
reflects your personal views at the moment and nothing is wrong with it. Let us
see if, after this lesson, your ideas and perception will remain the same or will
alter. Are you ready? Here we Go!

Introduction

Science and society have come to appreciate that women and men cannot
simply be classified and distinguished based on biological sex. It is important to
understand and appreciate how gender may contribute to self‐perception and
perception by others. This understanding is necessary to help optimize/maximize
leadership effectiveness. In this lesson we will be looking into different concepts
of gender and leadership. Concepts such as why males are more favored than
females when it comes to top level management will be presented.

Acquire

A. Leadership Defined
For better understanding of the concept of leadership, we start our learning
by first defining what leadership is according to different authorities: (Ponder upon
them and choose which 1 that you consider you believe more.We will go back to
that in a later part of our study)

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 1. Leadership is an attempt at influencing the activities of followers
through the communication process and toward the attainment of some
goal or goals. Leadership is an influence process that enable managers
to get their people to do willingly what must be done, do well what
ought to be done. (Cribbin,J.J. ‘Leadership: strategies for organizational
effectiveness’)

2. Leadership is defined as the process of influencing the activities of an

organized group toward goal achievement. (Rauch & Behling.)

3. Leadership is interpersonal influence, exercised in a situation, and

communication process, toward the attainment of a specified goal or
goals. (Tannenbaum,Weschler & Massarik)

4. Leadership is the art of influencing others to their maximum

performance to accomplish any task, objective or project. (Cohen, W.A.
‘The Art of a Leader’ Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall (1990, p. 9)

5. Leadership is the art of mobilizing others to want to struggle for shared

aspirations. ( Kouzes, J.M. & Posner, B.Z. ‘The Leadership Challenge’
San Francisco: JosseyBass) (1995, p.30)

6. Leadership is the capacity to translate vision into reality. Warren G.

Bennis Leadership is the incremental influence that a person has
beyond his or her formal authority. (Vecchio, 1988)

7. Leadership is the behavior of an individual when he is directing the

activities of a group toward a shared goal.(Hemphill )

It is hoped that different definitions of leadership from various authors

previously presented have put some enlightenment and widen your perspective
about the concept.

B. The Making of a Leader

Leadership has been an important part of human experience since

societies had formed different groups to survive threats from physical and social
environment. It is the behavior of an individual when he is directing the activities
of a group toward a shared goal. Leaders lead their groups to achieve their goals
(Hemphill and Coons 57:7https://www.futurelearn.com).

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 The definition of leadership above entails that ”effective leadership have
shifted emphasis from “who” the leader is to “what” the leader does. This simply
shows that a leader’s gender, as an important aspect of his/her character, is an
important aspect to the leadership style and effectiveness of his/her leadership.

Further, gender may affect and optimize effective leadership as it contain

certain characteristic traits and preferences that may influence how people think
about themselves, how are thought about by others, and act in various situations.
This is the reason why gender become an important variable to consider with
regard to potential effective and successful leadership.

The concepts about gender and leadership that has just been presented,
make the topic of gender and leadership deserves serious and thoughtful
consideration and discussion at present. This is so because of different realities
and demands that the twenty‐first century calls for certain leaders that would
truly lead the way.

Personality characteristics of female and male leaders

Why are males commonly favored and why females are less likened as top
level manager? Who would likely lead better? Let us now focus our attention to
the different characteristic traits that are identified by (authorities and studies) to
be more of a “her”, or a “him”.
The idea that female leaders are fundamentally different from male leaders
is widespread, whether it stems from stereotypical portrayals of women as too
passive, too emotional, or otherwise unfit to lead, or from more positive beliefs
that women possess unique worldviews, cognitive frames, or personal
competencies that make them uniquely qualified and capable as leaders in ways
that men are not.

According to the Role Congruity Theory, the agentic qualities (qualities of

males) necessary in the leadership role are incompatible with the predominantly
communal qualities stereotypically associated with women, resulting in a
prejudicial evaluation of the behavior of women leaders as less effective or
unfavorable than the equivalent behavior of men. For example, an agentically
leader role is defined in areas such as (e.g., military officer, political leader, or
scientist). Studies and observations show that the more, women tried to fulfill the
agentic requirements of identified male worlds, the more likely that such women
are to elicit unfavorable evaluation because their behavior deviates from the

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social norm of the female gender role. This is one of the reasons why women find
it hard to climb the highest ladder of leadership success particularly on areas of
military, hard science and politics.

Leaders, in order to successfully attain their goals, use certain methods of

providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. We call this
method a leadership style! Another consideration concerning the interaction of
character and gender on leadership effectiveness is leadership style. Callahan
and Grunberg indicate that personality affects the leader's preferred leadership
style and ender also is likely to affect preferred leadership style. Many different
leadership styles have been identified over the years. And because certain
character traits identified such as responsibility, integrity, trustworthiness,
optimism, adaptability, and humility transcend/cut across gender roles and are
important for the leader role . However, Gutek and Morasch argued that gender
roles often affect leadership roles, and Ridgeway maintained that gender provides
an “implicit, background identity” relevant to leadership.

There are certain ways of distinguishing Leadership styles between men

and women. This can be such as:
1 vs 2
1. Task‐oriented leadership style (agentic) - is defined as a concern with
accomplishing assigned tasks by organizing task‐relevant activities. Behaviors
of the task‐oriented style include: encouraging followers to follow rules,
maintaining high standards for performance, and making leader and follower
roles explicit. Traits associated with males.

2. Interpersonally-oriented leadership style - ( communal style) is defined as a

concern with maintaining interpersonal relationships by tending to others’
morale and welfare. Behaviors of the interpersonally-oriented style include:
helping and doing favors for subordinates, looking out for their welfare,
explaining procedures, and being friendly and available. Traits associated with
females.

Both styles can be effective, depending on the followers (context) and the
situation. Understanding one's own gender and which leadership style is more
comfortable can help optimize one's effectiveness as a leader.

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 3 vs 4 vs 5
Leadership styles identified by: Lewin and Lippitt
3. Democratic (participative decision‐making
4. Autocratic (directive)
5. Laissez‐faire (little or no direction)

The consideration of gender roles implies that men are more autocratic
and directive, whereas women are more participative and democratic. It has been
noted that the extent to which female leaders favor a more participative rather
than directive leadership style may reflect cultural influences based on expected
roles of women versus men. Women may encounter negative reactions and
evaluations when they become directive and take charge in an agentic manner
consistent with an autocratic style. Men on the other hand, do not experience the
incongruence between the male gender role and the leader role, that’s why they
are freer to lead in an autocratic manner.

The fact is that each of these leadership styles has its corresponding place
depending on the context (situation). If gender roles limit one's leadership style
options, then effectiveness of leadership is constrained.

Time Out 1
Apply

Are things doing well? I’m sure you are now clarified with regards to
relationships of leadership and gender! Well, congratulations!

1. From the definitions of leadership given at the beginning of this lesson,

give 2 that you like best. Why?

Definition Your reason for liking it

1.

2.

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 Let us continue…

The concepts that you are about to explore on will further shed light on
the concept of gender, gender roles and gender leadership.

Roles of Leaders

: Leaders Anywhere else, leaders (male or female) are expected to be:

Negotiator Motivator Friend

Coach Team builder Advisor
Guide Mentor Facilitator

Behavior and attitude of Trustworthy Leader

The following are behaviors and attitudes of a leader who is

trusted by his/her group members and their constituents.

Reliability Collaboration Walking the talk

Truthfulness Cooperation Readiness to accept feedback
Consistency communication confidence

Personal Traits of a Leader

Whether a leader is a female or a male, the leader is

expected to possess some combinations of the following:

1. Assertiveness 6. responsible 11. forgiving

2. Warmth 7. risk taking 12.rational
3. high tolerance for 8. Skill development 13. Performance
frustration orientation
4.charisma 9.Flexibility
5.role model behavior 10.generous

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Interpersonal skills of a Leader
Leaders do not only command but they must also be
in good terms with their group. Hence, certain interpersonal
traits must be possessed by one true good leader. This
maybe two or combinations of the following:

Empathy Concern for welfare of Non competitiveness

people with group members
Listening skills Emotional security
High expectations for Interest in the dev . of Satisfaction in helping
each group members group members others grow

Diplomacy & tact Insight into people Honesty and Integrity

Patience toward people Ability to give Interest in people’s
authentic feed back potential

Leadership is a fascinating subject for many people. The term conjures up

a familiar scene of a powerful, heroic, triumphant of maybe an individual with a
group of followers returning home after winning a national championship or a war
against the evil enemy or an enthusiastic orator who delivers an energetic
speech where hands waving in the air and then thousands of people gathered in
a plaza.

Characteristics of Successful and Effective Leadership

Successful and effective leadership must be a combination

of (among others) personality traits, intellectual abilities as well as
physical traits.

1. Personality traits of great leaders through time were:

a. determination
b. emotional stability
c. diplomacy
d. self-confidence
e. personal integrity
f. originality
g. creativity.

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 2. Intellectual abilities of great leaders through time included:
a. judgmental ability
b. Knowledge
c. verbal communication ability.

3. physical traits of great leaders through time cannot be ignored such as:
a. age
b. Height
c. weight, and
d. physical attractiveness

It should also be taken into consideration that good and successful

leadership is achieved not only due to inborn personality traits but also the unique
styles and behaviors that a person learns. For example, consider the following
kind of leaders and their style and behaviors, referred to as Leadership style.
Strong autocratic leaders set their goals without considering the opinions of their
followers, and then command their followers to execute their assigned tasks
without question.
Consultative leaders solicit the opinions and ideas of their followers in the goal-
setting process but ultimately determine important goals and task assignments on
their own.
Democratic or participative leaders participate equally in the process with their
followers and let the group make decisions. Extremely laid-back leaders, so called
laissez-faire leaders, let the group take whatever action its members feel is
necessary.

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 Time Out 2
Apply

Here are some inspiring words from great women leaders of the world
taken from https://www.theceomagazine.com/business/management-
leadership/9-quotes-on-gender-equality/Updated March 2019. Read the
statements below and write your own thoughts on the black part of the table.

Name of Women Statement about Your own comment ..

leaders leadership
Padmasree Warrior The ability to learn is the
(CEO & Founder, most important quality a
Fable) leader can have.”)

Sheryl Sandberg “Leadership is about

(COO, Facebook) making others better as a
result of your presence,
and making sure that
impact lasts in your
absence.”

Michelle Obama “Success isn’t about how

(Former First Lady of much money you make;
the United States) it’s about the difference
you make in people’s
lives.”

Rosalynn Carter A leader takes people

(Former First Lady of where they want to go. A
the United States) great leader takes people
where they don’t
necessarily want to go, but
ought to be.”

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C. WOMEN IN LEADERSHIP
Ways Women Lead Leadership
Certain qualities such as aggressiveness, assertiveness, taking
charge, and competitiveness are traditionally associated with strong,
masculine characters. Even women executives tended to
show these characteristics in the traditional corporate world. In fact, many of
these women executives were promoted because they were even more
competitive and assertive than their male counterparts. These successful women
executives often sacrificed a family life, which their male counterparts did not
necessarily have to do.

The world (business and politics) is changing, such that today, much
research has found that women leaders are different from their male
counterparts in management style:
Women leaders tend to be more concerned with consensus building, participation,
and caring. They often are more willing than men to share power and information,
to empower employees, and to be concerned about the feelings of their
subordinates. Such an interactive and emotionally involved leadership style is not
necessarily negative in today's business environment.

Research studies find the new style of women leadership to be

highly effective due to the following:

a. Internally, a culturally diverse work force demands more interactive and

collaborative coordination.
b. Externally, culturally diverse customers demand more personable and
caring attention.

A caring and flexible management style serves such diverse employees

and customers better than traditional methods of management.

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 Time Out 3
Apply

Look at the graph below showing studies of traits considered as essential

for successful leadership. Give at least 2 interpretations of each: ( write your
answers on the space opposite the graph)

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D. Gender and Political Leadership
Views on gender and political leadership are
remarkably stable across major demographic groups.
But in the new Pew research survey, shown in the graph
beside, findings showed that women compared to their
share of the population, remain underrepresented at
virtually all levels of elected office. But such is not due
to a lack of confidence on the part of the public rather
that a strong majority of Americans (75%) say women
and men make equally good political leaders. Some
14% say men generally make better political leaders
than women, and 9% say women make better leaders
than men. In the said research, women are more likely
to say women are better leaders and men do likely say
more that men are better leaders than women. What
does this means? It simply shows that both men and
women have certain preference of their kind when it
comes to leadership.

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 Women make equally good political leaders. There is broad agreement
across generations as well, although Gen Xers are somewhat less likely than
younger or older generations to say that women make better leaders than men.
There are no major differences across racial or socio-economic groups on this
question.

Executive vs. Legislative Leadership

It is said that in elected office, women tend to be more heavily represented

in the legislative branches of government than in the executive branches, but the
public doesn’t draw sharp distinctions in terms of where women can do the best
job. Only 10% say women are better at legislative jobs like serving on the city
council or in Congress, and 7% say women are better at executive jobs such as
mayor or governor. The vast majority (82%) say there is no difference, suggesting
that women can serve equally well in either type of position.

A similarly large majority of adults (83%) don’t see any difference in men’s
capability to carry out executive vs. legislatives jobs in government. About one-in-
ten adults (11%) say men are better at executive jobs, and 5% say men are better
at legislative jobs. Men and women agree that executive and legislative jobs are
not better suited for one gender than the other.

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 Assess

Name ________________________________________ Score ___________

Section_______________________________________ Date ____________

Give what is being asked.

1. Give characteristics of leaders associated with: (3 for each)

Women Men Both

4. Give at least 2 situations on how gender affect leadership style.

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Name ________________________________________ Score ___________
Section_______________________________________ Date ____________

5. Give 2 reasons why women can excel in leadership.

6. Make a MATRIX showing characteristics of successful and effective

leaders on the following areas. (give at least 3 specific traits on each area )

a. Personality traits

b. Intelligence

c. Physical Traits

d. Leadership styles

7. What do you think are the reasons why women can excel as leaders?
(5 points)

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 LESSON 4.2
Women in Politics

Lesson Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you should have:

1. Described the position of women in local and world politics.
2. Identified gender issues in politics.
3. Gave factors why politics is dominated by males.
4. Listed reasons why females are becoming favored in the political arena.
5. Listed different laws and issuances that support increase in women
participation in leadership.
6. Analyzed factors that led to an increase of women participation in
Philippine politics.

Activate

Please read the following statements of wisdom from world’s great women
leaders. Express your own thoughts in 2-3 sentences only. Write your ideas on
the space at the right side of the quotation.

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 Introduction

From leading nations, to defending human rights, to running the world’s

most important organizations, women continue to shape the world through their
leadership. Women’s representation is crucial in the realization of development
goals for it is through their representation that their voices are heard, and their
issues, concerns, and perspectives are made an integral part of decision- and
policy-making processes that affect their lives. None the less social, economic
and structural barriers that hinder women’s full participation and representation
still exist.
In the entire world picture of leadership, the female bodies constitute only a
mere 20%. Though in some regions of the world, women have fared better in the
political arena of national governing bodies. Local and international research
studies and surveys, almost always, affirm the common belief in the literature
that women tend to fare less well than men in elections and males have always
shown greater success than females especially in top high ranking positions. But
why is this so? Are women really an inferior and less capable of leading
compared to men? Or are women just victims of years of discrimination that
hinder their natural capabilities to shine? These are some of the things that this
chapter would be giving light.

In this lesson, we will explore the different factors that caused the slow
participation of women in Philippine politics through the years and also factors
that contribute to the growth or increase of women participation and involvement
in Philippine politics in recent times.

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 Acquire

A. Women in the Political Arena: The World Scenario

Worldwide, women/females representation in high government positions is

not equitable to their male counterparts. Most countries in the 21st century have
granted women’s right of suffrage, where women can participate in the electoral
process. But currently only very few are holding top positions and sadly only
minority seats. Despite scholarly researches showing that the presence of women
in the affairs of the state allow them to advocate policies that benefit and advance
the interests of women in their countries, still the success story of females
elected in high position showed that the gender is still in an disadvantaged side.

The struggle for gender equality in the government here and there has
proven to be multifaceted and disparity or inequality between males and females
sadly still persists today.

In the article “Women in Politics in the Philippines by C. Aguilar published

in “Women & Politics”, Volume 26, 2004 – Issue 3-4 which was cited by F.
Jalalzai published in htpps://doi.org/10.1300/J014v26n03 04 .(published online
last Oct. 15, 2008), she tried to thoroughly examines women prime ministers and
presidents (also referred to as women executives) and rigorously comparing
nearly all cases of women executives from 1960 through 2002. The numbers of
women executives, countries they have led, and the types of governmental
systems in which they came to power are analyzed. The main focus is their
political and educational backgrounds. Findings suggest that the number of
women making it to executive office is few but varied geographically. Women
executives have diverse education and political backgrounds. An important
springboard to office in Asia and Latin America has been women's familial ties to
important political leaders. Even these women are more diverse than expected in
terms of background and, in particular, political experience.

The examination of the gender differences in electoral outcomes showed

that when multiple quality candidates enter the race of electoral competition,
female quality candidates are at a greater disadvantage than their male
counterparts. The gender quality of the candidates has a differential impact on the
electoral fortunes of male and female quality candidates.

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Women in international organization leadership

B. Women in the Political Arena: The Philippine Scenario

In the local scene, the 2019 Philippine National and Local Elections
showed that 20.16 percent (8,782) of the candidates were female.

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 The status of women in the Philippine society especially in the aspect of
politics and the labor market is though high compared to the world index, still
show that gender equality “divides and mirages” in Philippine sexual politics.

Although the Philippines appears to be ahead of its neighboring countries

by having 2 women presidents already, major hurdles are still in place for women
to gain a firmer foothold in politics. It is still basically an elite-male dominated
political landscape. While there is a perceptible increase in the number of
women elected into government posts, assumption to institutional leadership does
not necessarily translate into the expected degree of political clout.

The slow increase in women’s representation in politics may be

attributed to prevailing patriarchal norms and values, and gender stereotypes.

According to the latest gender disaggregated data, women constitute 37.9-

million (49.6%) of the 76.5 million Filipinos as of May 2000. Almost 15.5-million
are between ages 15 to 40 reflecting a young female population. However, while
women constitute nearly half of the population, their status in the Philippine
society is still characterized by sharp contradictions of obvious gains and
contradicted by glaring inequalities on the other.
There had been a gradual increase in the number of Filipino women
participating in Philippine politics, both at the local and national level. Female
involvement in the political environment of the country was highlighted by the
election of two women as President of the Philippines, namely Corazon
Aquino and Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo.

The Philippines ranked 17th worldwide and 3rd in Asia in terms of political
empowerment, according to the 2015 Global Gender Gap report of the World
Economic Forum. The "political empowerment" category measures the gap
between women and men at the highest level of political decision-making. Such
measure, however, does not include data on the local level. Overall, the

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Philippines ranked 7th in the Global Gender Gap Index, as measured in terms of
gender equality, political empowerment, health and survival, economic
participation and opportunity. Does this mean that women are truly equally
represented in the Philippine government?

Let us further, look at the record of past elections in the Philippines.

Election Women Men

In the past 6 election years – from 1998 to 2013 –
year
there have always been more men than women
participating and winning the elections, according
to data from the Commission on Elections 1998 16.15% 83.85%
(Comelec). In 1998, there were 17,512
government seats available. Of the 63,531 2004 16.63% 83.37%
candidates who ran that year, only 14.3% were
women. Have things changed since then? In 2010 18.56% 81.44%
2013, the percentage of women candidates rose
to 17.82%. This means over 36,000 men gunned 2013 19.92% 79.75%
for seats, while only less than 8,000 women did.
Although there is improvement, such figures
reveal stark truths about gender and governance
in the Philippines.

If figures are broken up, it is clear that men still dominate Philippine politics.
In 2010, there were only two women elected to
the Senate. In 2013, there were 4. Meanwhile,
in the House of Representatives, 60 women sit
next to 174 men. Given such conditions,
advocates cannot help but ask what kind of
laws are prioritized in Congress.

It is important to note, however, that

there are men who champion women's rights
such as reproductive health (RH) advocate
Edcel Lagman. At the same time, there are also
women who
oppose pro-women laws like Senator Nancy
Binay, an RH and divorce law critic.

The last three decades which saw the

rise of the women’s movement in the
Philippines have resulted to mixed impact –
with positive ratings in political participation and

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law reform but minus points in economic empowerment and sexual and domestic
violence. The challenge of gender divide still pervades the Philippine society and
the institutions and traditions that sustain it are continuously being buffeted by
forces of change.

However, the national efforts have to be scaled-up to regional

and international level.

Time Out 1
Apply

Before we go further, let us have a little checking of what you have taken
so far. Give what is being asked below. Write your answers on the space
provided before each number.

1.In the work of C. Aguilar on Women in Politics, what are

considered as 2 important diverse backgrounds of
potential political candidates.
2.They are the 2 women Presidents of the Philippines that
raised the rank of the country in political empowerment.
3.This is considered as one of the most important factors
in a women’s election to political position in Philippine
government.
4.What is the rank of the Philippines, compared to the
world, in terms of women emancipation?
5.The overall rank of the Philippines in global index when
other factors of life such as health survival, economic
participation and opportunity, are considered apart from
political empowerment.
6.Philippines rank in Asia in terms of political
empowerment.
7. A male legislature considered as champion of
protecting women’s rights.
8. A female senator who criticized the RH and divorce
laws.

Look at the picture or images of the leaders of the countries that have been
affected by COVID 19. In 2-3 sentences, express your analysis of the situation.
Write your answer on the space provided.

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C. Issues of Women Participation in Philippine Politics

Despite gender mainstreaming, laws that serve as legal frameworks

promoting gender equality in the country, plus project initiatives and process for
gender and even with international instruments promoting women’s better
participation in various activities of the society, women’s role in various fields of
societal life is still on minimal level. Philippines is known for its very liberal and
progressive Constitution that promotes gender equality.

In particular, in Article II Section 14 of the 1987 Constitution, “the State

recognizes the role of women in nation-building and shall ensure the fundamental
equality before the law of women and men.” The constitution further provided for
women representation (as one of the 9 marginalized sectors) in the legislature
through the party-list system (which should cover 20% of the lower house).
Specifically, Article 13 Section 14 specifically mentioned that the “State shall
protect working women by providing safe and healthful working conditions, taking
into account their maternal functions, and such facilities and opportunities that will
enhance their welfare and enable them to realize their full potential in the service
of the nation”.

All these make Philippines a leading country with minimal gender disparity.
Yet, figures show that generally women faced numerous obstacles to partake a
bigger role and impact in politics.

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 The following is a list of characteristic features of Philippine politics that may
have caused fewer women participation in politics:

1. Prevailing patriarchal Philippine leadership where male strength prevail

as the social definitions of roles in society. Women are pictured as
supportive of the “leader husband” and whose main tasks are to entertain
constituents (socialization and diplomacy) and provide charity work (social
welfare or even dole-outs).

2. The gender stereotyping of multiple/double burden challenge also

contributes to the “glass ceiling “in politics. Wives are supposed to take
care of the next generations of the political family and bear most of
responsibility of performing domestic duties while they engage in political,
economic and social activities discourages women themselves from
running for public office.

3. The “old boys” nature of political relations and transactions also put the
role of women in the margins. This reduces the access to resources and
decision-making thus diminishes their political influence.

4. The existence of multiple political parties & Patronage of 3Gs (Gold, Guns,
Goons)

5. Costly election where difficulty of women in finding sufficient resources for

costly electoral campaigns tends to hinder them from running for elective
government positions

6. Disunity in the women party list that failed to convince the general Filipino
women of their special interests in the electoral arena.

7. Personality oriented party lists rather that ideological or programmatic

nature.

8. Women’s votes or participations are more oriented toward c personalities

or parties.” (Rodriguez, 2002: 41)

While the country has made great strides in promoting and increasing
women’s political participation, with two women having held the highest position in
government as President of the Republic of the Philippines, the proportion of
women in politics or public office is still yet to meet the 30 percent “critical
mass,” which scholars identify as the minimum percentage necessary for a

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minority group to be able to influence decision making. From 1998 to 2016, the
percentage of women elected into public office ranged from 16.1 percent to 21.44
percent, reaching its peak in the 2016 elections. In the 2019 National and Local
Elections, only 20.16 percent (8,782) of the candidates were female.

In the electoral arena, there are more women registered voters than men
(17.2-million to 16.9-million). The 2001 elections even showed a female turnout of
76.7% while the males are pegged at 75.9% (COMELEC, 2001). But it must be
noted also that female participation declined from 87.1% in 1998.

Time Out 2
Apply

Of all the prevailing characteristic features of Philippine politics that may

have caused fewer women participation in politics, what are the two (2) that you
think are true in your own local politics.

D. Legal frameworks increase participation of women in the Philippine

Politics: Laws promoting gender equality in the Philippines
1. The 1987 Constitution -upholds the fundamental equality before the law of
women and men and recognizes the vital role of women in nation building. It also
guarantees citizens’ equal access to opportunities for public service. Furthermore,
as stated in the previous section, it provides for sectoral representation, which
includes women, at the local level.

2. The Magna Carta of Women - (MCW, Republic Act 9710) provides under
Section 11 the undertaking of “temporary special measures” to accelerate the
participation and equitable representation of women in all spheres of society

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particularly in the decision-making and policy-making processes in government
and private entities to fully realize their role as agents and beneficiaries of
development.” It mandates the adoption of temporary special measures for the
incremental increase of women in third level positions in the civil service until a
fifty-fifty (50-50) gender balance is achieved; sets a forty percent (40%) quota for
women in local development councils and planning bodies; and provides for the
creation of an incentive system for encouraging political parties to integrate
women in their leadership hierarchy and electoral nominating processes, among
others.

3. Local Government Code of 1991 - Provides for the election of sectoral

representation, including women, in local legislative councils.

4. Party List Law - Provides for the creation of women-oriented or women-based

parties to compete under the party-list system. Women is one of the 9 sector
identified in the law.

5. Labor Code (1989) - Covers issues such as night work prohibition, specifies
that employers must provide special facilities for women, prohibition of
discrimination against women in respect to terms and conditions of employment,
prohibition of discrimination by reason of marriage of a woman worker

6. Women in Nation Building Law. Republic Act 7192 (1991) - is an act promoting
the integration of women as full and equal partners of men in development and
nation building. The aw provides that a substantial portion of government
resources be utilized to support programs and activities for women. The law also
encourages the full participation and involvement of women in the development
process and to remove gender bias in all government regulations and procedures.
In relation to gender budgeting, the law specifically mandated all agencies to
allocate a minimum of 5%, increasing to 30%, of ll official development funds in
mainstreaming gender concerns. hrough executive directives however, this 5%
allocation is further expanded to over the total budget appropriations, not only
development funds, of all government agencies and local government units in the
country. This is known as the Gender and Development Budget or GAD.

7. The representation of women in legislative bodies is provided under Section

41(c) of the Local Government Code; as well as under Republic Act 7941 or the
“Party-List System Act,” which includes women in the list of marginalized sectors
that may form a political party and vie for representation under the party-list
system.

8. Party List System Act (RA 7941) – party politics based on principles and
programs. The proportional system of representation under the Party-List System
Act which encourages a type of party politics that is not personality-based but

123
rather one that is anchored on principles or programs becomes an entry point of
some women in legislative bodies. There are specific women’s party-list groups.
9. Section 9, Article X of the 1987 Constitution states that “[l]egislative bodies of
local governments shall have sectoral representation as may be prescribed by
law. Section 41(c) of the Local government Code (Republic Act 7160) states that
“… there shall be one (1) sectoral representative from the women, on(1) from the
workers, and one (1) from any of the following sectors: the urban poor, indigenous
cultural communities, disabled persons, or any other sector as may be
determined by the Sanggunian concerned…” (Emphasis supplied) Its
implementation is still at a halt given that the enabling law for this constitutional
and statutory policy on local sectoral representation is yet to be enacted.

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 Assess

Name ____________________________________ Score________________

Section __________________________________ Date ________________

1. Looking back at the status of women in international organization leadership,

give 2 to 3 sentences why you think women as leaders excel.

2. Give the following: (describe each)

a. 5 characteristic features of Philippine politics that cause few women
participation in political arena
b. 5 Legal frameworks that supports women participation in leadership.
c. 3 Local laws that increase women participation in the Philippine politics.

125
 References

Bureau of Women and Young Workers, July 2002, Selected Regional Labor
Force Statistics on Women and Young Workers.
http://www.bwyw.dole.gov.ph (visited March 10, 2003)

Contreras, A. ( 2020). Study Group on Women and Men as Agents of Change in

Political Decision-Making Country Report: The Philippines.

Enright, K. (2018).Gender in Politics: A Comparative Study of Female

Representation in the New York State Senate. Public Administration & Policy. 7.
https://scholarsarchive.library.albany.edu/honorscollege_pad/7

Eklund, K., E. S. Barry and N. E. Grunberg, (2016). Gender and Leadership.

Reviewed and published in 2017. DOI: 10.5772/65457

Department of Interior and Local Government, 2003, Over 90,000 Women are in
Local Government Service. http://www.dilg.gov.ph (visited March 14, 2003)

Department of Labor and Employment, March 11, 2003, DOLE completes

Philippine country program for informal sector, DOLE New.
http://www.dole.gov.ph

Filipino Women in Politics and Governance, 1998, Mabuhay ang Filipina!

Mabuhay ang Kalayaan! http://www.kababaihan.org (visited March 9,
2003)

Participation of Women in Philippine Politics and Society: A Situationer

http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/philippinen/50067.pdf

Women's Political Participation and Representation

https://www.pcw.gov.ph/wpla/-womens-political-participation-and-
representation#:~:text=In%20the%202019%20National%20and,realm%20o
f%20men%20than%20women.

126
Radu, C. A Deaconu & C. Frasineanu, (2016). Leadership and Gender
Differences – Are Men and Women leading in the Same Way?. Published
Feb 1, 2017.

1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines

Article (PDF Available) Gender and Leadership? Leadership and Gender? A

Journey Through the Landscape of Theories in Leadership & Organization
Development Journal 24(1): 43-51. DOI: 10.1108/01437730310457320
https://www.intechopen.com/books/gender-differences-in-different-
contexts/gender-and-leadership

Website

https://www.intechopen.com/books/contemporary-leadership-
challenges/leadership-and-gender-differences-are-men-and-women-leading-in-
the-same-way-

Please copy the link or Scan the QR Code to access the survey.

https://www.menti.com/esyoe3tadu

THANK YOU!

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