General Biology 1

Quarter 3 – Module 3:
Cell Cycle: Mitosis
General Biology 1 – Grade 11
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 3 – Module 3: Cell Cycle: Mitosis
First Edition, 2020

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General Biology 1
Quarter 3 – Module 3:
Cell Cycle: Mitosis
Introductory Message
This Self-Learning Module (SLM) is prepared so that you, our dear learners,
can continue your studies and learn while at home. Activities, questions, directions,
exercises, and discussions are carefully stated for you to understand each lesson.

Each SLM is composed of different parts. Each part shall guide you step-by-
step as you discover and understand the lesson prepared for you.

Pre-tests are provided to measure your prior knowledge on lessons in each

SLM. This will tell you if you need to proceed on completing this module or if you
need to ask your facilitator or your teacher’s assistance for better understanding of
the lesson. At the end of each module, you need to answer the post-test to self-check
your learning. Answer keys are provided for each activity and test. We trust that you
will be honest in using these.

In addition to the material in the main text, Notes to the Teacher are also
provided to our facilitators and parents for strategies and reminders on how they can
best help you on your home-based learning.

Please use this module with care. Do not put unnecessary marks on any part
of this SLM. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises and tests. And
read the instructions carefully before performing each task.

If you have any questions in using this SLM or any difficulty in answering the
tasks in this module, do not hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator.

Thank you.

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 What I Need to Know

This module is designed for you to learn about the exciting world of cell preparation
and cell formation as part of the cell cycle. You will dwell on and study how cells are
formed. You will also explore the distinctions between and among the phases of
mitotic cellular division. In this module, you will also have to reflect on the
importance of mitosis.

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. characterize the phases of the cell cycle and their control points (STEM_BIO11/12
– Id – f – 6);
2. describe the stages of mitosis given 2n = 6 (STEM_BIO11/12 – Id – f – 7);
3. explain the significance or applications of mitosis (STEM_BIO11/12 – Id – f – 9);
and
4. identify disorders and diseases that result from the malfunction of the cell during
the cell cycle (STEM_BIO11/12 – Id – f – 10).
5.

What I Know

You have already learned the topic about cell cycle, mitosis in particular, during your
Grade 8 Science class. Also, you have had enough background about the said topic.
To test your prior knowledge about cell cycle and mitosis, the table below is provided
for you. All you have to do is to classify the following statements by writing FACT if
the statement is true and BLUFF if it is not. After answering the table, browse your
module if your answers are accurate.

Statement My answer Module’s answer

Interphase is the next stage of cell division.
Nothing happens in interphase.
The cell spends most of its time at rest.
Interphase is comprised of smaller
phases where growth and synthesis of DNA
take place.
Cells gain weight first before dividing.
There are four phases in mitosis.

Read carefully each item. Identify the cell cycle stage described in every concept.
Choose the letter of your answer provided below and write it on the line before each
number.

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Cell cycle: Mitosis
a. Interphase
b. Prophase
c. Prometaphase
d. Metaphase
e. Anaphase
f. Telophase

_____1. The sister chromatids are moving apart.

_____2. The nucleus and other organelles are no longer visible.
_____3. A new nuclear membrane is formed around the chromosomes.
_____4. The centrioles have reached the opposite poles of the cell.
_____5. The threadlike genetic material is formed and found in the nucleus.
_____6. The chromosomes are located at the equator of the cell.
_____7. The mitotic spindle disappears.
_____8. The centromeres of chromosomes split.
_____9. The mitotic spindle is formed.
_____10. The cell actively produces protein.
_____11. The cell elongates.
_____12. Centrioles start to move toward the opposite poles of the cell.
_____13. Cytoplasmic contents start to duplicate.
_____14. The reverse of prophase.
_____15. The mitotic spindles converge and connect to the kinetochore of
chromosomes.

Lesson

1 Cell Cycle: Mitosis

The ability to reproduce in kind is a basic

characteristic of all living organisms. “In kind” means
that the offspring of any organism closely resemble
their parent or parents. Sexual reproduction requires
fertilization, the union of gametes from two
individual organisms resulting in a fertilized egg or
zygote. Countless cell divisions subsequently occur
in a controlled manner to produce a complex,
multicellular organism. In other words, that original
single cell is the ancestor of every other cell in the
body. Once an individual is fully grown, cell reproduction is still necessary to repair
or regenerate tissues. For example, new blood and skin cells are constantly being
produced. All multicellular organisms use cell division for growth and for the

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maintenance and repair of cells and tissues. For single – celled organisms, they use
cell division as their method of reproduction.

The continuity of life from one cell to another has its

foundation in the reproduction of cells by way of the
cell cycle. The cell cycle is an orderly sequence of
events that describes the stages of a cell’s life from
the division of a single parent cell to the production
of two new daughter cells. The mechanisms involved
in the cell cycle are highly regulated. Mitosis is the
part of a cell cycle that results in identical daughter
nuclei that are also genetically identical to the
original parent nucleus. In mitosis, both the parent
and the daughter nuclei are at the same ploidy level
– diploid for most plants and animals. Meiosis employs many of the same
mechanisms as mitosis. However, the starting nucleus is always diploid and the
nuclei that result at the end of a meiotic cell division are haploid. Nuclear division
(karyokinesis) is usually followed by the cytoplasm into two (cytokinesis).

What’s In

Let us first have a short recap of the applications of cell cycle and mitosis so you can
better understand the significance of mitotic cell division.

Below are pictures which can lead you to enumerate the importance of cell cycle and
mitosis. You need to interpret each picture and so, you can state the significance of
mitotic cell division.

Image source:
Wikimedia Commons
File name: File:Human
Development-Male.jpg

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 What’s New

Has anyone ever told you that you were “going through a phase”? A phase is a defined
period within a cycle of change. Cells go through phases, too. The sequence of phases
in the life cycle of a cell is called the cell cycle. The cell cycle has two parts: Growth
and preparation (interphase) and cell division (mitosis or meiosis). Cell division in
turn is divided into two stages: Karyokinesis and cytokinesis. Below is an activity
that will help you understand the phases of cell cycle.
The figure below shows the amount of time spent by a typical cell in each phase of
the cell cycle. After observing the table, answer the given questions.

Image source: Biology LibreTexts

File name: The Cell Cycle.jpeg

a. Which phase of cell cycle is the longest?

b. Which is the shortest?
c. What do you think is happening to the chromosomes when the cell is at the
end of G2 phase prior to mitosis?

What is It

It has already said that cell cycle has two major parts: Interphase and cell division.
This module will be focusing on mitosis that involves the cell division of body cells
(somatic). During interphase, the cell grows and DNA is replicated. During the mitotic
phase, the replicated DNA and cytoplasmic contents are distributed, and the cell
divides to produce two identical daughter cells.

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 How does the cell prepare for mitosis while in
interphase?
Interphase is the part of the cell cycle through which
the cell undergoes normal growth processes while also
preparing for cell division. In order for a cell to move
from interphase into mitotic phase, many internal and
external conditions must be met. Interphase is by far
the longest part of the cell cycle – typically about 90
percent of the total time. Interphase has three stages
based on the metabolic activity taking place in the
cell: G1 (first gap), S (synthesis stage), and G2 (second
gap).

The phases of cell cycle happen along with the cell cycle control system. Cell cycle
control system, also called as cell cycle checkpoints, is driven by a built-in clock
that can be adjusted by external stimuli like sending chemical messages (protein).
This control system is essential to ensure that the daughter cells produced be exact
duplicates of the parent cell. Mistakes in the duplication or distribution of the
chromosomes lead to mutations that may be passed on to every new cell produced
from as abnormal cell.

Cell cycle control system has three main checkpoints: G1 checkpoint, G2 checkpoint,
and metaphase checkpoint. G1 checkpoint is the restriction point which ensures
that the cell is large enough to divide and that enough nutrients are available to
support the resulting daughter cells. If the said requirements were met, the cell will
receive a “go – ahead” signal from a protein called kinase, allowing the cell to enter
the cell cycle. If the cell doesn’t receive a “go – ahead” signal, it will exit the cell cycle
and switch to a non – dividing state called G0 (quiescent phase).

First Gap (G1)

During G1, the cell actively produces ATP, RNA, and protein. Also, during this stage,
the cell increases in size.

Synthesis Stage (S)

During the S stage, the chromosomes, specifically their DNA, replicate. As DNA
replication has ended, the cell enters another checkpoint called the G2 checkpoint.
This checkpoint ensures that DNA replication in S phase has been successfully
completed. If the said requirement was met, the cell will receive a “go – ahead” signal
from kinase, allowing the cell to enter the second gap (G 2).

Second Gap (G2)

During G2, the cell organelles duplicates. Also, the chromosomes uncoil to form the
chromatin materials which will then turn into granules. Chromatin materials are
threadlike form of chromosomes.

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Thought – Provoking Question 1: A researcher treats cells with a chemical that
prevents DNA synthesis from starting. This treatment would trap the cells in which
part of the cell cycle?

What are the phases of mitosis?

Prophase

As the cell exits the second gap, the cell will now
proceed to mitosis. During prophase, the first part of
mitosis, the chromatin materials start to condense,
forming discrete chromosomes. The nucleus and
other organelles of the cell start to disintegrate.
Centrioles start to move toward the opposite pole of
the cell along with the radiation of mitotic spindle
between them.

Prometaphase

During prometaphase, a transition phase between

prophase and metaphase, chromatin materials have
coiled to form the chromosomes. The nucleus and
other organelles are no longer visible. The centrioles
have reached the opposite poles of the cell. Spindle
fibers converge and connect to the kinetochore of
chromosomes. As the interconnection of spindle fibers
to the chromosomes, specifically to their kinetochore,
has ended, the cell enters the metaphase
checkpoint. This checkpoint ensures that all of the chromosomes are attached to
the spindle fibers by their kinetochore. If the said requirement was met, the
chromosomes will force to move toward the center of the cell.

Metaphase

During metaphase, the chromosomes convene on the

metaphase plate, an imaginary plane equidistant
between the two poles of the spindle fibers.

Anaphase
Anaphase begins when
the centromere of each chromosome come apart,
separating the sister chromatids. Spindle fibers will
then pull the chromatids toward the opposite poles of
the cell. Along with that action is the formation of
spindle fibers between the migrating chromatids
which causes the cell to elongate.

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Telophase

Telophase is roughly the reverse of prophase. The cell

elongation that started in anaphase continues until
a constriction is formed from the outer middle portion
of the cell. The chromosomes have reached the
opposite poles of the cell. The spindle fibers start to
disappear. Nuclei and cytoplasmic contents of the
daughter cells start to reform. The chromosomes
start to decondense.

Cytokinesis
During cytokinesis, in some references is referred to
as the late telophase, the nuclei and cytoplasmic
contents of the daughter cells are fully visible. The
chromosomes are no longer visible. The constriction
continues forming the cleavage furrow, which
pinches the cell in two. Two new daughter cells are
formed, each with a complete set of chromosomes as
the parent cell.

Thought – Provoking Question 2: Red blood cells,

which carry oxygen to body tissues, live for only about 120 days. Replacement cells
are produced by cell division in bone marrow. How many cell divisions must occur
each second in your bone marrow just to replace red blood cells? Here is the
information to use in calculating your answer: There are about 5 million red blood
cells per cubic millimetre (mm3) of blood. An average adult has about 5 L (5,000 cm3)
of blood. (Hint: What is the total number of red blood cells in the body? What fraction
of them must be replaced each day if all are replaced in 120 days?

How can mutations lead to changes in the cell

cycle?

Cell growth is carefully controlled in multicellular

organisms. Cells in some parts of your body may
rarely divide or actively divide. During the healing
process of wounds, cells divide actively. Toward
completion of healing, cell division slows down, the
growth is controlled, and everything returns to
normal when the healing is done.

At times, errors happen along with cell growth. These errors can be caused by toxic
compounds, radiation, or viruses. Due to these errors, the mitotic process can be
disrupted, resulting to mutations. Mutations cause a permanent error, or change, in
the genetic material of a normal cell. The table on the next page shows some errors
in mitosis.

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 Errors in Mitosis
Error in Cell cycle
cell events Characteristic properties
division affected
Cancer Interphase The cell produces incorrect DNA copies. As a result,
mutated cells are formed known as cancer cells. Cancer
cells do not respond normally to the cell cycle control
system; they divide actively producing an abnormally
growing mass of body cells called tumor.
Benign tumor is a lump of cancer cells that remain at
the original site
Malignant tumor is a lump of cancer cells that can
spread into neighboring tissues and other parts of the
body, displacing normal tissue and interrupting organ
function as it goes. This spread of cancer cells via the
circulatory system beyond their original site is called
metastasis.
Non – Anaphase The chromosomes or sister chromatids failed to separate
disjuncti that may to chromosomal mutation.
on Mosaicism is a condition where some cells in an
individual have a mutant version of a gene while other
cells have a normal version of the same gene. It usually
results from non – disjunction of sister chromatids
during fetal development. Two examples of diseases
linked to mosaicism are hemophilia, a blood – clotting
disorder, and Marfan syndrome, or unusually long
limbs.

What’s More

Use the table below to answer the questions about mitosis.

Growth Rate of Rapidly Dividing Human Liver Cell
Time (hours) Number of cells
0 1
10 2
20 4
30 8
40 16
50 32

a. Assuming that no cells die, how many cells will there be in one week?
b. Assuming that the original cell is diploid and divides mitotically, how many
copies of each chromosome will there be in 60 hours?

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 What I Have Learned

Now it’s your turn! In the light

micrograph of dividing cells near the
tip of an onion root given on the next
page, identify the cell/s that is/are in
interphase, prophase, prometaphase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Describe the major events occurring at
each stage.

Image source: Wikimedia Commons

File name: File:Mitosis (261 15) Pressed; root meristem of onion.jpg

What I Can Do

HeLa cell is an immortal cell line used in scientific

research. It is the oldest and most commonly used
human cell line. The line was derived from cervical
cancer cells taken on February 8, 1951 from
Henrietta Lacks, a 31 – year – old African –
American mother of five, who died of cancer on
October 4, 1951. The cell line was found to be
remarkably durable and prolific, which causes it to
be used extensively in scientific study.

The cells from Lacks’ cancerous cervical tumor were

taken without her knowledge or consent, which was
common practice at the time. There was no
requirement at that time (or at present) to inform
patients or their relatives about such matters
because discarded material or material obtained
during surgery, diagnosis, or therapy was the
property of the physician or the medical institution.
The cells were propagated by George Otto Gey shortly before Lacks died of her
cancer in 1951. This was the first human cell line to prove successful in vitro, which
was a scientific achievement with profound future benefit to medical research. The
cells were freely donated by Gey but later commercialized, although never patented
in their original form.

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Lacks’ case is one of many examples of the lack of informed consent in 20 th century
medicine. Communication between tissue donors and doctors was virtually
nonexistent. Lacks’ family also had no access to her patient files and had no say in
who received HeLa cells or what they would be used for. Additionally, as HeLa cells
were popularized and used more frequently throughout the scientific community,
Lacks’ relatives received no financial benefit and continued to live with limited access
to healthcare. This issue of who owns tissue samples taken for research was brought
up in the Supreme Court of California. The court ruled that a person’s discarded
tissue and cells are not his or her property and can be commercialized

In your point of view as a senior high school STEM student, do you think the
Henrietta Lacks’ relatives were treated fairly? Is there anything else you would like
to know about this case that might help you decide? Explain your answer using the
concepts that you have learned from this module.

Assessment

Let’s see how well you have enjoyed the amazing world of cell cycle and mitosis by
answering the following questions. Choose and encircle the letter of the best answer.

_____1. Chromosomes are duplicated during what stage of the cell cycle?
a. G1 phase c. Prophase
b. S phase d. Prometaphase

_____2. Which of the following events DOES NOT occur during some stages of
interphase?
a. DNA duplication c. Increase in cell size
b. Organelle duplication d. Separation of sister chromatids

_____3. In which cell structure do mitotic spindles arise from?

a. Centromere c. Kinetochore
b. Centrosome d. Cleavage furrow

_____4. Which stage of mitosis is characterized by the attachment of mitotic spindle

fibers to kinetochores?
a. Prophase c. Metaphase
b. Prometaphase d. Anaphase

_____5. During which stage of mitosis do unpacking of chromosomes and the

formation of a new nuclear envelope happen?
a. Prometaphase c. Anaphase
b. Metaphase d. Telophase

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References
Belardo, Gisselle Millete M., et al. (2016). General Biology 1. Quezon City, Philippines:
Vibal Group, Inc. Pp. 104 – 139.

Calsado, Chuckie Fer, et al. (2016). Teaching Guide for Senior High School: General
Biology 1. Quezon City, Philippines: Commission on Higher Education.
Pp. 36 – 44.

Campbell, Neil A., et al. (2009). Biology: Concepts and Connections. Sixth Edition.
Jurong, Singapore: Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd. Pp. 125 - 151.

Capco, Carmelita M., et al. (2000). Biology. Second Edition. Quezon City, Philippines:
Phoenix Publishing House, Inc. Pp. 231 – 239.

Hadsall, Annalee S., et al. (2008). Exploring Science and Technology: Biology. Makati
City, Philippines: DIWA Scholastic Press, Inc. Pp. 251 – 259.

Strauss, Eric, et al. (2003). Biology: The Web of Life. Second Edition. Jurong,
Singapore: Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd. Pp. 102 – 123.

Biology LibreTexts. 6.2: The Cell Cycle.jpeg. Image/jpeg. August 15, 2020.
https://bio.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/9319/Figure_06_02_01.jpg?r
evision=1&size=bestfit&width=800&height=561

Wikimedia Commons. File:Human Development-Male.jpg. Image/jpeg. March 1,

2017.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Human_Deve
lopment-Male.jpg

Wikimedia Commons. File:Mitosis (261 15) Pressed; root meristem of onion.jpg.

image/jpeg. March 11, 2014.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Mitosis_%28
261_15%29_Pressed%3B_root_meristem_of_onion.jpg

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