11/09/2013

Advanced Mechanics
of Materials
ME 835

Introduction

 Dr Aamir Mubashar
 PhD, Mechanical Engineering, Loughborough
University, UK

 MSc, Manufacturing Systems, The University of

Manchester, UK

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Course Contents

 Fundamentals of material deformation and failure

 Elasticity

 Viscoelasticity and Dislocations

 Plasticity

 Fracture

 Fatigue and Creep

 Behaviour of Composites

 Columns, Beams, Cylinders and Torsion

 Finite Element Analysis (FEA)

Learning Resources

 Books
 Mechanical Behaviour of Materials, 2nd Edition, Thomas Courtney,
McGraw Hill
 Analysis and Composition of Fiber Composite, 2nd Edition, Agarwal and
Broutman
 Mechanical Behaviour of Materials, 2nd Edition, Marc Meyers and Krishan
Chawla, Cambridge University Press, 2009.
 Others as needed

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Fundamentals of Material
Deformation and Failure

Introduction

 Learning objectives of this course

 What this course is about?

 Introduction to concepts of deformation and failure

 Introduction to assumptions used in mechanics

 Introduction to fundamentals of deformation

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Introduction

 Engineers use materials for various purposes

 All materials have structures that can be defined at various length

scales

 Structure can have a large influence on properties, performance

and durability

 Structure has most significant effect on mechanical properties

 We will explore linkages between the structures of materials and their

mechanical properties

Introduction

 All mechanical structures must endure mechanical loads

 Mechanical engineers are generally interested in rules for dimensioning

components properly or selecting materials for a given application to
satisfy specific performance criteria.

 Detailed understanding of the influences of microstructure on properties is

secondary

 Material engineers focus on understanding and applying physical

processes that occur within a material during mechanical loading to
satisfy specific performance criteria

 It is critical that engineers understand both approaches

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Mechanical Properties and

Length Scales

Addresses how material responds to forces or loads

Mechanical Properties and

Length Scales

Mechanical behaviour spans all length scales and thus we need to

understand how length scales link together

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How materials respond under loading?

Forces Acting on Engineering Structures

 Surface Forces / Loads: forces arising from contact

 Friction
 Point load
 etc.

 Volume Forces / Loads: forces acting over entire body

 Gravity
 Magnetic Forces
 etc.

 Surface forces are generally more significant than volume forces

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Types of Surface Forces

 Static: independent of time

 Constant in magnitude
 Constant in direction
 Constant in location

 Quasi Static: vary slowly with time

 Dynamic: vary with time

 Steady state: maintain the same character over time (frequency,
amplitude, etc.)
 Transient: change character with time (e.g. decay in amplitude due to
damping)

Material Response Under Loading

 Deformation  Fracture
 Macroscopically  Macroscopically
 Microscopically  Microscopically

Deformation and fracture are not mutually exclusive

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Deformation

 Deformation is the change in shape

Types of Deformation

Time Independent Time Dependent

 Elastic  Viscoelastic
 Plastic  Viscoplastic

Time Independent Deformation

 Elastic Deformation: reversible deformation

 Recovered immediately upon unloading
 Analogous to stretching of atomic bonds
 Hooke’s law is applicable 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀
 Plastic Deformation: permanent deformation
 NOT recovered upon unloading
 Begins at the proportional limit. At this point the material is said to yield
and is characterised by yield strength
 Hooke’s law in no more applicable
 Stress and strain relationship is defined by other available empirical
relationships

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Time Dependent Deformation

 Viscoelastic: reversible deformation

 Deformation is recovered over a period of time
 Rubbery behaviour
 Exhibited by all materials at some level

 Viscoplastic / Creep: permanent deformation

 Deformation occurs over a period of time
 Occurs at high temperatures (often greater than 0.5 of melting
temperature)
 In a material that is subjected to a constant load or stress that is often far
below the yield point

Fracture

 When something separates into pieces

Types of Fracture

Under Static Loading Under Cyclic Loading

 Brittle  High cycle fatigue
 Ductile  Low cycle fatigue
 Creep rupture  Fatigue crack growth
 Environmental  Corrosion fatigue

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Types of Fracture

 Ductile
 Lots of plastic
deformation prior to
fracture

 Brittle
 Little or no plastic
deformation before
fracture

Fracture vs Failure

 Failure
 Anything that might cause a component to lose its
structural tolerances, preventing it from serving its intended
purpose
 This means
 Fracture
 or plastic deformation
 or excessive elastic deformation
 Design is carried out to avoid failure

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Stress Dependent Modes of Failure

Elastic
Stable
Plastic
Excessive deformation
Elastic (buckling)
(static loading)
Unstable Plastic (collapse, buckling)
Creep (collapse, buckling)

Excessive deformation
Incremental collapse
(cyclic loading)

Fracture Brittle fracture

(static loading) Low-stress brittle fracture
Creep rupture

Stress Dependent Modes of Failure

Fracture
Fatigue
(cyclic loading)

Not solely stress Fretting, pitting, corrosion fatigue

dependent Stress corrosion

Creep and fatigue (cyclic creep)

Combined modes Fatigue followed by low-stress brittle
fracture

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Engineering Approach for

Explaining Mechanical Behaviour

 Strength of Materials / Continuum Mechanics

 Stress
 Strains
 Elasticity
 Plasticity
 Micromechanics / Material Physics
 Consider properties of constituents
 Grain Orientation / Texture
 Crystal / Atomic Structure
 Defect Content
 Etc.

Engineering Approach for

Explaining Mechanical Behaviour

 Strength of Materials Approach

 Use principles of elasticity and plasticity to predict material

response (statics, dynamics, strength of materials, etc.)

 Applied regularly in engineering design. Very useful and easy

(e.g. Finite Element Analysis)

 Advantage is that relatively few constants are needed to predict

mechanical behaviour

 Some assumptions are made

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General Assumptions

 The member is in static equilibrium

 ∆𝐹𝑖 = 0; Δ𝑀𝑖 = 0 (external forces = internal resisting forces)
 The body is continuous
 Contains no voids, holes or spaces
 The body is homogenous
 Properties are identical at any point
 The body is isotropic
 Properties don’t vary with direction or orientation

 Allows for simple mathematical treatment in design

Assumptions vs Reality

 The member is in static equilibrium

 ∆𝐹𝑖 = 0; Δ𝑀𝑖 = 0 (external forces = internal resisting forces)
 The body is continuous
 Contains no voids, holes or spaces
 All materials contain flaws at some level
 The body is homogenous
 Properties are identical at any point
 All materials have local inhomogeneities
 The body is isotropic
 Properties don’t vary with direction or orientation
 Crystalline materials are inherently anisotropic

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Assumptions vs Reality

 General theories break down when atomic nature of materials (i.e.

materials structure) is introduced
 Examples
 Generation and accumulation of dislocations leads to hardening
 Creep (a form of high temperature deformation). Microstructure changes
with time
 Stress concentrations at crack tips. Local stress may be higher than global
stress
 Ductile to brittle transition temperature. Fundamental changes in material
behaviour cause a brittle solid to function like a plastic material

Assumptions vs Reality

 In spite of these deficiencies, strength of materials

approaches are used in engineering design
 However, to effectively design or properly select a material
for long term application, the structure of the material must
be considered at some level

 Macrostructre (x1)

 Microstructure (x106)

 Nanostructure (x109)

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Fundamental Behaviours of
Materials for Study

 Elasticity

 Plasticity

 Fracture

 Creep

 Fatigue

Examples of Material
Problems

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Example 1

 You are a process engineer at a metal stamping plant that produces

cans from 304L stainless steel. You produce 20 cans/minute. First 1000
cans form perfectly. Ten of the next 200 cans fail during stamping.
Then, 25 of the next 200 fail. After that, 100 of the next 200 fail.
Production is summarized in the table below.
No of Cans Total No of Cans No of Failures
1,000 1,000 0
200 1,200 10
200 1,400 25
200 1,600 100

 What is the cause of these failures? What is the solution?

What’s Going On?

 Deformation characteristics change with time

 Dislocation generation and motion

 Work hardening

 Heating / Cooling during process

 Phase transformation

 Change in deformation behaviour

 Transformation induced plasticity

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What’s Going On?

 Die temperature rises during processing

 Work hardening rate increases

 Increases the amount of uniform plastic elongation; but

makes it more difficult to deform the material uniformly

 Solution involves physical metallurgy, intrinsic

material properties, mechanics and processing
methods

Example 2

 Tungsten Wire Light Bulb Filament

 Produced via powder metallurgy

 Fails after a few thousand hours

 Why / how they fail?

 Can service lifetime be increased?

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What’s Happening?

 Creep: Filament can creep under its own

weight leading to sagging
 Causes overheating in sag
 Shortening due to touching of adjacent
coils
 Excessive vibrations during service can
cause shortening
 Microstructure changes due to
recrystallisation during service and can
lead to failure
 Corrosion: Can lead to filament thinning
and development of hot spots

What’s Happening? (Sagging)

No sagging in a Sagging of an
doped W filament undoped W
filament

Non-Interlock grain
Interlocking grain structure sag
structure prevents
sag

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What’s Happening?

Gravity

Offsets in an undoped W filament caused by prolonged operation at

high temperatures. Grain growth followed by grain boundary sliding
leads to premature burnout of the filament.

What’s Happening? (Creep)

 Drawn wire has fine grained microstructure with

grains elongated in the drawing direction
 After high temperature exposure, the tungsten
wire recrystallise producing “bamboo” structure.
 Bamboo structure
 Grains with diameter = wire diameter
 Grain lengths >> wire diameter
 Grain boundaries essentially perpendicular to wire
axis
 Under stress due to gravity, boundaries can slip
past each other due to creep, leading to rapid
failure

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What’s Happening? (Creep)

Micrographs of undoped tungsten. TEM micrographs of (a) as-drawn

wire and (b) following annealing at 300°C. Note that annealing has
resulted in abnormal grain growth. (c) Optical micrograph of hot
pressed and recrystallised W laminate revealing the formation of
bamboo-like grains

What’s Happening?

 When light bulb is turned on, filament undergoes

thermal expansion along its length. This expansion is
transient and non-uniform

 Leads to tensile force along wire length

 After long enough period of operation, the force

will become large enough to cause intergranular
fracture of the filament

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Solution

 Inhibit creep and recrystallisation

 Non-sag tungsten is produced by doping with potassium

 Potassium is insoluble in W and forms bubbles

 Bubbles inhibit normal recrystallization of W wires

 Leads to development of interlocked grain structure

 Inhibits boundary sliding and increases creep resistance

Solution

 (a) Scanning electron micrograph of the fracture

surface of a K-doped W ingot after initial sintering
but before drawing into fine wire. The larger voids
(~1 μm) are ordinary sintering pores. They are empty
and will collapse during swaging and wire drawing.
The smaller defects (~100 nm) are K bubbles that
formed during initial sintering. These smaller bubbles
will also collapse during subsequent cold work, but
they contain minute amounts of solid K that will
elongate during the swaging and wire drawing
 (b) TEM micrograph showing the bubble
arrangement in doped W wire. When the light bulb
filament is first turned on, these needle-shaped K
phases vaporize, forming a string of 10 nm diameter
bubbles that pin grain boundaries and prevent
filament sag

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What Does this Means?

 Must take into account more than the continuum

considerations

 Must consider structure of materials

 Sometimes structure changes in service, thus properties can

change. Must be accounted for in design

 Particularly important where long term mechanical

performance is concerned

Engineering Materials
and their Properties

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Families of Engineering Materials

Material Information for Design

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Commonly Used Mechanical

Properties of Engineering Materials

 Modulus
 Density
 Strength
 Fracture toughness
 Thermal conductivity
 Thermal expansion
 Maximum service temperature
 Electrical resistivity
 etc.

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