CIRCUIT CIRCUITS CURRENT VOLTAGE RESISTANCE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: To learn about the current, voltage and resistance in circuits
KEY WORDS: Circuits, Current, Voltage, Resistance, Power, Energy, KWH, Drift velocity
Mechanics
Unit 1
Base units: There are seven base units and seven base quantities.
Derived units: These are the combination of base units.
Speed= m/s,
Acceleration= m/s2,
Force =ma =kg (m/s2) =N
Work= F. d = kg (m/s2) x m= (kgm2)/s2=Joule
Power= F. v =kg (m/s2) x m/s= (kg m2) /s3=kgm2s-3= Watt
Density= m/v= kg/m3=kgm-3,
Charge=Q= It=As=Coulomb
Potential diff=work done/charge=(kgm2/s2) / (As)=(kgm2)/(As3)=kgm2A-1s -3= Volt
Resistance=V/I = (kgm2/A s3) /(A)= (kgm2)/(A2 s3)=kgm2A-2s-3=Ohm
F=6πη r v so that η=F/6πrv, substituting the units, η=N/m ms-1=Kgm-1 s-1
T= 2π√l/g = √m/ms-2=√s2=s
True equation: An equation is true when it obeys three points
1) it has same units at both ends
2) it is practically tested
3) it has the same magnitudes at both ends.e.g. 3kg=3kg

Examples:
Estimation: Using sound physicsl reasoning to arrive at a rough idea of a quantity’s value.
Many estimates are based on formulas in which the input quantities are known only
to a limited precision.
Examples:
Estimate the total mass of the oceans on Earth.
density of water is about 103 kg/m3. average depth of the oceans D=3×103m.
A=πd2=π(107m)2≈3×1014m2.
V=AD=(3×1014m2)(3×103m)=9×1017m3.
M=ρV=(103kg/m3)(9×1017m3)=9×1020kg.
Example: the mass of the atmosphere is 1019 kg. Assuming the density of the
atmosphere is 1 kg/m3, estimate the height of Earth’s atmosphere. Do you think your
answer is an underestimate or an overestimate? Explain why.
Solution: 3×104m3×104m or 30 km. It is probably an underestimate because the

density of the atmosphere decreases with altitude. (In fact, 30 km does not even get
us out of the stratosphere.)
Example: Assuming the human body is made primarily of water, estimate the volume
of a person.
Solution: Assuming the human body is primarily made of water, estimate the number
of molecules in it. (Note that water has a molecular mass of 18 g/mol and there are
roughly 1024 atoms in a mole.) ANS: 1028 atoms
Example: Estimate the surface area of a person.
Fermi Problems:
) How many people could you fit into the classroom? How many soccer balls?
2) How old are you if you are a million seconds old? A million hours old? A million
days old?
3) Could you fit $1,000,000 worth of $1 coins in your classroom? What about a
billion dollars worth of $1 coins?
4) How much money is spent in the school canteen each day? In a week? Over the
year?
5) If all the people in Australia joined hands and stretched themselves out in a straight
line, how long would it reach?
6) How long would it take to count to a million?
7) If all the people in the world moved to Victoria, how crowded would it be?
8) How many cups of water are there in a bathtub? What about in an Olympic pool?
9) How many grains of rice are in a 10kg bag?
10) How many pages would be needed to show a million stars?

11) How many children are needed to have a mass the same as an elephant?
12) How many packets are needed to measure a single line of M&Ms to a distance of
100m?
13) How many jelly beans fill a bucket?
14) How long would it take to drive to the moon (if you could!)?
15) What is the total mass in kilograms of all the students in your school?
16) What is the weight of garbage thrown away by each family every year?
17) How many pizzas are eaten by our class in one year?
18) If you had a stack of $2 coins as tall as Mt Kosciusko, what would it be worth?
Could you fit all the coins in your bedroom?
19) How far could you walk in one year?
20) How much water does your household use each week? Can you answer this
without using a water bill?
21) How many blades of grass on a school oval?
22) Spend exactly $1,000,000 using things for sale in the newspaper
23) How much paper is used at our school each week?
24) Imagine the earth is at one end of the school oval and the moon is at the other end.
How far away is the sun?
25) How many beats will your heart make in a lifetime?
26) How many bricks are there in one wall of the classroom? The whole school?
27) How many books are read by children in our school/class in one year? About how
many pages is that?
28) What distance will a ballpoint pen write?
29) How many times did the wheel of the bus turn on the class
excursion?
30) How big a block of chocolate could you make using all the chocolate eaten by the
class in a
year?
31) How long would our class have to save to buy a car?
32) Get students to pose their own
questions …
Sharing and discussing strategies is paramount to this work.
Some useful information:
 The radius of the earth: about 6,400 km

 The distance of the earth from the sun: about 150 million km
 The distance of the moon from the earth: about 380,000 km
 The population of the world: about 6 billion
 The population of Australia: about 20 million
 The population of Melbourne: about 3.5 million
 Area of Tasmania: about 68000 square km
 Area of Victoria: about 228000 square km
 Area of Australia: about 7,700,000 sq. km
 Height of Mt Kosciusko: 2230m
Distance: It is the total length travelled. Scalar. Its SI unit is meter, m.
Displacement: It is the shortest distance between two points. Vector. Its SI unit is meter, m. Other units
are Km, mile, foot, cm etc.
The distance covered in a half circle is πR whereas the displacement covered is 2R whereas in full circle
distance travelled is 2πR and displacement is zero.
Speed: It is the distance covered in unit time.
Speed is scalar and its unit are m/s, kmh -1, cms-1 etc.
Velocity: It is rate of change of displacement.
Velocity is a vector and its unit is ms-1.
Ex: An object travels in a circle of radius 2m. It covers one rotation in 4s. Find for the half circle and full
circle, 1) distance2) displacement 3) speed 4) velocity, of the object.
Half circle. Distance=πr=2π, displacement= 4m,time= 2s, speed=d/t=2π/2=π ms-1, velocity=

d/t=4/2=2m/s
Full circle. Distance=2πr=4π, displacement=0, time=4s, speed=d/t= 2πr/4=2π/2=π, velocity=d/t=0/4=0
Uniform velocity: A velocity that does not change with time.
Variable velocity: A velocity that changes with time.
Instantanous velocity: It is the velocity at a specific moment of time.
Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity is called acceleration.

Average acceleration: This acceleration is determined over a large interval of time.
Deceleration: It is negative acceleration.
Equations of motion: 1) the acceleration should be uniform, 2) straight line motion
These equations can’t be applied to, the motion of a sky diver, motion of a sphere through a liquid, a car
moving on a bumpy road, the motion of roller coaster etc.
Measurement of speed using light gate and data logger:

Measurement of acceleration using two LG

a=(V2-V1)/t3
Free fall
An object that falls through a vacuum is subjected to only one external force, the gravitational
force, which acts on the object. The object is said to be free falling. The value of g close to earth
surface is about g=9.81m/s2=32feet/s2. a=g should be substituted in suvat. a=+9.81m/s 2 for fall and a=-
9.81m/s2 for rise.
Measurement of g
Using steel ball: The height,h of the steel ball is measured using a meter rule. The time,t of fall is
measured using a stop watch. Then vary the height and measure coresponding time of fall for each
height. Take several values of height and time by repeating the same procedure. Calculate t 2. tabulate
the values. Plot a graph between h and t 2.
Plot a graph of h(y-axis) V/s t2 (x-axis)
Gradient,m =∆y/∆x=h/t2=g/2
The gradient is then m=g/2, so the acceleration due to gravity,”g” can be found using, g=2 x m, where m
is the gradient of the graph.
Graph: The graph does not pass through origin because of systematic error in the experiment. The
measurement of time invloves reacion time error. Paralax error in height measurements.
2nd method: Using Light gate:

. Measure value of h.
. Measure the length of your cylinder using the digital calipers and enter it into data logger.
. Release the cylinder from rest (u=0) almost immediately after recording has begun.
. Calculate average transit time through the light gate.
. Vary h for five further values, use data logger to obtain the transit velocity for each height.
. Plot a graph of v2(y-axis) against h(x-axis), Y=mX+c
. Using v2=u2+2aS, we get v2 =2gh, gradient of the graph=v 2/h =2g. Therefore, the acceleration due to
gravity, can be found using g=gradient/2.
Air track method:
. S=(1/2)at2
. Measure the distance b/w two LG using meter rule
. the time b/w two LG is measured by the data logger
. data logger will calculate the speeds of glider at LG1 and LG2.
. velocity=length of glider/time of intruption
. calculate t2.
. Vary S by moving LG2
. Collect atleast 6 pairs of S and t2
. Plot graph b/w S and t2
. find the gradient of the graph, m=S/t 2
. m=a/2
. a=2x gradient
Multiple images method:
. Use a camera that operates at 10 frames per second so points are seperated by 1/10 seconds=0.1s.
. Attach the paper ruler to a wall in a place where a camera can be set up on a tripod to take video of the
falling object. Download the video footage to a computer for analysis.
. For the falling object, determine the average velocity between successive frames by dividing distance
fallen with the elapsed time between frames.
. use v=u+at to calculate a, or
. use S=1/2at2 to calculate a, when u=o
distance-time graphs: gradient of s-t graph =velocity
Curved s-t graphs:
Average velocity can be found by finding gradient of the tangent at that point.
Gradient of the graph:
Gradient=(y2-y1)/(x2-x1)=(140-20)/(9-4)=120/5=24
Average velocity= 24m/s
Question:
Velocity=time graph:
Uniform acceleration:
The gradient of the v-t graph gives acceleration and the area under graph gives the distance travelled.
Start to A
a=(v-u)/t= (20-0)/5=+4ms-2
On a v-t graph a line with positive gradient shows positive constant acceleration
A to B
The object travels at constant velocity of 20ms -1. On v-t graph a horizontal line shows a constant
velocity.(a=0)
B to C
The object starts at 20ms-1 and then experinces a negative acceleration. a=(v-u)/t=(-7-20)/5=-5.4ms -2
On a v-t graph a line with a negative gradient shows a negative acceleration.
Below x-axis
In the section B-C, the velocity reached zero and then becomes negative which means object moving
backwards.
Distance/displacement travelled:
Above x-axis: (1/2x5x20)+(10x20)+(1/2x3x20)=50+200+30=280m
Below x-axis: (1/2x2x7)+(3x7)+(1/2x4x7)=7+21+14=42m
Total distance=280+42=322m
Total displacement=280-42=238m in the forward direction.
Ex:
Non uniform acceleration:
acceleration is increasing/decreasing? ANS: increasing
Ex: sky diver (Non uniform acceleration)

time/s
0-B acceleration decreases to zero, higher terminal velocity achieved. C-D acceleration decreases to zero
again, lower terminal velocity is achieved.
Drawing tangent at v-t graph:

There are 4 points where the gradient is zero, at t = 0, t = 10, t = 25 and t = 40.
A tangent has been drawn to the curve at t = 30. Calculate avg acc at t=30s?
The gradient of this curve is −16/10 = −1.6, so the average acceleration is −1.6 m/s2.
Ball thrown up and comes down:
Area under v-t graph:
Area= (1/2x1x4.4) + [1/2 x (4.4+6.4)] + [1/2 x (6.4+7.8)] + [1/2 x (7.8+9)] =approx 23.1m
Area of trapezium:
The area under v-t curved graph can also be found by counting squares method.
Example:
Bouncing ball graphs:
A ball is dropped onto a hard floor, then it starts bouncing on the floor. After each bounce its height
reduces and finally it comes to rest. Draw s-t, v-t, a-t graphs. The upward velocity is positive.
S-t graph: Ball is undergoing free fall when in the air. Path is parabolic(S=1/2at 2). Slope at every point
gives the velocity. Rebound height decreases progressively.
V-t graph: All slopes are linear and parallel because a=-g=-9.81ms -2. Area under graph=height
fallen/risen by the ball. Area decreases gradually which indicates that ball is losing height. The velocity=0
at the peak. Each bounce is shown by almost vertical lines.
a-t graph: Acceleration due to Earth’s gravity=-9.81m/s -2. The bounce of the ball with the ground is
shown by the peaks during which the acceleration is not equal to g. The width between the peaks
increases because the ball slows down after every bounce.
Ex: A ball is thrown upward with some velocity which then starts bouncing on the floor several times and
finally comes to rest. Draw its s-t, v-t and a-t graphs. The downward velocity is negative.
Projectile motion:
A projectile motion is two-dimensional (2-D) motion. It is subjected to a constant force of gravity, which
means that the object is in free fall in the Earth’s gravitational field.
1. Gravity acts downwards on the projectile.

2. It has acceleration in the downward direction. (a=-9.81ms -2, VV=changes)
3. In the horizontal direction, it has no acceleration. ( aH =0, VH=constant), as air resistance is ignored.
4. The path travelled by a projectile is parabolic. (S=1/2xaxt 2)
5. Horizontal range is given by, S =VH x t
Ex: A ball is projected at 20 ms-1, horizontally from a tower of height 20m. Find the following, by
assuming that g = 9.81ms-2:
1. The time of flight

2. The maximum horizontal range
3. The velocity after 1 second
4. The velocity at which it hits the ground.
1. For vertical Motion, until it hits the ground,

↓ S = ut + 1/2 at2
u = 0; a = +9.81; s = 20
20 = 0 + 4.9t2
t2 = 4.08 => t = ±2.02
t = 2.02s.
2. When the object reaches the ground,
→ S =VH x t
VH = 20; a = 0; t = 2
S =VH x t= 20x2
S = 40m
3. After 1s,
↓ v = u + at
u = 0; a = +9.81; t = 1
v = 0 + 1x9.81
VV = 9.81ms-1.
→ VH=20ms-1.
So, V= √(202 + 9.812)

↘ V = √496.24 = 22.3ms-1.
4. When it hits the ground.

↓ v = u + at
u = 0; a = +9.81; t = 2
v = 0 + 2x9.81
VV = 19.6ms-1.
→ VH=20ms-1.
So, the resultant velocity = √(202 + 19.62)
↘ V = √784.2 = 28 ms-1.
Ex: Calculate the time of flight, t and initial velocity, V and when θ=500.
VH=VCos500=0.64V
VV=VSin500=0.77V
a=-9.81ms-2
Consider full motion.
a). → S=VH x t
20=VH x t= (0.64V) x t=0.64V t
V t=20/0.64=31.25
↑ S=ut+1/2at2
4-1=(0.77V)( t)-(1/2x9.81t2)= =(0.77)(Vt)-(4.91t2)
3= (0.77)x(31.25)-(4.91t2)
3=(24.063)-(4.91t2)
(3-24.063)=-4.91t2
-21.063=-4.9t2
t2=21.063/4.9=4.29
t= +2.07s
b). Since V x t=31.25
V=31.25/t=31.25/2.07=15.1ms-1
Ex:
A ball is projected at 20√2 m/s, at an angle of 45 0 to the horizontal. Find the following, by
assuming that g = 9.81ms-2:
1. The maximum height

VV=20√2Sin45=20, VH=20√2Cos45=20
1. For vertical Motion, until the objects comes to an instant halt

↑ v2 = u2 + 2aS
u = 20; v=0, a = -9.81; S = h
0 = 400 - 2x9.81xS
h = (-400)/(-19.6)=20.39m.
2. When the object reaches the highest point,
↑ v = u + at
u =20; a = -9.81; v = 0
0 = 20 – 9.81t
t = 2.04s=rise time, fall time=2.04s
The time of flight, T=2t = 2x2.04 = 4.16s.
3. → S = VH x t
S = 20x4.16
S = 83.13m.
Ex: A ball is projected at 20√2, at an angle of 450 to the horizontal, from the top of a tower of
height 60m, upwards. Find the following, by assuming that g = 9.81ms-2:

3. The maximum height reached by the object.
4. The velocity at which it hits the ground.
When the object reaches the level of the top of the tower again, its displacement is zero; below
that level, it is negative.
1. For vertical Motion, until it reaches the ground,

↑ s = ut + 1/2 at2
u = 20√2 sin(45) = 20; a = -9.81; s = -60
-60 = 20 – 4.91t2
t2 = 16.29 => t = ±4.04
t = 4.04s.
2. When the object reaches the ground,
→ S = VH x t
a = 0; t = 4.04
S = 20x4.04
S = 80.73m
3. ↑ v2 = u2 - 2as
u = 20; a = -9.81; v = 0
0 = 400 - 2x9.81xs
S = 20.39m
Total height = 20.39 + 60 = 80.39m.
4. ↓ v = u + at
u = 20; a = -9.81; t = 4, v=?
VV = 20 – 9.81x4 = -19.24m/s
→ since horizontal velocity remains the same, VH = 20
So, the resultant velocity = √{(202 + (-19.242)}
↘ v = √770.18 = 27.75 ms-1.
Ex.
Ex.
Range of a projectile
In absence of air resistance, the maximum range is achieved for a launch at angle
of 450.
Maximum height of a projectile

Time of flight
Range and heights at different angles
Ex: Conceptual questions:

Ex:
Ex:
Ans: D=1857m
Components of a vector: A vector can be resolved into two perpendicular vectors known as its
components. X-component which is resolved along x-axis and Y-component which is resolved along y-
axis. The components of a vector are found by using vector as the diagonal of a parallelogram of vectors.
Note. Adjacent to the angle θ is always Cos θ.

Addition of vectors:
Head to tail method is used to find resultant vector of two or more vectors. The tail of one vector
coincides with head of the other vector.
V = √V 2x + V 2y
Vy
Tanθ=
Vx
Parallelogram law of vector addition:

The sum, a + b is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram through their
common point. This is the Parallelogram law of vector addition.
Ex: A pulling force of 225N is acting on an object at an angle of 27 0 to the horizontal. At the same time it
is subjected to another pulling force of 140N at 45 0 to the horizontal. Deduce the magnitude and
direction of the resultant force.
Parallelogram method:
The resultant will be represented by the diagonal. Therefore resultant force is 60x5=300N horizontally to
the right.
R=√2252+1402+2x225x140xCos 720=299.5N
Vector triangle method:

Therefore, resultant force is 60x5=300N horizontally to the right.
Q. A motorboat heads east at 8.0 m/s across a river that flows north at 5.0 m/s.
When these vectors are added, the resultant velocity, V R, is 9.4 m/s at 32° north of east.
NOTE: Combine two coplanar vectors at any angle to each other by drawing, and at right angles to each
other by calculation
Practice questions:
. A woman sailing a boat at night is following directions to a dock. The instructions read to first
sail 27.5 m in a direction 66.00 north of east from her current location, and then travel 30.0 m in
a direction 1120 north of east (or 22.0∘ west of north). Find the location of the dock. ANS:52.9m
. A cannon ball is fired at an angle of 30° to the horizontal at a speed of 25ms -1.
a) How long will it be before the impact?
b) How far will the cannon ball travel before hitting the ground?
ANS: time of flight is 2.55s, horizontal distance travelled is 55.2m
. A particle P is projected at an angle of 45 degrees to the horizontal at a speed of 30
ms-1.
What is the speed and direction of the particle after 3 s?
(g=9.81ms-2)
Free body diagram of forces:
A diagram which shows all the forces acting on a body in a certain situation is called a free-body diagram
It represents forces on a particle or on an extended but rigid body, using the concept of center of
gravity.
A running man:
Box rests on table:

A box placed on horizontal surface is pushed with some force:
Box slides on inclined plane:

Connected bodies:
Ex:
ANS: Tension on 30kg=38N

Newton’s first law of motion
This states that,
OR,
If the forces acting on a body are in equilibrium, its velocity will remain constant.
Ex: A book is placed on a table:
The book is at rest because ∑ F=0. The contact force between book and table which is acting upward is
balanced by the weight=mg, of the book acting downward.
Explanation: The coin is initially at rest since the forces acting on the coin are balanced. mg=N. When the
card is pulled horizontally it acquires motion due to pulling force. But as no force is acting on the coin in
the horizontal direction the coin remains at rest. Thus, card gets separated from the coin. The contact
force disappears and the coin falls under the action of unbalanced force i.e. gravity.
Ex: When a train accelerates, a passenger standing in the train falls backwards. Explain.
Explanation: Passenger before the brakes have applied, move with constant velocity as the bus, ΣF =0,
When train accelerates, friction between floor and feet creates an unbalanced or resultant force on feet
which accelerate the feet. The train accelerates but the man continues travelling at the constant speed
or the top half has no (resultant) force as the train accelerates. Therefore, man falls backwards.
RF= m x a
If, a=0, then
RF=m x 0
RF=0
Investigating a α F
Calculate the acceleration of the moving block using two LGs and data logger. Change the weight and
get several values of “a” and weight (F) by repeating the experiment. Plot a graph between “a” and F.
Calculate the acceleration of the toy car using the method described above. Vary the mass of the car by
keeping the weight (force) constant. Get several values of acceleration and mass. Plot a graph between
“a” and “m”, which would be a curve.
F= m x a
a= g, for freely falling bodies
F= m x g
g=F/m
Weight:
It is a force with which the Earth pulls a body towards its center. Unit is Newton.
W=mg.
Weight is a vector quantity. Weight depends upon the value of g which varies on different planets . g
earth = (1/6) g moon. Mass is a scalar quantity. The mass remains constant at ordinary speeds.
Difference between N1 and N2:
N1: Object is at rest or moves with constant velocity. Acceleration is zero. ΣF=0. More than one force.
N2: Object accelerates. Acceleration is non- zero. ΣF ǂ 0. More than one force.
Newton’s third law of motion:
This states that, if body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts a force of the same type on body
A that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
Properties of N3 pair Forces:
. same type
. same magnitude/equal
. act on different bodies
. opposite directions
. same line of action

. act for same time
Q. The photograph shows a toy car driven by air from a deflating balloon. When the air in the inflated
balloon is released, the car starts to move forwards. Use Newton’s first, second and third laws of motion
to explain why the air coming out of the balloon causes this.
ANS: N3 – Balloon pushes the air backward so equal force in the forward direction is applied by air on
balloon/car
N1- Balloon is at rest so ΣF=0
N1/N2 – resultant force on balloon > drag, so there is an acceleration
Q. As a bus leaves, a passenger holds on to a vertical support when the bus accelerates. This prevents
the passenger from falling backwards. Explain. (5)
ANS: Man pulls (backward) on the support
Due to N3 the support exerts an opposite force on the man
This force is a resultant/unbalanced/net force on man
Due to N2 the man will accelerate
With the same acceleration as the train
Q. Two crates, 10 kg, and 15 kg respectively, are connected with a thick rope

according to the diagram. A force, to the right, of 500N is applied. The boxes move with
an acceleration of 2 m⋅s−2 to the right. One third of the total frictional force is acting on
the 10 kg block and two thirds on the 15 kg block. Calculate:
1. the magnitude and direction of the total frictional force present.
2. the magnitude of the tension in the rope at T.
1). RF= m x a
F- f =ma
500-f= (10+15) x 2
f=500-50=450N
2) f=1/3 x 450=150N
RF= ma
T- f =ma
T- 150 = 10 x 2
T=170N
Ans: a=3 / 4
T= 475N
Inclined plane:
Ex: The diagram shows a man standing on a planet.

Below are free-body force diagrams for the child and the Earth.
Types of forces:
Gravitational force: weight
Electromagnetic force: Contact or normal reaction force, Tension, friction, drag or air resistance.
Forces in Elevator:
A person standing on scales inside an elevator. There are two forces that act on the man. His weight,
mg, acting downward and the contact force between scales and feet, acting upwards.
(1) Elevator is at rest or moves with constant speed:
Forces are balanced and scale will give true weight of the man. Weight=900N=Contact force, N
(2) Elevator is accelerating upwards:
Forces are unbalanced. Contact force ˃ weight. According to N2,
N = m (g + a)
Man will feel heavy because the contact force increases. His apparent weight increases.
(3) Elevator is accelerating downwards:
Weight ˃ contact force. Therefore, contact force reduces. According to N2,
N= m (g - a)
If the cable breaks, then N=0

0=m(g-a)
(g-a)=0
a=g
Thus, man will fall freely.
Equilibrium of forces:
If a body is in equilibrium, then the sum of all the forces acting on the body must be equal to zero.
∑FX=0 and ∑FY=0, which means that ∑F=0.
Ex.
∑FY=0,
T Sin 30= weight=981
T= 981/Sin30=1962N
∑FX=0,
TCos30= F
F=1962 x Cos30=1699N
Ex:
∑FX=0,
T Cos 40= T Cos 40
Balanced forces
∑FY=0,
2T Sin 40= weight=147.2
147.2
T= 0
2TSin 40
T =114.5 N
Ex:
Momentum:
Momentum is the product of force and velocity. It is a vector quantity, so direction of velocity needs to
be considered. Unit=kgms-1= Ns.
P=m x v
Law of conservation of linear momentum:
In the absence of an external force the sum of momentum before collision is equal to the sum of
momentum after collision.
m1u1 + m2u2=m1v1+m2v2
P initial = P final
Colliding Trolleys:
Pi=PA+PB= (3 x 3) + (2 x 0) = +9kgms-1
After collision trolleys stick together and move as one body with velocity V.
Pf=PA+PB=(3+2)xV
Pinitial = Pfinal
9=(3+2)xV
V= 9/5= 1.8m/s rightward
Example
Two trolleys of same mass are at rest as shown in the diagram
Pi=PA+PB= (mx0)+(mx0)=0
After separation two trolleys move away from each other with the same speed v.
Pf=PA+PB=[(m)x(+v)] +[(m)x(-v)]=mv-mv=0
Therefore, initial, and final momentum are conserved.
Ex
When we fire a bullet using a large rifle, the rifle recoils to conserve momentum.
Ex
A ball is at rest on Earth. The total momentum of the system is zero. The ball is now dropped to the
Earth. Its momentum is -P, the Earth goes up with momentum +P. In this system of (Ball + Earth) the
total momentum remains conserved, i.e. Total momentum = (+P) + (-P) =0
Ex
Ex: Calculate the recoil velocity of a 5kg rifle that shoots a 0.050kg bullet at a speed of 120ms -1. ANS=1.2
Ex: Old cannons were built on wheeled cart, both to facilitate moving the canon and to allow the cannon
to recoil when fired. When a 150kg cannon and cart recoils at 1.5ms -1, at what velocity would a a 10kg
cannonball leave the cannon. (ANS=22.5ms-1)
Ex:
Newton’s 2nd law in term of momentum:
The rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the resultant force applied on the body.
Momentum conservation in explosions
A firecracker is placed in a stationary object to explode. Before explosion, the total system momentum is
zero. Upon explosion, the object will break into variety of fragments. The vector sum of the momenta of
the individual fragments is zero. The total system momentum is the same before and after the
explosion. No external force is present.
Ex:
As the sailor jumps in forward direction, the boat moves backwards:
Explanation: Before the jump, the combined momentum of sailor and the boat was zero. Now since
momentum must be conserved the combined momentum after the jump must also be zero. If you have
a momentum in one direction the boat must have an equal momentum but in the opposite direction.
Action and reaction are equal and opposite.
Swinging balls ( Newton’s Cradle)
All spheres are identical, and each has a mass of m kg. Each time the balls collide, momentum is
transferred from one to another, but the total momentum remains constant. Momentum is conserved
in these collisions. Principle of conservation of energy 1/2mv2= mgh can be used to calculate the speed
of the swinging balls. v=√2gh
If Pi=0,
Then, P rocket= P gas
No external force is present
Law of conservation of momentum
Momentum-time graphs:
A momentum-versus-time graph for a collision between two carts. Carts 1 and 2 have masses of 2.5 kg
and 4.0kg, respectively.
Particle A is moving to the right (+ve velocity) while particle B is moving to the left (-ve
velocity). At time t1 they come into contact. Their velocities change in some way. At
time t2 they break contact. A and B separate with A now moving to the left (-ve velocity) and
B to the right (+ve velocity).
Moment of a force: It is the turning effect of a force. Moment about a point can be calculated by
multiplying force and perpendicular distance from pivot. Unit is Nm.
Principle of moments: About a pivot, if the sum of clockwise moments is equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moments, then the object will be in equilibrium.
∑F1 x d1 = ∑F2 x d2
Ex:
Ex:
Ex:
Pivot is at point C
CWM= (10 x Sin 30 x 20) + (10 x 30) = 100 + 300 =400 Ncm
ACWM= (10 x 10)=100 Nm
Resultant moment= 400-100=300Nm, rod turns clockwise
Ex:
Ex:
Ex:
ANS=7.6N
Ex:
Ex: Crane problem
Q. How far from the pivot must the 8,000 N counterweight be placed in order to balance the load?
ANS=5m
Equilibrium:
An object is in equilibrium if,
i). Sum of all the forces acting on the body is zero, ∑ F =0
ii) Sum of all the moments acting on the body is zero, ∑ τ =0
center of gravity:
It is a point where all the weight of a body is supposed to act.
W= m x g
Factors affecting stability:
Area of the base should be large
A body with a larger base area will have the line through its center of gravity passing through its
base even when tilted through a larger angle. Hence the larger the base area the more stable a
body is.
The position of the center of gravity should be low for stability
A body having its center of gravity very low is more stable compared to one with a raised center
of gravity. The center of gravity of a body can be lowered by making its base heavier.
 Buses are built using lighter materials on the upper part but heavy ones on the
lower part in order to lower their centres of gravity. Both these are meant to
enhance stability of the bus.
 Racing cars have wider wheelbases. They are also built using heavy metals at their
bases. These lower their centers of gravity thereby making them more stable and
can therefore move round corners at relatively high speeds without overturning.
Types of equilibrium:
This pencil is in the condition of equilibrium. The net force on the pencil is zero and the total moment about any
pivot is zero.
If the pencil is displaced slightly to the side (counterclockwise), it is no longer in equilibrium. Its weight produces
a clockwise moment that returns the pencil to its equilibrium position.
If the pencil is displaced too far, the moment caused by its weight changes direction to counterclockwise and
causes the displacement to increase.
(a) the center of gravity of an adult is above the hip joints. His cg outside the base of support makes him
unstable
(b) While bending in the manner shown, stability is increased by lowering the center of gravity.
Center of gravity of irregular lamina:
Work done:
When a force acts on an object and transfers energy, work has been done.
work done = force x distance moved in direction of force. The SI unit of work is joule (J). Work is scalar.
Maximum work
Work is maximum when the θ=0. W=F x d x Cos 0= F x d because Cos0=1

Minimum work
Work is minimum when the θ=90. W=F x d Cos90=0, because Cos90=0
Work done by Weight (W) and normal reaction force (N) is zero because these forces are perpendicular
to the displacement. The work done by 20N is positive and it is in the forward direction. Work done by
friction is negative because Cos180= -1.
The area under graph gives the work done which is ---1/2 x base x height = 50j.
Kinetic energy:
Note: work done is also equal to change in kinetic energy. W=K.E f – K.E i
Gravitational potential energy:
Law of conservation of energy:
Statement:
Energy can neither be created nor it destroyed, it can be transferred from one form to the other.
Statement:
Loss of gravitational potential energy is equal to gain in kinetic energy in the absence of resistive forces.
By conservation of energy,
G.P.E loss = K.E gain

At the points B and C, the pendulum bob is at its maximum height, so its potential energy is maximum
and kinetic energy is zero. In this way the total mechanical energy remains constant. At the point A, the
pendulum bob is at its lowest point, total potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. Now the
kinetic energy is maximum and potential energy is zero. Once again, the total mechanical energy
remains constant. Law of conservation of energy is obeyed. Air resistance is ignored.
By careful measurement of the height a pendulum rises and falls through its swing. We can determine
the gravitational potential energy it loses and gain throughout one oscillation. This can be then
compared with kinetic energy as it passes through the lowest point. The experiment will show that the
energy is constantly being transferred from kinetic energy to gravitational potential energy and vice
versa.
Galileo experiments
Power:
Statement: Power is the rate at which work is done.
Statement: Power is the rate at which energy is transferred.
Unit of power:
1KW=1000W
1MW=106W
Inclined plane problems:
Ex:
The skier’s mass, including equipment, is 60.0 kg. (a) What is her acceleration if friction is negligible? (b)
What is her acceleration if the frictional force is 45.0 N?
Ex:
Ex:
Ex:
Ex:
Ex:
Investigating power and efficiency
A brick is pulled up a ramp at a constant velocity and using a constant force. The force meter measures
the force, and the light gates are used to measure the velocity of the brick. Now we can calculate the
power output by, P = Fv. Power input can be calculated by P = work done / time. Work done = gain in
GPE = mgh. The mass can be measured by an electronic balance, the height is measured by the meter
rule and the time taken is measured by stop-clock. Now efficiency can be calculated by Eff = power
output /power input x 100%
Measuring the output power of an electric motor
The motor in figure is switched on until the load is raised almost up to the pulley wheel and is then
switched off. A stop-clock is used to measure the time, ∆t, when the motor is working, and a metre rule
is used to find the distance, ∆h, through which the load is lifted. The experiment is repeated for a range
of masses to investigate the effect of the load on the power output of the motor using the equation:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PO0oTxvEO4U
Fluids:
Density:
Streamlines: represent the velocity of a fluid at each point within it. They can be drawn as arrowed lines
that show the paths taken by small regions of the fluid.
Laminar flow occurs when adjacent layers of fluid do not cross into each other. They usually occur at
lower speeds and around more streamlined objects. The layers do not mix. The layers are roughly
parallel. The speed and direction at any point remain constant over time. There are no sudden changes
in speed or direction along the streamlines either.
Turbulent flow occurs when the streamlines are not continuous. The flow is chaotic and subject to
sudden changes in speed and direction. There is a lot of large-scale mixing of layers, so eddies and
vortices are frequently seen. The streamlines cross into each other.
Air flow around wing: A flow is laminar if it passes along an aircraft wing smoothly and

without turbulence
Air flow around cars:
Wind tunnels:
Upstream and downstream flow: Upstream flow is turbulent while downstream flow is laminar.
Tap water: Laminar at low speeds while turbulent at high speed.
Laminar blood flow:
Turbulent blood flow:

Smoke:
Behind a vertical plate:
Golf ball:
The reason being when air flows around the golf ball, small air turbulence is created on the
dimples which sucks the air to the golf ball. As a result, the air separates later for dimpled
balls. This ultimately reduces air turbulence behind the ball and air drag due to reduced
surface area. Golf ball with scratches and cuts help to make the golf ball fly further and
straighter.
Viscous drag: When solids and fluids move relative to each other, the layer of fluid next to the solid
exerts a frictional force on it. Successive layers of fluid experience frictional forces between each other
as well. The frictional forces cause viscous drag, which is one of the causes of air resistance. Drag force
increases with turbulence.
Viscosity: The viscosity of a fluid relates to its stickiness and thus to its viscous drag. It can be described
in terms of the resistance between adjacent layers in laminar flow. The coefficient of viscosity, η, usually
just called viscosity, is used to compare different fluids. Fluids with lower viscosity will have a greater
rate of flow and cause less viscous drag. Viscosity is temperature dependent. large temperature lowers
the viscosity. The unit of viscosity is kg m -1 s -1 or N s m-2 or Pas.
Experiment: To investigate how flow rate depends on viscosity.
Collect liquids with different viscosities. Pour equal volume of each liquid into an empty beaker and note
down the time taken. Tabulate the values of volume of liquids and time of fall and calculate the flow
rate.
Liquid Volume(cm3) Time of fall(s) Volume flow rate(cm3/s)
Honey 450 225.0 2.0

Corn Syrup 450 109.8 4.1
Vegetable Oil 450 81.8 5.5

Water 450 64.3 7.0
Honey has the highest viscosity, so its flow rate is lowest While water has the lowest viscosity therefore
its flow rate is highest.
Up-thrust: When an object is submerged in a fluid, it feels an upward force caused by the fluid
pressure. This upward force is called up-thrust. According to Archimedes principle,
“up-thrust is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object”
Upthrust = weight of fluid dispalced = mg = ρ V g
V= volume of fluid displaced=Volume of the body inside fluid, ρ= density of fluid, g = 9.81Nkg -1.
Q. A wooden block of volume, V=23cm3, is floating in water in such a way that 2/3rd of the block
is submerged in the water. Calculate the up-thrust acting on the block. Density of water is
1000kg/m3.
Up-thrust= ρ V g
=1000 * (2/3)(23 * 10-6) * 9.81
U=0.15N
cm3 = cm * cm * cm=(1/100) * (1/100) * (1/100)= (1/1000000)=10 -6 m3.
Stoke’s law:
Stoke’s law gives a formula for viscous drag for a small sphere at low speeds in laminar flow. The viscous
drag force, F, is given by:
-2
where r is the radius of the sphere, in meters, η is the coefficient of viscosity, in N s m , and v is the
-1
velocity, in ms .
Law applies to sphere only. There should be laminar flow around sphere. Viscosity should remain
constant throughout the liquid. The drag force increases with the velocity of the sphere, radius of the
sphere and viscosity of the liquid. Large radius and high viscosity increases the drag force.
Terminal velocity:
When an object falls through a fluid there are three forces to take into consideration.
W↓ is the weight of the ball bearing due to gravity (Weight = mass x g, W = mg)
U↑ is the upthrust experienced by any object in a fluid. (U= ρ V g)
F↑ is the drag force of friction between the ball and the fluid. (F=6πηrv)
W and U are constant and so W-U is a constant and the resultant force acts in the downward
direction.
W>U+F
Initially F is zero at the point where the ball enters the fluid, but, as it descends and speeds up F
increases and when F equals W-U the ball bearing descends with uniform velocity. Resultant
force on the ball is zero and it has no acceleration at this point. It has achieved maximum
velocity = terminal velocity.
F=W–U
W=F+U
Terminal velocity formula:
At terminal velocity, forces are balanced.

formula:
Alternative formula for terminal velocity:

Since forces arebalanced at terminal velocity ,W =U + F
Since U is Upthrust=weight of liquid displaced=mo g ,
mo=mass of oil displaced
Sincemo =ρo V o ,∧F is the drag force givenby Stokes law , we can write force equation as ,
mg= ρo V o g+ 6 πηrv , where V o =Volume of oil displaced
But V o=V s=Volume of sphere , so ,
V s ρ s g=ρ o V s g +6 πηr v t
where V s =volume of sphere
ρ s=density of sphere
ρo =density of oil
v t=Terminal velocity of sphere
6 πηr v t =(ρ s−ρ0 )V s g
But,
Terminal velocity expression,
Graph: Vt V/s r2
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L4Wgyqm2_HQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eD9H-2CQ2i0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mQwlmXtRu5k
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uRg_tMIXZms
Unit of viscosity:
F
η=
6 πrv
N
η≡ −1
m∗m s
N
η≡ 2 −1
m s
Pa
η≡
s−1
η ≡ Pas
-1
Base unit = kg m s-1
Note: Viscosity is highly temperature dependent. Viscosity of liquids decreases with increasing
temperature. Butter melts when it is heated because its viscosity decreases and so its rate of flow
increases. The viscosity of gases generally increases with increase in temperature. Hot air is more
viscous than cold air.
Q. Find the terminal velocity of a steel sphere of radius 2mm falling through glycerin in a measuring
cylinder. What is the terminal velocity of the sphere. If the radius of the sphere is doubled, calculate
new Vt.
η glycerin = 1.5 Pas (at 20C0)

ρ steel= 7800kgm-3
ρ glycerin = 1200kgm-3
(a)
Vt = 0.038ms-1 = 3.8cms-1
(b) r= 4 * 10-3 m
Vt = 0.152ms-1 = 15.2cms-1
Falling object Terminal velocity/ms-1
Skydiver 60
Golf ball 32
Hail stone 0.5cm radius 14
Rain drop 0.2cm radius 9
Archimedes principle:
It states that the upthrust is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.
If the upthrust is more than the weight, U > W, the object rises.
If the upthrust is less than the weight, U < W, the object sinks.
If the upthrust is equal to the weight, U = W, the object floats, Principle
of floatation. The net force is zero, the object remains in place, and
neither rises nor sinks.
Why a ship floats but a needle sinks?
Floating Eggs:
Hot air Balloon:
Balloon rises because Upthrust > Weight of Balloon. There is a resultant force on the Balloon in upward
direction. The acceleration can be found by, a = RF/m.
Forces on submarine:
When submarine moves with constant speed Thrust = Drag and Upthrust = Weight. When weight >
upthrust the submarine sinks. The upthrust can be increased again by pumping water out of the tanks
which are placed inside the submarine.
Floating Balloon:
Q. A balloon filled with helium gas has negligible mass. The volume of the balloon is 120cm³. [Density
of air = 1.23 kg/m³. Density of helium gas = 0.18 kg/m³]
Calculate the mass of the helium gas in the balloon?
Find the weight of the helium gas?
The balloon is then tied to a load of mass m kg, as shown in figure below. The balloon and the
load float in the air stationary.
Mark in the diagram, all the forces that acted on the balloon.
Write an equation to relate all the forces
All the 3 forces are in equilibrium
Up-thrust = Weight of the Load + Weight of Helium Gas
Calculate the mass of the load, m.
If the string that is tied to the balloon is cut, Find upward acceleration experienced by the balloon?
Raindrop:
Q. A spherical rain drop of radius 0.2cm is falling through air with
constant velocity. The viscosity of air at 20C is 1.0 * 10-3 Pas. Calculate
the terminal velocity of the raindrop.
r = 0.2 * 10-2 = 0.002m
V = 3.35 * 10-8 m3
m = V*ρ = 3.35 * 10-8 * 1000 = 3.35 * 10-5 kg
At terminal velocity forces are balanced

Weight = drag force
mg = 6ℼηrvt
V = 8.72ms-1
Materials:
Hooke’s law: Force is directly proportional to extension/ compression provided the Hooke’s law limit is
not crossed.
F = k ∆X
F: applied force, N
K: spring constant, N/m
∆x= Final length - Original length = L – L 0
Experiment: To investigate Hooke’s law:
The apparatus for the experiment and a sketch of the resulting load-extension graph are shown below.
The straight line formed confirms that the Hooke’s law is obeyed. Gradient=spring constant
Springs in series and parallel:

Single:
F = k ∆x
Parallel:
k T =k 1+ k 2
k T =k +k
k T =2 k
Series :
K1 K2
k T=
K 1+ K2
k∗k
k T=
k+k
k
k T = The extension in the spring is given by,
2
F
∆ x=
kT
Stress: Force per unit cross sectional area.
Force
Stress=
Cross−Sectional Area
-2
Stress measured in Nm or Pascal (Pa)
F = force in Newton (N)
A = cross-sectional area in m2
Tensile stress means material under tension whereas Compressive stress means material under
compression.
Strain:
The ratio of extension to original length is called strain it has no units as it is a ratio of two
lengths measured in meters.
extension
strain=
original length
∆x
strain=
L0
Strain = strain it has no units

x =extension measured in meters
L0 = original length measured in meters
Tensile strain: Increase in length over original length.
Compressive strain: Decrease in length over original length.
Stress-strain graphs:
A: Limit of proportionality: Up-to this point Hooke’s law is obeyed. Straight line part of the graph.
E: Elastic point: Hooke’s law is not obeyed till this point. After this point material begins to behave
plastically. When the stress is removed at E, the material does return to its original length and all the
energy is recovered.
Y: Yield point: At this point the material shows a large increase in strain for a small increase in stress.
Planes start to flow.
Necking: It is the large decrease in cross sectional area of a material due to large strain produced in the
material.
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) or Breaking stress: Maximum stress that a material can withstand
while being stretched or pulled, before breaking. From this point onwards the strength of the
material increases and requires more stress for deformation until fracture point is reached.
Fracture point: The material breaks at this point completely.
Elastic deformation: A temporary shape change in which material returns to its original length
once the load is removed. All energy is recovered.
Plastic deformation: A permanent shape change in which material does not return to its
original length once the load is removed. Energy is lost.
Ductile: These materials show large plastic deformation under stress. They can be drawn into
wire. Examples include cast iron, Copper, Aluminum, Low Carbon Steel etc.
Brittle: These materials break just after elastic limit is crossed. There is no significant plastic
deformation. Examples include Biscuit, Candy, Glass, Wood, High Carbon Steel etc.
Young’s modulus: The gradient of straight line part of stress-strain graph gives young’s
modulus.
stress
Young modulus=
strain
Experiment to find young’s modulus:
Measure the diameter d of the piece of wire with a micrometer screw gauge. Precision of micrometer is
smaller than diameter of the wire. Repeat this several times along the length of the wire, rotating the
wire each time.
Measure the un-stretched length L of the section of wire using meter rule, from the end of the wire
clamped to the bench to the tape marker. Precision of meter rule < length of wire.
Fix a meter rule to the table directly below the wire so that you can measure its extension as loads are
added.
Add a mass m = 0.50 kg to the end of the wire. After a brief while, measure the extension ∆x of the
section of wire.
Continue to increase the load on the wire by increasing the mass m in 0.50 kg steps.
Continue until you have six sets of readings for m and ∆x.
Calculate the cross-sectional area A of the wire using the equation A = ¼ πd 2.

Record your values for m and ∆x in a table of results. Include columns for F and for the stress and the
strain, where
F = mg
Stress = F / A
Strain = ∆x / L0
Where g = 9.81 m s-2
Plot a graph of stress (y-axis) against strain (x-axis).
Gradient of the graph=Young’s Modulus
Precautions: Wear safety goggles as wire may snap. Wear safety shoes due to falling weights. Measure
diameter of wire three times and calculate their average.
There are uncertainties in measurement of diameter and extension of wire.

Elastic Potential energy, EPE:
The energy stored in a stretched spring is equal to work done on it as it is stretched. Since the force
increases linearly from zero to F as the spring is stretched, the average force used to stretch it is given
by.
So the work done on the spring

This is the work done by the spring. The spring gains energy which is called its potential energy or elastic
strain energy.
The area under the force-extension graph gives work done or strain energy.
Q. Calculate spring constant and EPE.

Gradient = spring constant=50N/m
Q. A wire of diameter 2mm is stretched by applying a mass of 1.5kg. The original length of the
wire is 2m. Calculate the stress and strain and young modulus of the wire. The extension in the
wire is 2mm.
Solution:
d=2mm=2*10-3m
A= π d2 /4= 3.14* (2*10-3)2/4=3.14*10-6 m2
F=mg= 1.5*9.81= 14.7N
Stress = F/A= 14.7/(3.14*10-6)= 4.7*10+6 Pa = 4.7MPa
Strain = ∆x/ L= 0.002/2= 0.001 = 0.1%
Young Modulus, E= stress/strain=4.7*109Pa=4.7GPa
Energy Density:
Energy per unit volume of a material is known as energy density. It is area under stress-strain graph.
1
Energy density = ∗stress∗strain
2
Energy
Energy density =
Volume
The unit of energy density is Joule meter -3.
Q. Calculate the strain energy per unit volume in a brass wire of length 3 m and area of cross-section 0.6
mm2 when it is stretched by 3 mm and a force of 6 kg weight is applied to its free end.
Q.
Q.
Q.
Q.
Q.
Hard: Hard materials resist plastic deformation by surface indentation or scratching. e.g.: diamond
Malleable: Malleable materials show a large plastic deformation under compression. These materials
can be beaten or rolled into sheets. e.g.: gold
Stiff: A stiff material exhibits very small deformation even subjected to large forces. It is related to the
gradient of stress-strain graph, e.g.: steel is stiff.
Tough: Tough materials can withstand impact forces and absorb a lot of energy before breaking. It is the
area under stress-strain graph. e.g.: mild steel, copper, rubber tyres.
Breaking stress: The maximum stress a material can stand before it breaks is called the breaking stress
or ultimate tensile stress.
Strong: Higher UTS.
Young modulus: The ratio of stress to strain is a constant. This constant is called Young modulus, E.
The units of the Young modulus are N m -2, or Pa. For many materials, MPa (106 Pa) is a more convenient
unit as the Pa is very small.
Rubber: Rubber is an elastomer (Elastic + Polymer). It consists of long chains of carbon atoms. Rubber
does not follow Hook’s law. The stress–strain graph for rubber (below) shows hysteresis behavior. The
rubber behaves differently during loading and unloading. The area of the loop represents the
energy per unit volume gained by rubber during one cycle of loading and unloading. Rubber heats up
due to multiple cycles of loading and unloading.
Energy stored per unit volume:
Materials in comparison:
Conservation of energy: Elastic potential energy can be converted to Kinetic energy.

EPE=KE
Slingshot:
Q. A toy catapult has a spring constant50Nm. a) What is the force required to pull the elastic
band back 0.15m. b) What EPE stored in the catapult at that extension. c) A stone of mass o.5
gram is thrown in the air using the catapult. Calculate the speed of the stone at the time of
launch. ANS=7.5N, 0.563J, 1.5m/s
Trampoline:
A 30kg child on a trampoline causes it to sag by 10cm. What is trampoline spring constant? How
much EPE stored in trampoline.
ANS=k=F/∆x=2943N/m, E=1/2(F*∆x)=14.7J
EPE=mgh
h=EPE/mg=0.05m=5cm
Loading unloading graphs:
Truss and Struts:

Cement:
Cement is stronger under compression but weak under tension while steel is strong under tension and
weak under compression. Like in concrete which used in buildings.
Unit-2
Wave: It is the transfer of energy from one point to the other.
Crest and trough move forward while particles vibrate. Energy transferred in the forward direction. All
the points on the wave are in motion.
Transverse waves: Motion in which all points on a wave oscillate perpendicular to energy transfer, e.g.
electromagnetic waves.
Waves in spring are Transverse because, Coils of the spring move up and down when one end of spring
is connected with wall and other end vibrates.
Waves in rope are transverse because, particles on the rope vibrate perpendicularly when one end
vibrates and the other end is kept fixed.
Motion of particles on the wave:

EM waves are transverse because, Electric and magnetic fields oscillate perpendicular to wave motion.
Longitudinal wave: Motion in which all points on a wave oscillate parallel to wave motion, e.g., sound
waves.
Waves in a spring are longitudinal because, coils vibrate parallel to the wave motion.
Sound waves are longitudinal because, Air molecules are pushed forward and backward by the cone of
the speaker which create compressions and rarefactions in the air, and These C and R move forward and
transfer energy to the ear. Sound wave is a pressure wave.
Wavelength, λ: It is the distance between two points in phase to each other or the distance between
two consecutive crests or troughs, on a wave.
Time period, T: It is the time required for a wave to pass a point.

Frequency, f: It is the number of complete waves per second. Unit: Hz or s -1.
Amplitude, A: It is the maximum displacement of a point on a wave from mean position.
Wave speed: v
Time intervals of a wave:

Phase: It is an angle that represents the number of periods.
Phase difference: It is the difference in the phase angle of the two waves. It is given in terms of angle.
Path difference: It is the difference in the path travelled by the two waves. It is given in terms of λ.
In- phase:
Anti-phase (or completely out of phase):

Example:
Principle of superposition:
When two or more waves cross at a point, the displacement at that point is equal to the sum of the
displacements of the individual waves. The individual wave displacements may be positive or negative.
If the displacements are vectors, then the sum is calculated by vector addition.
Stationary wave is a combination of two waves moving in opposite directions, each having same
frequency, amplitude, and speed. This phenomenon is the result of interference i.e., when waves are
superimposed their amplitudes are either added together or cancelled out. This wave remains in a
constant position i.e., peaks and troughs do not move.
Node: This is a point of minimum displacement. The point remains at rest. Two travelling waves meet
destructively at this point and Phase difference is 180 0.
Antinode: This is a point of maximum displacement. The point moves with maximum amplitude. Two
travelling waves meet constructively at this point and Phase difference is 0 0.
Standing waves on a string: Vibrator generates transverse wave of constant frequency in the string
which moves toward pulley and reflected with the same speed and frequency but suffers a phase
change of 180 at the pulley. The two travelling waves superpose and form a standing wave pattern.
Harmonics:
General formula:
Where n is the number of loops and f 0 is the fundamental frequency.
Q. Calculate fundamental frequency.
f0 = 60/3=20Hz
Example:
Example:
Example:
Fundamental frequency formula:

Speed v of transverse wave is given by,
v=
√ T
μ
Fundamental frequency f0 is given by,
2nd method:
but , λ=2 L
f 0=
1 T
2L μ √
Q. A piece of copper wire is fixed firmly at one end, and the other end is passed over a pulley and
attached to a mass of 2 kg. The length of the wire between the fixed support and the pulley is 1.5m.
Separate measurements show that the mass per unit length of the wire is 20 g m -1. What is the
fundamental frequency of the wire if it is set in free oscillation?
Ans: they want fundamental frequency.
T = Weight of mass = mg= 2 x 9.81 = 19.6N
μ = 20 gm-1= 0.02 Kgm-1
L = 1.5
Meld’s experiment: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-gr7KmTOrx0
Sonometer: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GTnPEtksTEc
Standing waves in pipes closed at one end:
Incident and reflected sound waves of equal frequency moving in opposite directions superpose and
form standing wave. Node is formed at closed end and antinode at open end.
NA=λ/4, NN=AA=λ/2
Pipes open at both ends:

Examples:
Dust tube:
The vibrating disk will agitate the air and the dust in the resonating chamber thus creating stationary
waves in the dust. Nodes are the points where resultant amplitude is zero and at antinodes the
amplitudes is maximum.
Measuring Speed of sound using a resonance tube:
V = f (λ2 – λ1)
Experiment to measure the speed of sound:
Use the trace to measure the frequency of sound waves for example 10000 Hz
Distance between the microphones when two waves are first in phase two each other i.e. one
wavelength apart= wavelength of sound
Continue to move the speaker away from the microphone and record each successive distance where
the two waves are in phase. Calculate a mean value for the wavelength.
Use v=fλ
Speed of sound=330m/s
https://www.google.com/search?
q=finding+speed+of+sound+using+double+beam+oscilloscope&oq=finding+speed+of+sound+using+dou
ble+beam+&aqs=chrome.1.69i57j33i22i29i30.40226j1j15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-
8#kpvalbx=_7PHfYby5OdHQaJCijpgM13
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_bp9Shb-Gu8
Question:
How has the stationary wave been produced?

ANS: by superposition/interference (1) with a reflected wave/wave of same speed and wavelength in
opposite direction (1)
Q.
Along the line Z mark in the positions of the two compressions and the two rarefactions at a time
t given by t = t0 + T/4.
Standing waves in a cinema hall:

Pulse Echo technique
Speed of sound
2d
V= t
Ultrasound Testing
Ultrasound scan of unborn babies
(a). An ultrasound speaker doubles as a microphone. Brief bleeps are broadcast, and echoes are
recorded from various depths. (b) Graph of echo intensity versus time. The time for echoes to return is
directly proportional to the distance of the reflector, yielding this information noninvasively.
Principles for producing such a B-scan:
. (B =) brightness
• Transducer and gel/coupling medium

• Pulse goes in and reflected back to the probe and converted into an electric signal
• Image: brighter areas (white areas) = (more) reflections
. signal is reconstructed as an image on monitor.
. the echoes are represented as multiple of dots that together form an image.
. depth of image, d = v t /2
Larger the frequency of us = shorter is its wavelength = shallower is its penetration = better is its
resolution of echo graph.
Q. Explain with the aid of a suitable calculation why ultrasound of frequency 1.2 MHz would not be
suitable for carrying out detailed eye investigations.
Q.
Calculate the time delay between sending out a single pulse and receiving its echo from interface K.
(Speed of ultrasound in soft tissue = 1500 m s–1)
The interval between pulses emitted by the transducer is 200 μs. At what frequency are pulses emitted?
Two successive emitted pulses are shown on the grid below.
Add to the grid any traces produced by the echoes from interface K.
An echo from interface M takes 250 μs to return to the transducer. Suggest why reflections from M will
be difficult to interpret.
Doppler Effect:
This is the change in frequency (or wavelength) of a wave due to relative motion of a source or observer.
The Doppler Effect can be observed for any type of wave - sound wave, light wave, etc. for instance a
police car was traveling towards you on the highway. As the car approached with its siren blasting, the
pitch of the siren sound (a measure of the siren's frequency) was high; and then suddenly after the car
passed by, the pitch of the siren sound was low. That was the Doppler Effect - an apparent shift in
frequency for a sound wave produced by a moving source.
The Doppler Effect in Astronomy:
Light emitted by a star in a distant galaxy would appear to be shifted downward in frequency (a red shift)
if the star is moving away from the Earth. On the other hand, there is an upward shift in frequency
(a blue shift) of such observed radiation if the star is moving towards the Earth.
Interference of waves:
Wave interference is the phenomenon that occurs when two waves meet while traveling along the
same medium. Interference is the effect of the superposition of waves.
If the two waves meet in phase, the superposition is constructive. Meaning that the amplitude will
double the original wave. If two waves meet in antiphase, then the superposition is destructive.
Meaning that the amplitude will be zero.
Diffraction of waves: It is the spreading of waves as they pass from a gap or when they move around an
obstacle. The diffraction is good when wavelength is equal to the size of gap otherwise it is poor.
The amount of diffraction increases with wavelength; thus, Radio waves diffract more compare to
microwaves.
Bending around obstacle:

If the wavelength of the waves is shorter then diffraction, effect is much smaller as well. This
explains why television waves are much more difficult to receive in hilly areas than radio waves
which have a longer wavelength.
Sound waves diffract around doorways since the wavelength of sound is equal to the size of a doorway.
Diffraction of light is the slight bending of light as it passes around the edge of an object. The amount of
bending depends on the relative size of the wavelength of light to the size of the opening. If the opening
is much larger than the light's wavelength, the bending will be almost unnoticeable. However, if the two
are closer in size or equal, the amount of bending is visible.
Monochromatic light waves diffract from each corner of the slit and interfere with one another and
produce a diffraction pattern on the screen. The diffraction pattern is an example of a standing wave on
the screen, where the dark spots are nodes and the light spots are antinodes. The central maximum is
very bright compare to other maxima which are of decreasing intensity. When the slit width is
decreased then the spots move away from each other and vice versa.
Intensity graph:
Diffraction grating is a device that will cause multiple diffraction patterns which then overlap. This
creates an interference pattern with a well-defined spacing between bright and dark spots. It is a
collection of large number of slits through which waves can pass.
The diffraction formula for the maxima is,
If there are (N) lines per mm of the grating, then (d), the space between every two adjacent lines is
By measuring D and y, we can find the angle θ and hence λ =yD/d can be found.
Intensity graph:
Note: The maximum value of Sin θ =1 so n max = λ/d
If white light is used instead of monochromatic light then the center will be white and edges will be
colored with violet color near the center and red color away from the center.
Advantages of increasing the number of lines in the grating are:
a. The number of principle maxima increases.

b. The distance between two adjacent principle maxima’s increases.
c. The maxima are sharper.
Experiment:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=flPSbngdLwI
Q. A monochromatic light with a wavelength of 2.5x10-7 m strikes a grating

containing 10,000 slits/cm. Determine the angular positions of the second-order bright line.
Q. Blue light of wavelength 480 nm illuminates a diffraction grating. The second order image is formed
at an angle of 30 degree from the central image. How many lines in a centimeter of the grating have
been ruled?
Phase coherence: Constant phase relationship between two sources or two sources must be phase
coherent i.e. they should have same frequency.
Two source interference:
For constructive interference, the path difference between the two waves must be a whole number of
wavelengths. For destructive interference to occur the path difference between the two waves must be
half a wavelength.
Alternative formula:
Path difference, S2X– S1X= d Sin θ
Interference of Sound waves: Two loudspeakers emitting the same note can cause loud and quite areas
in front of the speakers. Audio signal generator connected to two speakers produces two coherent
sound waves. These waves interfere and produces loud sound=contructive interference and Soft
sound=destructive interference.
Audio signal generator connected to two speakers produces two coherent sound waves. These waves
interfere and produces loud sound=contructive interference and Soft sound=destructive interference.
Interference of Microwaves: Microwaves transmitter emits a constant frequency wave which is split
into two waves by double slits and are then allowed to interfere at the detector. Maxima (Constructive
interference) and Minima (destructive interference) are detected.
Experiment:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gp7_dFcR77M
Question: When the receiver moves from Q to R, the meter reading decreases and reaches a minimum
at R. if AR=19 cm and BR=20.5 cm, find the wavelength and frequency of microwaves? (ANS=ʎ=3cm,
f=1010 Hz)
Interference of Water waves: The interference of two sets of periodic and concentric waves with the
same frequency produces an interesting pattern in a ripple tank.
Constructive interference: Solid curve meets solid curve= red dot, Constructive interference: Broken
curve meets Broken curve= blue dot, Destructive interference: Solid curve meets broken curve= cross
The path difference between solid and broken line is ʎ/2. The path difference between solid and solid
line is λ.
Experiment:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jqm4f55soJQ
Animation:
https://techtv.mit.edu/videos/3470-ripple-tank-single-and-double-slit-diffraction-and-interference
Young’s double slit experiment:
Conditions: Light source used should be monochromatic. Sources should be coherent i.e., there should
be a constant phase relationship between two waves. Dark room.
Experiment:
In Young’s slits experiment, light first passes through a single slit and diffracts. The light then passes
through two slits. These slits act as a source of light waves.
The two waves diffract and overlap. When they overlap, there can be constructive or destructive
interference. Constructive interference= bright fringes, Destructive interference= dark fringes.
Path difference, d Sin θ:

Intensity profile of fringes:
Note: If one of the slits is closed then interference pattern disappeared and diffraction pattern
appeared. If white light is used, then central fringe is white, and edges are colored.
Link double slit interference:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=nuaHY5lj2AA
Link single and double slit interference:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9D8cPrEAGyc
Interference with CD:

λ
Path difference between ray1 and ray 2 = t + t =2t = , So the rays meet destructively.
2
λ
t= pit depth =
4
For constructive interference computer reads 1 and for destructive interference computer reads 0.
Interference in thin films:
. Light travel an extra distance or path difference, d + d = 2d, inside film, where d is the thickness of the
film. Ray 1 and ray 2 meet constructively if they are in phase with each other. The path difference should
be whole number of wavelength. Ray 1 and ray 2 meet destructively if they are out of phase to each
other. The path difference should be half number of wavelength.
. Wavelength of light is less in film compare to the wavelength in air.
Interference in microwave oven:

Microwaves have a wavelength ranges from 1mm to 30cm. Microwaves penetrate inside the food and
vibrate the water molecules of the food. The molecules strike against each other and the friction
produces heat. Water contents in the food gets heated up rapidly and the food gets cooked. The oven
has a turntable because the microwaves form standing waves inside the oven, which means there are
cold spots or nodes of microwave energy inside the oven. The rotation of the plate ensures the
microwaves spread evenly and that the food cooks simultaneously and uniformly.
Wave-fronts are the surfaces where all points are in phase with each other.
Interference of radio waves:

Huygens’ construction is an approximate geometrical procedure for determining the propagation

of electromagnetic waves. According to this construction, every point of a wave front in a
medium at any instant is the source of secondary spherical wavelets.
Spherical wave fronts:
Plane wave fronts:

Example:
ANS= 0.94m
Refraction of light is the phenomenon of change in the path of light in going from one medium to
another. In going from a rarer to a denser medium, the ray of light bends towards normal and in going
from a denser to a rarer medium, the ray of light bends away from normal. There is a change in speed of
the light due to the change in wavelength. The frequency remains the same in the two mediums.
Refractive index, is a measure of amount of refraction caused by different materials. It is equal to the
ratio of speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a material. It has no unit.
Q.
Snell’s Law is a relationship between the path taken by a ray of light in crossing the interface between
two contacting substances and the refractive index of each.
General formula:
Q. The refractive index of water with respect to air is 4/3. If the speed of light in air is 3x10 8 m/s,
calculate the speed of light in water.
1ST Method:
c
n=
v
4 3∗108
=
3 v
8
v=2.25∗10 m/ s
2ND Method:
Measurement of refractive index of solids:
Compare Sini = n Sin r + 0, with y= mx + c, to get n= gradient of the graph.

Experiment
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2YygIbxAJfg
Total internal reflection and critical angle:
It is complete reflection of light within the dense medium, glass or water.
Condition of total internal reflection:
1. Light should fall in the surface of lighter medium from denser medium.
2. Angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
Critical angle is the angle of incidence where the angle of refraction is 90°. The light must travel from an
optically denser medium to an optically less dense medium.
Using Snell’s law, we get,

If the second medium is air then n2 = 1 and so
Experiment: Measure the refractive index of solids and liquids:
Discuss situations that require the accurate determination of refractive index:
Sometimes the refractive index of a material needs to be known very accurately. For example, the glass
used to make spectacle lenses must have a precisely known refractive index if the lens grinder is to
match the lens shape to the exact power needed for a person’s eye prescription.
Prisms:
Diamond:
Dispersion of white light:
When White light falls on a prism, it changes medium. Hence different colors of light bend at different
angles. Red color bends the least while violet color bends the most. The wavelength and speed of all
seven colors inside the prism is different. Using v = f λ, violet is slowest because its wavelength is
smallest and red is fastest because of large wavelength. Frequency stays the same in two mediums.
Refractive index and wavelength are inversely related. Also the refractive index for red color is least so
its critical angle is largest according to eq:,
Optical fibers:
Rainbow:
Polarization:
 When the oscillations in a light take place in all planes at right angles to the direction of travel, it is said
to be un-polarized light.
When the oscillations in a light take place in one plane at right angles to the direction of travel, it is said
to be polarized light.
Polarizing filter
If un-polarized light encounters a polarizing filter, some of it is absorbed and the emerging light is
polarized.
If polarized light encounters a polarizing filter, polarized light emerges, and its brightness and plane of
polarization depend on the orientation of the filter.
If two polarizing filters are arranged so that they are orientated at right angles to each other, then they
will completely absorb un-polarized light. The filters are said to be crossed.
Note: Only transverse waves can be polarized whereas longitudinal waves cannot be polarized because
the particles vibrate parallel to movement of wave energy. Oscillations are at 90 degree angle to the
Polaroid. Sound waves cannot be polarized because these are longitudinal waves.
Optical activity
Optically active substances such as sugar solutions rotate the plane of polarization by an amount of
proportion to their concentration and the depth of liquid through which the light travels. This can be
used to measure the concentration of sugar solutions. The process is called polarimetry and is used in
confectionery industry to manufacture sweets.
Experiment: Models of structures to investigate sugar concentrations
Two polarizing filters and a 360o protractor can be used to measure the effect of the concentration of a
sugar solution on the plane polarization of light.
Distilled water is put into the cell to check that the scale reading is zero when the filters are crossed,
and the light-emitting diode (LED) blacked out. Several sugar solutions of different concentration (20 –
100g in 100 ml of distilled water) are prepared. The cell is filled to a fixed level with the solution. The
upper filter is rotated until the light source disappears. The angle of rotation is measured. The angle is
found for all known concentrations and some unknown solutions, including those containing clear honey
and syrup.
A graph of the angle of rotation against the concentration is plotted and used to find the values for the
unknown concentrations.
Investigate and explain how to measure the rotation of the plane of polarization.
You need a polarizing filter with a known plane of polarization (usually marked on the filter). It should be
mounted in a holder with an angle scale.
To measure the plane of polarization (of a beam of light say) you place the filter in the beam and rotate
the filter; when the amount of light transmitted is a maximum (e.g., measured with a light meter) the
plane of polarization of the filter is the same as the plane of polarization of the light. You just read-off
the angle.
Polarization from water surface:
Unpolarized light from sun gets partially horizontally polarized after reflection from water surface. This
light is called GLARE. The glare can be removed by wearing vertically polarized filters, which would block
the glare due to 90-degree angle.
3-D Glasses
Two synchronized projectors project two respective views onto the screen, each with a different
polarization. The glasses allow only one of the images into each eye because they contain lenses with
different polarization. The filters on the glasses allow only one image to enter each eye, and your brain
does the rest.
Electron Diffraction Experiment:
A beam of electrons was directed at a graphite crystal in an experiment. The electron beam has
diffracted through the layers of atoms in the crystal. This proves that electrons can behave like waves.
The wavelength of electrons is equal to the atomic spacing of the graphite crystal. Rings are seen on the
screen, which proves that electrons are showing wave nature.
Wave particle duality:
Light could show sometimes as waves and at other times as particle. De Broglie hypothesized that
particles can also show wave behavior. He proposed that wavelength, λ of a particle of momentum, p
can be calculated as
Where m is mass and v is speed of particle.

Q. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength a) of a proton moving at 1% the speed of light. h=6.63 x 10 -34js.
ANS=2.43x10-10m. b) An electron which is accelerated through 1200V.
When the applied voltage is increased, the diameter of the rings decreases, because at high voltage the
momentum of electrons increases which decreases their wavelength.
Nature of Light and electrons

Waves or Particles
Electrons and Photons both behave as particles as well as waves depending upon the experiment being
performed. Therefore, they have dual nature. These are known as Wavicles.
Photon is a packet of energy. It is electromagnetic radiation. Photons can have certain values of energy
only which means that energy of photon is quantized. The energy of photon is directly proportional to
its frequency.
Q. Calculate the energy of a photon of red light of a frequency of 4.6 x 10 14 Hz.
Q. What is the wavelength of light if the energy of 1 photon is 3.82 x 10-18 J?

Electron Volt is the unit of energy. It is the energy gained by an electron when it is moved through 1
volt.
Intensity of radiation is the amount of energy received per unit area and per unit time.
Conditions for the formula: (1) No light absorption by the surroundings. (2) Light falls perpendicularly to
the receiver. (3) Light spreads spherically. (3) Light emits from point source.
Graphs:
Qa. A 60 W light bulb converts electrical energy to visible light with an efficiency of 8%. Calculate
the visible light intensity 2 m away from the light bulb. ANS: 0.1W/m2
Qb. The average energy of the photons emitted by the light bulb in the visible region is 2 eV.
Calculate the number of these photons received per square meter per second at this distance from
the light bulb. ANS: 3 × 1017 m-2 s-1
Q.
A solar power station orbits the Earth at a constant distance from the surface of 36 000 km. The
total area of the collectors is equivalent to a rectangle with dimensions of 120 m by 250 m.
The collectors are used to generate 600 kW of power. a) Calculate the intensity of the
microwaves at the collectors. State any assumption that you make. ANS= 20W/m 2
b) Calculate the total power which the orbiting station would have to emit if it
transmitted microwaves equally in all directions. State any assumption that you make.
ANS, P=3.3x 1017 W
Number of photons:
Number of photons per unit time,
= Power / Energy = P / hf
Number of photons per unit time per unit area,
N= Intensity / Energy = I / E
Photoelectric Effect is the emission of electrons when electromagnetic radiations, such as light, hits a
material.
Einstein equation
When a single photon is absorbed by a metal surface, all of its energy is transferred to a single electron,
which may then be released from the metal. This process is called photoelectric emission and the
released electron is known as photoelectron.
Work function, φ, is the minimum energy required to release the photoelectron from the metal surface.
For photoelectric emission to occur, the energy of the photon must be equal to or greater than the work
function.
Threshold frequency, f0, is the minimum frequency to allow photoelectric emission to occur.
If the energy of the photon is greater than the work function, then the photoelectron can acquire some
kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of the photoelectron is completely independent on the intensity of
the light, but it only depends on the frequency of the incident light. By energy conservation:
Photoelectrons may have less than the maximum

kinetic energy if they transfer energy to the metal on their way to the surface.
If the photon energy is less than the work function, then the electron will not release. However, the
energy can cause a slight amount of heating on the metal.
Q. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of an electron ejected from silver by a 3.13 x 10 15 Hz photon.
Work function of silver is 4.73eV.
K.E max v/s frequency graph
Slope of the graph= Planck constant, h
Y-intercept = - work function
Q.
Q. Calculate a) the work function of the metal surface, b) stopping voltage.
a) 2.65 x 10-19 J
b)
Demonstration of discharge of a zinc plate by ultra-violet light
The leaf on a negatively charged gold lea electroscope slowly falls if a zinc plate resting on the cap of
electroscope is irradiated with ultraviolet light. And investigation like this shows several interesting
features:
i. With no light falling on the zinc plate, the leaf falls only very slowly if at all.
ii. Ultraviolet light shone onto the plate causes the leaf to fall rapidly. This fall is stopped if a shade of
glass is placed between the zinc plate and the ultraviolet lamp.
iii. The rate of fall of the leaf depends on the distance of the lamp from the plate. The closer the lamp,
the more rapid the fall.
iv. Visible light has no effect on the behavior of the leaf.
v. A positively charged electroscope is unaffected by an ultraviolet light.
Regarding photoelectric effect, ultraviolet light was capable of transferring energy to electrons to a
metal, giving them a sufficient energy to escape from the metal surface. The leaf of negatively charged
electroscope falls as electrons are ejected from the zinc plate decreasing the overall negative charge on
the plate. The leaf does not fall if the electroscope is positively charged as the ultraviolet light cannot
transfer electrons to the plate – only energy.
Reverse potential difference
The circuit has reverse P.D connections. Cathode is connected to positive terminal while anode is made
negative. When light falls on the metal surface electrons are emitted from metal surface and move
towards anode, T thereby a small current is detected by the microammeter. When the P.D of the anode
is made more negative using potential divider electrons are repelled back to the metal surface.
Increasing the voltage drives increasingly more energetic electrons back until finally none of them will be
able to leave the metal surface and the microammeter reads zero. It is a measure of maximum kinetic
energy of electrons emitted because of photoelectric effect.
Loss of K.E = Gain in P.E

Einstein equation
Q.
Q. Using the graph shown below calculate Planck constant.

Photocurrent v/s voltage:
There is zero current at stopping voltage. When the voltage of anode is made positive then there is
current in the circuit which rises as the voltage across photocell decreases. At zero volt the current is not
zero because the number of electrons attracted by thew collector is becoming more. The current
saturates since the number of electrons ejected remains the same and all the ejected electrons are
attracted by the collector there by producing saturation current.
Two different intensities beam having the same wavelength.

Graph shows that for any intensity of radiation, whether the intensity is high or low the value of
stopping voltage is always the same.
Two different frequencies of radiation having same intensities.
Particle theory v/s wave theory:
Experiments on the photoelectric effect show that,
• the kinetic energy of photoelectrons released depends upon the frequency of the incident light and
not on its intensity,
• light below a certain threshold frequency cannot release photoelectrons.
How do these conclusions support a particle theory but not a wave theory of light?
Particle theory:
Energy of photon depends on frequency E = hf whereas according to wave theory energy depends on
intensity.
One photon release one electron giving it k.e.

Higher frequency ⇒ greater k.e. of electrons whereas according to wave theory more intense light
should give greater k.e. More intense light gives more electrons but no change in maximum kinetic
energy.
Electrons emit only at Threshold frequency whereas wave theory says that photons of any frequency will
bring electrons out of the metal.
There is instantaneous emission of electrons from the metal whereas waves take some time to transfer
their energy.
Lower frequency, finally ke = O ie no electrons released
Waves continuous ∴ when enough are absorbed electrons should be released.
Ground state: In a ground-state atom, all electrons are in the lowest possible energy levels.
Excited state, An, excited state is any state of energy higher than the ground state.
Energy levels are states inside atom that have constant energy. These levels are discrete.
Energy levels of Hydrogen
When energy is absorbed by an electron in ground state it is excited into a higher energy level.
Conversely when an electron falls to a lower level, energy is given out in the form of a photon. An
electron moves down from level Ef to Ei gives out a photon of frequency f.
The frequencies of emitted or absorbed photon for variety of transitions can be calculated from above
formula.
Q. The diagram below is a simplified energy level diagram for atomic hydrogen.
i). A free electron with kinetic energy 12 eV collides with an atom of hydrogen and causes is to be raised
to its first excited state. Calculate the kinetic energy of the free electron (in eV) after the collision.
ANS=1.8eV
ii) Calculate the wavelength of the photon emitted when the atom returns to its ground state.
ANS=1.2x10-7 m
Ionization energy is the energy required to ionize an atom in its ground state. The ionization energy of
hydrogen atom is +13.6eV.
Discharge tube:
A discharge tube contains hydrogen gas at low pressure with electrodes at each end. When a voltage is
applied to the two electrodes current flows due to ions in the gas. The electrical energy excites
hydrogen atoms to higher states. Hydrogen atom eventually gets de-excited by moving to lower states
at random times, thereby releasing a photon of energy, E=hf. The energy difference between two levels
is given by, . Only certain transitions are allowed because energies of hydrogen
atom are quantized. Photons energies must match the energy difference between levels.
Hydrogen spectrum:
When a diffraction grating is used to view the discharge tube, several colored lines are seen. This is the
line spectrum of Hydrogen atom. Each line represents specific wavelength which is the result of electron
dropping between two energy levels.
Video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oae5fa-f0S0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nzPUVmON3ak
DC Electricity
Electric charge, Q:
Electric current is the rate of flow of charged particles.
Potential difference, p.d. (or voltage, V), is a measure of energy transfer between two points in electric
circuit. When a charge of 1C moves through a p.d. of 1V then the energy transferred is 1J:
Ohm’s law:
Ohm’s law states that:
“Provided the temperature and other physical factors remain constant, the current through a wire is
proportional to the potential difference across its ends.”
This leads to a very simple mathematical relationship:
Voltage (V) is equal to Current (I) times resistance (R).
Conductors for which I-V graphs are straight lines are said to be ohmic conductors – a metal at a
constant temperature is an example of such a conductor. Where I-V graph is non-linear, the conductor is
said to be non-ohmic – a lamp filament and a semiconductor diode are two examples of nonohmic
conductors.
Experiment: To investigate I-V graphs of a metallic conductor.

Set up the circuit as shown. Set the P.D. to its minimum value and switch on. Gradually increase the P.D.
and record the values of P.D., V and current, I, up to the maximum P.D. possible. Reverse the
connections of the cell and repeat all the steps. Tabulate your values of V and I. Plot your data on a
graph will give a straight line passing through origin.
Example:
The resistance of the component is the inverse of the gradient. Looking at the graphs below we
can see that for an equal increase in P.D. the blue line has a smaller increase in the current
flowing through it than the red line.
Diode conducts in one direction:
Diode conducts the current in one direction only. It converts a.c. to d.c. Diode is a semiconductor whose
resistance decreases when voltage or temperature around it increases.
Ohm’s law circuit for a diode:

Connect the circuit as shown. Collect several values of V and I through diode by varying the variable
resistance. Current should be in mA. Reverse the connection of diode and repeat the above steps.
Diode only conducts in forward biased condition whereas in reverse biased conditions it does not
conduct for small values of voltages. When the voltage is increased in reverse biased condition the diode
allows large current to pass through it. Ohms law is not obeyed in diode because graph is not a straight
line. Diode does not conduct before 0.6V because conduction electrons are not released and n increases
as voltage increases. Therefore, diode behaves like a semiconductor.
I-V Graph for filament lamp:
Explanation: Current increase as PD increase. The resistance of the Lamp increases as the temperature
of the filament increases. The resistance increases due to the violent collisions of electrons with the
lattice atoms inside the filament lamp. The collision rate is high. The lattice atoms vibrate more violently
and release energy as heat.
I-V graph of thermistor:
A thermistor is a semiconductor. The resistance of thermistor decreases when voltage or temperature

around it increases. Therefore, it is also called Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistor.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL):
The algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed loop in a circuit is equal to zero. This is the
consequence of law of conservation of energy.
EMF of the source, 10V + 2V + 4V + 4V = 0
10V = 2V + 4V + 4V
Q. What is the voltage V3.
Kirchhoff current law (KCL):
Kirchhoff's current law states that the current flowing into a node (or a junction) must be equal to
the current flowing out of it. This is a consequence of charge conservation.
Example:
Example:
Check that,
I1 = I4 = I5 = I2 + I3
Resistors in series:
At any point in a circuit, the charge flowing in must be the same as the charge flowing out. When
resistors are joined in series, the current is the same through all of them.
The total energy supplied per coulomb of charge is converted by the resistors. Therefore, the sum of the
individual P.D.s across each resistor is equal to the total P.D. applied.
Using principle of conservation of energy or Kirchhoff voltage law (KVL).
Resistors in parallel:
When resistors are joined in parallel, the total current into any junction is equal to the sum of the
currents coming out. The P.D. across each resistor is equal to the P.D. applied.
Using principle of conservation of charge or Kirchhoff current law (KCL).

Examples of circuits:
Series and parallel circuits:

Q.
R2 + R3 = 8Ω + 4Ω = 12Ω
R(ab) = Rcomb + R1 = 6Ω + 6Ω = 12Ω
Lamps in series:
Since the voltage around lamp, A is greater than lamp B so, lamp A will be brighter. P=IV.
Lamps in parallel:
Since the resistance of lamp, B is lower than lamp A, the current through lamp A will be low so, lamp A
will be dimmer.
Power:
Watt:
Electrical energy:
Kilowatt hour (KWh): Unit of electrical energy. It is energy used by 1000 Watt for 1 hour.
Example:
Example: Calculate the work done by power source of 15V d.c. if it supplies a charge of 0.5 Coulomb.
W = 15 x 0.5 = 7.5J
Resistivity:
Resistance of a uniform conductor depends on:
 its length (l)
 its cross-sectional area (A)
 the material of which it is made.
Where ρ is the resistivity of the material from which the conductor is made. The SI unit of resistivity is
Ωm.
Q(a). A wire 6.00 m long has a resistivity of 1.72 x 10 –8 ohm-m and a cross-sectional area of 0.25 mm2
Calculate the resistance of the wire. Ans= 0.413 Ohm
b. The wire is made from copper. Copper has 1.10 x 10 29 free electrons per meter cubed. Calculate the
current through the wire when the drift speed of the electrons is 0.093 –1mm s–1.
Measuring resistivity:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0yDtMHlwG3U
Measuring resistivity of concrete:
Various approaches for measuring resistivity are available but the four-probe device is the most suitable.
A current is applied between the two outer probes and the potential difference measured between the
two inner probes. Resistivity measurement is useful for identifying areas of reinforced concrete at risk
from corrosion.
Experiment: To measure the resistivity of graphite.

An interesting experiment is to do this for graphite in the form of pencil ‘lead’. The diameter, d, of the
lead is measured with a micrometer at four places along its length, at different orientations, to give a
good average. The lead is taped to a half-meter rule, with about 1 cm protruding beyond the zero end of
the rule, and the circuit in the figure is set up.
Firm contact is made at different lengths, L, along the lead. The current, I, and potential difference, V,
are recorded, and the corresponding resistance, R, is calculated for each value of L. A graph of R against l
is then plotted – it would be sensible to plot in meters at this stage.
Resistivity, ρ= gradient x A
Q. Show that the resistivity of a cube of length L does not depend upon its area.
Drift velocity:
Q. A copper wire of 2mm diameter carries a current of 1A. Copper contains about 8.5 x 10 28 electrons in
1m3. Calculate the drift velocity in the copper wire.
Solution:
Q. Recall typical TV tube or CRT. The electron beam has a speed of 5 x 10 7 m/s. If the current is 100
microamperes, what is n?
Solution:
NOTE:
Conductors allow large current to flow since the current density, n is large.
Semiconductors allow small current to flow since the current density, n is small.
Insulators do not allow current to flow since n=0 so, I=neAv=0x(eAv)=0. There are no free electrons
available.
Example:
Two wires X and Y are connected in series. Wire X has a diameter d whereas wire Y has a diameter 2d.
what is the ratio of their velocities.
2
vP dP
=
v Q d 2Q
vP d
2
1
= =
vQ ( 2 d ) 4
2
Difference between conductors, semi-conductors, and insulators:
Potential dividers:
It is a series circuit in which voltage is divided among resistors. The amount by which voltage is dropped
depends upon the resistance. Potential dividers are circuits which produce an output voltage as a
fraction of input voltage.
Q.
Solution:
Variable potential dividers are used to vary potential across a resistor from zero to maximum voltage of
the supply.
 From Ohm’s law V = IR, the potential difference Vout from a resistor in a potential divider
circuit is proportional to its resistance
o If an LDR or thermistor’s resistance decreases, the potential difference through it
also decreases.
o If an LDR or thermistor’s resistance increases, the potential difference through it

also increases.
Slider at Rmax =50 Ohm
I through lamp is large, p.d across lamp is large, large power dissipated across lamp so it is bright.
Slider at Rmin =0 Ohm
I through lamp is zero, p.d across lamp is small, No power dissipated across lamp so it is off.
Q. Calculate the current through the lamp.
Using potential divider formula,
R2=30 ohm, R 1=20 ohm ,V ¿ =6 V

30
V Bulb= ∗6=3.6 V
30+20
V 3.6
I Bulb = = =0.12 A=120 mA
R 30
ANS=120mA
2nd formula:
V 1 R1
=
V 2 R2
Ratio of voltage = Ratio of resistance
Q. Calculate voltage across 20 Ohm resistor.
V 1=10 , V 2=?
2 10
=
V 2 20
V 2=4 V
EMF and Internal resistance:
EMF (electromotive force) is the energy provided by a cell to drive a unit charge around a circuit.
Difference between emf and potential difference:
When the switch is open as shown in Figure, the reading of the ammeter is zero as there is
no current flow in an open circuit. The voltmeter gives a reading showing that the
voltmeter measures the potential difference across the cell in an open circuit.
Therefore the e.m.f. of a cell can also be defined as the potential difference across
the cell in an open circuit.
When the switch is closed, the circuit is a closed circuit and current flows in the circuit.
The ammeter gives a reading. The voltmeter’s reading drops a little and this gives the
potential difference across the terminals of the cell.
Therefore, in a closed circuit, the potential difference across the cell is also known as
the terminal potential difference.
ε = VLoad + VLost=1.25+0.25=1.5V
where V = I R, is terminal potential difference, and r is the internal resistance of the cell.
Measure the emf and internal resistance of a cell, e.g. a solar cell:
Experiment: To find the e.m.f and internal resistance of a cell.
The figure shows a standard circuit to find the e.m.f and internal resistance for a zinc-carbon cell.
Starting with the variable resistor at the highest voltage (to minimize any heating effects), record the
current in the cell and the potential difference across its terminals for different values of the resistor.
If a graph of V against I is plotted, we would expect to get a straight line of gradient –r and the intercept
on the y axis.
Comparing this with the equation for straight line graph y= mx + c shows us that m=-r and y-intercept=ε.
In practice, the line may not be straight because the internal resistance may not be constant –
particularly for larger currents.
A typical set of observations is recorded in a table. Plot a graph of this data and hence determine values
of e.m.f and internal resistance of the cell.
Internal resistance:
It is the resistance present inside a cell or a power source. This resistance produces hindrance to the
flow of electrons. With internal resistance present inside cell, the current I, in the circuit can be found
from,
ε
I=
R +r
The internal resistance inside car battery is kept small (0.001ohm), because a battery with low resistance
delivers high current for a few seconds, on demand. Big batteries have a lower resistance, so they
provide energy very quickly to start the starter motor of the car. The internal resistance of a watch
battery is around 100 ohms because watch needs only a tiny current.
ε−V
r=
I
Power: Power generation from the cell is equal to the power dissipated across external resistor and
power dissipated across internal resistor.
EI=I2R+I2r
EI= Power generation from the cell
I2R= Power dissipated across external resistor
I2r= Power dissipated across internal resistance
Power delivered is maximum when internal resistance is equal to the external resistance that is, r = R.
Example: A 9 V battery is connected in series with a load and the terminal voltage is found to be 8 V.
Current through the circuit is measured as 5 A. What is the internal resistance of the battery?
Example: What is the EMF of the battery in the following circuit?

Example: What is the internal resistance of the battery in the following circuit?
Emf and PD:

Efficiency:
Example:
What is the efficiency of the heater?
Unit 3&6
Systematic error: It is the error in the system. It is a fixed error. This error cannot be reduced by taking
average of the data. It is predictable. It can be removed by using correct apparatus or using proper
technique. Examples include, zero error, reaction time, blood pressure measurement, etc.
Random error: It is the error made by a person handling the data. It is not a fixed error. It can be
reduced by taking average of the data. Examples include parallax error etc.
Accuracy: Accuracy is how close a reading is to the true value. For example, if in lab you obtain a weight
measurement of 3.2 kg for a given substance, but the actual or known weight is 10 kg, then your
measurement is not accurate. In this case, your measurement is not close to the known value.
Precision: It is the smallest measurement made by an instrument. It is the closeness of

measurements/results with each other. Using the example above, if you weigh a given substance five
times, and get 3.2 kg each time, then your measurement is very precise. Precision is independent of
accuracy. You can be very precise but inaccurate, as described above. You can also be accurate but
imprecise.
Instrument Precision
Meter rule ±1mm or 0.5mm or 0.1cm
Micrometer screw gauge ±0.01mm
Vernier calipers ±0.01cm=0.1mm
Top pan balance ±0.1g
Beaker ± 10 ml
Protractor ± 10
Ammeter analogue Depends upon scale
Voltmeter analogue Depends upon scale
Ammeter digital ±0.01A
Voltmeter digital ±0.01V
Stopwatch ±0.01
Thermometer ±0.1C0
Meter rule:
Micrometer screw gauge:
Vernier caliper:
Top pan balance:

Beaker:
Protractor:
Analogue Ammeter and voltmeter:

Digital multimeter:
Stopwatch:
Thermometer:
Blood pressure:
Speedometer:(110±5) km/h
Uncertainties:
When you repeat a measurement you often get different results. There is an uncertainty in the
measurement that you have taken. The uncertainty might be the resolution of the instrument or, if the
readings were repeated, the uncertainty might be half the range of the repeats. If the uncertainty is
predictable, i.e. it is systematic, then the uncertainty should be subtracted from each reading, for
example if there is a zero error on an instrument.
Recording data:
Results should be recorded to the resolution of the measuring instrument which means there will be a
consistent number of decimal places for the readings for any one variable. When data is processed,
these values should be recorded to a consistent number of significant figures which is usually 3 as this is
what we can usually confidently plot on a graph.
Calculating uncertainties:
There are several techniques that will produce an estimate of the uncertainty in the value of the mean.
Since we are expecting students to produce an estimate of the uncertainty any suitable value that
indicates half the range is acceptable.
Example: A student measures the diameter of a metal canister using a ruler graduated in mm and
records these results:
The uncertainty in the mean value (64 mm) can be calculated as follows:
a. Using the half range.
The range of readings is 61 mm – 66 mm so half the range is used to determine the uncertainty.
Uncertainty in the mean diameter= (66 mm – 61 mm)/2 = 2.5 mm Therefore, the diameter of the metal
canister is 64 mm ± 2.5 mm. Since a ruler graduated in mm could easily be read to ± 0.5 mm, it is
acceptable to quote the uncertainty as ± 2.5 mm for this experiment.
b. Using the reading furthest from the mean.
In this case, the measurement of 61 mm is further from the average value than 66 mm therefore we can
use this value to calculate the uncertainty in the mean.
Uncertainty in the mean diameter= 64 mm – 61 mm = 3 mm.
Therefore, the diameter of the metal canister is 64 mm ± 3 mm.

c. Using the resolution of the instrument.
This is used if a single reading is taken or if repeated readings have the same value. This is because there
is an uncertainty in the measurement because the instrument used to take the measurement has its
own limitations. If the three readings obtained above were all 64 mm then the value of the diameter
being measured lies somewhere between 63.5 mm and 64.5 mm since a meter rule could easily be read
to half a millimeter. In this case, the uncertainty in the diameter is 0.5 mm.
Therefore, the diameter of the metal canister is 64 mm ± 0.5 mm.
This also applies to digital instruments. An ammeter records currents to 0.1 A. A current of 0.36 A would
be displayed as 0.4 A, and a current of 0.44 A would also be displayed as 0.4 A. The resolution of the
instrument is 0.1 A but the uncertainty in a reading is 0.05 A.
Calculating percentage uncertainties:
The percentage uncertainty in a measurement can be calculated using:
Percentage uncertainty = (Uncertainty of measurement/Average Measurement) × 100%
In the above example the percentage uncertainty in the diameter of the metal canister is: Percentage
uncertainty = (3/64) × 100% = 4.7%
Often the radius would be used in a calculation, for example in a calculation of volume. In this case, the
percentage uncertainty for the radius of the canister is the same as its diameter, i.e. 4.7%, and not half
of the percentage uncertainty. This is one reason why the percentage uncertainty in a measurement is
useful.
Additionally, the value is less than 5%, which shows that the measurement is probably repeatable. Note
that a percentage uncertainty would normally be quoted to 1 or 2 sf.
Compounding uncertainties:
Calculations often use more than one measurement. Each measurement will have its own uncertainty,
so it is necessary to combine the uncertainties for each measurement to calculate the overall
uncertainty in the calculation provided all the measured quantities are independent of one another.
a. Raising a measurement to a power.
If a measurement is raised to a power, for example squared or cubed, then the percentage
uncertainty is multiplied by that power to give the total percentage uncertainty.
Example: A builder wants to calculate the area of a square tile. He uses a rule to measure the two
adjacent sides of a square tile and obtains the following results:
Length of one side = 84 mm ± 0.5 mm

Length of perpendicular side = 84 mm ± 0.5 mm
The percentage uncertainty in the length of each side of this square tile is given by:
Percentage uncertainty = (0.5/84) × 100% = 0.59 % = 0.6 %
The area of the tile A is given by A = 84 × 84 = 7100 mm 2
Note that this is to 2 sf since the measurements are to 2 sf.
The percentage uncertainty in the area of the square tile is calculated by multiplying the percentage
uncertainty in the length by 2.
Percentage uncertainty in A = 2 × 0.6% = 1.2% Therefore the uncertainty in A = 7100 × 1.2% = 85 mm 2
So, A = 7100 mm2 ± 1.2% or A = 7100 mm2 ± 85 mm2
b. Multiplying or dividing measurements.
Example: A metallurgist is determining the purity of a sample of an alloy that is in the shape of a cube
by determining the density of the material.
The following readings are taken:
Length of each side of the cube= 24.0 mm ± 0.5 mm
Mass of cube = 48.23 g ± 0.05 g
She calculates (i) the density of the material and (ii) the percentage uncertainty in the density of the
material.
(i). Density of alloy = mass / volume = mass / length 3 = (48.23 x 10−3 kg) / (24.0 x 10-3 m)3 = 3490 kg m−3
(ii) Percentage uncertainty in the length = 0.5 / 24.0 × 100% = 2.1%
Percentage uncertainty in the mass = 0.05/48.23 × 100% = 0.1%
Percentage uncertainty in density= 3 × 2.1% +0.1% = 6.4% (or 6%)
Therefore, the density of the material= 3490 kg m−3 ± 6% or 3490 kg m−3 ± 210 kg m−3
Example: A student calculates the volume of a drinks can and the percentage uncertainty for the final
value.
The student determines that the radius of the metal can is 33 mm with an uncertainty of 1% so the
cross-sectional area A of the canister is:
A = r2 =  (33)2 = 3.4 × 103 mm2 ± 2%
Notice that the result has been expressed using scientific notation so that we can write down just two
significant figures. The calculator answer (3421.1...) gives the impression of far more sf than is
justified when the radius is only known to the nearest mm.
The cross-sectional area was calculated by squaring the radius. Since two quantities have in effect
been multiplied together, the percentage uncertainty in the value of the cross-sectional area is found
by adding the percentage uncertainty of the radius to the percentage uncertainty of the radius –
doubling it.
The student measures the length L of the can = 115 mm ± 2 mm
The volume V of the can is,
V = 3.4 × 103 mm2 × 115 mm = 3.9 × 105 mm3 = 3.9 × 10−4 m3
The percentage uncertainty in this value is obtained by adding together an appropriate combination
of the uncertainties.
Percentage uncertainty in L = (2/115) × 100% = 1.7%
Therefore, percentage uncertainty in V= 2% + 1.7% = 3.7%
Volume V = 3.91 × 10−4 m3 ± 3.7% = 3.91 × 10-4 m3 ± 1.4 × 10-5 m3
Again, an overall percentage uncertainty of less than 5% suggests that this determination of the
volume of a can is repeatable.
Absolute Uncertainty: The absolute uncertainty is the number which, when combined with a reported
value, gives the range of true values. For instance, a length may be reported as 7.3 mm ± 0.2 mm. Here,
the reported value is 7.3 mm, and the absolute uncertainty is 0.2 mm; the range of true values is 7.1
mm to 7.5 mm.
When data are added or subtracted, absolute uncertainties are added.
(72 g ± 2 g) + (68 g ± 1 g) = 140 g ± 3 g
(72 g ± 2 g) – (68 g ± 1 g) = 4 g ± 3 g
Example:
Internal diameter = 101.4 mm ± 0.1 mm
External diameter = 102.8 mm ± 0.3 mm
The difference between these two measurements is 1.4 mm ± 0.4 mm.

Since the difference in the radius is required then both the diameter and the uncertainty must be
divided by 2 (since the percentage uncertainty remains the same), therefore the thickness of the walls is
0.7 mm ± 0.2 mm.
Using uncertainties in drawing conclusions:
Often an experiment will require a comparison to a known value. This is when the uncertainty can be
used to assess whether the measured value is accurate or not. This can be achieved in the following
ways:
a. Calculating maximum and minimum values.
The final uncertainty can be used to determine the range in which the measured value may lie. If the
known value lies within this range, then we can say that the measured value is accurate.
Example: A student used a simple pendulum to obtain a value of g = 10.1 m s −2. The experimental
percentage uncertainty was calculated as 4%.
Minimum value of g = 10.1 − (10.1 × 4%) = 9.7 m s −2
Since the accepted value of g = 9.81 m s −2 lies above the minimum value, then we can conclude that the
measured value of g is accurate.
This method should always be used when the percentage uncertainty in the value is known.
b. Calculating a percentage difference.
If the measured value has been determined from a graph and there is no information about the
percentage uncertainty of the measured value, then percentage difference can be used to comment on
accuracy. If the percentage difference is less than 5%, then this is an indication that the result is
accurate.
In the above example, the percentage difference is calculated as:
Percentage difference = (10.1−9.81)/9.81 × 100% = 3%
As this is less than 5%, we can conclude that the measured value of g is accurate.
c. Observations from graphs.
There is no expectation that error bars should be added to graphs. If a straight-line graph through the
origin is expected but the line of best fit of the plotted points does not pass through the origin, then this
is an indication of a systematic error. If there is a large scatter of points around the line of best fit this is
an indication of a large uncertainty possibly due to random errors.
Advantages of a graph:
1) It removes systematic error.

2) It averages out all the values.
3) Gradient, y-intercept and area can be found.
4) Anomalous values can be located.
5) Allows interpolation/extrapolation
Criticizing the results:
Inconsistent number of significant figures
Too few values taken/ not enough readings taken
No evidence of repeat readings
No evidence of average readings
Small range
Important Questions:
Q. Using measurements decide whether the coins are made from the same material
A. If % U < % D means coins cannot be made from same material.
Q. How to improve accuracy
A. Take multiple readings and find mean. Remove zero error. Different orientations and find mean.
Related to experimental details.
Examples:
Advantages and disadvantages of using digital/analogue apparatus:

1. Measurement of time of falling ball traveling 1.5m distance:
2. To determine resistance (5-15Ohm) of a wire:

Q. Explain how repeat readings helps to improve reliability?
A.

CIRCUIT CIRCUITS CURRENT VOLTAGE RESISTANCE

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CIRCUIT CIRCUITS CURRENT VOLTAGE RESISTANCE

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES: To learn about the current, voltage and resistance in circuits

Derived units: These are the combination of base units.

F=6πη r v so that η=F/6πrv, substituting the units, η=N/m ms-1=Kgm-1 s-1

True equation: An equation is true when it obeys three points

1) it has same units at both ends

3) it has the same magnitudes at both ends.e.g. 3kg=3kg

density of water is about 103 kg/m3. average depth of the oceans D=3×103m.

Solution: 3×104m3×104m or 30 km. It is probably an underestimate because the

6) How long would it take to count to a million?

9) How many grains of rice are in a 10kg bag?

10) How many pages would be needed to show a million stars?

13) How many jelly beans fill a bucket?

19) How far could you walk in one year?

21) How many blades of grass on a school oval?

23) How much paper is used at our school each week?

25) How many beats will your heart make in a lifetime?

28) What distance will a ballpoint pen write?

32) Get students to pose their own

Sharing and discussing strategies is paramount to this work.

Some useful information:

 The radius of the earth: about 6,400 km

Distance: It is the total length travelled. Scalar. Its SI unit is meter, m.

Speed: It is the distance covered in unit time.

Velocity: It is rate of change of displacement.

Velocity is a vector and its unit is ms-1.

Half circle. Distance=πr=2π, displacement= 4m,time= 2s, speed=d/t=2π/2=π ms-1, velocity=

Full circle. Distance=2πr=4π, displacement=0, time=4s, speed=d/t= 2πr/4=2π/2=π, velocity=d/t=0/4=0

Uniform velocity: A velocity that does not change with time.

Variable velocity: A velocity that changes with time.

Instantanous velocity: It is the velocity at a specific moment of time.

Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity is called acceleration.

Average acceleration: This acceleration is determined over a large interval of time.

Deceleration: It is negative acceleration.

Equations of motion: 1) the acceleration should be uniform, 2) straight line motion

Measurement of speed using light gate and data logger:

Measurement of acceleration using two LG

Plot a graph of h(y-axis) V/s t2 (x-axis)

2nd method: Using Light gate:

. Calculate average transit time through the light gate.

. Plot a graph of v2(y-axis) against h(x-axis), Y=mX+c

. Measure the distance b/w two LG using meter rule

. the time b/w two LG is measured by the data logger

. velocity=length of glider/time of intruption

. Vary S by moving LG2

. Collect atleast 6 pairs of S and t2

. Plot graph b/w S and t2

. find the gradient of the graph, m=S/t 2

Multiple images method:

. use v=u+at to calculate a, or

. use S=1/2at2 to calculate a, when u=o

distance-time graphs: gradient of s-t graph =velocity

Curved s-t graphs:

Gradient of the graph:

Average velocity= 24m/s

On a v-t graph a line with a negative gradient shows a negative acceleration.

Above x-axis: (1/2x5x20)+(10x20)+(1/2x3x20)=50+200+30=280m

Below x-axis: (1/2x2x7)+(3x7)+(1/2x4x7)=7+21+14=42m

Total displacement=280-42=238m in the forward direction.

Non uniform acceleration:

acceleration is increasing/decreasing? ANS: increasing

Ex: sky diver (Non uniform acceleration)

Drawing tangent at v-t graph: