As, 

because or since?
 
As, because and since are conjunctions. As, because and since all introduce subordinate
clauses. They connect the result of something with its reason.

result reason

He decided to go to the conference in

as he was in Spain anyway.
Barcelona,

Are you angry with me because I opened the letter?

Bilardo coaches his team by telephone,

since half of them play in Italy, France
(Bilardo was the coach of the Argentinian or Spain.
football team)

Because
Because is more common than as and since, both in writing and speaking. When we
use because, we are focusing on the reason:
She spoke quietly because she didn’t want Catherine to hear.
We’ll come over on Sunday  because David’s got to work on Saturday.
We often put the because-clause at the beginning of a sentence, especially when we want to
give extra focus to the reason. We use a comma after the because-clause:
Because breathing is something we do automatically, we rarely think about it.
We can use a because-clause on its own without the main clause in speaking or informal
writing:
A:
Would you like to go to school there?
B:
Yes.
A:
Why?
B:
Because my best friend goes there. (I would like to go to school there because my best
friend goes there.)
Warning:
We don’t use a because-clause on its own in formal writing:
In 1998, the government introduced a new import tax  because people were importing cars
from abroad.
Not: … a new import tax. Because people were importing cars from abroad.

Cos
We often shorten because to cos /kəz/ or /kɒz/ in informal speaking and writing:
I’m laughing cos I’m so happy.
See also:
 Because, because of and cos, cos of

As and since
We often use as and since when we want to focus more on the result than the
reason. As and since are more formal than because. We usually put a comma
before since after the main clause:
[result]I hope they’ve decided to come as  [reason]I wanted to hear about their India trip.
[result]They’re rather expensive, since  [reason]they’re quite hard to find.
We often use as and since clauses at the beginning of the sentence. We use a comma after
the as- or since- clause:
Since  everything can be done from home with computers and telephones, there’s no need
to dress up for work any more.
As  everyone already knows each other, there’s no need for introductions. We’ll get straight
into the business of the meeting.
We use because, not as or since, in questions where the speaker proposes a reason:
Are you feeling unwell because you ate too much?
Not: Are you feeling unwell since you ate too much? or … as you ate too much?

Conjunctions
Conjunctions are linking words like and, or, but, then and because:
They knocked down all the houses and they built a car park.
Are there four or five people living in that house?
My shoes look great but are not very comfortable.

And, but, either … or, etc. (coordinating

conjunctions)
Coordinating conjunctions connect items which are the same grammatical type,
e.g. words, phrases, clauses. The most common coordinating conjunctions
are and, or, but.

One-word conjunctions

Connecting words

Which do you prefer?  [word]Red or  [word]blue?

Connecting phrases

The meal was  [phrase]very expensive and  [phrase]not very nice.

Connecting clauses

[clause]There are seats outside but  [clause]some people don’t like sitting outdoors.

Connecting sentences

My grandmother’s name was Wall. But she became Jenkins when she got

married to my grandfather. (In very formal writing, we don’t normally start a
sentence with but.)

Connecting prefixes

[prefix]Pro- and  [prefix]anti-government supporters waited outside the parliament.

Two-word conjunctions
Some coordinating conjunctions have two parts: either … or …, neither …
nor …, both … and …:
You can drink chocolate milk either hot in the winter or cold in the summer.
Neither Lisa nor Helena had been to Italy before. (Lisa hadn’t been to Italy before
and Helena hadn’t been to Italy before.)
Both you and I know what really happened. (You know and I know what
happened.)
Warning:

Apart from two-word conjunctions, we only use one conjunction to connect words
or phrases:
Because my alarm didn’t go off, I was late for work.
Not: Because my alarm didn’t go off, so I was late for work.

After, although, as soon as, etc. (subordinating

conjunctions)
Common subordinating conjunctions are: after, (al)though, as, before, if, since,
that, until, when, whereas, while, once, so, as soon as, provided that. When a
clause follows these conjunctions, it becomes a subordinate clause, which needs a
main clause to make a complete sentence.

One-word conjunctions
[subordinate clause]After we had talked on the phone,  [main clause]I wrote down what
we had decided.
[main clause]Everyone enjoyed the fishing trip  [subordinate clause]although no one
caught any fish!
[subordinate clause]Before we left at four o’clock,  [main clause]we had something to eat.
When the subordinate clause comes before the main clause, we usually put a
comma at the end of the clause. When the main clause comes first, we don’t need
to use a comma.

Conjunctions
 
Grammar > Words, sentences and clauses > Conjunctions and linking words >
Conjunctions

from English Grammar Today

Conjunctions are linking words like and, or, but, then and because:

They knocked down all the houses and they built a car park.
Are there four or five people living in that house?
My shoes look great  but are not very comfortable.

And, but, either … or, etc. (coordinating conjunctions)

Coordinating conjunctions connect items which are the same grammatical type, e.g. words,
phrases, clauses. The most common coordinating conjunctions are and, or, but.

One-word conjunctions

Connecting words

Which do you prefer?  [word]Red  or  [word]blue?

Connecting phrases

The meal was  [phrase]very expensive and  [phrase]not very nice.

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Connecting clauses

[clause]There are seats outside but  [clause]some people don’t like sitting outdoors.

Connecting sentences
My grandmother’s name was Wall. But she became Jenkins when she got married to my
grandfather. (In very formal writing, we don’t normally start a sentence with but.)

Connecting prefixes

[prefix]Pro-  and  [prefix]anti-government supporters waited outside the parliament.

Two-word conjunctions
Some coordinating conjunctions have two parts: either … or …, neither … nor …, both …
and …:
You can drink chocolate milk either hot in the winter or cold in the summer.
Neither  Lisa nor Helena had been to Italy before. (Lisa hadn’t been to Italy before and
Helena hadn’t been to Italy before.)
Both you and I know what really happened. (You know and I know what happened.)
Warning:

Apart from two-word conjunctions, we only use one conjunction to connect words or
phrases:
Because my alarm didn’t go off, I was late for work.
Not: Because my alarm didn’t go off, so I was late for work.

After, although, as soon as, etc. (subordinating

conjunctions)
Common subordinating conjunctions are: after, (al)though, as, before, if, since, that, until,
when, whereas, while, once, so, as soon as, provided that. When a clause follows these
conjunctions, it becomes a subordinate clause, which needs a main clause to make a
complete sentence.

One-word conjunctions
[subordinate clause]After we had talked on the phone,  [main clause]I wrote down what we had
decided.
[main clause]Everyone enjoyed the fishing trip  [subordinate clause]although no one caught any
fish!
[subordinate clause]Before we left at four o’clock,  [main clause]we had something to eat.
When the subordinate clause comes before the main clause, we usually put a comma at the
end of the clause. When the main clause comes first, we don’t need to use a comma.
See also:
 Although or though?
 As
 As … as
 Before
 If
 Once
 Since
 So
 That
 Until
 When
 Whereas
 While and whilst

Conjunctions with more than one word

Some subordinating conjunctions consist of more than one word: as long as, as soon
as, except that, in order that, so as to, provided that:
As long as the waves are high enough, we can go surfing.
Provided that he pays a fine, he will not have to go to jail. (formal)

Conjunctions that can be modified by adverbs

Some subordinating conjunctions may be modified by adverbs (underlined). For
example just when, ever since, only if, just as, simply because, right before:
The phone rang just when I’d gone to bed.
I have been afraid to swim in the sea ever since I was young.

Position of subordinating conjunctions

Words and phrases such as above all, anyway, as a result, as
well, eventually, firstly, however, overall, rather, then, therefore, though, on the
contrary (linking adjuncts) can create similar meanings to conjunctions (e.g. adding, cause
and effect). These words are adverb phrases and can come in any position which an adverb
can occupy:
He left home late. (As a result) he  (as a result) didn’t arrive until 8 pm (as a result).
We cannot do this with subordinating conjunctions, which must come at the beginning of
the clause. Subordinating conjunctions create a grammatical connection between two
clauses, making one dependent on the other.
Compare

Subordinating
conjunction so:
He couldn’t get money
from the bank so he
couldn’t buy a house.
These two sentences mean the same thing but they are
connected differently:
 So makes a subordinating link between the
cause/reason (He couldn’t get money from the
bank) and the result (he couldn’t buy a house).
This is a grammatical link. The position
of so cannot change.

Linking adjunct as a
result:
He couldn’t get money
from the bank. As a
result he couldn’t buy a
house.
 As a result creates a link between two clauses based
on meaning. We can move as a result (He
couldn’t get money from the bank. He couldn’t
buy a house as a result).

Although or though?
 

Although and though meaning ‘in spite of’

Although and though both mean ‘in spite of something’. They are subordinating
conjunctions. This means that the clause which they introduce is a subordinate
clause, which needs a main clause to make it complete:
[main clause]Everyone enjoyed the trip to the final although  [subordinate clause]we lost the
match!
[subordinate clause]Though it was rainy,  [main clause]we put on our jackets and went for a walk.
Spoken English:
Though is more common than although in general and it is much more common
than although in speaking. For emphasis, we often use even with though (but not
with although).
Warning:
When the though/although clause comes before the main clause, we usually put a comma at
the end of the clause. When the main clause comes first, we don’t need to use a comma:
Even though I earn a lot of money every month, I never seem to have any to spare!
I still feel hungry even though  I had a big lunch.
See also:
  Even if

Although and though with -ing clauses
In formal situations, we can use although and though to introduce an -ing clause:
[a teacher talking about a student]
Peter, although working harder this term, still needs to put more work into mathematics.
[a doctor talking about a patient]
The patient, though getting stronger, is still not well enough to come off his medication.

Although and though with reduced clauses

In formal speaking or writing, we can use although, though and even though to introduce a
clause without a verb (a reduced clause):
Raymond, although very interested, didn’t show any emotion when she invited him to go
for a walk.
[referring to a car]
Though more expensive, the new model is safer and more efficient.

Although and though meaning ‘but’
When the although/though clause comes after a main clause, it can also mean ‘but it is also
true that …’:
Karen is coming to stay next week  although I’m not sure what day she is coming.
We didn’t make any profit though nobody knows why.

Though meaning ‘however’
Spoken English:
Especially in speaking, we can use though (but not although or even though) with a
meaning similar to however or nevertheless. In these cases, we usually put it at the end of a
clause:
A:
You have six hours in the airport between flights!
B:
I don’t mind, though. I have lots of work to do. I’ll just bring my laptop with me.
A:
It’s expensive.
B:
It’s nice, though.
A:
Yeah, I think I’ll buy it.

As though
As though has a meaning very similar to as if. As if is much more common than as though:
You look as though/as if you have seen a ghost!
He looks as though/as if he hasn’t slept.

AS

As is a preposition or a conjunction.

As as a preposition
We use as with a noun to refer to the role or purpose of a person or thing:
I worked as a waiter when I was a student. Most of us did.
Not: I worked like a waiter …
[The Daily Telegraph is a British newspaper]
The Daily Telegraph appointed Trevor Grove as its Sunday editor.
Internet shopping is seen as a cheaper alternative to shopping on the high street.
A sarong is essential holiday gear. It can be used as a beach towel, wrap, dress or
scarf and will take up no space in your bag.
Warning:
We don’t use as + noun to mean ‘similar to’. We use like + noun:
It’s almost like a real beach, but it’s actually artificial.
Not: It’s almost as a real beach …
I would like to have a white cat like the one in my dream.
Not: … as the one in my dream
See also:
 Like

As as a conjunction
The conjunction as has several different meanings. We use as when one event
happens while another is in progress (‘during the time that’). In this case the verb
after is often in the continuous form:
They arrived as we were leaving. (time conjunction meaning ‘while’ or ‘when’)
We use as to connect a result with a cause:
I went to bed at 9 pm as I had a plane to catch at 6 am. (reason and result
meaning ‘because’)
We also use as to mean ‘in the way that’:
As the forecast predicted, the weather was dreadful for the whole of the weekend.
She arrived early, as I expected.

The same as
We use as with the same to talk about identical things:
Your jacket is the same colour as mine.
See also:
 Same, similar, identical

As: simultaneous changes

We use as to introduce two events happening at the same time. After as with this
meaning, we usually use a simple (rather than continuous) form of the verb:
As the show increases in popularity, more and more tickets are sold daily.
Compare

When you get older, moving house One thing happens first and as a result the
gets harder. second thing is true.
As you get older, moving house gets
harder.
The two things happen at the same time.
Not: While you get older …

Warning:
We don’t use as alone to introduce examples. We say such as:
They gave them gifts such as flowers and fruit and sang a special welcome song.
Not: … gifts as flowers …

As … as
We use as + adjective/adverb + as to make comparisons when the things we are
comparing are equal in some way:
The world’s biggest bull is as big as a small elephant.
The weather this summer is as bad as last year. It hasn’t stopped raining for
weeks.
You have to unwrap it as carefully as you can. It’s quite fragile.
See also:
 Comparison: adjectives (bigger, biggest, more interesting)

Not as … as
We use not as … as to make comparisons between things which aren’t equal:
It’s not as heavy as I thought it would be, actually.
Rory hasn’t grown as tall as Tommy yet.
She’s not singing as loudly as she can.
They didn’t play as well as they usually do.
We can modify not as … as by using not quite as or not nearly as:
The second race was not quite as easy as the first one. (The second race was
easy but the first one was easier.)
These new shoes are not nearly as comfortable as my old ones. (My old shoes
are a lot more comfortable than these new shoes.)
We can also use not so … as. Not so … as is less common than not as … as:
The cycling was good but not so hard as the cross country skiing we did.

As … as + possibility
We often use expressions of possibility or ability after as … as:
Can you come as soon as possible?
Go to as many places as you can.
We got here as fast as we could.

As much as, as many as

When we want to make comparisons referring to quantity, we use as much as with
uncountable nouns and as many as with plural nouns:
Greg makes as much money as Mick but not as much as Neil.
They try to give them as much freedom as they can.
There weren’t as many people there as I expected.
We can use as much as and as many as before a number to refer to a large
number of something:
Scientists have discovered a planet which weighs as much as 2,500 times the
weight of Earth.
There were as many as 50 people crowded into the tiny room.

BEFORE
Before is a preposition, an adverb and a conjunction. Before means earlier than the
time or event mentioned:
Can you call me back before 5 pm, please?
I met her just before she left.
Warning:
In writing, when we refer back to something that we have already written, we
use above not before:
As the graph above shows, the rate of inflation has risen by 15%.

Before as a preposition
We use before most commonly with noun phrases to refer to timed events:
I like to go for a run before breakfast.
You can check in online but you have to do it at least four hours before your flight.
We use before to refer to place, especially when it is seen as part of a journey or
as part of a sequence of events in time:
Get off the bus just before Euston Station.
Just before the end of the poem, there is a line where the poet expresses his
deepest fears.

Before, by, till, until
If you have to do something before a certain point in time, then when that point
arrives, the action must already be completed:
I need to have the letter before Friday. (Friday is too late. I need it in advance of
Friday.)
If you have to do something by a certain point in time, then that time is the
last moment at which the action can be completed:
Can we finish this meeting by 5 pm. I have to get to the station by 5.30 pm. (5 pm
is the latest that I want the meeting to finish and 5.30 pm is the latest that I can
arrive at the station.)
If something is done or happens till or until a point in time, it happens over a
duration of time, starting before that time and continuing up to that point:
[out-of-office auto-reply message on an email]
I’ll be out of the office until 17th May. I will reply to your email after that date. (I will
be back on 17 May, but not before.)
Compare
I’ll be there until five
o’clock. I’ll be there up to five o’clock, but not after.

I’ll call you by five I may call you before five o’clock but I will call you no
o’clock. later than five o’clock.

I’ll be
there before dinner. I’ll be there earlier than dinner time.
Before as an adverb
Before often comes after nouns such as day, morning, night, week, month,
year to refer to the previous day, morning, etc.:
Two people were ill at work yesterday and three people the day before!
A:
Did you graduate in 1989?
B:
No, actually, I finished college the year before.
Warning:
When we refer to a period of time that is completed and goes from a point in the
past up to now, we use ago, not before:
A:
When was your birthday?
B:
It was three weeks ago.
See also:
 Ago

Before as an adjunct
We use before to connect earlier events to the moment of speaking or to a point of
time in the past:
I’m so looking forward to the trip. I haven’t been to Latin America before. (up to the
moment of speaking)
I introduced Tom to Olivia last night. They hadn’t met before. (up to that point in
the past)

Before as a conjunction
We use before as a subordinating conjunction. We commonly use before with the
past simple tense. It suggests that the second event happened soon after the first
one. The before clause, which indicates the second action, can be at the end or at
the beginning of the sentence:
Before she left, she gave everyone a present.
She gave everyone a present before she left.

Before with present tenses

When we use before in clauses in the present tense, the clause can refer to the
future:
Before I go to work, I jog for at least an hour.
Not: Before I will go to work …

Before with past tenses

We sometimes use before clauses in a variety of tenses to say that the action or
event in the before clause did not or may not happen:
Before I had a chance to thank him, he’d gone.
You’re interrupting her before she has even spoken.
Before he had finished his training, he was sacked.
We should stop shopping now before we spend all our money.

Before with -ing
A non-finite clause with before + ing-form is more formal:
Before bringing the milk to the boil, add the egg. (more formal than Before you
bring …)

Just before, immediately before

We can use adverbs such as just, immediately, shortly and long, and expressions
involving words such as days, weeks, months, years in front of before:
We got home just before it rained.
The deadline for the essay was 5 pm. I got mine in shortly before five o’clock but
Lily had hers in days before the deadline.

Beforehand
We can use beforehand as an alternative to before as an adverb, especially when
the reference to time is less specific.
Spoken English:
Beforehand is more common in informal speaking than in writing:
I love singing but I always get so nervous beforehand.
In front of beforehand, we can put adverbs such as immediately, just and shortly,
and other time expressions such as days, weeks, months, years:
Months beforehand, Dominic had bought five tickets for the concert.

Other uses of before

Before meaning ‘in front of’
We use before meaning ‘in front of’ in more formal contexts:
Brian was twenty years old. He had his whole life before him.
The Prime Minister went before the people to tell them that he was going to
resign.

Before long meaning ‘after a short time’

Especially in writing, we use before long to mean ‘after a short time’:
They’ll marry before long, and then you’ll have more grandsons than you can
count.

Before: typical errors
 We use above not before when we refer back to something we have already
written:
As stated above, there are four key findings from the study.
Not: As stated before, there are …
 When we refer to a period of time that is completed and which goes from a
point in the past up to now, we use ago, not before:
A:
When did you first meet?
B:
Ten years ago when we were in college.
Not: Ten years before when …
 IF

If is a conjunction.

If: conditions
We often use if to introduce possible or impossible situations or conditions and
their results. The situations or conditions can be real, imagined or uncertain:
I usually make a sandwich to take to work if I have enough time. (real)
If you don’t book now, you won’t get good tickets. (real)
They’d have got the job done quicker if they’d had more people working on
it. (imagined)
Will you bring my glasses down if you go upstairs? (uncertain)
See also:
 Conditionals: if

If possible, if necessary
We can sometimes leave words out after if to form fixed expressions:
Check the temperature of your meat with a meat thermometer if possible. (if it’s
possible or if that’s possible)
Interest rates would have to rise if necessary to protect the pound, Mr John
Smith, Shadow Chancellor, indicated yesterday on BBC TV’s Money Programme.

If so, if not
We use so or not after if when it is obvious what we are referring to:
[from a job advertisement]
Are you looking for part-time work? Do you want to work from home? If so, read
on. (if you are looking for part-time work or if you want to work from home)
You should all have received your booklist for the course by now. If not, please
email the office. (if you haven’t received your booklist for the course by now)
I’ll see you soon, definitely at the wedding, if not before. (if I don’t see you before
the wedding)
Even if
We can use even if to mean if when talking about surprising or extreme situations:
You’re still going to be cold even if you put on two or three jumpers.
See also:
 Even

If: reporting questions

We use if to introduce reported yes-no questions and questions with or.
Compare

direct question indirect question

Do you like dogs? I asked if she liked dogs.

Are you leaving now or are you staying He asked if I was leaving now or staying
for a bit longer? for a bit longer.

See also:
 Conditionals
 If or when?
 If or whether?
 Reported speech
 Even if
We use only if to express a strong condition, often an order or command, to mean
‘on the condition that’. It has an opposite meaning to ‘except if’:
Payment will be made only if the work is completed on time.
Alright I’ll come but only if I can bring a friend with me.
We often separate only and if, using only in the main clause:
He’ll only take the job if they offer him more money.
We’ll only achieve our targets if everyone works together.

If and politeness
In speaking, we often use if to introduce a polite request. If is usually followed by
modal verbs will, would, can or could when it is used to be polite:
If you’ll just tell Julie that her next client is here. (Can you tell Julie that …)
If you would like to follow me. (Please follow me.)

Once as an adverb
We use once as an adverb to mean ‘one single time’:
I’ve only met Jane’s husband once. (one time)
We say once a + singular time expression and once every + plural time expression
to talk about how often something happens:
They go for dinner together once a month. (one time per month)
Not: They go for dinner once the month.
I see him once every two or three weeks.
We also use once to mean ‘at a time in the past but not now’. In this meaning, we
often use it in mid position (between the subject and the main verb, or after the
modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb):
My father once worked on an oilrig. (He no longer works there.)
The Millers once owned a dairy farm. (They no longer own a dairy farm.)
She was once a schoolteacher but she hated it.
The phrase once upon a time is used at the start of children’s stories. We
sometimes use it to mean ‘long ago’:
Once upon a time there was a little girl called Little Red Riding Hood …
You used to go to nightclubs once upon a time!

Once as a conjunction
We use once as a conjunction meaning ‘as soon as’ or ‘after’:
Once I’ve picked Megan up, I’ll call you.
My boss is a nice man once you get to know him.
We don’t use shall or will in the clause with once:
Once I pass all my exams, I’ll be fully qualified.
Not: Once I will pass